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A  HANDBOOK 


*4^7  . 


OF 

INVALID  COOKING 

FOR  THE  USE  OF 

NURSES  IN  TRAINING-SCHOOLS 

NURSES  IN  PRIVATE  PRACTICE 

AND  OTHERS  WHO  CARE  FOR  THE  SICK 


CONTAINING  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  ON  THE  PROPERTIES 

AND  VALUE  OF  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  FOOD,   AND  RECIPES 

FOR  THE  MAKING  OF  VARIOUS  DISHES 


BY 

MARY  A.  BOLAND 


INSTRUCTOK  IN  COOKING  IN  THE  JOHNS  HOPKINS 
HOSPITAL  TRAINING-SCHOOL  FOR  NURSES;  MEMBER 
OF  THE  AMERICAN  PUBLIC  HEALTH  ASSOCIATION 


NEW  YOEK 
THE   CENTUKY  CO. 

1898 


Copyright,  1893,  by 
MARY  A.  BOLAND. 


THE  OEVINNE  PRESS. 


PREFACE 

In  preparing  the  following  pages  for  publication,  it 
has  been  my  object  to  present  a  collection  of  recipes  and 
lessons  on  food,  for  the  use  of  nurses.  The  idea  was 
suggested  by  the  need  of  such  a  book  in  the  training- 
school  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital.  It  is  hoped 
that  it  win  be  found  useful  in  other  hospitals  and 
schools  where  the  teaching  of  the  subject  of  food  is 
receiving  attention,  and  also  to  those  ivho  care  for  their 
own  sick  and  invalid  ones  at  home. 

Part  I — -the  explanatory  lessons  —  includes  general 
remarks  on  chemistry,  lessons  on  the  properties  of  the 
different  classes  of  foods,  and  special  articles  on  Air, 
Water,  Milk,  Digestion  and  Nutrition.  Part  II  con- 
sists of  recipes,  menus  of  liquid,  light,  and  convalescent's 
diet,  and  articles  on  Serving,  Feeding  of  Children,  and 
District  Nursing. 

In  arranging  the  explanatory  lessons,  information  has 
been  drawn  from  many  sources,  but  particularly  from 
the  works  of  Atwater  and  Parkes.  It  is  the  intention 
that  these  lessons  be  studied  in  connection  with  the 
practical  work;  they  contain  matter  suggestive  of  that 
which  it  is  necessary  to  understand  in  order  that  some- 
thing may  be  known  of  the  complex  changes  which  take 
place  in  food  in  the  various  processes  of  cooking. 

The  recipes  have  been  carefully  chosen  and  perfected, 
some  having  been  changed  many  times  before  final  adop- 
tion. In  most  of  them  the  quantities  are  small, —  such 
amounts  as  would  be  required  for  one  person,  —  but  by 

iii 


iv  PREFACE 

multiplying  or  dividing  the  formula  any  quantity  may 
be  made,  with  uniform  results. 

Detailed  descriptions  have  been  given  in  order  that 
those  who  know  nothing  of  cooking  may  be  able,  by  in- 
telligently following  the  instructions,  to  make  acceptable 
dishes.  Repetition  and  similarity  of  arrangement  will, 
it  is  hoped,  serve  to  impress  upon  the  mind  certain 
points  and  principles. 

In  some  instances  the  recipes  are  original,  but  for  the 
most  part  the  ideas  have  been  gathered  from  lessons  and 
lectures  on  cooking,  and  from  standard  books,  among 
them  Mrs.  JAncoWs  "Boston  Cook  Book."  Generally  the 
order  in  which  each  recipe  has  been  written  is  the  order 
in  ivhich  the  different  ingredients  should  be  put  together. 
The  proportions  have  been  placed  first,  and  separately 
from  the  description  of  the  process,  for  greater  conve- 
nience in  using. 

Valuable  information  for  the  chapter  on  the  feeding 
of  children  was  found  in  Uffelmanrfs  uHygiene  of  the 
Child:' 

I  gratefully  acknowledge  the  assistance  of  Drs.  Simon 
Flexner  and  William  D.  Booker  of  the  Johns  Hopkins 
Hospital  in  reviewing,  respectively,  the  explanatory  les- 
sons and  the  chapter  on  the  feeding  of  children. 

Baltimore,  Jan.  18,  1893.  M'  A'  B' 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 

PART  I 
EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

PAGE 

PREPARATION  OF  FOOD 9 

CHEMICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  CHANGES 10 

ELEMENTS 12 

AIR 14,  38 

FIRE 14 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  BODY 16 

PRINCIPAL  CHEMICAL  COMPOUNDS  IN  THE  BODY 17 

THE  FIVE  FOOD  PRINCIPLES 18 

WATER 19 

PROTEIN 24 

FATS 28 

CARBOHYDRATES 31 

MINERAL  MATTERS 65 

MILK 44 

DIGESTION 49 

NUTRITION 53 


PART  II 

RECIPES 

BEEF-JUICE,  BEEF-TEA,  AND  BROTHS 75 

GRUELS 83 

MUSH  AND  PORRIDGE 90 

DRINKS 95 

JELLIES    120 

TOAST 128 

SOUPS   134 

v 


vi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

OYSTERS 145 

POTATOES 161 

MEATS 168 

STEWS 185 

SWEETBREADS 188 

FISH 191 

CUSTARDS,  CREAMS,  PUDDINGS,  AND  BLANC-MANGE 195 

SALADS 211 

ICE-CREAM,  SHERBETS,  AND  ICES 217 

COOKED  FRUITS 225 

BREAD 232 

CAKE   246 

DIET  LISTS  OR  MENUS  FOR  THE  SICK ...  254 

LIQUID  DIET  —  FIVE  MENUS 254 

LIGHT  DIET  —  FIVE  MENUS  FOR  BREAKFAST,  DINNER, 

SUPPER,  AND  LUNCH 256 

CONVALESCENT'S  DIET  —  EIGHT  MENUS  FOR  SPRING, 

SUMMER,  AUTUMN,  AND  WINTER  260 


SERVING 

IMPORTANCE  OF  SKILL  IN  COOKING  THE  THINGS  TO  BE 

SERVED 267 

GOOD  SERVING  A  NECESSITY  FOR  THE  SICK 268 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  INVALID'S  TRAY 268,  270 

IMPORTANCE  OF  HARMONY  OF  COLORS  IN  DISHES,  LINEN, 

AND  FLOWERS 269 

CARE  OF  DISHES  AND  TRAY  IN  CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES  ...  271 

TRAY  DECORATION 272 

VARIETY,  INTERVALS  OF  FEEDING,  AND  QUANTITY  OF 

FOOD  TO  BE  GIVEN 273,  274 

A  PLAN  FOR  THE  PREPARATION  OF  AN  INVALID'S 

BREAKFAST  . .          278 


THE  FEEDING  OP  CHILDREN 

WAYS  IN  WHICH  A  CHILD  MAY  BE  SUPPLIED  WITH  FOOD  .    280 

ARTIFICIAL  FEEDING 280 

COMPARISON  OF  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  Cow's  AND  HUMAN 

MILK 281 

BUYING,  CARE,  AND  STERILIZATION  OF  Cow's  MILK.  .  .281,  284 
MELLIN'S  FOOD  AND  OTHER  ATTENUANTS 283,  290,  291 


CONTENTS  vii 

PAGE 

PREDIGESTION 283,  284 

BACTERIAL  POISONS  IN  MILK 285,  286 

APPARATUS  FOR  STERILIZING  MILK 287 

CARE  OP  FEEDING-BOTTLES 287 

USE  OF  CONDENSED  MILK 288 

PRESERVED  MILK 289 

FARINACEOUS   FOODS,    MELLIN'S    FOOD,  MALTED  MILK, 

ETC 289,  290 

AMOUNT   OF   FOOD  FOR   EACH  MEAL  —  DILUTION  OF  — 

MANNER  OF  GIVING 293 

TEMPERATURE  OF  FOOD  WHEN  GIVEN,  AND  INTERVALS  OF 

FEEDING  294 

GENERAL  RULES  FOR  FEEDING 294 

FOR  THE  FIRST  WEEK 295 

AFTER  THE  FIRST  WEEK  AND  UNTIL  THE  SIXTH  WEEK  295 

FROM  THE  SIXTH  WEEK  TO  THE  SIXTH  MONTH 296 

FROM  THE  SIXTH  TO  THE  TENTH  MONTH 297 

FROM  THE  TENTH  TO  THE  TWELFTH  MONTH 298 

FROM  THE  TWELFTH  TO  THE  EIGHTEENTH  MONTH  . .  299 

AFTER  EIGHTEEN  MONTHS 299 

FOODS  TO  BE  CAREFULLY  AVOIDED  . .  300 


DISTRICT  NURSING 

DISTRICT  NURSING 301 

To  MAKE  A  FIRE 302 

To  WASH  DISHES 303 

SWEEPING  AND  DUSTING 303 

BILLS  OF  FARE  FOR  SATURDAY,  SUNDAY,  MONDAY, 
AND  TUESDAY: 

IN  MAY 304-308 

IN  SEPTEMBER. 308-310 

IN  JANUARY  ...  310-313 


LITERATURE 

A  LIST  OF  BOOKS  ON  THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  FOODS,  BACTE- 
RIOLOGY, NUTRITION,  HEALTH,  PRACTICAL  COOKING, 
AND  ALLIED  SUBJECTS,  USEFUL  FOR  REFERENCE  . . .  313 

CHARTS  OF  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  VARIOUS  FOODS  FOR 

USE  IN  A  COOKING-SCHOOL 314 

APPARATUS  FOR  FURNISHING  A  COOKING-SCHOOL  . .  315 


INTRODUCTION 


work  of  the  nurse  is  to  care  for  her  patient, 
_  to  watch,  to  tend,  and  to  nurture  him  in  such 
a  way  that  he  shall  gain  and  maintain  sufficient 
strength  to  overcome  disease,  that  he  may  finally  be 
restored  to  a  state  of  health.  Her  greatest  allies  in 
this  work  consist  in  the  proper  hygienic  surround- 
ings of  good  air,  warmth,  cleanliness,  and  proper 
nourishment. 

The  most  scrupulous  cleanliness  in  the  care  and 
preparation  of  food  is  an  important  point  in  her 
work,  and  practically  to  appreciate  this,  some  know- 
ledge of  bacteriology  is  necessary,  for  the  various  fer- 
mentative and  putrefactive  changes  (often  unnoticed) 
which  take  place  in  both  cooked  and  uncooked  foods 
are  caused  by  the  growth  of  microscopic  forms  of  life. 
Most  of  us  realize  the  necessity  for  removing  all  visi- 
ble impurities,  but  that  is  not  enough  ;  we  should  also 
combat  those  unseen  agents  which  are  everywhere  at 
work,  in  order  that  we  may  prevent  their  action  upon 
food  material  or  destroy  the  products  of  their  growth. 
Often  these  products  are  of  a  poisonous  nature,  and 
cause  grave  physical  disturbances  when  they  occur  in 
our  foods.  When  such  knowledge  is  more  general,  we 
shall  have  arrived  at  a  state  of  progress  in  the  care 
and  preparation  of  foods  not  yet  universally  reached. 

The  indications  at  present  are  that  nothing  of  im- 
portance will  be  done  to  change  for  the  better  the 


2  INTRODUCTION 

existing  methods  of  housekeeping,  until  housekeep- 
ers are  educated  in  the  science  of  household  affairs. 
They  should  comprehend  (1)  that  the  atmosphere  is 
an  actual  thing  ;  that  it  has  characteristics  and  prop- 
erties like  other  actual  things ;  that  it  is  a  necessity 
of  life,  and  may  be  made  a  medium  for  the  transmis- 
sion of  disease;  and  that  it  is  as  necessary  that  it 
should  be  kept  clean  as  the  floor,  the  table,  or  the 
furniture ;  (2)  that  food  is  a  subject  which  may  be 
studied  and  mastered  like  any  other  subject;  that  the 
changes  it  undergoes  in  its  care  and  preparation  are 
governed  by  fixed  laws;  (3)  they  should  have  a 
knowledge  of  heat  in  order  to  appreciate  the  effects  of 
temperature  on  different  food  materials,  to  regulate 
the  ventilation  of  their  houses,  and  to  control  fires 
wisely  and  economically;  and  (4)  they  should  have 
some  knowledge  of  bacteriology,  that  milk  and  water, 
flesh,  fruit,  and  vegetables  may  be  kept,  or  rendered, 
absolutely  free  from  disease-giving  properties,  and 
that  perfect  cleanliness  may  be  exercised  in  preparing 
all  materials  that  enter  the  body  as  nutrients. 

It  is  not  the  intention  to  imply  that  all  micro- 
organisms produce  injurious  effects  wherever  they 
are  found ;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  as  essential  to 
man's  existence  as  are  the  higher  forms  of  life;  but 
often  they  seriously,  even  fatally,  interfere  with  that 
existence,  and  in  order  to  discriminate  and  to  combat 
the  evil  a  knowledge  of  their  ways  and  modes  of  life 
is  essential. 

A  Harvard  professor  is  credited  with  saying  that 
no  man  could  be  a  gentleman  without  a  knowledge  of 
chemistry;  and  forthwith  all  the  students  took  to 
chemistry,  for  all  wanted  to  be  gentlemen.  Would 
that  somebody  would  authoritatively  declare  that  no 
woman  could  be  a  lady  without  a  knowledge  of  the 
chemistry  of  the  household — what  a  glorious  prospect 


INTRODUCTION  3 

would  there  be  opened  for  the  future  health  of  the 
nation! 

We  read  in  history  that  after  a  grand  medieval 
repast  the  bones  and  refuse  of  the  feast  were  thrown 
under  the  table  and  left  to  decay.  The  scourges 
which  have  swept  over  Europe  in  past  centuries  we 
know,  to-day,  were  not  visitations  of  Providence,  but 
were  simply  the  result  of  natural  causes,  due  to  igno- 
rance of  all  hygienic  laws  on  the  part  of  the  people. 
Compared  with  the  barbarians  of  old,  in  these  matters, 
we  are  a  civilized  people ;  compared  with  the  possibili- 
ties of  the  future,  we  are  still  little  more  than  savages. 

The  ideal  life  is  one  in  which  there  shall  be  no  sick- 
ness except  from  accident  or  natural  causes.  When 
we  have  mastered  the  laws  of  hygiene,  then  will  such 
life  be  possible.  Meanwhile,  with  sickness  always  in 
our  midst,  we  should  keep  the  ideal  ever  before  us, 
and  endeavor  by  all  means  to  restore  suffering  hu- 
man beings  to  a  perfect  state  of  health.  A  sound 
body  is  a  material  thing,  prosaically  nourished  by 
material  substances,  which  produce  just  as  exact  re- 
sults in  its  chemical  physiology  as  if  those  substances 
entered  into  combination  in  the  laboratory  of  the 
chemist.  The  cooking  of  food  should  be  governed 
by  exact  laws  which  for  the  most  part  as  yet  re- 
main undemonstrated.  It  is  a  foregone  conclusion 
that  many  young  women  fail  in  their  first  attempts 
at  cooking;  that  they  do  so  is  not  surprising,  for 
not  only  are  their  friends  unable  to  teach  them,  but 
the  majority  of  books  on  the  subject  furnish  no 
intelligible  aid.1  The  science  of  cookery  is  still  in 
the  empirical  stage. 

Even  among  experienced  housekeepers  there  is 
not  enough  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  foods  and 
their  proper  combinations ;  the  result  is  a  great  deal 

i  A  notable  exception  is  the  "  Boston  Cook  Boot." 


4  INTRODUCTION 

of  unwholesome  cookery  and  the  consequent  injury 
and  waste  which  must  follow.  Dislike  for  the  work 
is  usually  due  to  want  of  success,  and  failure  is  attrib- 
uted to  ill  luck,  poor  materials,  the  fire,  or  any  cause 
but  the  true  one — which  is  ignorance  of  the  subject. 
Of  course  good  dishes  cannot  be  made  out  of  poor 
materials,  but  too  often  poor  dishes  are  made  out  of 
good  materials. 

The  systematic  teaching  of  the  subject  of  house- 
hold affairs  cannot  fail  of  good  results.  Especially 
is  this  true  in  the  case  of  the  nurse,  who  will  need  at 
all  times  to  exercise  care  and  wisdom  in  the  choice  of 
food  for  the  sick,  to  avoid  the  use  of  injurious  sub- 
stances, and  to  select  that  which  is  perfectly  whole- 
some and  suited  to  the  needs  and  condition  of  each 
individual. 

It  may  be  said  that  most  women  can  prepare  a 
fairly  satisfactory  meal  for  those  who  are  well,  but 
very  few  are  able  to  do  the  same  for  the  sick. 

Count  Rumford  says :  "I  constantly  found  that  the 
richness  or  quality  of  a  soup  depended  more  upon 
the  proper  choice  of  ingredients  than  upon  the  quan- 
tity of  solid  nutrient  matter  employed ;  much  more 
upon  the  art  and  skill  of  the  cook  than  upon  sums 
laid  out  in  the  market."  This  is  equally  true  of  other 
dishes  than  soup.  The  skill  to  develop  the  natural 
flavors  of  a  food,  to  render  it  perfectly  and  thoroughly 
digestible,  to  convert  it  into  a  delicate  viand,  cannot 
be  acquired  in  a  haphazard  way.  Cooking  cannot 
be  done  by  guesswork.  There  are  right  and  wrong 
methods  in  the  kitchen  as  well  as  in  the  laboratory, 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  awakening  interest  in 
the  subject  of  domestic  science  generally  is  neither 
an  accident  nor  a  whim,  but  the  result  of  a  necessity 
for  better  ways  of  living.  We  live  different  lives 
from  those  of  our  grandfathers  before  the  days  of  the 


INTRODUCTION  5 

steam-engine,  electricity,  the  telegraph,  and  the  tele- 
phone. Now  much  more  energy  is  needed  to  meet 
each  day's  demand  than  was  required  a  hundred  years 
ago,  and  so,  much  more  nutriment  is  needed  to  sus- 
tain that  energy.  When  the  food  does  not  supply 
the  material  to  meet  the  demand,  the  whole  being 
suffers. 

A  course  of  study  in  cooking  taken  by  the  nurses 
of  a  hospital,  while  they  are  still  pupils,  is  valuable 
for  their  present  and  future  work.  A  nurse  with  the 
information  that  such  a  course  should  give,  will  be  able 
to  care  for  the  feeding  of  her  patients  more  wisely,1  will 
see  the  necessity  for  variety,  will  learn  to  avoid  suspi- 
cious substances,  such  as  fermented  meat  orfish,canned 
foods,  etc.,  and  will  put  forth  every  effort  to  secure 
that  which  is  appetizing  and  wholesome,  and  suited  to 
the  needs  of  those  in  her  care.  She  will  more  easily 
exercise  patience  and  forbearance  with  the  idiosyncra- 
sies of  the  sick  in  regard  to  articles  of  diet,  knowing 
that  these  are  usually  the  symptoms  of  disease.  The 
proper  modes  of  caring  for  milk,  eggs,  oysters,  and 
other  perishable  foods,  the  practice  of  economy  in  the 
use  of  wines,  cocoa,  and  like  costly  substances,  and  an 
appreciation  of  the  value  of  food  materials  in  general, 
are  some  of  the  points  which  she  will  have  learned. 

She  will  not  forget  that  cleanliness  in  the  kitchen 
in  the  preparation  of  all  food,  and  in  the  washing  of 
dishes,  towels,  waste-pails,  sinks,  and  all  receptacles 
in  which  easily  decomposing  substances  are  kept, 
means  protection  against  many  evils.  The  little 
knowledge  of  bacteriology  that  it  is  possible  to  give 
in  a  course  in  cooking,  will  enable  her  to  understand 
that  many  animal  foods,  such  as  oysters,  fish,  and  lob- 

i  Although  in  some  hospitals  it  is  not  practicable  for  a  nurse  to  do 
much  coobiug  for  her  patients,  she  has  the  control  and  distribution  of 
the  food  which  is  prepared. 


6  INTRODUCTION 

sters,  are  extremely  prone  to  decay,  and,  although 
apparently  good,  may  have  been  the  camping-ground 
of  millions  of  organisms  which  have  produced  such 
changes  in  them  as  to  render  them  suspicious  arti- 
cles of  diet.  She  will,  therefore,  always  endeavor  to 
have  such  food  alive  if  possible,  or  at  least  fresh,  and 
to  keep  it  in  such  conditions  of  temperature  as  shall 
preserve  it  in  a  wholesome  state. 

The  actual  practical  knowledge  of  how  a  certain 
number  of  dishes  should  be  made  has,  of  course,  its 
value;  but  it  is  not  the  only  consideration  which 
should  enter  into  the  teaching  of  cookery.  Perhaps 
the  most  important  point  in  all  such  work  is  the  rec- 
ognition in  certain  cases  of  the  necessity  for  particu- 
lar dishes,  and  the  reasons  for,  and  the  value  of,  their 
ingredients.  Why  one  kind  of  food  is  better  for  one 
person  and  a  different  kind  for  another  is,  without 
doubt,  an  essential  point  in  all  such  study. 

A  system  depleted  by  disease,  exhausted  by  long- 
continued  illness,  is  an  exceedingly  delicate  instrument 
to  handle.  It  requires  the  greatest  wisdom  and  good 
judgment  on  the  part  of  physician  and  nurse  to 
restore  a  patient  to  health  without  a  lingering  con- 
valescence. There  is  no  doubt  that  the  period  of 
convalescence  may  be  much  shortened  by  the  wise  ad- 
ministration of  food,  and  that  the  subsequent  health 
of  the  patient  may  be  either  made  or  marred  by  the 
action  of  the  nurse  in  this  respect. 


PART  I 

EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

* 

PREPARATION  OF  FOOD 

Digestibility.  There  are  comparatively  few  kinds 
of  food  that  can  be  eaten  uncooked.  Various  fruits, 
milk,  oysters,  eggs,  and  some  other  things  may  be 
eaten  raw,  but  the  great  mass  of  food  materials  must 
be  prepared  by  some  method  of  cooking.  All  the  com- 
mon vegetables,  such  as  potatoes,  turnips,  carrots, 
beets,  and  the  different  grains,  such  as  rice,  wheat, 
corn,  oats,  etc.,  neither  taste  good  nor  are  easily  di- 
gestible until  their  starch,  cellulose,  and  other  con- 
stituents have  been  changed  from  their  compact  in- 
digestible form  by  the  action  of  heat.  Some  one  has 
spoken  of  cooking  as  a  sort  of  artificial  digestion, 
by  which  nature  is  relieved  of  a  certain  amount  of 
work  which  it  would  be  very  difficult,  if  not  impos- 
sible, for  her  to  perform. 

Flavors.  The  necessity  of  cooking  to  develop,  or  to 
create,  a  palatable  taste  is  important.  The  flesh  of 
fowl  is  soft  enough  to  masticate,  but  only  a  person  on 
the  verge  of  starvation  could  eat  it  until  heat  has 
changed  its  taste  and  made  it  one  of  the  most  savory 
and  acceptable  of  meats.  Coffee  also  well  illustrates 
this  point.  When  coffee  is  green — that  is,  unbrowned 
— it  is  acrid  in  taste,  very  tough,  even  horny  in  consis- 
tency, and  a  decoction  made  from  it  is  altogether  un- 


10  EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS 

pleasant.  But  when  it  is  subjected  to  a  certain  de- 
gree of  heat,  for  a  certain  time,  it  loses  its  toughness, 
becomes  brittle,  changes  color,  and  there  is  developed 
in  it  a  most  agreeable  flavor.  This  flavoring  property 
is  an  actual  product  of  the  heat,  which  causes  chem- 
ical changes  in  an  essential  oil  contained  in  the  bean. 
Heat  not  only  develops  but  creates  flavors,  changing 
the  odor  and  taste  as  well  as  the  digestibility  of  food. 
Effects  of  Cold.  Some  foods  are  better  for  being 
cold;  for  example, butter,  honey,  salads,  and  ice-cream. 
Sweet  dishes  as  a  rule  are  improved  by  a  low  tempera- 
ture. The  flavor  of  butter  is  very  different  and  very 
much  finer  when  cold  than  when  warm.  It  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  keep  it  cool  in  order  to  preserve 
the  flavor. 


CHEMICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  CHANGES 

Chemical  Changes.  Since  many  of  the  changes  which 
cooking  produces  in  the  different  food  materials  are 
of  a  chemical  nature,  it  is  well  to  consider  what  con- 
stitutes a  chemical  process.  This  idea  may  perhaps 
be  best  conveyed  by  a  few  experiments  and  illustra- 
tions, the  materials  for  which  may  be  easily  obtained. 

Exp.  with  Cream  of  Tartar  and  Bicarbonate  of  Soda. 

Mix  two  teaspoons  of  cream  of  tartar  with  one  of  bicarbon- 
ate of  soda,  in  a  little  warm  water.  A  union  of  the  two  sub- 
stances follows  and  they  neutralize  each  other;  that  is,  the 
cream  of  tartar  is  no  longer  acid,  and  the  soda  is  no  longer  alka- 
line. Owing  to  the  power  of  chemical  affinities  a  separation  or 
breaking  up  of  these  compounds  takes  place,  and  new  sub- 
stances, carbonic  acid  and  rochelle  salts,  are  formed  out  of  their 
constituents.  The  effervescence  which  is  seen  is  caused  by  the 
escape  of  the  carbonic  acid. 

Exp.  with  Hydrochloric  Acid  and  Soda.  Put  a  few  drops 
of  chemically  pure  hydrochloric  acid  into  a  little  water ;  then 
add  soda.  A  violent  effervescence  will  follow.  Continue  putting 


EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS  11 

in  soda  until  this  ceases,  when  the  reaction  should  be  neutral. 
Test  it  with  litmus-paper.  If  it  turns  blue  litmus-paper  red,  it 
is  acid;  if  red  litmus-paper  blue,  it  is  alkaline.  Add  acid  or 
soda,  whichever  is  required,  until  there  is  no  change  produced 
in  either  kind  of  litmus-paper.  The  results  of  this  experiment 
are  similar  to  those  in  the  first  one,  namely,  carbonic  acid  and  a 
salt.  In  this  case  the  salt  is  sodium  clilorid  or  common  salt, 
which  is  in  solution  in  the  liquid.  Evaporate  the  water,  when 
salt  crystals  will  be  found.1 

Oxid  of  Iron.  A  piece  of  iron  when  exposed  to  the  weather 
becomes  covered  with  a  brownish-yellow  coating,  which  does 
not  look  at  all  like  the  original  metal.  If  left  long  enough  it 
will  wholly  disappear,  being  completely  changed  into  the  yel- 
lowish substance,  which  is  oxid  of  iron,  a  compound  of  oxy- 
gen and  iron,  commonly  called  iron  rust. 

Burning  of  Goal.  A  piece  of  coal  burns  in  the  grate  and  is 
apparently  destroyed,  leaving  no  residue  except  a  little  ashes. 
The  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  the  coal  have  united  with  the  oxy- 
gen of  the  air,  the  result  of  which  is  largely  the  invisible  gas, 
carbonic  acid,  which  escapes  through  the  chimney. 

Formation  Of  Water.  Water  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two 
invisible  gases,  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  It  bears  no  resemblance 
whatever  to  either  of  them.  Its  symbol  is  H2O. 

All  these  are  examples  of  chemical  changes. 

Definition  of  Chemical  Change.  Chemical  changes 
or  processes  may  be  defined  as  those  close  and  inti- 
mate actions  amongst  the  particles  of  matter  by 
which  they  are  dissociated  or  decomposed,  or  by 
which  new  compounds  are  formed,  and  involving 
a  complete  loss  of  identity  of  the  original  substance. 

Physical  Changes.  Mix  a  teaspoon  of  sugar  with  an  equal 
amount  of  salt ;  the  sugar  is  still  sugar,  and  the  salt  remains 
salt;  and  they  may  each  be  separated  from  the  mixture  as  such. 

Water  when  frozen  is  changed  from  a  liquid  to  a  solid;  its 
chemical  composition,  however,  remains  unchanged. 

Water  converted  into  steam  by  heat  is  changed  from  a  liquid 

i  Carbonic  acid  is  composed  of  one  part  of  carbon  and  two  parts  of 
oxygen.  Its  symbol  is  CO2.  One  volume  of  hydrogen  united  with  one 
volume  of  chlorin  forms  hydrochloric  acid,  HC1.  Common  salt,  or  so- 
dium chlorid,  is  composed  of  one  part  sodium  and  one  part  chlorin. 
Symbol,  Nad. 


12  EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS 

to  a  gas,  but  chemically  there  is  no  difference  between  the  one 
and  the  other.  Steam,  water,  and  ice  are  forms  of  the  same  sub- 
stance, the  difference  being  physical,  not  chemical,  and  caused 
by  a  difference  in  temperature. 

Lead  melted  so  that  it  will  run,  and  the  solid  lead  of  a  bullet, 
are  the  same  thing. 

These  illustrate  physical  changes. 

Definition.  When  substances  are  brought  together 
in  such  a  way  that  their  characteristic  qualities  re- 
main the  same,  the  change  is  called  physical.  It  is  less 
close  and  intimate  than  a  chemical  change.  The  trans- 
ition from  one  state  into  another  is  also  frequently 
only  a  physical  change,  as  is  seen  in  the  transforma- 
tion of  water  into  steam,  water  into  ice,  etc. 

ELEMENTS 

One  feature  of  the  work  of  the  chemist  is  to  sepa- 
rate compound  bodies  into  their  simple  constituents. 
These  constituents  he  also  endeavors  to  dissociate; 
and  if  this  cannot  be  done  by  any  means  known  to 
him,  then  the  thing  must  be  regarded  as  a  simple 
substance.  Such  simple  bodies  are  called  elements. 

Definition.  An  element  then  may  be  denned  as  a 
simple  substance,  which  cannot  by  any  known  pro- 
cess be  transformed  into  anything  else ;  that  is,  no 
matter  how  it  is  treated,  it  still  remains  chemically 
what  it  was  before.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  plati- 
num, carbon,  phosphorus,  calcium,  oxygen,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  and  chlorin  are  examples  of  elements.  Once 
it  was  believed  that  there  were  but  four  elements  in 
the  world  —  earth,  air,  fire,  and  water.  Then  it  was 
learned  that  these  were  not  elements  at  all,  but  com- 
pounds, and  the  number  of  elements  increased,  until 
now  sixty-eight  are  admitted  to  be  simple  primary 
substances.  Some  of  these  may  in  the  future  be 


13 

proven  to  be  compounds.  Sulphur  is  at  present  in 
the  doubtful  list. 

Oxygen.  Oxygen  is  an  element.  It  is  an  invisible 
gas,  without  taste  or  smell.  It  is  the  most  abundant 
substance  in  the  world,  and  an  exceedingly  active 
agent,  entering  into  nearly  all  chemical  changes  and 
forming  compounds  with  all  known  elements  except 
one — fluorin.  It  is  a  necessity  of  life  and  of  combus- 
tion.1 It  constitutes  about  two  thirds  of  the  weight 
of  our  bodies  and  one  fifth  of  the  weight  of  the  air. 

Hydrogen.  Hydrogen  is  a  gas.  It  is  the  lightest 
substance  known.  It  unites  with  oxygen  to  form 
water,  and,  as  will  be  seen  later,  enters  into  the  com- 
position of  the  human  body.2 

Nitrogen.  Nitrogen  is  also  a  gas,  but,  unlike  oxygen, 
is  an  inactive  element.  It  supports  neither  fire  nor 
life.  It  is  not  poisonous,  however,  for  we  breathe  it 
constantly  in  the  atmosphere,  where  its  office  is  to 
dilute  the  too  active  oxygen.  A  person  breathing  it 
in  a  pure  state  dies  simply  from  lack  of  oxygen. 

Carbon.  Carbon  is  a  solid  and  an  important  and 
abundant  element.  It  is  known  under  three  forms : 
diamond,  graphite,  and  charcoal.  The  diamond  is 
nearly  pure  carbon.  Graphite  (the  "  black-lead "  of 
lead-pencils),  coal,  coke,  and  charcoal  are  impure  forms 
of  it.  Carbon  is  combustible;  that  is,  it  burns  or 
combines  with  oxygen.  In  this  union  carbonic  acid 
is  formed,  and  there  is  an  evolution  of  heat,  and 
usually,  if  the  union  be  rapid  and  intense  enough,  of 
light.  It  is  the  valuable  element  in  fuels,  and  in  the 
body  of  man  it  unites  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
yielding  heat,  to  keep  the  body  warm,  and  energy  or 

1  Oxygen  is  often  called  the  supporter  of  combustion,  but  it  is  no 
more  so  than  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  fuels,  since  they  are  neces- 
sary for  a  fire. 

2  Hydrogen  is  14.44  times  lighter  than  air. 


14  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

muscular  strength  for  work  (Prof.  At  water).  The 
carbonic  acid  formed  in  the  body  is  given  out  by 
the  lungs  and  skin. 

Other  Elements.  There  are  many  other  elements 
about  which  it  would  be  interesting  to  note  some- 
thing, such  as  calcium  and  phosphorus  (found  abun- 
dantly in  the  bones),  magnesium,  sulphur,  sodium, 
iron,  etc.  Samples  of  these  may  be  obtained  to  show  to 
pupils,  and  descriptions  given  and  experiments  made, 
at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher.  Of  the  four  most 
abundant  elements  of  the  body  and  of  food, —  oxygen, 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen, —  it  is  extremely  im- 
portant that  some  study  be  made,  and  if  the  apparatus 
can  be  procured,  that  it  be  of  an  experimental  nature 
rather  than  simply  descriptive.1 

AIR 

Air  is  made  up  principally  of  two  elements,  nitro- 
gen and  oxygen.  It  also  always  contains  vapor  of 
water  and  carbonic  acid.  Its  average  composition  is 
as  follows: 


Nitrogen 78 .49%" 

Oxygen 20.63% 


Aqueous  Vapor 84% 

Carbonic  Acid 04% 


These  are  mixed  together,  not  chemically  united. 
Oxygen  and  nitrogen  do  unite  chemically,  but  not  in 
the  proportions  in  which  they  exist  in  the  air.  Nitrous 
Oxid  (N2O),  sometimes  called  "Laughing  Gas,"  is 
one  of  the  compounds  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen. 

FIRE 

Exp.  with  a  Candle.  Take  a  tallow  candle,  and  by  means 
of  a  lighted  match  raise  its  temperature  sufficiently  high  to 
start  an  action  between  the  carbon  in  the  candle  and  the  oxygen 

i  See  Eliot  and  Storer's  "  Chemistry,"  the  revised  edition,  edited  by 
Nichols,  and  the  "  Elementary  Text-hook  of  Chemistry,"  by  Mixter. 


EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS  15 

of  the  air ;  in  other  words,  light  the  candle.  A  match  is  com- 
posed of  wood,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus.  The  latter  is  a  sub- 
stance which  unites  with  oxygen  very  easily ;  that  is,  at  a  low 
temperature.  By  friction  against  any  hard  object,  sufficient  heat 
is  aroused  to  effect  a  union  between  the  phosphorus  of  a  match 
and  the  oxygen  of  the  surrounding  air ;  the  flame  is  then  con- 
veyed to  the  sulphur,  or  the  heat  thus  generated  causes  a  union 
between  it  (the  sulphur)  and  the  oxygen,  sulphur  burning  some- 
what less  freely  than  phosphorus ;  this  gives  enough  heat  to  ignite 
the  wood,  and  with  its  combustion  we  get  sufficient  heat  to  light 
the  candle,  or  to  start  a  chemical  union  between  the  combus- 
tible portion,  carbon  chiefly,  of  the  candle  and  the  oxygen  of 
the  air.  Allow  the  candle  to  burn  for  a  time,  then  put  over  it 
a  tall  lamp-chimney;  notice  that  the  flame  grows  long  and  dim. 
Next  place  on  the  top  of  the  chimney  a  tin  cover,  leaving  a 
small  opening,  and  make  an  opening  into  the  chimney  from  be- 
low, with  a  pin  or  the  blade  of  a  knife  placed  between  it  and 
the  table ;  note  that  the  candle  burns  dimly.  Then  exclude  the 
flow  of  air  by  completely  covering  the  top;  in  a  moment,  as 
soon  as  the  oxygen  inside  the  chimney  is  consumed,  the  candle 
will  go  out. 

This  shows  (1)  that  air — in  other  words,  oxygen — is 
necessary  to  cause  the  candle  to  burn ;  (2)  that  by 
regulating  the  draft  or  flow  of  air  the  intensity  of 
the  combustion  may  be  increased  or  diminished ;  (3) 
that  by  completely  excluding  air  the  candle  is  ex- 
tinguished. This  experiment  with  the  candle  illus- 
trates the  way  in  which  coal  is  consumed  in  a  stove. 
By  opening  the  drafts  and  allowing  the  inflow  of 
plenty  of  oxygen,  combustion  is  increased;  by  par- 
tially closing  them  it  is  diminished,  and  by  the  com- 
plete exclusion  of  air  burning  is  stopped. 

The  products  of  the  burning  of  coal  are  carbonic 
acid  and  a  small  amount  of  ash.  Twelve  weights  of 
coal,  not  counting  the  ash,  will  unite  with  thirty-two 
weights  of  oxygen,  giving  as  a  result  forty-four  weights 
of  carbonic  acid.  Accompanying  the  union  there  is  an 
evolution  of  light  and  heat.  The  enormous  amount 
of  carbonic  acid  given  out  daily  from  fires  is  taken 


16  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

up  by  plants  and  used  by  them  for  food.  In  the 
course  of  ages  these  plants  may  become  coal,  be  con- 
sumed in  combustion,  and,  passing  into  the  air,  thus 
complete  the  cycle  of  change. 

Fuel  and  Kindlings.  The  common  fuels  are  coal, 
coke,  wood,  gas,  coal-oil,  and  peat.  For  kindling, 
newspaper  is  good  because,  being  made  of  straw 
and  wood-pulp,  it  burns  easily,  and  also  because 
printers'  ink  contains  turpentine,  which  is  highly 
inflammable. 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  BODY 

Before  entering  upon  the  study  of  foods  it  is  well 
to  consider  the  composition  of  the  human  body,  that 
some  idea  of  its  chemical  nature  may  be  gained.  In 
the  United  States  National  Museum  at  Washington 
may  be  found  some  interesting  information  on  this 
subject.  From  there  much  that  is  contained  in  the 
following  pages  is  taken. 

A  complete  analysis  of  the  human  body  has  never 
been  made,  but  different  organs  have  been  examined, 
and  chemists  have  weighed  and  analyzed  portions  of 
them,  and  from  such  data  of  this  nature  as  could  be 
obtained,  estimates  of  the  probable  composition  of  the 
body  have  been  calculated.  Thirteen  elements  united 
into  their  compounds,  of  which  there  are  more  than 
one  hundred,  form  it. 

The  following  table  gives  the  average  composition 
of  a  man  weighing  148  pounds. 

Oxygen 92.4  Sulphur 24 

Carbon 31.3  Chlorin 12 

Hydrogen 14.6  Sodium 12 

Nitrogen 4.6  Magnesium 04 

Calcium    2.8  Iron 02 

Phosphorus 1.4  Fluorin 02 

Potassium 34  PROF.  ATWATEE. 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 


17 


It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  oxygen,  carbon,  hy- 
drogen, and  nitrogen  constitute  nearly  the  whole,  the 
other  elements  being  in  very  small  proportions. 


PRINCIPAL   CHEMICAL   COMPOUNDS  IN 
THE  BODY 

The  following  interesting  table,  obtained  at  the 
National  Museum,  gives  the  principal  compounds  of 
the  body.  Some  of  the  more  rare  organic  compounds 
are  omitted. 

WATER  : — A  compound  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 


PROTEIN 
COMPOUNDS, 

composed 
mainly  of 

Carbon, 

Oxygen, 

Hydrogen, 

Nitrogen. 


Myosin  and  syntonin  of  muscle 
(sometimes  called  "muscle 
fibrin"). 

Albumen  of  blood  and  milk.  Ca- 
sein of  milk. 


f  Collagen  of  bone  and 
tendons. 


..  , 


Gelatinoids. 


Hemoglobin.  I  The  red  coloring  matter  of  blood. 


FATS, 

Stearin, 

These  make  up  the 
bulk  of  the  fat  of 

composed 
mainly  of 

Neutral 
Fats. 

Palmitin, 

the  body. 
•  They  are  likewise 
the  chief  constit- 

Qa.T\)0'W; 

Olein,  etc. 

uents  of  tallow, 

- 

lard,  etc. 

Oxygen, 

Complex       f  -p                T 

Fats,             Protagon,      Found    chiefly    in 

Hydrogen, 

containing    <     Lecithin,    >      the  brain,  spinal 
phosphorus         nPT.phrin           cord,  nerves,  etc. 
.  and  nitrogen.  [  ^            a>  J 

18 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 


CARBOHY- 
DRATES, 

composed 

of 

Carbon, 
Oxygen, 

Hydrogen. 


MINERAL 

SALTS. 


fOHycogen,    "animal    starch."      Occurs    in    the 

liver  and  other  organs. 
Inosite,    "muscle   sugar."     Occurs   in  various 

organs. 

Lactose,  "milk  sugar."    Occurs  in  milk. 
Cholesterin.    Occurs  in  brain,  nerves,  and  other 

organs. 


Phosphate  of  lime,  or  calcium 
phosphate. 

Carbonate  of  lime,  or  calcium 
carbonate. 

Fluorid  of  calcium,  or  calcium 
fluorid. 

Phosphate  of  magnesia,  or  mag- 
nesium phosphate. 

Phosphate  of  potash,  or  potas- 
sium phosphate. 

Sulphate  of  potash,  or  potas- 
sium sulphate. 

Chlorid  of  potassium,  or  po- 
tassium chlorid. 

Phosphate  of  soda,  or  sodi- 
um phosphate. 

Sulphate  of  soda,  or  sodium 
sulphate. 

Chlorid  of  sodium,  or  sodium 
chlorid. 


Occurs  chiefly 
in  bones  and 
teeth,  though 
found  in 
other  organs. 


Distributed 
through  the 
body  in  the 
blood,  mus- 
cle, brain, 
and  other 
organs. 


Now,  since  the  body  is  composed  of  these  sub- 
stances, our  food,  including  air  and  water,  should 
contain  them  all  in  due  proportion,  that  the  growth, 
energy,  and  repair  of  the  body  may  be  healthfully 
maintained. 


THE  FIVE  FOOD  PEINCIPLES 

For  convenience  of  comparison  foods  may  be  di- 
vided into  five  classes :  Water,  Protein,  Fats,  Carbo- 
hydrates, Mineral  Matters. 

Some  scientists  include  air  in  the  list,  but  it  has 
been  thought  best  in  this  work  to  speak  of  it  sepa- 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  19 

rately  as  the  greatest  necessity  of  life,  but  not  in  the 
sense  of  a  direct  nutrient. 
An  average  composition  of  three  of  the  principles 

is  as  follows : 

f  Carbon 53 

\  Hydr°sen 7 

1   Oxygen 24 

I  Nitrogen 16 

f  Carbon 76.5 

Hydrogen 12 

j  Oxygen 11.5 

I  Nitrogen — 

{Carbon 44     ' 

Hydrogen 6 

Oxygen 50 

Nitrogen — 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  the  protein 
compounds  contain  nitrogen;  the  fats  and  carbo- 
hydrates do  not. 

WATER 

We  will  now  consider  the  first  of  the  food  prin- 
ciples— water.  Water  is  one  of  the  necessities  of 
life.  A  person  could  live  without  air  but  a  few  min- 
utes, without  water  but  a  few  days.  It  constitutes 
by  weight  three  fifths  of  the  human  body,  and  enters 
largely  into  all  organic  matter.  Water  is  an  aid  to 
the  performance  of  many  of  the  functions  of  the  body, 
holding  in  solution  the  various  nutritious  principles, 
and  also  acting  as  a  carrier  of  waste.  It  usually  con- 
tains foreign  matter,  but  the  nearer  it  is  to  being 
pure  the  more  valuable  it  becomes  as  an  agent  in  the 
body.  Ordinary  hydrant,  well,  or  spring  water  may 
be  made  pure  by  filtering  and  then  sterilizing  it. 

Exp.  Put  a  little  water  into  a  test-tube,  and  heat  it  over  the 
flame  of  an  aleohol-lamp.  In  ashorttime  tiny  bubbles  will  appear 


20  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

on  the  sides  of  the  glass.  These  are  not  steam,  as  may  be  proved 
by  testing  the  temperature  of  the  water ;  they  are  bubbles  of 
atmospheric  gases  which  have  been  condensed  in  the  water 
from  the  air;  they  have  been  proved  to  be  nitrogen,  oxygen, 
and  carbonic  acid,  but  as  they  do  not  exist  in  the  water  in  the 
same  proportions  as  in  the  air,  they  are  not  called  air,  but  at- 
mospheric gases.  Continue  the  heating,  and  the  bubbles  will  con- 
tinue to  form.  After  a  while,  very  large  bubbles  will  appear  at 
the  bottom  of  the  tube ;  they  increase  rapidly  and  rise  toward 
the  top ;  some  break  before  reaching  it,  but  as  the  heat  becomes 
more  intense  others  succeed  in  getting  to  the  surface, —  there  they 
break  and  disappear.  If  the  water  now  be  tested  with  a  ther- 
mometer, it  will  be  found  to  have  reached  212°  Fahrenheit  or 
100°  Centigrade,  provided  the  experiment  be  tried  at  or  near 
the  level  of  the  sea. 

Steam.  The  large  bubbles  are  bubbles  of  steam,  or 
water  expanded  by  heat  until  its  particles  are  so  far 
apart  that  it  ceases  to  be  a  liquid  and  becomes  a  gas. 
True  steam  is  invisible ;  the  moisture  which  collects 
on  the  sides  of  the  tube  and  is  seen  coming  out  at  the 
mouth  is  partially  condensed  steam,  or  watery  vapor. 
Watch  a  tea-kettle  as  it  boils  on  a  stove ;  for  the  space 
of  an  inch  or  two  from  the  end  of  the  spout  there 
seems  to  be  nothing;  that  is  where  the  true  steam  is; 
beyond  that,  clouds  of  what  is  commonly  called  steam 
appear ;  they  are  watery  vapor  formed  from  the  true 
steam  by  partial  condensation  which  is  produced  by 
its  contact  with  the  cool  air.1 

Boiling-point  of  Water.  "Water  boils  at  different  tem- 
peratures, according  to  the  elevation  above  the  sea- 
level.  In  Baltimore  it  boils  practically  at  212°  Fahr. ; 
at  Munich  in  Germany  at  209£°;  at  the  city  of  Mex- 
ico in  Mexico  at  200° ;  and  in  the  Himalayas,  at  an 
elevation  of  18,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  at 
180°.  These  differences  are  caused  by  the  varying 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  at  these  points.  In  Bal- 
timore practically  the  whole  weight  of  the  air  is  to  be 

i  Mattieu  Williams,  in  "  Chemistry  of  Cookery." 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  21 

overcome.  In  Mexico,  7000  feet  above  the  sea,  there 
are  7000  feet  less  of  atmosphere  to  be  resisted ;  conse- 
quently, less  heat  is  required,  and  boiling  takes  place 
at  a  lower  temperature.  By  inclosing  a  vessel  of  water 
in  a  glass  bell,  and  exhausting  the  air  by  means  of  an 
air-pump,  water  may  be  made  to  boil  at  a  temperature 
of  70°  Fahr.,  showing  that  much  of  the  force  (heat) 
that  is  consumed  in  causing  water  to  be  converted  into 
steam  is  required  to  overcome  the  pressure  of  the  air. 
The  foregoing  illustrates  the  point  that  boiling  water 
is  not  of  invariable  temperature;  consequently,  that 
foods  which  in  some  places  are  cooked  in  it  may  in 
other  places  be  cooked  in  water  that  is  not  boiling, — 
in  other  words,  that  it  is  not  ebullition  which  produces 
the  change  in  boiling  substances,  but  heat. 

Changes  Produced  in  Water  by  Boiling.  By  boiling 
water  for  a  moderate  time  the  greater  part  of  the  at- 
mospheric gases  is  driven  off.  The  flavor  is  much 
changed.  We  call  it  "  flat " ;  but  by  shaking  it  in  a 
carafe  or  other  vessel  so  that  the  air  can  mingle  with 
it,  it  will  reacquire  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic 
acid,  and  its  usual  flavor  can  thus  be  restored. 

Water  which  flows  through  soil  containing  lime  is 
further  changed  by  boiling. 

Exp.  with  Lime-water.  Pour  a  little  lime-water  into  a 
test-tube.  With  a  small  glass  tube  blow  into  it  for  a  few  min- 
utes, when  it  will  become  milky ;  continue  the  blowing  for  a  few 
minutes  more,  when  it  will  lose  its  cloudy  appearance  and  be- 
come clear  again.  The  following  explains  this:  in  the  first 
place  there  was  forced  into  the  lime-water,  from  the  lungs,  air 
containing  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid;  this  united  with  the 
lime  in  solution  in  the  water  and  formed  carbonate  of  lime. 
Carbonate  of  lime  is  insoluble  in  water  which  contains  no  car- 
bonic acid,  or  very  little,1  but  will  dissolve  in  water  which  IF 
charged  with  it,  and  this  is  produced  by  the  continued  blowing. 

i  The  carbonic  acid  breathed  in  has  united  with  the  lime,  thus  leav- 
ing the  water  without  excess  of  it. 


22  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

Now  if  this  water  be  freed  of  its  excess  of  carbonic  acid  by  boil- 
ing, the  carbonate  of  lime  will  be  freed  from  its  soluble  state, 
and  will  fall  as  a  precipitate  and  settle  on  the  sides  of  the  vessel. 
From  this  we  learn  that  water  may  be  freed  from  carbonate  of 
lime  in  solution  in  it  by  boiling. 

Organic  Matter  in  Water.  There  is  another  class  of 
impurities  in  water  of  vastly  more  importance  than 
either  the  atmospheric  gases  or  lime.  These  are  the  or- 
ganic substances  which  it  always  contains,  especially 
that  which  has  flowed  over  land  covered  with  vegeta- 
tion, or  that  which  has  received  the  drainage  from 
sewers.  The  soluble  matter  found  in  such  water  is 
excellent  food  for  many  kinds  of  micro-organisms 
which  often  form,  by  their  multiplication,  poisons 
very  destructive  to  animal  life.  Or  the  organisms 
themselves  may  be  the  direct  producers  of  disease,  as 
for  instance  the  typhoid  fever  bacillus,  the  bacillus  of 
cholera,  and  probably  others  which  occur  in  drinking- 
water.  These  organisms  are  destroyed  by  heat,  so 
that  the  most  valuable  effect  produced  in  water  by 
boiling  it  is  their  destruction.  Such  water  is,  there- 
fore, a  much  safer  drink  to  use  than  that  which  has 
not  been  boiled.  Water  should  always  be  boiled  if 
there  is  the  slightest  suspicion  of  dangerous  impu- 
rities in  the  supply. 

Use  of  Tea  and  Coffee.  This  leads  us  to  the  thought 
that  the  extensive  use  of  tea  and  coffee  in  the  world 
may  be  an  instinctive  safeguard  against  these  until 
recently  unknown  forms  of  life.  The  universal  use 
of  cooked  water  in  some,  form  in  China  is  a  matter 
of  history.  The  country  is  densely  populated,  the 
sewage  is  carried  off  principally  by  the  rivers,  so  that 
the  danger  of  contracting  disease  through  water  must 
be  very  great,  and  it  is  probable  that  instinct  or 
knowledge  has  prompted  the  Chinaman  to  use  but 
very  little  water  for  food  except  that  which  has  been 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  23 

cooked.  Whatever  the  reason,  the  custom  is  a  na- 
tional one.  The  every-day  drink  is  weak  tea  made  in 
a  large  teapot  and  kept  in  a  wadded  basket  to  retain 
the  heat ;  the  whole  family  use  it.  The  very  poor 
drink  plain  hot  water  or  water  just  tinged  with  tea. 

That  tea  and  coffee  furnish  us  each  day  with  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  wholesome  liquid  in  which  all  organic 
life  has  been  destroyed,  remains  a  fact;  they  may 
be,  in  addition,  when  properly  made  and  of  proper 
strength,  of  great  value  on  account  of  their  warmth, 
good  flavor,  and  invigorating  properties.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  tea 
and  coffee  be  used  of  proper  strength;  for  if  taken  too 
strong,  disorders  of  the  system  may  be  produced, 
necessitating  their  discontinuance,  and  thus  depriving 
the  individual  of  a  certain  amount  of  warm  and 
wholesome  liquid. 

To  Summarize.  The  effects  produced  in  water  by 
boiling  which  have  been  spoken  of  are :  (1)  the  expul- 
sion of  the  atmospheric  gases ;  (2)  the  precipitation  of 
lime  when  in  solution  j  and  (3)  the  destruction  of 
micro-organisms.  The  most  important  points  to  re- 
member in  connection  with  water  are,  that  a  certain 
amount  each  day  is  an  absolute  necessity  of  life,  and 
that  unless  the  supply  be  above  suspicion  it  should 
be  filtered  and  then  sterilized. 

Filtration  and  Sterilization  of  Water.  Filtration  as 
a  general  thing  is  done  by  public  authorities,  but 
sterilization  is  not,  and  should  be  done  when  neces- 
sary by  the  nurse.  For  immediate  use,  simply  boil- 
ing is  said  on  good  authority  to  be  sufficient  to 
destroy  all  organisms  then  in  the  water.  Spores  of 
organisms  are,  however,  not  killed  by  boiling,  as  they 
are  very  resistant  to  heat.  Fortunately  they  are  not 
common.  As  they  do  not  develop  into  bacteria  for 
some  hours  after  the  water  has  been  boiled,  they  may 


24  EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS 

be  entirely  gotten  rid  of  by  allowing  them  to  develop 
and  then  destroying  by  a  second  boiling;  but  for 
all  practical  purposes,  and  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, water  is  rendered  safe  for  use  by  boiling  it 
once.1  Should  the  water  be  very  bad,  boil  it  in  a 
jar  plugged  with  cotton  for  half  an  hour  three  days 
in  succession,  keeping  it  meanwhile  in  a  temperature 
of  70°  or  80°  Fahr.,  so  that  any  spores  of  organisms 
which  may  be  in  it  will  have  an  opportunity  to  get 
into  such  a  state  of  existence  that  they  will  be  capa- 
ble of  being  killed  by  the  next  boiling.  The  third 
treatment  is  for  the  purpose  of  making  sure  of  any 
that  may  have  escaped  the  first  and  second. 


PROTEIN 

The  second  of  the  food  principles,  protein,  is  a 
complex  and  very  important  constituent  of  our  food. 
The  protein  compounds  differ  from  all  others  as  to 
chemical  composition  by  the  presence  of  nitrogen ; 
they  contain  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen, 
while  the  fats  and  carbohydrates  are  composed  prin- 
cipally of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  but  no  ni- 
trogen. The  so-called  extractives  or  flavoring  proper- 
ties of  meats  are  nitrogenous,  and  are  consequently 
classed  with  the  protein  compounds.2 

The  body  of  an  average  person  contains  about 
eighteen  per  cent,  of  protein.  The  proteins  of  va- 
rious kinds  furnish  nutriment  for  blood  and  muscle, 
hence  the  term  "  muscle-formers,"  which  is  sometimes 
given  them.  They  also  furnish  material  for  tendons 
and  other  nitrogenous  tissues.  When  these  are  worn 
out  by  use,  it  is  protein  which  repairs  the  waste. 

lAs  a  general  thing  water  does  not  contain  organisms  that  form  spores. 
2  Atwater. 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  25 

Most  of  the  valuable  work  upon  the  analysis  of  food 
has  been  done  in  Germany.  From  estimates  made  by 
chemists  of  that  country  it  has  been  decided  that  the 
amount  of  protein  in  a  diet  should  not  fall  below  four 
ounces  daily.  This  is  to  represent  an  allowance  for  a 
man  of  average  weight  doing  an  average  amount  of 
work,  below  which  he  cannot  go  without  loss  in  health, 
in  work,  or  in  both.  Although  protein  is  the  most  ex- 
pensive of  all  food  materials,  one  should  endeavor  to 
use  at  least  four  ounces  each  day.  Meat,  milk,  eggs, 
cheese,  fish  of  all  kinds,  but  especially  dried  cod, 
wheat,  beans,  and  oatmeal  are  all  rich  in  this  sub- 
stance. The  protein  compounds  are  divided  into  three 
classes : 


ALBUMINOIDS,    GELATINOIDS,    EXTRACTIVES. 

Albuminoids.  The  most  perfect  type  of  an  albumi- 
noid is  the  white  of  egg.  It  is  a  viscous,  glairy,  thick 
fluid  which  occurs  also  in  the  flesh  of  meat  as  one  of 
its  juices,  in  fish,  in  milk,  in  wheat  as  gluten,  and  in 
other  foods.  It  is  soluble  in  cold  water. 


Ezp.  Mix  some  white  of  egg  in  a  tumbler  with  half  a  cup 
of  cold  water.  As  soon  as  the  viscousness  is  broken  up  it 
will  be  found  to  be  completely  dissolved.  It  is  insoluble  in 
alcohol. 

Exp.  Pour  upon  some  white  of  egg  double  its  bulk  of  alco- 
hol. It  will  coagulate  into  a  somewhat  hard  opaque  mass. 

Heat  also  has  the  power  of  coagulating  albumen. 

Coagulation  of  Albumen  by  Heat.  Put  into  a  test-tube 
some  white  of  egg,  and  place  the  tube  in  a  dish  of  warm  water. 
Heat  the  water  gradually  over  a  gas-flame  or  an  alcohol-lamp. 
When  the  temperature  reaches  134°  Fahr.  it  will  be  seen  that 


26  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

little  white  threads  have  begun  to  appear;  continue  the  heating 
to  160°,  when  the  whole  mass  becomes  white  and  firm.  Now  re- 
move a  part  from  the  tube  and  test  its  consistency ;  it  will  be 
found  to  be  tender,  soft,  and  jelly-like.  Eeplace  the  tube  in 
the  dish  of  water  and  raise  the  heat  to  200°  Fahr.  ;  then  take 
out  a  little  more  and  test  again;  it  will  now  be  found  hard, 
close-grained,  and  somewhat  tough.  Continue  the  heating,  when 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  tenacity  increases  with  rise  of  tempera- 
ture until  at  212°  Fahr.,  the  boiling-point  of  water,  it  is  a  firm, 
compact  solid.  When  heated  to  about  350°,  white  of  egg  be- 
comes so  tenacious  that  it  is  used  as  a  valuable  cement  for 
marble. 

These  experiments  illustrate  a  very  important  point 
in  the  cooking  of  albuminous  foods.  They  show  that 
the  proper  temperature  for  albumen  is  that  at  which 
it  is  thoroughly  coagulated,  but  not  hardened ;  that 
is,  about  160°  Fahr.  Most  kinds  of  meat,  milk,  eggs, 
oysters,  and  fish,  when  cooked  with  reference  to  their 
albumen  alone,  we  find  are  also  done  in  the  best  pos- 
sible manner  with  reference  to  their  other  constituents. 
For  instance,  if  you  cook  an  oyster  thinking  only  of 
its  albuminous  juice,  and  endeavor  to  raise  the  tem- 
perature throughout  all  of  its  substance  to,  or  near, 
160°  Fahr.,  and  not  higher,  you  will  find  it  most  satis- 
factory as  to  flavor,  consistency,  and  digestibility. 
The  same  is  true  of  eggs  done  in  all  ways,  and  of 
dishes  made  with  eggs,  such  as  custards,  creams,  and 
puddings.  With  the  knowledge  that  albumen  coagu- 
lates at  a  temperature  of  52°  below  that  of  boiling 
water,  one  can  appreciate  the  necessity  of  cooking 
eggs  in  water  that  is  not  boiling,  and  a  little  experi- 
ment like  the  above  will  impress  it  upon  the  mind  as 
no  amount  of  mere  explanation  can  possibly  do. 

The  cooking  of  eggs,  whether  poached,  cooked  in 
the  shell,  or  in  omelets,  is  of  much  importance,  for 
albumen  when  hard,  compact,  and  tenacious  is  very 
difficult  of  digestion ;  the  gastric  juice  cannot  easily 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  27 

penetrate  it ;  sometimes  it  is  not  digested  at  all ;  while 
that  which  is  properly  done — cooked  in  such  a  way 
that  it  is  tender  and  falls  apart  easily — is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  forms  of  food  for  the  sick. 

Albumen  should  always  be  prepared  in  such  man- 
ner as  to  require  the  least  possible  expenditure  of 
force  in  digestion.  Those  who  are  ill  cannot  afford 
to  waste  energy.  Whether  they  are  forced  to  do  so 
in  the  digestion  of  their  food  depends  very  much 
upon  the  person  who  prepares  it. 

Advantage  is  often  taken,  in  cooking,  of  the  fact 
that  albumen  hardens  on  exposure  to  certain  degrees 
of  heat,  to  form  protecting  layers  over  pieces  of  broil- 
ing steak,  roast  meats,  etc.  If  a  piece  of  meat  is 
placed  in  cold  water  to  cook,  it  is  evident,  since  albu- 
men is  soluble  in  cold  water,  that  some  of  it  will  be 
wasted.  If  the  same  piece  is  plunged  into  boiling 
water  the  albumen  in  its  outer  layers  will  be  immedi- 
ately hardened,  and  form  a  sheath  over  the  whole 
which  will  keep  in  the  juices  and  the  very  important 
flavors.  When  broth  or  soup  is  made,  we  put  the 
meat  (cut  into  small  pieces  to  expose  a  large  extent 
of  surface)  into  cold  water,  because  we  wish  to  draw 
out  as  much  as  possible  the  soluble  matter  and  the 
flavors.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  meat  is  to  be  served 
boiled,  and  broth  or  soup  is  not  the  object,  then  this 
order  should  be  reversed,  and  every  effort  made  to  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  any  of  the  ingredients  of  the  meat 
into  the  liquid. 

In  broiling  steak,  we  sacrifice  a  thin  layer  of  the 
outside  to  form  a  protecting  covering  over  the  whole 
by  plunging  it  into  the  hottest  part  of  the  fire,  so  that 
the  albumen  will  become  suddenly  hard  and  firm,  and 
plug  up  the  pores,  thus  preventing  the  savory  juices 
from  oozing  out.  More  will  be  said  on  this  subject 
in  the  recipes  for  cooking  these  kinds  of  foods. 


28  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

Gelatinoids.  The  second  class  of  protein  compounds 
comprises  the  gelatinoids,  gelatin  being  their  lead- 
ing constituent.  It  is  found  in  flesh,  tendons,  carti- 
lage and  bone ;  in  fact,  it  exists  in  all  the  tissues  of 
the  body,  for  the  walls  of  most  of  the  microscopic  cells 
of  which  the  tissues  are  composed  contain  gelatin. 

Exp.  Boil  a  pound  of  lean  meat  freed  from  tendons,  fat, 
and  bone,  in  a  pint  of  water  for  three  hours;  then  set  the 
liquid  away  to  cool.  Jelly  resembling  calf's-foot  jelly  will  be 
the  result.  The  cell-walls  of  the  flesh  have  been  dissolved  by 
the  long-continued  action  of  heat  and  liquid.  This  is  common- 
ly called  stock  or  glaze. 

Exp.  Put  a  piece  of  clean  bone  into  a  dilute  solution  of  hy- 
drochloric acid.  In  two  or  three  days  the  acid  will  have  acted 
upon  the  earthy  matters  in  the  bone  to  remove  them,  and  gela- 
tin will  remain.  The  average  amount  in  bone  is  about  thirty 
per  cent. 

Calves'  feet  were  formerly  used  for  jelly  because  of 
the  excess  of  gelatin  which  they  contain.  They  were 
cooked  in  water  for  a  long  time  and  the  liquid 
reduced  by  further  boiling;  it  was  then  clarified, 
flavored,  and  cooled ;  the  result  was  a  transparent, 
trembling  jelly.  The  prepared  gelatin  of  commerce, 
or  gelatine,  has  now  largely  displaced  this,  for  it  is 
much  more  convenient  to  use,  and  less  expensive. 

Extractives.  The  extractives  or  flavoring  proper- 
ties of  meats  and  other  substances  are  usually  classed 
with  the  protein  compounds.  Their  chemical  nature 
is  not  well  understood. 


FATS 

Fixed  and  Volatile  Oils.  There  are  two  classes  of 
fats,  called  fixed  oils  and  volatile  oils.  All  kinds  of 
fats  good  for  food  belong  to  the  class  of  fixed  oils. 
A  volatile  oil  is  one  which  evaporates  away,  like  alco- 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  29 

hol  or  water,  and  leaves  no  residue.  The  fixed  oils, 
at  least  most  of  them,  will  not  do  this;  they  do  not 
vaporize  even  at  very  high  temperatures,  but  they  be- 
come dissociated  or  decomposed, —  that  is,  their  chem- 
ical structure  is  broken  up  before  their  boiling-point 
is  reached.  Volatile  oils,  on  the  contrary,  are  capable 
of  being  boiled  and  transformed  into  gases.  Some 
one  illustrates  this  by  the  changes  which  take  place 
in  water.  When  water  is  heated  to  212°  Fahr.  it  is 
converted  into  a  gas,  which  on  cooling  below  212° 
returns  to  the  liquid  state  again  without  loss.  The 
essential  oil,  turpentine,  if  heated  to  320°  Fahr.  ceases 
to  be  a  liquid  and  becomes  a  gas,  which  on  cooling 
becomes  a  liquid  oil  again  without  loss  of  weight. 
Other  volatile  oils  are  oil  of  cloves,  oil  of  bitter 
almonds,  orange  and  lemon  oil,  oil  of  cinnamon, 
bergamot,  and  patchouli. 

The  boiling  sometimes  noticed  in  a  pot  of  lard  is 
owing  to  the  presence  in  it  of  a  little  water  which  is 
very  soon  converted  into  steam,  when  the  bubbling 
ceases,  and  after  that  the  temperature  of  the  fat 
rises  rapidly,  reaching  in  a  short  time  four  or  five 
hundred  degrees  Fahrenheit,  when  a  separation  of 
its  constituents  takes  place,  and  carbon  is  revealed  as 
a  black  mass. 

Composition  of  Fats.  Fats  are  hydrocarbons — that 
is,  they  are  composed  chiefly  of  carbon  united  with 
hydrogen  and  oxygen.  They  must  not  be  confound- 
ed with  the  carbohydrates,  which  are  always  com- 
posed of  carbon  with  the  elements  of  water — that  is, 
the  proportion  of  hydrogen  to  oxygen  is  as  two  to 
one, — whereas  in  the  hydrocarbons  this  is  not  the  case. 
These  elements  enter  into  the  compositions  of  fats  as 
various  fatty  acids  and  glycerin;  the  acids  are  not 
sour,  as  one  would  suppose  from  the  name,  but  are  so 
called  because  they  behave  chemically  toward  bases 


30  EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS 

as  sour  acids  do,  that  is,  they  unite  with  them.  The 
glycerin  of  commerce  is  obtained  by  decomposing 
fats. 

Fat  in  Milk.  The  white  color  of  milk  is  given  to 
it  by  minute  globules  of  fat  suspended  in  it. 

To  prove  this:  Put  a  little  milk  into  a  bottle  with  a 
ground-glass  stopper;  pour  upon  it  three  times  its  bulk  of 
ether  and  shake  gently;  let  it  stand  for  two  or  three  days, 
when  it  will  be  found  that  the  ether  has  dissolved  the  fat 
and  left  a  semi-transparent  yellowish  white  liquid  resem- 
bling blood  serum.  By  pipetting  or  carefully  pouring  off  the 
ether,  and  evaporating  it  by  placing  the  vessel  containing  it 
in  a  dish  of  warm  water,  clear  oil  will  be  obtained.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  put  the  ether  near  a  flame  or  the  fire, 
as  it  is  highly  inflammable,  and  an  explosion  might  occur. 
Ether  boils  at  94.82°  Fahr. 

The  proportion  of  fat  in  milk  is  from  2.8  to  8  per 
cent.  It  varies  in  milk  from  different  species  of 
cows,  and  from  the  same  species  at  different  times, 
according  to  age,  feeding,  and  other  circumstances. 

Cream.  When  milk  is  allowed  to  stand  without 
disturbance  for  a  time  the  globules  of  fat,  being  lighter 
than  water,  rise  to  the  surface  and  form  cream.  Cream 
is  the  most  wholesome,  palatable,  and  easily  digested 
form  of  fat.  Butter  is  obtained  by  beating  milk  or 
cream  in  a  churn  until  the  little  globules  of  fat  break 
and  stick  together  in  a  mass. 

Olive-Oil.  Olive-oil  is  one  of  the  most  easily  di- 
gested and  palatable  of  fats.  A  genuine  oil  of  the 
first  quality  is,  in  this  country  unfortunately,  expen- 
sive, much  of  that  sold  under  the  name  being  adul- 
terated with  cotton-seed  oil,  poppy-oil,  and  essence 
of  lard.1 

i  The  decline  in  the  sardine  trade  during  the  last  few  years  is  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  cotton-seed  oil  has  so  largely  replaced  olive-oil  in 
the  packing  of  these  flsh.  People  who  once  regarded  them  as  a  great 
delicacy  no  longer  find  them  satisfying. 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  31 

Cotton-seed  oil  has  no  especially  bad  flavor,  but  it 
is  unpleasant  and  indigestible  when  used  raw  as  in 
sardines  and  salads.  The  after  taste  which  it  leaves 
reminds  one  too  forcibly  of  castor-oil. 

Olive-oil  of  the  best  quality  is  almost  absolutely 
without  flavor.  It  is  prepared  in  several  grades :  the 
first  pressing  from  the  fruit  is  the  best,  the  second  is 
fair,  the  third  inferior,  and  there  is  sometimes  a  fourth 
known  as  refuse  oil.  For  deep  fat  frying  nothing  is 
so  good  as  olive-oil,  but  its  costliness  in  this  country 
excludes  it  from  common  use. 

The  fat  of  the  sheep  and  ox,  after  it  has  been  ren- 
dered, and  deprived  of  all  membrane  and  fibers,  is 
called  talloiv.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  fat  of 
other  animals,  and  to  that  of  some  plants,  as  bayberry- 
tallow,  piny  tallow,  and  others.  The  uncooked  fat  of 
any  animal  is  called  suet,  but  the  name  has  come  to 
be  applied  to  the  less  easily  melted  kinds,  which  sur- 
round the  kidneys  or  are  in  other  parts  of  the  loin. 
The  fat  which  falls  in  drops  from  meat  in  roasting  is 
called  dripping. 


THE  CARBOHYDRATES 

Starch.  Starch  is  a  substance  found  in  wheat,  corn, 
oats,  and  in  fact  in  all  grains,  in  potatoes,  in  the 
roots  and  stems  of  many  plants,  and  in  some  fruits. 
In  a  pure  state  it  is  a  white  powder  such  as  is  seen  in 
arrowroot  and  corn-starch.  Examined  by  a  micro- 
scope this  powder  is  found  to  be  made  up  of  tiny  grains 
of  different  shapes  and  sizes,  some  rounded  or  oval, 
others  irregular.  Those  of  potato-starch  are  ovoid, 
with  an  outside  covering  which  appears  to  be  folded 
or  ridged,  and  looks  somewhat  like  the  outside  of  an 
oyster-shell,  although  its  similarity  extends  no  further 


32  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

than  appearance,  as  the  little  ridges  are  true  folds,  and 
not  overlapping  edges. 

Size  of  Starch  Grains.  Starch  grains  vary  in  size  ac- 
cording to  the  source  from  which  the  starch  is  ob- 
tained. Those  of  ground  rice  are  very  small,  being 
about  3-000  of  an  inch  in  diameter;  those  of  wheat  are 
TO^  of  an  inch,  and  those  of  potato  g-jjo  of  an  inch. 

Starch  is  a  carbohydrate,  being  composed  of  six 
parts  of  carbon,  ten  of  hydrogen,  and  five  of  oxygen. 
Its  symbol  is  C6H10O5.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but 
when  the  water  is  hea-ted,  the  grains  seem  to  absorb  it ; 
they  increase  in  size,  the  ridges  or  folds  disappear, 
and  when  the  temperature  reaches  140°  Fahr.  or  a 
little  over,  they  burst,  and  the  contents  mingle  with 
the  liquid  forming  the  well-known  paste. 

Test  for  Starch.  Mix  a  teaspoon  of  starch  with  a  cup  of 
cold  water  and  boil  them  together  for  a  few  minutes  until  a 
paste  is  formed  ;  then  set  it  aside  to  cool.  Meanwhile  make  a 
solution  of  iodine  by  putting  a  few  flakes  into  alcohol,  or  use 
that  which  is  already  prepared,  and  which  may  be  obtained  at 
any  pharmacy.  Add  a  drop  of  this  solution  to  the  paste  mix- 
ture; it  will  immediately  color  the  whole  a  rich  dark  blue. 
This  is  known  as  the  "iodine  test,"  and  is  a  very  valuable  one 
to  the  chemist,  for  by  means  of  it  the  slightest  trace  of  starch 
can  be  detected. 

Exp.  with  Arrowroot.  Make  a  thin  paste  by  boiling  a  little 
arrowroot  and  water  together.  When  cool  test  it  with  a  drop 
of  the  iodine  solution.  The  characteristic  blue  color  will  be 
very  strong,  showing  that  arrowroot  is  rich  in  starch. 

Similar  tests  may  be  made  with  grated  potato, 
wheat-flour,  rice-flour,  tapioca,  and  other  starch-con- 
taining substances.  Also  powdered  sugar,  cream  of 
tartar,  and  other  substances  may  be  tested,  when  it 
is  suspected  that  they  have  been  adulterated  with 
starch. 

Although  starch  grains  burst  and  form  a  paste 
with  water  at  140°  Fahr.,  that  is  not  the  temperature 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  33 

at  which  it  should  be  cooked  for  food,  and  the  thick- 
ening which  then  takes  place  should  not  be  con- 
founded, as  often  happens,  with  the  true  cooking  of 
starch.  In  order  to  understand  the  difference  be- 
tween the  proper  cooking  of  starch  and  the  simple 
bursting  of  the  grains,  let  us  consider  the  changes 
which  take  place  in  starch  when  it  is  subjected  to 
different  degrees  of  heat,  and  also  those  which  are 
produced  in  it  during  the  process  of  digestion.  All 
starch  in  food  is  changed  into  dextrine  and  then  into 
sugar  (glucose,  C6H12O6)  in  the  process  of  digestion. 
Glucose  is  a  kind  of  sugar,  resembling  cane-sugar, 
but  it  is  not  so  sweet. 

Dextrine.  Dextrine  is  a  substance  having  the  same 
chemical  nature  as  starch,  but  differing  in  many  of 
its  properties.  It  may  be  described  as  a  condition 
which  starch  assumes  just  before  its  change  into 
glucose. 

Exp.  to  show  Dextrine.  Carefully  dry  and  then  heat  a  little 
starch  to  about  400°  Fahr.  Keep  it  at  this  temperature  until  it 
turns  brown,  or  for  ten  minutes.  Then  mix  it  with  water,  when 
it  will  dissolve,  forming  a  gummy  solution.  Starch  will  not  do 
this.  Test  it  with  iodine;  it  will  not  change  color.  The  re- 
markable thing  about  the  relation  of  dextrine  to  starch  is  that 
although  they  differ  so  much  in  properties  they  have  the  same 
chemical  composition. 

The  change  of  starch  into  dextrine  is  an  important 
point  in  cooking,  because  starch  cannot  be  assimilated 
until  the  conversion  has  taken  place,  either  before  or 
after  it  is  eaten.  Now  it  will  be  seen  that  unless  this 
change  is  either  produced  or  approached  in  the  cook- 
ing of  starch-containing  foods,  they  are  not  prepared 
as  well  as  it  is  possible  to  prepare  them ;  also,  that  it 
is  not  possible  to  cause  this  change  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture; therefore  140°  (the  temperature  at  which  the 
grains  burst)  should  not  be  regarded  as  the  cooking 


34  EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS 

temperature  of  starch.  It  should  be  such  a  tempera- 
ture as  shall  actually  convert  it  into  dextrine,  or  at 
least  change  it  to  such  an  extent  that  it  will  be  more 
easily  converted  into  dextrine,  and  ultimately  into 
sugar,  by  the  digestive  fluids.  This  should  be  as 
near  401°  Fahr.  as  practicable, —  not  that  a  potato, 
or  a  loaf  of  bread,  or  a  pudding  will  have  all  the 
starch  in  it  changed  when  it  is  put  into  an  oven  of 
that  temperature.  It  would  not  be  possible,  on  ac- 
count of  the  water  contained  in  each ;  but  that  in  the 
outside  may  be,  and  the  preparation  of  the  remainder 
will  be  better  than  at  a  lower  temperature. 

There  are  other  means  of  changing  starch  into  dex- 
trine than  by  heat,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
which  is  diastase,  a  substance  found  in  sprouting 
grains,  which  has  the  power  to  transform  the  starch 
stored  in  the  grain  by  nature  into  soluble  dextrine,  in 
which  form  it  can  be  taken  up  by  the  young  plant  for 
food.  The  crude  starch  could  not  thus  be  absorbed. 
The  starch  which  we  use  as  food  is  of  no  more  value 
to  us  than  it  is  to  the  young  plant  until  it  has  been 
changed  into  dextrine  or  sugar.  Now,  if  art  outside 
of  the  body  can  accomplish  what  nature  is  otherwise 
forced  to  do  in  the  alimentary  canal,  the  body  will  be 
saved  a  certain  amount  of  force, — a  point  of  great  im- 
portance, especially  in  the  case  of  the  sick  or  invalid, 
who  can  ill  afford  to  waste  energy. 

Starch  constitutes  half  of  bread,  our  "staff  of  life"; 
nearly  all  of  rice,  the  staff  of  life  in  the  East ;  and  the 
greater  part  of  corn-starch,  sago,  arrowroot,  tapioca, 
peas,  beans,  turnips,  carrots,  and  potatoes. 

Arrowroot  is  the  purest  form  of  starch  food  known. 
Rice  is  richest  in  starch  of  all  the  grains.  Tapioca  is 
prepared  from  the  root  of  a  tropical  plant ;  it  is  first 
crushed  and  the  grains  washed  out  with  water,  then 
the  whole  is  heated  and  stirred,  thus  cooking  and 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  35 

breaking  the  starch  grains,  which  on  cooling  assume 
the  irregular  rough  shapes  seen  in  the  ordinary  tapioca 
of  commerce.  Probably  a  part  of  the  starch  is  con- 
verted into  dextrine,  which  accounts  for  the  peculiarly 
agreeable  flavor  which  tapioca  possesses.  Mixed  with 
the  grains,  as  they  are  taken  from  the  plant,  is  a  very 
dangerous  poison  which,  being  soluble  in  water  and 
volatile,  is  partially  washed  away  and  partially  driven 
out  by  the  heat, — in  fact  the  heating  is  done  for  this 
purpose.  Sago  is  principally  starch.  It  is  obtained 
from  the  pith  of  the  sago-palm.  Imitations  of  both 
tapioca  and  sago  are  sometimes  made  from  common 
starch. 

Starch  may  be  converted  into  grape-sugar  by  treat- 
ing it  with  acids  j  that  of  corn  is  generally  used  for  the 
purpose.  Much  of  the  glucose  of  commerce  is  made 
in  this  way.  In  the  United  States  it  is  estimated  that 
$10,000,000  worth  is  manufactured  every  year.  It  is 
used  for  table  syrup,  in  brewing  beer,  in  the  adulter- 
ation of  cane-sugar,  and  in  confectionery.  Honey  is 
also  made  from  it.  The  nutritive  value  of  vegetables 
is  due  largely  to  the  starch  and  sugar  which  they 
contain. 

In  the  economy  of  the  body  starch  is  eminently  a 
heat  producer.  Pound  for  pound  it  does  not  give  as 
much  heat  as  fat,  but  owing  to  its  great  abundance 
and  extensive  use  it,  in  the  aggregate,  produces 
more.  (Atwater.) 

Starch  is  an  abundant  and  easily  digested  form  of 
vegetable  food,  but  it  is  incapable  of  sustaining  life. 
It  contains  none  of  the  nitrogenous  matter  needed  for 
the  nutrition  of  the  muscles,  nerves,  and  tissues.  In- 
deed, it  is  said  on  good  authority  that  many  an  in- 
valid has  been  slowly  starved  to  death  from  being  fed 
upon  this  material  alone. 


36  EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS 

Sugar.  There  are  many  kinds  of  sugar,  the  most 
familiar  of  which  is  cane-sugar,  or  sucrose  (QoH^Qu). 
It  is  obtained  from  the  juices  of  various  plants,  for 
instance,  sugar-cane,  beet-root,  the  sugar-maple,  and 
certain  kinds  of  palms.  By  far  the  greatest  amount 
comes  from  the  sugar-cane.  It  is  made  by  crushing 
the  stalks  of  the  plant  (which  somewhat  resembles 
Indian  corn)  and  extracting  the  sweet  juice,  which  is 
then  clarified  and  evaporated  until,  on  cooling,  crys- 
tals appear  in  a  thick  liquid;  this  liquid  is  molasses, 
and  the  grains  or  crystals  are  brown  sugar.  White 
sugar  is  obtained  by  melting  this  brown  sugar  in 
water,  removing  the  impurities,  and  again  evapo- 
rating in  vacuum-pans,  which  are  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  boiling  the  liquid  at  a  lower  temperature  than 
it  could  be  boiled  in  the  open  air,  thus  avoiding  the 
danger  of  burning,  and  otherwise  preserving  certain 
qualities  of  the  sugar.  Loaf-sugar  is  made  by  sepa- 
rating the  crystals  from  the  liquid  by  draining  in 
molds ;  and  granulated  sugar  by  forcing  out  the 
syrup  in  a  centrifugal  machine.  The  process  of  mak- 
ing beet-root  sugar  is  similar.  Sugar  from  maple  sap 
is  obtained  by  simply  evaporating  away  the  excess  of 
water.  In  the  East  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar 
is  made  from  the  juices  of  certain  varieties  of  palm, 
especially  the  date-palm.  Maple-sugar  and  palm- 
sugar  are  generally  not  purified. 

Sucrose  dissolves  readily  in  water.  By  allowing 
such  a  solution  to  stand  undisturbed  for  a  time  until 
the  water  has  disappeared,  transparent  crystals  are 
obtained,  known  as  rock  candy.  Again,  sucrose  melted 
at  a  temperature  of  320°  Fahr.  forms,  on  cooling,  a 
clear  mass,  called  Parley-sugar.  Heated  to  420°  Fahr. 
dissociation  of  the  carbon  from  the  water  of  crystalli- 
zation takes  place,  the  carbon  appearing  in  its  charac- 
teristic black  color.  This  dark  brown,  sweetish-bitter 


EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS  37 

syrup  is  called  caramel.  On  cooling  it  forms  a  solid, 
which  may  be  dissolved  in  water,  and  is  used  to  color 
gravies,  soups,  beer,  and  so  forth. 

Exp.  with  Sulphuric  Acid.  A  very  pretty  experiment  to 
show  the  separation  of  the  water  from  the  carbon  may  be  made 
by  treating  a  little  sugar  in  sulphuric  acid.  Put  a  tablespoon 
of  sugar  in  any  vessel  that  will  bear  heat,  a  thin  glass  or  stout 
cup.  Pour  over  enough  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  to  thorough- 
ly moisten  it,  let  it  stand  for  a  few  minutes,  when  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  mass  has  changed  color  from  white  to  a  yellow- 
ish brown.  The  color  increases  in  intensity  until  it  is  perfectly 
black,  when  the  whole  puffs  and  swells  up,  fumes  are  driven 
off,  and  a  mass  like  a  cinder  remains.  This  is  charcoal,  or 
nearly  pure  carbon. 

The  explanation  is  as  follows :  So  strong  is  the 
affinity  of  the  acid  for  the  water  that  it  breaks  up  the 
chemical  combination  between  it  and  the  carbon, 
unites  with  the  water,  and  leaves  the  carbon  free.  So 
intense  is  the  chemical  change  that  an  enormous 
amount  of  heat  is  evolved, — so  much,  in  fact,  that  a 
considerable  part  of  the  water  is  vaporized,  leaving 
the  more  or  less  solid  charcoal.  The  light  color  no- 
ticed during  the  first  part  of  the  union  indicates  that 
the  chemical  dissociation  is  just  beginning,  and  that 
only  a  small  amount  of  carbon  has  been  set  free. 

Glucose.  Glucose  or  grape-sugar  (C6H12O6)  is  one 
of  the  kinds  of  sugar  found  in  grapes,  peaches,  and 
other  fruits.  It  is  about  two  and  one  half  times  less 
sweet  than  cane-sugar.  It  is  manufactured  on  a  large 
scale  from  the  starch  of  corn. 

Lactose.  Lactose  or  milk-sugar  is  the  sugar  found 
in  the  milk  of  the  Mammalia.  That  of  commerce 
comes  chiefly  from  Switzerland,  where  it  is  made  by 
evaporating  the  whey  of  cow's  milk.  For  sweetening 
drinks  for  infants  and  for  the  sick,  milk-sugar  is  said 
to  be  less  liable  to  produce  acid  fermentation  than 
cane-sugar,  and  also  to  be  more  easily  digested. 
4 


38  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

Sugar  is  a  valuable  nutrient,  being  very  easily  di- 
gested and  absorbed.  Cane-sugar  is  converted  into 
glucose  in  the  process  of  digestion  by  the  pancreatic 
juice,  and  after  absorption  it  is  completely  utilized  in 
the  body,  furnishing  heat  and  probably  energy. 

Effects  of  Heat  on  Sugar.  Sugar  undergoes  vari- 
ous changes,  with  different  degrees  of  heat,  by  loss  of 
some  of  its  water  of  crystallization.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  of  these  is  seen  in  caramel  sauce,  which  is 
a  rich  crimson-brown  syrup  generally  supposed  to 
contain  foreign  coloring  matter,  but  which  does  not. 
It  is  made  by  melting  sugar  without  water,  and  heat- 
ing it  until  the  desired  hue  and  thickness  are  reached. 
Nothing  is  added,  but  something  is  taken  away ;  that 
is,  some  of  the  water  is  driven  out,  with  the  result  of 
change  in  both  color  and  taste. 

In  a  recent  article  in  "  The  Century  Magazine  "  (No- 
vember, 1891)  Prof.  Atwater  touches  upon  the  sub- 
ject of  the  production  of  artificial  foods  from  the 
crude  materials  of  the  earth,  and  states,  among  other 
things,  that  a  sugar  resembling  fruit-sugar  has  been 
made  artificially  by  synthesis,  by  Prof.  Fischer  of 
Wiirzburg,  Germany. 


AIR 

Air  is  a  gaseous  elastic  body  which  envelops  the 
earth  on  every  side,  extending  possibly  two  hundred 
miles  from  its  surface,  but  all  the  while  growing  more 
and  more  rare  as  the  distance  increases.  When  pure  it 
is  tasteless  and  odorless.  We  really  live  at  the  bottom 
of  an  atmospheric  ocean,  and  are  pressed  upon  by  its 
weight.  At  the  sea-level  the  pressure  upon  every 
square  inch  of  surface  is  equal  to  fifteen  pounds. 

Atmospheric  Pressure  Variable.    Atmospheric  pres- 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  39 

sure  diminishes  and  is  constantly  variable,  according 
to  the  height  above  the  sea-level.  If  we  ascend  into 
the  air  5000  feet,  it  is  perfectly  evident  that  there  are 
5000  feet  less  of  atmosphere  pressing  upon  us  than  at 
the  point  from  which  we  started.  This  diminution 
of  pressure  is  often  measured  by  the  temperature  at 
which  water  boils  at  different  heights. 

Composition.  An  average  composition  of  the  at- 
mosphere has  been  previously  stated.  Besides  nitro- 
gen and  oxygen,  it  always  contains  water  in  the  form 
of  vapor,  and  carbonic  acid.  The  amount  of  aqueous 
vapor  in  the  air  changes  according  to  the  tempera- 
ture ;  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  is  also  constantly 
variable.  Air  usually  contains,  in  addition  to  these, 
traces  of  ammonia,  organic  matter  which  includes 
micro-organisms,  ozone,  salts  of  sodium,  and  other 
mineral  matters  in  minute  and  variable  quantities. 

Air  in  Motion.  The  atmosphere  is  almost  always  in 
motion.  We  feel  it  in  the  gentle  breeze  and  the  more 
forcible  wind.  If  it  moves  at  a  slower  rate  than  two 
and  one  half  feet  a  second  this  motion  is  not  notice- 
able. Motion  in  the  air  is  caused  by  the  unequal  heat- 
ing of  portions  of  it.  If  from  any  cause  the  atmosphere 
over  a  certain  region  becomes  warm,  it  will  expand 
(all  bodies  expand  with  heat),  become  lighter,  and  its 
tendency  will  be  to  move  in  the  direction  of  least  re- 
sistance,— that  is,  upward ;  so  we  say  heated  air  rises. 
Currents  of  cooler  air  will  immediately  flow  in  to 
take  its  place,  and  thus  we  have  a  breeze,  a  wind,  or 
a  gale,  according  to  the  velocity  and  force  with  which 
the  currents  move.  It  is  upon  a  knowledge  of  these 
movements  that  the  theory  of  ventilation  is  based. 
It  is  because  of  the  constant  motion  of  air-currents 
that  out  of  doors,  except  in  densely  populated  cities, 
air  remains  constantly  pure.  When  poisonous  gases 
and  other  impurities  accumulate,  winds  scatter  them 


40  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

far  and  wide  until  they  are  so  diluted  as  to  be  harm- 
less ;  or  under  some  conditions  they  unite  with  other 
things  and  form  new  and  simple  substances  of  a 
harmless  nature,  while  under  others,  if  they  are  com- 
pounds, they  may  be  decomposed  or  washed  down  to 
the  surface  of  the  earth  again. 

Impurities.  The  chief  chemical  product  of  fires  and 
of  that  slower  combustion  breathing  is  carbonic  acid. 
Plants  during  the  day,  and  under  the  influence  of 
sunlight,  take  it  up  from  the  air  for  food,  use  the  car- 
bon for  their  growth,  freeing  the  oxygen  which  man 
and  the  lower  animals  need.  Thus  is  the  balance 
most  beautifully  maintained. 

Air  is  purest  over  the  sea  and  over  wind-swept 
heights  of  land.  It,  however,  always  contains  some 
foreign  substances,  and  always  micro-organisms  ex- 
cept over  mid-ocean.  Even  the  upper  strata  of 
atmosphere  are  not  free  from  microscopic  forms  of 
life,  as  has  been  shown  in  experiments  made  with  hail 
at  the  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  in  1890  by  Dr.  Abbott. 
Large  hailstones  were  washed  in  distilled  and  steril- 
ized water,  and  then  melted,  and  cultures  made  from 
different  layers ;  in  all  of  these  organisms  were  found, 
showing  that  they  extend  into  the  air  a  long  dis- 
tance from  the  earth.1 

Impurities  of  various  kinds  are  constantly  passing 
into  the  air,  but  so  vast  is  the  expanse  of  the  atmo- 
sphere as  compared  with  the  impurities  daily  thrown 
into  it  from  the  lungs  of  man  and  the  lower  animals, 
from  fires,  manufactories,  and  decomposing  matter, 
that  they  quickly  disappear. 

Air  is  the  greatest  or,  as  one  writer  says,  the  most 
immediate  necessity  of  life.  We  could  live  without 

i  This  is  not  the  first  instance  of  the  discovery  of  organisms  in  hail ; 
but  Dr.  Abbott,  if  not  the  first,  is  one  of  the  first  bacteriologists  to  dem- 
onstrate the  fact  in  this  country. 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  41 

it  only  a  few  seconds.  We  constantly  use  it,  whether 
sleeping  or  waking,  and  perhaps  this  accounts  in  part 
for  the  utter  carelessness  and  indifference  which  most 
people  have  for  the  quality  of  that  which  they  breathe. 
Even  those  persons  who  know  something  of  the 
nature  of  air,  make  but  little  effort  to  provide 
themselves  with  a  constantly  pure  supply. 

Effects  of  Breathing  Bad  Air.  If  the  effects  of 
breathing  bad  air  were  immediate,  there  would  then 
be  an  immediate  remedy  for  the  present  total  lack  of 
any  systematic  means  .of  ventilation  in  most  houses. 
But  the  effects  of  breathing  bad  air  are,  like  those  of 
some  slow  and  insidious  poison,  not  noticeable  at 
once,  and  often  manifested  under  the  name  of  some 
disease  which  gives  no  clue  to  the  true  cause. 

Dr.  Van  Rensselaer,  in  the  Orton  Prize  Essay  on 
Impure  Air  and  Ventilation,  makes  the  statement 
that  statistics  show  that  of  the  causes  of  mortality  the 
most  important  and  farthest-reaching  is  impure  air. 

Amount  of  Air  Required  for  one  Person.  Sanitarians 
have  agreed  that  each  individual  requires  at  least 
3000  cubic  feet  of  air  every  hour.  A  room  10  x  15  x  20 
holds  3000  cubic  feet  of  air,  which  should  be  changed 
once  every  hour  in  order  that  one  individual  shall 
have  the  required  amount.  If  three  persons  are  in 
the  room,  it  must  be  changed  three  times. 

The  effect  of  bad  ventilation  is  well  illustrated  by 
the  condition  of  the  horses  in  the  French  army  some 
years  ago.  With  small  close  stables  the  mortality 
was  197  in  every  1000  annually.  The  simple  en- 
largement of  the  stables,  and  consequent  increase  of 
breathing-space,  reduced  the  number  in  the  course  of 
time  to  68  in  every  1000,  and  later,  from  1862  to  1866, 
with  some  attention  paid  to  the  air-supply,  the  number 
feU  to  28£  per  1000.1 

i  Parkes's  "  Practical  Hygiene," 


42  EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS 

Necessity  for  a  Constant  Supply  of  Pure  Air.  When 
we  consider  that  the  food  we  eat  and  digest  cannot 
nourish  the  body  until  it  has  been  acted  upon  by 
oxygen  in  the  lungs,  and  that  this  action  must  be 
constant,  never  ceasing,  it  will  help  us  to  understand 
the  necessity  for  a  constant  supply  of  air  such  as 
shall  furnish  us  a  due  proportion  of  the  life-giv- 
ing principle,  oxygen,  and  which  shall  not  contain 
impurities  that  interfere  with  its  absorption. 

We  take  into  the  lungs  a  mixture  of  nitrogen,  oxy- 
gen, and  carbonic  acid.  We  give  out  a  mixture 
which  has  lost  some  of  its  oxygen,  and  gained  in 
carbonic  acid.  Now,  unless  the  amount  of  oxygen 
is  what  it  should  be,  the  blood  will  not  gain  from 
an  inspiration  the  amount  it  should  receive,  conse- 
quently it  will  be  but  imperfectly  purified  and  able 
but  imperfectly  to  nourish  the  body.  So  the  whole 
system  suffers,  and  if  a  person  for  a  long  time  con- 
tinues to  breathe  such  an  atmosphere,  the  condition 
of  the  body  will  become  so  reduced  as  to  produce  dis- 
ease. Even  though  in  other  ways  one  lives  wisely,  all 
the  factors  of  health  multiplied  together  cannot  with- 
stand the  one  of  impure  air.  We  eat  food  three  or 
four  times  daily.  Some  of  us  are  very  particular 
about  its  quality.  We  breathe  air  every  instant  of 
our  lives,  but  generally  we  give  but  little  considera- 
tion as  to  whether  it  is  pure  or  impure. 

Ventilation.  No  attempt  will  be  made  here  to  ex- 
plain different  devices  for  ventilation,  but  only  to 
touch  upon  the  principle  it  involves.  Its  objects  are 
(1)  to  remove  air  which  has  been  breathed  once;  (2)  to 
remove  the  products  of  combustion,  whether  from  fires, 
lamps,  gas,  or  other  sources;  (3)  to  carry  away  all  other 
substances  which  may  be  generated  from  any  cause, 
in  a  room  or  building,  as  the  impurities  from  man- 
ufacturing, those  arising  from  decaying  matter, 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  43 

and  micro-organisms.  In  a  climate  where  artificial 
warmth  is  necessary  a  part  of  the  year,  it  is  difficult 
to  warm  and  ventilate  a  room  at  the  same  time,  with- 
out causing  unpleasant  drafts ;  but  with  some  know- 
ledge of  the  necessity  of  ventilation,  and  of  the  prop- 
erties of  air,  one  may  in  some  measure  work  out 
a  scheme  of  ventilation  adapted  to  the  circumstances 
in  which  he  finds  himself. 

There  are  always  the  doors  and  windows,  which 
may  be  thrown  wide  open  at  intervals,  and  in  many 
houses  there  are  fireplaces.  If  a  window  be  opened 
at  the  bottom  at  one  side  of  a  room,  and  another  be 
opened  at  the  top  on  an  opposite  side,  a  current  of 
air  will  be  established  from  the  first  window,  passing 
through  the  room  and  out  at  the  second.  This  plan 
will  do  very  well  in  warm  weather  when  the  tempera- 
ture outside  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  room, 
but  it  would  be  impracticable  in  cold  weather.  Then 
we  may  resort  to  the  very  simple  plan  of  placing  a 
board  about  eight  or  ten  inches  wide  across  the  win- 
dow at  the  bottom  and  inside  of  the  sash.  Then 
when  the  lower  half  of  the  window  is  raised,  a  space 
is  left  between  the  upper  and  lower  sashes,  through 
which  the  air  passes  freely  as  it  enters,  and,  being 
sent  into  the  room  in  an  upward  direction,  causes  no 
draft.  The  board  is  for  the  purpose  of  closing  the 
window  below,  and  should  fit  quite  close  to  the  sash. 

Fireplaces  are  good,  though  not  perfect,  ventila- 
tors. Then  there  are  the  preventive  measures,  such  as 
burning  the  gas  or  lamp  low  at  night,  avoiding  oil-  and 
gas-stoves,  etc.;  the  latter  are  the  worst  possible  means 
of  heating  rooms,  for  not  only  do  they  draw  oxygen 
for  burning  from  the  air,  but  they  give  out  the  pollut- 
ing carbonic  acid  and  other  products  of  combustion, 
which  in  a  coal-  or  wood-stove  go  up  the  chimney. 

A  well-ventilated  room  should  have  an  inflow  of 


44  EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS 

warm,  pure  air,  and  a  means  for  the  removal  of  the 
same  after  it  has  been  used,  the  current  being  so  con- 
trolled that,  although  the  air  is  kept  in  motion,  there 
is  no  perceptible  draft. 

The  plan  for  the  heating  and  ventilation  of  the 
Johns  Hopkins  Hospital,  Baltimore,  Maryland,  is  a 
most  admirable  one.  Air  from  out  of  doors  is  con- 
veyed by  a  flue  into  a  chamber  in  the  wall,  in  which  are 
coils  of  pipe  filled  with  hot  water.  The  air  in  passing 
over  these  becomes  warm,  and,  rising,  passes  into  the 
room  to  be  heated  through  a  register.  On  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  room  is  a  chimney-like  flue,  run- 
ning to  the  top  of  the  building  and  containing 
two  registers,  by  the  opening  and  closing  of  which 
the  movements  of  the  air  in  the  room  can  be  con- 
trolled. The  temperature  is  maintained  by  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  in  the  pipes,  and  the  rapidity 
of  the  flow.1 

The  ventilation  by  this  method  of  heating  is  the 
most  perfect  known  to  the  author,  who  has  lived  for 
two  years  in  a  building  thus  supplied  with  warmth 
and  fresh  air.  The  rooms  were  invariably  comfortable 
as  to  temperature,  and  the  air  as  invariably  sweet  and 
pure. 

MILK 

Milk  is  one  of  our  most  perfect  types  of  food,  con- 
taining water  and  solids  in  such  proportions  as  are 
known  to  be  needful  for  the  nourishment  of  the  body. 
A  proof  of  this  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  it  is  the  only 
food  of  the  young  of  the  Mammalia  during  the  time 
of  their  greatest  growth.  It  contains  those  food  prin- 
ciples in  such  amounts  as  to  contribute  to  the  rapid 

i  For  a  detailed  description  of  this  method  of  heating  and  ventila- 
tion, see  the  report  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  for  the  year  1891. 


EXPLANATOKY  LESSONS  45 

formation  of  bone  and  the  various  tissues  of  the  body, 
which  takes  place  in  infancy  and  childhood ;  but  after 
this  growth  is  attained,  and  the  individual  requires 
that  which  will  repair  the  tissues  and  furnish  warmth 
and  energy,  milk  ceases  to  be  a  complete  food. 

Composition  of  Cow's  Milk.  The  composition  of 
cow's  milk  varies  with  the  breed  and  age,  care  and 
feeding,  of  the  animals.  Cows  which  are  kept  in  foul 
air  in  stables  all  the  year,  and  fed  upon  bad  food 
such  as  the  refuse  from  breweries  and  kitchens,  give 
a  quality  of  milk  which  is  perhaps  more  to  be  dreaded 
than  that  from  any  other  source;  for  such  animals  are 
especially  liable  to  disease,  and  are  often  infected  with 
tuberculosis,  pneumonia,  and  other  fatal  maladies. 
Cows  are  particularly  susceptible  to  tuberculosis,  and 
may  convey  it  to  human  beings  either  in  their  milk 
or  flesh.  According  to  Dr.  Miller,  cow's  milk  contains 
the  following  ingredients : 

Water 87.4% 

Fat 4.0% 

Sugar  and  soluble  salts  5.0% 

Nitrogenous  matter  and  insoluble  salts 3.6% 

Another  analysis  is  that  of  Uffelmann  : 

Water 87.6% 

Albuminoids   4.396 

Fat 3.8% 

Sugar 3.7% 

Salts 6%  l 

Characteristics.  Milk  from  healthy,  well-nourished 
cows  should  be  of  full  white  color,  opaque,  and  with 

l  Variations  in  the  composition  of  covr's  milk  (300  analyses) : 

Minimum.         Maximum. 

Albuminoids  or  Protein 2.04%  6.18% 

Fat 1.82%  7.09% 

Sugar    3.20%  5.67% 

Salts 50%  .87% 

— KONIG. 


46  EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS 

a  slightly  yellowish  tinge  sometimes  described  as 
"  cream  white."  It  should  vary  but  slightly  in  com- 
position from  the  above  analyses.  The  fat  should 
not  be  less  than  2.5%.  The  amount  of  fat  may  be 
easily  determined  with  a  Feser's  lactoscope  (Eimer 
and  Amend,  New  York),  directions  for  the  use  of 
which  come  with  the  instruments.  It  will  generally 
vary  from  3%  to  4%  in  good  milk.  Should  it  fall 
below  2.5%  the  milk  should  be  rejected  as  too  poor  for 
use.  Such  milk  has  probably  been  skimmed,  or  comes 
from  unhealthy  or  poorly  fed  cows. 

The  specific  gravity  of  milk  should  be  from  1.027  to 
1.033.  This  may  be  found  with  a  Quevenne's  lactom- 
eter. If  it  falls  below  1.027,  one  has  a  right  to  claim 
that  the  milk  has  been  watered  or  that  the  cows  are 
in  poor  condition.1 

The  reaction  of  good  milk  varies  from  slightly  alka- 
line to  slightly  acid  or  neutral.  That  from  the  same 
cow  will  be  different  on  different  days,  even  under  the 
same  apparent  conditions  of  care,  varying  from  one  to 
the  other,  probably  because  of  some  difference  in  the 
nature  of  the  food  she  has  eaten.  However,  if  the 
reaction  is  decidedly  alkaline,  and  red  litmus-paper 
becomes  a  distinct  blue,  the  milk  is  not  good,  and 
possibly  the  animal  is  diseased.  Should  the  reaction 
be  decidedly  acid,  it  shows  that  the  milk  has  been 
contaminated,  either  from  the  air  by  long  exposure, 
or  from  the  vessels  which  held  it,  with  those  micro- 
organisms which  by  their  growth  produce  an  acid,  a 

i  The  following  is  the  police  order  for  milk,  published  in  Darmstadt, 
1879 :  (1)  All  milk  must  have  a  specific  gravity  of  1.029-1.033.  (2)  When 
skimmed  it  must  have  a  specific  gravity  of  1.033.  (3)  All  milk  with  a 
specific  gravity  under  1.027  is  to  be  considered  as  watered  and  immedi- 
ately confiscated.  (4)  All  milk  with  specific  gravity  over  1.027,  if  after 
twenty-four  hours  standing  and  skimming  the  specific  gravity  is  under 
1.033,  must  also  be  confiscated,  also  all  skimmed  milk  with  a  specific 
gravity  under  1.033.  (5)  All  milk  must  be  considered  skimmed  which 
has  less  than  2.8  per  cent,  of  fat. 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  47 

certain  amount  of  which  causes  what  is  known  as 
"  souring." 

Milk  from  perfectly  healthy  and  perfectly  kept 
cows  is  neutral,  leaving  both  red  and  blue  litmus- 
paper  unchanged;  but  as  a  general  thing  milk  is 
slightly  acid,  even  when  transported  directly  from 
the  producer  to  the  consumer  and  handled  by  fairly 
clean  workmen  in  fairly  clean  vessels.  Such  milk 
two  or  three  hours  old  when  examined  microscopic- 
ally is  found  to  contain  millions  of  organisms.  Milk 
is  one  of  the  best  of  foods  for  bacteria,  many  of  the 
ordinary  forms  growing  in  it  with  exceeding  rapidity 
under  favorable  conditions  of  temperature.  Now  it 
has  been  found  that  such  milk,  although  it  may  not 
contain  the  seeds  of  any  certain  disease,  sometimes 
causes  in  young  children,  and  the  sick,  very  serious 
digestive  disturbances,  and  may  thus  become  indi- 
rectly the  cause  of  fatal  maladies.1 

All  milk,  unless  it  is  positively  known  to  be  given 
by  healthy,  well-nourished  animals,  and  kept  in  thor- 
oughly cleaned  vessels  free  from  contamination,  should 
be  sterilized  before  using.  Often  the  organisms  found 
in  milk  are  of  disease-giving  nature.  In  Europe  and 
America  many  cases  of  typhoid  fever,  scarlatina,  and 
diphtheria  have  been  traced  to  the  milk-supply.  In 
fact  milk  and  water  are  two  of  the  most  fruitful  food 
sources  of  disease.  It  therefore  immediately  becomes 
apparent  that,  unless  these  two  liquids  are  above  sus- 
picion, they  should  be  sterilized  before  using.  Boiling 
water  for  half  an  hour  will  render  it  sterile,  but  milk 
would  be  injured  by  evaporation  and  other  changes 
produced  in  its  constituents  by  such  long  exposure  to 
so  high  a  degree  of  heat.  A  better  method,  and  one 
which  should  be  adopted  by  all  who  understand  some- 
thing of  the  nature  of  bacteria,  is  to  expose  the  milk 

i  See  article  on  the  Feeding  of  Children. 


48  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

for  a  longer  time  to  a  lower  temperature  than  that  of 
boiling. 

To  Sterilize  Milk  for  Immediate  Use.  (1)  Pour  the 
milk  into  a  granite-ware  saucepan  or  a  double  boiler, 
raise  the  temperature  to  190°  Fahr.,  and  keep  it  at 
that  point  for  one  hour.  (2)  As  soon  as  done  put  it 
immediately  into  a  pitcher,  or  other  vessel,  which  has 
been  thoroughly  washed,  and  boiled  in  a  bath  of  water, 
and  cool  quickly  by  placing  in  a  pan  of  cold  or  iced 
water.  A  chemist's  thermometer,  for  testing  the  tem- 
perature, may  be  bought  at  any  pharmacy  for  a  small 
sum,  but  if  there  is  not  one  at  hand,  heat  the  milk 
until  a  scum  forms  over  the  top,  and  then  keep  it  as 
nearly  as  possible  at  that  temperature  for  one  hour. 
Do  not  let  it  boil. 

To  Sterilize  Milk  which  is  not  for  Immediate  Use.  Put 
the  milk  into  flasks  or  bottles  with  narrow  mouths ; 
plug  them  with  a  long  stopper  of  cotton-wool,  place 
the  flasks  in  a  wire  frame  to  support  them,  in  a  kettle 
of  cold  water,  heat  gradually  to  190°  Fahr.,  and  keep 
it  at  that  temperature  for  one  hour.  Repeat  this  the 
second  day,  for  although  all  organisms  were  prob- 
ably destroyed  during  the  first  process,  spores  which 
may  have  escaped  will  have  developed  into  bacteria. 
These  will  be  killed  by  the  second  heating.  Repeat 
again  on  the  third  day  to  destroy  any  life  that  may 
have  escaped  the  first  two. 

Spores  or  resting-cells  are  the  germinal  cells  from 
which  new  bacteria  develop,  and  are  capable  of  surviv- 
ing a  much  higher  temperature  than  the  bacteria 
themselves,  as  well  as  desiccation  and  severe  cold.1 
Some  writers  give  a  lower  temperature  than  190°  Fahr. 
as  safe  for  sterilization  with  one  hour's  exposure,  but 

i  Spores  may  be  further  described  as  resistant  forms  which  some 
organisms  assume  in  times  of  danger,  or  lack  of  nourishment  for  the 
purpose  of  preserving  their  lives.  Not  all  organisms  form  spores. 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  49 

190  may  be  relied  upon.  Milk  treated  by  the  last  or 
"fractional"  method  of  sterilization,  as  it  is  called, 
should  keep  indefinitely,  provided  of  course  the  cot- 
ton is  not  disturbed.  Cotton-wool  or  cotton  batting 
in  thick  masses  acts  as  a  strainer  for  bacteria,  and 
although  air  will  enter,  organisms  will  not. 

All  persons  who  buy  milk,  or  in  any  way  control 
milk-supplies,  should  consider  themselves  in  duty 
bound  to  (1)  ascertain  by  personal  investigation  the 
condition  in  which  the  cows  are  kept.  If  there  is  any 
suspicion  that  they  are  diseased,  a  veterinary  surgeon 
should  be  consulted  to  decide  the  case.  If  they  are 
healthy  and  well  fed,  they  cannot  fail  to  give  good 
milk,  and  nothing  more  is  to  be  done  except  to  see 
that  it  is  transported  in  perfectly  cleansed  and  scalded 
vessels.  (2)  If  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  milk  directly 
from  the  producer,  and  one  is  obliged  to  buy  that 
from  unknown  sources,  it  should  be  sterilized  the  mo- 
ment it  enters  the  house.  There  is  no  other  means  of 
being  sure  that  it  will  not  be  a  bearer  of  disease.  Not 
all  such  milk  contains  disease-producing  organisms, 
but  it  all  may  contain  them,  and  there  is  no  safety  in 
its  use  until  all  bacteria  have  been  deprived  of  life. 


DIGESTION 

Definition.  Digestion  is  the  breaking  up,  changing, 
and  liquefying  of  the  food  in  the  various  chambers  of 
the  alimentary  canal  designed  for  that  purpose.  The 
mechanical  breaking  up  is  done  principally  by  the 
teeth  in  the  mouth,  the  chemical  changes  and  liquefy- 
ing by  the  various  digestive  fluids.1 

i  It  is  supposed,  but  I  think  not  yet  demonstrated,  that  bacteria  are 
among  the  transforming  agents  of  our  food,  in  the  alimentary  canal. 
Organisms  in  the  saliva  have  been  isolated  and  found  to  produce  sub- 
stances which  will  partially  digest  starch. 


50  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

Digestive  Fluids.  The  digestive  fluids  are  true  secre- 
tions. Each  is  formed  from  the  blood  by  a  special 
gland  for  the  purpose  which  never  does  anything  else; 
they  do  not  exist  in  the  blood  as  such.  Their  flow  is 
intermittent,  taking  place  only  when  they  are  needed. 
The  liver,  however,  is  an  exception  to  all  the  others.  It 
is  both  secretory  and  excretory,  and  bile  is  formed  all 
the  time,  but  is  most  abundant  during  digestion.1 

Saliva.  The  fluid  which  is  mixed  with  the  food  in 
the  mouth  is  secreted  by  a  considerable  number  and 
variety  of  glands,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  pa- 
rotid, submaxillary,  and  sublingual.  Smaller  glands 
in  the  roof  and  sides  of  the  mouth,  in  the  tongue,  and 
in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  pharynx  contribute 
to  the  production  of  saliva,  the  digestive  fluid  of  the 
mouth.  The  flow  from  the  parotid  gland  is  great- 
est. The  flow  from  all  the  glands  is  greatly  increased 
when  food  is  taken,  especially  if  it  be  of  good  flavor. 
Sometimes  the  amount  is  increased  by  smell  alone,  as 
when  a  nice  steak  is  cooking,  or  a  savory  soup,  and 
sometimes  the  saliva  is  made  copious  by  thought,  as 
when  we  remember  the  taste  of  dishes  eaten  in  the 
past,  and  we  say,  "  It  makes  the  mouth  water  just  to 
think  of  them." 

Amount  of  Saliva.  According  to  Daltou  the  amount 
of  saliva  secreted  every  twenty-four  hours  is  42£  oz. 
Its  reaction  is  almost  constantly  alkaline.  It  is  com- 
posed of  water,  organic  matter,  and  various  mineral 
salts.  Ptyalin  is  its  active  principle,  and  is  called  by 
some  authors  animal  diastase,  or  starch  converter. 

Gastric  Juice.  Gastric  juice  is  the  digestive  fluid  of 
the  stomach.  It  is  acid.  Its  flow  is  intermittent,  oc- 
curring only  at  times  of  digestion.  Its  active  prin- 
ciple is  pepsin. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  here  that  the  character  of  the 

i  Flint's  "  Physiology." 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  51 

digestive  fluids  when  food  is  taken  is  different  from 
what  it  is  when  the  organs  are  at  rest.  For  instance, 
the  gastric  juice  which  flows  in  abundance  under  the 
stimulus  of  food,  is  not  like  the  fluid  secreted  when 
the  stomach  is  collapsed  and  empty. 

Pancreatic  Juice.  Pancreatic  juice  is  the  digestive 
juice  of  the  pancreas,  and  is  poured  into  the  small  in- 
testine a  short  distance  below  the  pyloric  opening.  Its 
reaction  is  alkaline.  Its  flow  is  entirely  suspended 
during  the  intervals  of  digestion. 

Bile.  Bile,  the  fourth  in  order  of  the  digestive 
liquids,  is  the  secretion  of  the  largest  gland  of  the 
body — the  liver.  It  is  poured  into  the  small  intestine 
by  a  duct  which  empties  side  by  side  with  the  duct 
from  the  pancreas.  The  flow  of  bile  is  constant,  but 
is  greatest  during  digestion. 

Intestinal  Juice.  Intestinal  juice  has  been  to  physi- 
ologists a  difficult  subject  of  study.  It  is  mingled 
with  the  salivary  and  gastric  juices  at  the  times  of  di- 
gestion, when  it  is  most  desirable  to  notice  its  action. 
Nearly  all  authorities  agree  that  it  is  alkaline,  and 
that  its  function  is  to  complete  the  digestion  of  sub- 
stances which  may  reach  it  in  an  undigested  condition. 

Mucus  of  Large  Intestine.  The  mucus  secreted  by 
the  large  intestine  is  for  lubricating  only. 

Digestion  in  Different  Parts  of  the  Alimentary  Tract. 
Different  substances  in  food  are  digested  in  different 
portions  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  by  different 
means.  Let  us  begin  in  the  mouth.  Taking  the 
classes  of  foods,  starch,  one  of  the  carbohydrates,  is 
the  one  most  affected  by  the  ptyalin,  or  animal  dias- 
tase, of  the  saliva.  So  energetic  is  the  action  of 
ptyalin  on  starch  that  1  part  is  sufficient  to  change 
1000  parts.  Starch  is  not  acted  upon  by  the  gastric 
juice  of  the  stomach  at  all ;  however,  the  continued 
action  of  the  saliva  is  not  probably  interrupted  in  the 


52  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

stomach.  The  digestion  of  starch  is  completed  by 
the  action  of  the  pancreatic  and  intestinal  juices,  and 
consists  in  its  being  changed  into  soluble  glucose, 
which  is  absorbed  in  solution. 

Sugar.  Cane-sugar,  or  common  sugar  (also  called 
sucrose),  passes  through  the  mouth,  unchanged,  to  the 
stomach,  where  it  is  converted  into  glucose  by  the 
slow  action  of  the  acid  (hydrochloric)  of  the  gastric 
juice.  Dilute  hydrochloric  acid  has  the  same  action 
on  sugar  outside  of  the  stomach. 

The  action  of  pancreatic  juice  on  sugar  is  very 
marked;  it  immediately  changes  cane-sugar  into  glu- 
cose. The  effect  of  intestinal  fluid  is  not  well  under- 
stood, but  there  is  the  general  agreement  that  it  does 
not  change  cane-sugar,  neither  is  cane-sugar,  as  such, 
absorbed  in  the  intestine.  Bile  does  not  affect  it, 
therefore  cane-sugar  is  digested  or  converted  into 
glucose  either  by  the  stomach  or  pancreas,  or  both. 
It  will  now  be  seen  that  ultimately  the  same  sub- 
stance, glucose,  is  obtained  from  both  starch  and 
sugar. 

Protein.  We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  the 
digestion  of  the  protein  compounds,  of  which  albu- 
men may  be  taken  as  a  type.  Possibly  no  action  ex- 
cept breaking  up  and  moistening  takes  place  in  the 
mouth.1  Its  digestion  begins  in  the  stomach,  where 
its  structure  is  broken  up  and  a  separation  and  dis- 
solution of  the  little  sacs  which  hold  it  take  place. 
The  same  thing  is  partially  accomplished  outside  of 
the  stomach  when  white  of  egg  is  slightly  beaten  and 
strained  through  a  cloth.  Gastric  juice  further  acts 
on  the  albumen  itself,  forming  it  into  what  is  called 
albumen  peptone.  The  digestion  of  raw  and  care- 
fully cooked  albumen  has  been  found  to  be  carried 
on  very  rapidly  in  the  stomach,  and  the  change  is 

1  It  is  possible  that  albumen  and  fibrin  are  acted  upon  by  some  of  tlie 
juices  secreted  in  the  mouth. 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  53 

essentially  the  same  in  both  cases,  but  in  favor  of  the 
slightly  coagulated.  When  the  albumen  is  rendered 
hard,  fine,  and  close  in  consistency  by  over-cooking, 
then  it  is  less  easy  of  digestion  than  when  raw. 

Absorption.  It  is  probable  that  the  greater  portion 
of  the  process  of  digestion  and  absorption  of  albumen 
takes  place  in  the  stomach. 

Fibrin.  Fibrin  is  also  digested  in  the  stomach,  and 
made  into  fibrin  peptone. 

Casein.  Liquid  casein  is  immediately  coagulated  by 
gastric  juice,  both  by  the  action  of  free  acid  and  or- 
ganic matter. 

Gelatin.  Gelatin  is  quickly  dissolved  by  gastric 
juice,  and  afterward  no  longer  has  the  property  of 
forming  jelly  on  cooling.  Gelatin  is  more  rapidly 
disposed  of  than  the  tissue  from  which  it  is  produced. 

Vegetable  Protein.  The  digestion  of  the  vegetable 
protein  compounds,  such  as  the  gluten  of  wheat  and 
the  protein  of  the  various  grains,  such  as  corn,  oat- 
meal, etc.,  is  undoubtedly  carried  on  in  the  stomach, 
but  they  must  be  well  softened  and  prepared  by  the 
action  of  heat  and  water,  or  they  will  not  be  digested 
anywhere ;  and  often  corn,  beans,  and  grains  of  oat- 
meal are  rejected  entirely  unchanged.  Partially  or 
imperfectly  digested  proteins  are  affected  by  intestinal 
juice.  It  is  probable  that  the  function  of  this  fluid  is 
to  complete  digestive  changes  in  food  which  have  al- 
ready begun  in  the  stomach. 

To  summarize :  The  digestion  and  absorption  of 
nitrogenous  compounds  take  place  in  both  the  stom- 
ach and  the  intestines. 


NUTRITION 

One  of  the  important  points  to  bring  to  the  notice 
of  pupils  in  the  study  of  cookery  is  the  phenomenon 


64  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

of  nutrition.  It  is  astonishing  how  vague  are  the 
ideas  that  many  people  have  of  why  they  eat  food, 
and  vaguer  still  are  their  notions  of  the  necessity  of 
air,  pure  and  plenty.  Once  instruct  the  mind  that 
it  is  the  air  we  breathe  and  the  food  we  eat  which 
nourish  the  body,  giving  material  for  its  various  pro- 
cesses, for  nervous  and  muscular  energy,  and  for 
maintaining  the  constant  temperature  which  the  body 
must  always  possess  in  order  to  be  in  a  state  of  health, 
and  there  is  much  more  likelihood  that  the  dignity 
and  importance  of  proper  cooking  and  proper  food 
will  not  be  overlooked. 

A  knowledge  that  the  health  and  strength  of  a  per- 
son depend  largely  upon  what  passes  through  his 
mouth,  that  even  the  turn  of  his  thinking  is  modified 
by  what  he  eats,  should  lead  all  intelligent  women  to 
make  food  a  conscientious  subject  of  study. 

In  general,  by  the  term  "nutrition"  is  meant  the 
building  up  and  maintaining  of  the  physical  frame- 
work of  the  body  with  all  its  various  functions,  and 
ultimately  the  mental  and  moral  faculties  which  are 
dependent  upon  it,  by  means  of  nutriment  or  food. 

The  word  is  derived  from  the  Latin  nutrire,  to 
nourish.  The  word  "nurse"  is  from  the  same  root, 
and  in  its  original  sense  means  one  who  nourishes,  a 
person  who  supplies  food,  tends,  or  brings  up. 

Anything  which  aids  in  sustaining  the  body  is  food; 
therefore,  air  and  water,  the  two  most  immediate  ne- 
cessities of  life,  may  be,  and  often  are,  so  classed. 

Nutriment  exclusive  of  air  is  received  into  the  body 
by  means  of  the  alimentary  canal.  The  great  receiver 
of  air  is  the  lungs,  but  it  also  penetrates  the  body 
through  the  pores  of  the  skin,  and  at  these  points 
carbonic  acid  is  given  off  as  in  the  lungs.  The  body 
is  often  compared  to  a  steam-engine,  which  takes  in 
raw  material  in  the  form  of  fuel  and  converts  it  into 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  65 

force  or  power.  Food,  drink,  and  air  are  the  fuel  of 
the  body, — the  things  consumed;  heat,  muscular  and 
intellectual  energy,  and  other  forms  of  power  are  the 
products. 

Food,  during  the  various  digestive  processes,  be- 
comes reduced  to  a  liquid,  and  is  then  absorbed  and 
conveyed,  by  different  channels  constructed  for  the 
purpose,  into  the  blood,  which  contains,  after  being 
acted  upon  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air  in  the  lungs,  all 
those  substances  which  are  required  to  maintain  the 
various  tissues,  secretions,  and,  in  fact,  the  life  of  the 
system. 

Some  of  the  ways  in  which  the  different  kinds  of 
food  nourish  the  body  have  been  found  out  by  chem- 
ists and  physiologists  from  actual  experiments  on 
living  animals,  such  as  rabbits,  dogs,  pigs,  sheep, 
goats,  and  horses,  and  also  on  man.  Often  a  scien- 
tist becomes  so  enthusiastic  in  his  search  for  know- 
ledge about  a  certain  food  that  he  gives  his  own 
body  for  trial.  Much  valuable  work  has  been  done 
in  this  direction  during  the  last  decade  by  Voit, 
Pettenkofer,  Moleschott,  Ranke,  Payen,  and  in  this 
country  by  Atwater. 

No  one  can  explain  all  the  different  intricate 
changes  which  a  particle  of  food  undergoes  from  the 
moment  it  enters  the  mouth  until  its  final  transfor- 
mation into  tissue  or  some  form  of  energy;  but  by 
comparing  the  income  with  the  outgo,  ideas  may  be 
gained  of  what  goes  on  in  the  economy  of  the  body, 
and  of  the  proportion  of  nutrients  used,  and  some  of 
the  intricate  and  complex  chemical  changes  which  the 
different  food  principles  undergo  in  the  various  pro- 
cesses of  digestion,  assimilation,  and  use. l  Probably 

i  The  body  loses  each  day,  in  the  performance  of  its  ordinary  and 
usual  functions,  about  nine  pounds  of  matter  (Martin) ;  therefore,  that 
amount  of  income  of  food,  water,  and  air  will  be  needed  in  every 
twenty-four  hours. 


56  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

hundreds  of  changes  take  place  in  the  body,  in  its  va- 
rious nutritive  functions,  of  which  nothing  is  known, 
or  they  are  entirely  unsuspected,  so  that  if  we  do  our 
utmost  with  the  present  lights  which  we  possess  for 
guidance  to  health,  we  shall  still  fall  far  short  of 
completeness.  The  subject  of  food  and  nutrition, 
viewed  in  the  light  of  bacteriology  and  chemistry,  is 
one  of  the  most  inviting  subjects  of  study  of  the  day, 
and  is  worthy  of  the  wisest  thought  of  the  nation. 

The  body  creates  nothing  of  itself,  either  of  ma- 
terial or  of  energy ;  all  must  come  to  it  from  without. 
Every  atom  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  phosphorus,  or 
other  elements,  every  molecule  of  protein,  carbo- 
hydrate, or  other  compounds  of  these  elements,  is 
brought  to  the  body  with  the  food  and  drink  it  con- 
sumes, and  the  air  it  breathes.  Like  the  steam- 
engine,  it  uses  the  material  supplied  to  it.  Its 
chemical  compounds  and  energy  are  the  compounds 
and  energy  of  the  food  transformed  (Atwater).  A 
proof  of  this  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  when  the  supply 
from  without  is  cut  off,  the  body  dies.  The  raw 
material  which  the  body  uses  is  the  air  and  food 
which  it  consumes,  the  greater  portion  of  which  is 
digested  and  distributed,  through  the  medium  of  the 
blood,  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  to  renew  and  nourish 
the  various  tissues  and  to  supply  the  material  for  the 
different  activities  of  life. 

Ways  in  which  Food  Supplies  the  Wants  of  the  Body. 
Food  supplies  the  wants  of  the  body  in  several  ways — 
(1)  it  is  used  to  form  the  tissues  of  the  body  —  bones, 
flesh,  tendons,  skin,  and  nerves ;  (2)  it  is  used  to  re- 
pair the  waste  of  the  tissues ;  (3)  it  is  stored  in  the 
body  for  future  use ;  (4)  it  is  consumed  as  fuel  to 
maintain  the  constant  temperature  which  the  body 
must  always  possess  to  be  in  a  state  of  health ;  (5) 
it  produces  muscular  and  nervous  energy.1  The 

l  Prof.  Atwater,  in  "  The  Century  Magazine,"  1887-88. 


EXPLANATOEY   LESSONS  57 

amount  of  energy  of  the  body  depends  upon  two 
things — the  amount  in  the  food  eaten,  and  the  ability 
of  the  body  to  use  it,  or  free  it  for  use. 

With  every  motion,  and  every  thought  and  feeling, 
material  is  consumed,  hence  the  more  rapid  wearing 
out  of  persons  who  do  severe  work,  and  of  the  nervous 
—  those  who  are  keenly  susceptible  to  every  change 
in  their  surroundings,  to  change  of  weather,  even  to 
the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  those  about  them. 

We  easily  realize  that  muscular  force  or  energy 
cannot  be  maintained  without  nutriment  in  proper 
quality  and  amount.  An  underfed  or  starving  man 
has  not  the  strength  of  a  well-fed  person.  He  cannot 
lift  the  same  weight,  cannot  walk  as  far,  cannot  work 
as  hard.  We  do  not  as  easily  comprehend  the  nervous 
organism,  and  generally  have  less  sympathy  with 
worn-out  or  ill-nourished  nerves  than  muscles,  but 
the  sensibilities  and  the  intellectual  faculties,  of 
which  the  nerves  and  brain  are  but  the  instruments, 
depend  upon  the  right  nutrition  of  the  whole  system 
for  their  proper  and  healthful  exercise. 

So  many  factors  enter  into  the  make-up  of  a 
thought  that  it  cannot  be  said  that  any  particular 
kind  of  food  will  ultimately  produce  a  poem;  but  of 
this  we  may  be  sure,  that  the  best  work,  the  noblest 
thoughts,  the  most  original  ideas,  will  not  come  from 
a  dyspeptic,  underfed,  or  in  any  way  ill-nourished 
individual. 

The  classification  of  foods  has  been  usually  based 
upon  the  deductions  of  Prout  that  milk  contains  all 
the  necessary  nutrients  in  the  best  form  and  propor- 
tions, viz.,  the  nitrogenous  matters,  fat,  sugar,  water, 
and  salts;  the  latter  being  combinations  of  mag- 
nesium, calcium,  potassium,  sodium,  and  iron,  with 
chlorin,  phosphoric  acid,  and,  in  smaller  quantities, 
sulphuric  acid. 

These  different  classes  seem  to  serve  different  pur- 


58  EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS 

poses  in  the  body,  and  are  all  necessary  for  perfect 
nutrition.  Some  of  them  closely  resemble  each  other 
in  composition,  but  are  quite  different  in  their  physio- 
logical properties,  and  in  the  ends  which  they  serve. 
For  instance,  starch  (C6Hi0O5)  has  almost  the  same 
chemical  formula  as  sugar  (C12H22O1i),  and  yet  the 
one  cannot  replace  the  other  to  its  entire  exclusion. 
The  Protein  Compounds.  In  general  it  may  be  said 
that  the  carbohydrates  are  changed  into  fats,  and  are 
used  for  the  production  of  force,  and  that  the  fats 
are  stored  in  the  body  as  fat  and  used  as  fuel.  The 
protein  compounds  do  all  that  can  be  done  by  the 
fats  and  carbohydrates,  and  in  addition  something 
more ;  that  is,  they  form  the  basis  of  blood,  muscle, 
sinew,  skin,  and  bone.  They  are,  therefore,  the  most 
important  of  all  the  food  compounds.  The  terms 
"  power-givers  "  and  "  energy-formers  "  are  sometimes 
applied  to  them,  because  wherever  power  and  energy 
are  developed  they  are  present,  though  not  by  any 
means  the  only  substances  involved  in  the  evolution 
of  energy.  Probably  the  fats  and  carbohydrates 
give  most  of  the  material  for  heat  and  the  various  other 
forces  of  the  body.  In  case  of  emergency,  where 
these  are  deficient,  the  proteins  are  used;  but  protein 
alone  forms  the  basis  of  muscle,  tendons,  skin,  and 
other  tissues.  This  the  fats  and  carbohydrates  can- 
not do  (Atwater).  The  different  tissues  are  known 
from  analysis  to  contain  this  complex  nitrogenous 
compound,  protein.  Now,  since  the  body  cannot 
construct  this  substance  out  of  the  simpler  chemical 
compounds  which  come  to  it,  it  becomes  perfectly 
evident  that  the  diet  must  have  a  due  proportion  of 
protein  in  order  to  maintain  the  strength  of  the  body. 
We  get  most  of  our  proteins  from  the  flesh  of  animals, 
and  they  in  turn  get  it  from  plants,  which  construct 
it  from  the  crude  materials  of  earth  and  air. 


EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS  59 

The  Extractives,  usually  classed  with  the  protein 
compounds,  such  as  meat  extract,  beef  tea,  etc.,  are 
not  generally  regarded  as  direct  nutrients,  but,  like 
tea  and  coffee,  are  valuable  as  accessory  foods,  lend- 
ing savor  to  other  foods  and  aiding  their  digestion 
by  pleasantly  exciting  the  flow  of  the  digestive  fluids. 
They  also  act  as  brain  and  nerve  stimulants,  and  per- 
haps also  in  some  slight  degree  as  nutrients. 

The  principal  proteins  or  nitrogenous  substances 
are  albumen  in  various  forms,  casein  both  animal 
and  vegetable,  blood  fibrin,  muscle  fibrin,  and  gelatin. 
All  except  the  last  are  very  much  alike,  and  probably 
can  replace  one  another  in  nutrition. 

Modern  chemists  agree  that  nitrogen  is  a  necessary 
element  in  the  various  chemical  and  physiological 
actions  which  take  place  in  the  body  to  produce  heat, 
muscular  energy,  and  the  other  powers.  Every 
structure  in  the  body  in  which  any  form  of  energy  is 
manifested  is  nitrogenous.  The  nerves,  muscles, 
glands,  and  the  floating  cells1  in  the  various  liquids 
are  nitrogenous.  That  nitrogen  is  necessary  to  the 
different  processes  of  the  system,  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  if  it  be  cut  off,  these  processes  languish.  This 
may  not  occur  immediately,  for  the  body  always  has 
a  store  of  nitrogen  laid  by  for  emergencies  which  will 
be  consumed  first,  but  it  will  occur  as  soon  as  these 
have  been  consumed.  The  energy  of  the  body  is 
measured  by  its  consumption  of  oxygen.  Motion  and 
heat  may  be  owing  to  the  oxidation  of  fat,  or  of 
starch,  or  of  nitrogenous  substances ;  but  whatever 
the  source,  the  direction  is  given  by  the  nitrogenous 
structure — in  other  words,  nitrogen  is  necessary  to 
all  energy  generated  in  the  body. 

Protein  matter  nourishes  the  organic  framework, 
takes  part  in  the  generation  of  energy,  and  may  be 

1  Hemoglobin,  the  red  coloring  matter  of  the  blood,  contains  albumen. 


60  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

converted  into  non-nitrogenous  substances.1  The 
necessity  of  the  protein  compounds  is  emphasized 
when  we  realize  that  about  one  half  of  the  body  is 
composed  of  muscle,  one  fifth  of  which  is  protein, 
and  the  nitrogen  in  this  protein  can  be  furnished  only 
by  protein,  since  neither  fats  nor  carbohydrates  con- 
tain it.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  protein- 
containing  foods,  such  as  beef,  mutton,  fish,  eggs, 
milk,  and  others,  are  our  most  valued  nutrients.  Our 
daily  diet  must  contain  a  due  proportion. 

The  proteins  are  all  complex  chemical  compounds, 
which  in  nutrition  become  reduced  to  simple  forms, 
and  are  then  built  up  again  into  flesh.  The  animal 
foods  are  in  the  main  the  best  of  the  protein  com- 
pounds, for  they  are  rich  in  nitrogenous  matter,  are 
easily  digested,  and  from  their  composition  and  adapt- 
ability are  most  valuable  in  maintaining  the  life  of 
the  body. 

A  diet  of  lean  meat  alone  serves  to  build  up  tissue. 
If  nothing  else  be  taken,  the  stored-up  fat  of  the 
body  will  be  consumed,  and  the  person  will  become 
thin.2  Athletes  while  in  training  take  advantage  of 
this  fact,  and  are  allowed  to  eat  only  such  food  as 
shall  furnish  the  greatest  amount  of  strength  and 
muscular  energy  with  a  minimum  of  fat.  The  lean 
of  beef  and  mutton,  with  a  certain  amount  of  bread, 
constitute  the  foundation  of  the  diet. 

Fats.    Most  of  the  fatty  substances  of  food  are 

1  Protein  may  be  converted  into  fat ;  but  although  this  will  happen, 
it  will  not  do  to  depend  upon  it  for  the  supply  in  the  nutrition  of  the 
body ;  for  either  it  cannot  be  formed  in  sufficient  quantity,  or  the  excess 
of  nitrogen  acts  as  a  poison.    The  body  suffers  unless  a  due  amount  of 
fat  as  such,  be  taken.    (Martin.) 

2  By  regulating  the  amount  of  fat  taken  each  day  with  food,  so  that 
a  little  less  than  is  needed  is  consumed,  one  may  reduce  the  amount  of 
fat  of  the  body  and  become  thin,  or  reduce  an  excess  of  fat  without  in- 
jury to  health.     The  process  must  be  gradual,  and  continued  for  a 
number  of  months.    Bismarck,  by  the  advice  of  his  physician,  reduced 
himself  in  this  way  without  loss  of  energy  or  any  ill  feeling. 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  61 

liquefied  at  the  temperature  of  the  body.  When  eaten 
in  the  form  of  adipose  tissue,  as  the  fat  of  beef  and 
mutton,  the  vesicles  or  cells  in  which  the  fat  is  held 
are  dissociated  or  dissolved,  the  fat  is  set  free,  and 
mingles  with  the  digesting  mass.  This  is  done  in  the 
stomach,  and  is  a  preparation  for  its  further  change 
in  the  intestines. 

Fats  are  not  dissolved — that  is,  in  the  sense  in  which 
meats  and  other  foods  are  dissolved— in  the  process 
of  digestion ;  the  only  change  which  they  undergo  is 
a  minute  subdivision  caused  principally  by  the  action 
of  the  pancreatic  juice.  In  this  condition  of  fine 
emulsion  they  are  taken  up  by  the  lacteals ;  they 
may  also  be  absorbed  by  the  blood-vessels. 

It  has  been  found  that  fat  emulsions  pass  more 
easily  through  membranes  which  have  been  moistened 
with  bile,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  function  of  bile 
is  partly  to  facilitate  the  absorption  of  fat.  That  the 
pancreatic  juice  is  the  chief  agent  in  forming  fats  into 
emulsion  was  discovered  in  1848.  Bile  is,  however, 
essential  to  their  perfect  digestion,  and  we  may  there- 
fore say  that  they  are  digested  by  the  united  action 
of  the  pancreatic  juice  and  the  bile.1 

Fat  forms  in  the  body  fatty  tissues,  and  serves  for 
muscular  force  and  heat ;  it  is  also  necessary  to  nour- 
ish nerves  and  other  tissues, —  in  fact,  without  it 
healthy  tissues  cannot  be  formed.  A  proper  amount 
of  fat  is  also  a  sort  of  albumen  sparer. 

It  is  probable  that  the  fat  which  is  used  in  the 
body  either  to  be  stored  away  or  for  energy,  is  de- 
rived from  other  sources  than  directly  from  the  fat 
eaten.  From  experiments  made  by  Lawes  and  Gil- 
bert on  pigs,  it  is  evident  that  the  excess  of  fat  stored 
in  their  bodies  must  be  derived  from  some  other 
source  than  the  fat  contained  in  their  food,  and  must 

l  Flint's  "Physiology." 


62  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

be  produced  partly  from  nitrogenous  matter  and 
partly  from  carbohydrates,  or,  at  least,  that  the  lat- 
ter play  a  part  in  its  formation.  It  would  appear 
from  this  that  life  might  be  maintained  on  starch, 
water,  salts,  and  meat  free  from  fat;  but  although 
the  theory  seems  a  good  one,  practically  it  is  found 
in  actual  experiment1  that  nutrition  is  impaired  by  a 
lack  of  fat  in  the  diet.  The  ill  effects  were  soon  seen, 
and  immediate  relief  was  given  when  fat  was  added 
to  the  food.  Besides,  in  the  food  of  all  nations  starch 
is  constantly  associated  with  some  form  of  fat;  bread 
with  butter;  potatoes  with  butter,  cream,  or  gravy; 
macaroni  and  polenta  with  oil,  and  so  forth.  A  man 
may  live  for  a  time  and  be  healthy  with  a  diet  of  al- 
buminoids, fats,  salts,  and  water,  but  it  has  not  yet 
been  proved  that  a  similar  result  will  be  produced  by 
a  diet  of  albuminoids,  carbohydrates,  salts,  and  water 
without  fat.  Fat  is  necessary  to  perfect  nutrition. 
Health  cannot  be  maintained  on  albuminoids,  salts, 
and  water  alone;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  cannot  be 
maintained  without  them. 

Probably  the  value  of  fats,  as  such,  is  dependent 
upon  the  ease  with  which  they  are  digested.  The 
fats  eaten  are  not  stored  in  the  body  directly,  but  the 
body  constructs  its  fats  from  those  eaten,  and  from 
other  substances  in  food, — according  to  some  author- 
ities from  the  carbohydrates  andproteids,  and  accord- 
ing to  others  from  proteids  alone. 

Fats  are  stored  away  as  fat,  furnish  heat,  and  are 
used  for  energy  ;  at  least,  it  is  probable  that  at  times 
they  are  put  to  the  latter  use.  The  fats  laid  by  in 
the  body  for  future  use  last  in  cases  of  starvation 
quite  a  long  time,  depending,  of  course,  upon  the 
amount.  At  such  times  a  fat  animal  will  live  longer 
than  a  lean  one. 

i  Parkes. 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  63 

Doubtless  in  the  fat  of  food  the  body  finds  material 
for  its  fats  in  the  most  easily  convertible  form.  Of 
the  various  fatty  substances  taken,  some  are  more 
easily  assimilated  than  others.  Dr.  Fothergill,  in  "  The 
Town  Dweller,"  says  that  the  reason  that  cod-liver  oil 
is  given  to  delicate  children  and  invalids  is,  that  it  is 
more  easily  digested  than  ordinary  fats,  but  it  is  an 
inferior  form  of  fat ;  the  next  most  easily  digested  is 
the  fat  of  bacon.  When  a  child  can  take  bread 
crumbled  in  a  little  of  this  fat,  it  will  not  be  necessary 
to  give  him  cod -liver  oil.  Bacon  fat  is  the  much  bet- 
ter fat  for  building  tissues.  Then  comes  cream,  a 
natural  emulsion,  and  butter.  He  further  says  there 
is  one  form  of  fat  not  commonly  looked  at  in  its 
proper  dietetic  value,  and  that  is  "  toffee."  It  is  made 
of  butter,  sugar,  and  sometimes  a  portion  of  molasses. 
A  quantity  of  this,  added  to  the  ordinary  meals,  will 
enable  a  child  in  winter  to  keep  up  the  bodily  heat. 
The  way  in  which  butter  in  the  form  of  toffee  goes 
into  the  stomach  is  particularly  agreeable. 

Carbohydrates.  The  principal  carbohydrates  are 
starch,  dextrine,  cane-sugar  or  common  table  sugar, 
grape-sugar,  the  principal  sugar  in  fruits,  and  milk- 
sugar,  the  natural  sugar  in  milk.  They  are  substances 
made  up,  as  before  stated,  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  but  no  nitrogen.  They  are  important  food 
substances,  but  are  of  themselves  incapable  of  sus- 
taining life. 

The  carbohydrates,  both  starch  and  sugar,  in  the 
process  of  digestion  are  converted  into  glucose.  This 
is  stored  in  the  liver  in  the  form  of  glycogen,  which  the 
liver  has  the  power  of  manufacturing ;  it  then  passes 
into  the  circulation,  and  is  distributed  to  the  different 
parts  of  the  body  as  it  is  needed.  (The  liver  also  has 
the  power  of  forming  glycogen  out  of  other  sub- 
stances than  sugar,  and  it  is  pretty  conclusively 


64  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

proved  that  it  is  from  proteids,  and  not  from  fats. 
Carnivorous  animals,  living  upon  flesh  alone,  are 
found  to  have  glycogen  in  their  bodies.) 

It  is  impossible  to  assign  any  especial  office  to  the 
different  food  principles ;  that  is,  it  cannot  be  said 
that  the  carbohydrates  perform  a  certain  kind  of 
work  in  the  body  and  nothing  else,  or  that  the  pro- 
teids or  fats  do.  The  human  body  is  a  highly  com- 
plex and  intricate  organism,  and  its  maintenance  is 
carried  on  by  complex  and  mysterious  processes  that 
cannot  be  followed,  except  imperfectly;  consequently, 
we  must  regard  the  uses  of  foods  in  the  body  as 
more  or  less  involved  in  obscurity.  It  is,  however, 
generally  understood  that  the  proteids,  fats,  and  car- 
bohydrates each  do  an  individual  work  of  their  own 
better  than  either  of  the  others  can  do  it.  They  are 
all  necessary  in  due  amount  to  the  nutrition  of  the 
body,  and  doubtless  work  together  as  well  as  in  their 
separate  functions.  They  are,  however,  sometimes  in- 
terchangeable, as,  for  instance,  in  the  absence  of  the 
carbohydrates,  proteids  will  do  their  work.  The  car- 
bohydrates are  eminently  heat  and  energy  formers, 
and  they  also  act  as  albumen  sparers. 

The  body  always  has  a  store  of  material  laid  by  for 
future  use.  If  it  were  not  for  this  a  person  deprived 
of  food  would  die  immediately,  as  is  the  case  when  he 
is  deprived  of  oxygen.  (Air  being  ever  about  us,  and 
obtainable  without  effort  or  price,  there  is  no  need  for 
the  body  to  lay  by  an  amount  of  oxygen ;  consequently 
only  a  very  little  is  stored,  and  that  in  the  blood.) 

The  great  reserve  forces  of  the  body  are  in  the  form 
of  fatty  tissues,  and  glycogen,  or  the  stored-away  car- 
bohydrates of  the  liver;  the  latter  is  given  out  to  the 
body  as  it  is  needed  during  the  intervals  of  eating  to 
supply  material  for  the  heat  and  energy  of  daily  con- 
sumption, and  in  case  of  starvation.  That  they  are 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  65 

true  reserves  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  disappear 
during  deprivation  of  food.  The  glycogen,  or  liver- 
supply,  disappears  first;  then  the  fat  (Martin).  The 
heat  of  the  body  can  be  maintained  on  these  sub- 
stances, and  a  certain  amount  of  work  done,  although 
no  food  except  water  be  taken. 

The  principal  function  of  the  liver  is  to  form  gly- 
cogen to  be  stored  away.  It  constantly  manufactures 
it,  and  as  constantly  loses  it  to  the  circulation.  Gly- 
cogen is  chemically  allied  to  starch,  having  the  same 
formula  (CBH10O5),  but  differing  in  other  ways.  Its 
quantity  is  greatest  about  two  hours  after  a  full 
meal ;  then  it  gradually  falls,  but  increases  again 
when  food  is  again  taken.  Its  amount  also  varies 
with  the  kind  of  food  eaten:  fats  and  proteids  by 
themselves  give  little,  but  starch  and  sugars  give 
much,  for  it  is  found  in  greatest  quantity  when  these 
form  a  part  of  the  diet. 

Inorganic  Matter  and  Vegetable  Acids.  Water  and 
other  inorganic  matter,  as  the  salts  of  different  kinds, 
and  vegetable  acids,  as  vinegar  and  lemon-juice,  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  be  digested.  Water  is  absorbed, 
and  salts  are  generally  in  solution  in  liquids  and  are 
absorbed  with  them. 

Water  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  body,  even  in  the 
very  solid  portions,  as  the  bones  and  the  enamel  of 
the  teeth;  it  also  constitutes  a  large  proportion  of  its 
semisolids  and  fluids,  some  of  which  are  nearly  all 
water,  as  the  perspiration  and  the  tears. 

Water  usually  is  found  combined  with  some  of  the 
salts,  which  seem  to  act  as  regulators  of  the  amount 
which  shall  be  incorporated  into  a  tissue.  Water  is 
a  necessary  constituent  of  all  tissues,  giving  them  a 
proper  consistency  and  elasticity.  The  power  of  re- 
sistance of  the  bones  could  not  be  maintained  without 
it.  It  is  also  valuable  as  a  food  solvent,  assisting  in 


66  EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS 

the  liquefying  of  different  substances,  which  are  taken 
up  by  the  various  absorbent  tubes,  conveyed  into  the 
blood,  and  so  circulated  through  the  body.  Most  of 
the  water  of  the  body  is  taken  into  it  from  without, 
but  it  is  also  formed  in  the  body  by  the  union  of 
hydrogen  and  oxygen.1 

Sodium  chlorid,  or  common  salt,  is  found  in  the 
blood  and  other  fluids,  and  in  the  solids  of  the 
body,  except  the  enamel  of  the  teeth;  it  occurs  in 
greatest  proportion  in  the  fluids.  The  part  that  this 
salt  plays  in  nutrition  is  not  altogether  understood. 
"  Common  salt  is  intermediate  in  certain  general  pro- 
cesses, and  does  not  participate  by  its  elements  in  the 
formation  of  organs"  (Liebig).  Salt  is  intimately 
associated  with  water,  which  plays  an  intermediate 
part  also  in  nutrition,  being  a  bearer  or  carrier  of 
nutritious  matters  through  the  body. 

Salt  seems  to  regulate  the  absorption  and  use  of 
nutrients.  It  is  found  in  the  greatest  quantity  in 
the  blood  and  chyle.  It  doubtless  facilitates  digestion 
by  rendering  foods  more  savory,  and  thus  causing  the 
digestive  juices  to  flow  more  freely.  Sodium  chlorid 
is  contained  in  most  if  not  all  kinds  of  food,  but  not 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  body ; 
it  therefore  becomes  a  necessary  part  of  a  diet. 

Potassium  chlorid  has  similar  uses  to  sodium  chlo- 
rid, although  not  so  generally  distributed  through 
the  body.  It  is  found  in  muscle,  liver,  milk,  chyle, 
blood,  mucus,  saliva,  bile,  gastric  juice,  and  one  or 
two  other  fluids. 

Calcium  phosphate  is  found  in  all  the  fluids  and 
solids  of  the  body,  held  in  solution  in  them  by  the 
presence  of  CO2 ;  both  it  and  calcium  carbonate  enter 
largely  into  the  structure  of  the  bones. 

Sodium  carbonate,  magnesium  phosphate,  and  other 
salts  play  important  parts  in  nutrition. 

i  Martin. 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  67 

The  various  salts  influence  chemical  change  as  well 
as  act  in  rendering  food  soluble.  For  example,  serum 
albumen,  the  chief  proteid  of  the  blood,  is  insoluble 
in  pure  water,  but  dissolves  easily  in  water  which  has 
a  little  neutral  salts  in  it.1  Salts  also  help  to  give 
firmness  to  the  teeth  and  bones. 

To  recapitulate,  food  is  eaten,  digested,  assimilated, 
and  consumed  or  transformed  in  the  body  by  a  series 
of  highly  intricate  and  complex  processes.  It  is  for 
the  most  part  used  for  the  different  powers  and  ac- 
tivities of  the  system;  there  is,  however,  always  a 
small  portion  which  is  rejected  as  waste.  The  first 
change  is  in  the  mouth,  where  the  food  is  broken  up 
and  moistened  and  the  digestion  of  starch  begins; 
these  changes  continue  in  the  stomach  until  the  whole 
is  reduced  to  a  more  or  less  liquid  mass.  As  the  con- 
tents of  the  stomach  pass  little  by  little  into  the  duo- 
denum, the  mass  becomes  more  fluid  by  the  admixture 
of  bile,  pancreatic  juice,  and  intestinal  juice,  and,  as 
it  passes  along,  absorption  takes  place;  the  mass 
grows  darker  in  color  and  less  fluid,  until  all  good 
material  is  taken  up  and  only  waste  left,  which  is 
rejected  from  the  body. 

That  portion  of  the  food  which  is  not  affected  by 
the  single  or  united  action  of  the  digestive  fluids  is 
chiefly  of  vegetable  origin.  Hard  seeds,  such  as  corn, 
and  the  outer  coverings  of  grains,  such  as  the  husk  of 
oatmeal  and  those  parts  which  are  composed  largely 
of  cellulose,  pass  through  the  intestinal  canal  without 
change. 

It  may  be  remarked  here  that  since  the  digestive 
mechanism  is  so  perfect  a  structure,  and  will  try  to 
dissolve  anything  given  it,  and  select  only  that  which 
is  good,  why  should  there  be  the  necessity  of  giving 
any  special  attention  to  preparing  food  before  it  is 
eaten?  The  answer  is  that  the  absorptive  vessels 

i  Martin. 


68  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

cannot  take  up  what  is  not  there,  neither  can  the 
digestive  organs  supply  what  the  food  lacks ;  therefore, 
the  food  must  contain  in  suitable  proportions  all  sub- 
stances needed  by  the  body.  Also,  food  which  contains 
a  large  proportion  of  waste,  or  is  difficult  of  digestion 
from  over  or  under  cooking,  or  is  unattractive  by  in- 
sipidity or  unsavoriness,  overworks  these  long-suffer- 
ing organs  (the  extra  power  or  force  needed  being 
drawn  from  the  blood),  and  causes  the  whole  system 
to  suffer.  Mai-nutrition,  with  the  long  line  of  evils 
which  it  entails,  is  the  cause,  direct  or  indirect,  of 
most  of  the  sickness  in  the  world,  for  it  reduces  the 
powers  of  the  system,  and  thus  enfeebles  its  resist- 
ance to  disease. 

Ideal  Diet.  "  The  ideal  diet  is  that  combination  of 
food  which,  while  imposing  the  least  burden  upon  the 
body,  supplies  it  with  exactly  sufficient  material  to 
meet  its  wants"  (Schuster). 

In  general  the  digestibility  of  foods  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows : 

1.  The  protein  of  ordinary  animal  foods  is  very  readily  and 
completely  digestible. 

2.  The  protein  of  vegetable  foods  is  much  less  easily  digested 
than  that  of  animal  foods. 

3.  The  fat  of  animal  foods  may  at  times  fail  of  digestion. 

4.  Sugar  and  starch  are  easy  of  digestion. 

5.  Animal  foods  have  the  advantage  of  vegetable  foods  in  that 
they  contain  more  protein,  and  that  their  protein  is  more  easily 
digested.     (Atwater.) 

A  diet  largely  of  animal  food  leaves  very  little  un- 
digested matter.  The  albuminoids  in  all  cases  are 
completely  transformed  into  nutriment.  Fat  enters 
the  blood  as  a  fine  emulsion. 

Absorption.  The  general  rule  of  absorption  is  that 
food  is  taken  into  the  circulation  through  the  porous 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  69 

walls  of  the  alimentary  tract  as  rapidly  as  it  is  com- 
pletely digested.  A  large  portion  of  liquid  is  imme- 
diately absorbed  by  the  blood-vessels  of  the  stomach. 

Adaptation  of  Foods  to  Particular  Needs  and  Conditions. 
The  demands  of  different  individuals  for  nutrients  in 
the  daily  food  vary  with  age,  occupation,  and  other 
conditions  of  life,  including  especially  the  peculiar 
characteristics  of  people.  No  two  persons  are  ex- 
actly alike  in  their  expenditure  of  muscular  and  ner- 
vous energy,  so  no  two  will  need  the  same  amount 
or  kind  of  nutriment  to  repair  the  waste. 

A  man  who  digs  in  a  field  day  after  day  expends  a 
certain  amount  of  muscular  energy.  A  lawyer,  states- 
man, or  author  who  works  with  his  brain  instead  of 
his  hands  uses  nervous  force,  but  very  little  muscular. 
Brain  and  muscle  are  not  nourished  exactly  by  the 
same  materials ;  therefore,  the  demand  in  the  way  of 
nutriment  of  these  two  classes  will  not  be  the  same. 

The  lawyer  might  find  a  feast  in  a  box  of  sardines 
and  some  biscuit,  while  the  field  laborer  would  look 
with  contempt  upon  such  food,  and  turn  from  it  to 
fat  pork  and  cabbage.  This  is  no  mere  difference  in 
refinement  of  taste,  but  a  real  and  instinctive  differ- 
ence in  the  demands  of  the  two  constitutions.  Sar- 
dines supply  to  the  brain-worker  the  material  he 
needs,  and  the  pork  and  cabbage  to  the  laborer  the 
heat  and  energy  he  expends. 

In  health  the  sense  of  taste  is  the  best  guide  to 
what  is  demanded  by  the  system,  and  may  as  a  gen- 
eral rule  be  followed ;  but  in  sickness  that  will  not  do, 
as  the  sense  of  taste  in  particular  is  disturbed  by 
most  forms  of  disease. 

When  a  patient  is  very  ill  only  the  simplest  foods  will 
be  used,  and  those  will  be  prescribed  by  the  physician ; 
but  when  a  patient  is  out  of  danger,  and  the  necessity 
for  variety  comes,  then  the  nurse,  by  preparing  or 


70  EXPLANATORY  LESSONS 

suggesting  dishes,  may  do  much  toward  restoring  the 
person  to  health  and  strength. 

As  a  very  large  percentage  of  diseases  arise  from 
imperfect  nutrition  (as  large  as  eighty  per  cent,  being 
given  by  some  writers),  the  sense  of  taste  is  usually 
very  much  disturbed  and  dulled  in  illness ;  therefore 
those  kinds  of  food  which  are  savory,  and  at  the  same 
time  easy  of  digestion  and  nutritious,  should  be  se- 
lected. The  savory  quality  is  very  important.  A 
person  in  health  may  endure  badly  cooked  food  and 
monotony  in  diet;  a  person  recovering  from  an  ill- 
ness cannot  but  suffer  by  it. 

A  nurse  will  find  a  pleasant  field  for  the  exercise  of 
ingenuity  in  selecting  and  preparing  such  dishes  as 
shall  (1)  be  suited  to  the  digestive  powers  of  the 
patient ;  (2)  shall  be  savory ;  (3)  shall  be  sufficiently 
varied  to  supply  all  those  materials  which  the  de- 
pleted and  exhausted  body  needs ;  and  (4)  shall  be  in 
such  judicious  quantity  as  shall  increase  nutrition, 
but  never  overtax  the  digestive  powers. 

The  decision  of  No.  1  (food  suited  to  the  digestive 
powers)  is  the  most  difficult,  and  here  again  the  doc- 
tor will  advise  for  particular  or  peculiar  diseases. 

There  are  certain  things  which  from  their  natural 
composition  are  more  easy  of  digestion  than  others, 
such,  for  instance,  as  milk,  eggs  slightly  coagulated 
and  raw,  beef  tea  with  the  juices  in  solution,  cocoa 
milk,  and  cocoa,  coffee,  jellies,  gruels,  porridge  from 
prepared  grains  (except  oatmeal)  when  thoroughly 
cooked,  oysters  alive,  rice,  venison,  and  tripe. 

No.  2,  the  savory  quality,  depends  largely  upon 
preparation,  and  is  under  the  control  of  the  nurse.  A 
baked  potato  done  in  a  hot  oven,  just  to  the  point, 
and  served  immediately,  is  a  delicious  dish ;  overdone, 
or  done  in  an  oven  of  low  temperature,  and  served 
lukewarm,  it  is  very  far  from  appetizing.  A  steak,  if 


EXPLANATORY  LESSONS  71 

cut  thin,  salted,  and  broiled  slowly,  will  be  hard,  dry, 
and  lacking  in  flavor,  but  if  it  is  cut  thick,  at  least  an 
inch  and  a  half,  better  two  inches,  broiled  for  the  first 
minute  over  very  hot  coals,  and  then  slowly,  that  the 
heat  may  have  time  to  penetrate  to  the  center,  and 
raise  the  whole  to  a  temperature  sufficiently  high  to 
cook  it  (about  160°  Fahr.)  without  charring  the  out- 
side, it  will  make  a  dish  both  wholesome  and  savory. 

No.  3,  the  next  consideration,  is  that  of  variety,  and 
here  the  resources  and  judgment  of  the  person  in 
charge  must  come  to  the  front.  Only  general  hints 
can  be  given.  Endeavor  to  supply  some  protein, 
some  fat,  some  of  the  carbohydrates,  and  some  min- 
eral matter  in  each  meal.  Bread,  grains,  or  potatoes 
will  give  the  necessary  starch.  Sugar  is  usually  sup- 
plied with  drinks.  Milk,  eggs,  meat,  fish,  and  oysters 
will  give  protein ;  cream,  butter,  bacon,  and  the  fat 
of  other  meats  will  furnish  fat,  and  fruits  and  green 
salads  give  acids  and  mineral  salts.  For  the  latter, 
grapes,  apples,  carrots,  onions,  dandelions,  and  lettuce 
are  very  valuable.  Grapes  are  composed  of  water 
with  salts  in  solution,  and  glucose ;  both  are  absorbed 
with  very  little  outlay  from  the  system.  The  others 
are  every-day  foods,  but  science  has  taught  that  their 
instinctive  use  in  the  past  has  been  a  wise  one. 

No.  4,  the  quantity  of  food  to  offer  to  a  sick  per- 
son, will  depend  upon  the  individual.  Give  enough, 
but  rather  give  to  an  invalid  too  little  than  too  much, 
especially  in  the  first  days  of  using  solid  food;  for 
after  some  forms  of  sickness  there  is  great  hunger, 
and  one  may  injure  himself  by  overeating  at  such  a 
time.  Furnish  a  little  of  each  kind  of  food,  but  let 
that  little  be  of  good  quality  and  perfectly  prepared, 
so  that  every  morsel  is  eatable.  It  is  discouraging  to 
any  one  to  have  set  before  him  food  such  that  much  of 
it  must  be  rejected  uneaten.  It  is  very  encouraging, 


72  EXPLANATOEY  LESSONS 

especially  to  an  invalid,  to  be  able  to  eat  all  that  is 
brought  him,  and  for  this  end  cooking  and  serving 
are  of  great  importance.  It  is  necessary  to  adjust 
the  proportions  of  the  different  kinds  of  foods  to 
the  needs  of  the  consumer,  otherwise  all  unnecessary 
material  will  be  rejected  from  the  body  as  waste,  or 
will  be  accumulated  in  it  to  interfere  with  the  work- 
ings of  the  different  organs. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  needs  of  no  two 
individuals  can  be  satisfied  with  exactly  the  same  diet. 
In  sickness  it  is  the  province  of  the  physician  to  adjust 
the  food  to  the  condition  of  the  patient.  In  conva- 
lescence the  taste  of  the  individual  and  the  judgment 
of  the  nurse  or  attendant  combined  will  usually  not 
fail  of  good  results.  If  an  individual  craves  a  certain 
dish,  and  there  is  no  good  reason  why  he  should  not 
have  it,  by  all  means  procure  it.  Let  only  your  judg- 
ment act.  It  may  be  something  that  you  personally 
do  not  like.  That  should  not  influence  a  decision, 
provided,  of  course,  that  the  food  is  not  unwholesome. 

We  should  bear  in  mind  that  a  sick  person  is  not 
in  the  same  condition  as  ourselves,  and  that  no  matter 
how  absurd  his  cravings  may  seem,  they  may  be  but 
perfectly  natural  longings  for  those  substances  which 
his  depleted  and  exhausted  system  needs  in  order  to 
be  restored  to  health. 


PART  II 
RECIPES 


PART   II 

RECIPES 

* 
BEEF-JUICE,   BEEF-TEA,  AND    BROTHS 

Beef-Juice.  The  clear  juice  of  beef,  slightly  diluted 
with  water,  is  always  excellent,  being  especially  use- 
ful for  its  strong  flavors.  It  is  like  concentrated 
beef-tea,  and  is  often  valuable  in  pleasantly  exciting 
the  action  of  the  mouth  and  stomach  after  a  long  ill- 
ness in  which  milk  has  been  the  chief  article  of  diet. 

Beef-juice  is  best  made  by  broiling  the  beef.  Pre- 
pared in  this  way,  the  flavor  is  superior,  and  it  is  a 
quick  and  easy  method ;  but  when  a  proper  broiling 
fire  cannot  be  had,  then  it  may  be  made  in  a  glass 
jar  like  beef -tea,  except  without  the  water. 

Beef-Tea  is  valuable  for  its  stimulating  properties 
and  for  the  warmth  that  it  gives ;  it  is  also  somewhat 
nutritious,  containing  as  it  does  the  albuminous 
juices  of  the  meat,  some  salts,  and  the  very  important 
flavors.  Beef-tea  should  be  prepared  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  juices  are  held  in  solution  in  the  water, 
not  coagulated,  to  secure  which  the  cooking  tempera- 
ture should  never  be  allowed  to  exceed  that  of  160° 
Fahr. 

75 


76  RECIPES 

Broths.  Beef,  mutton,  and  chicken  broths  are  the 
most  desirable  forms  of  meat  drinks  for  convalescents 
and  those  no  longer  dangerojisly  ill.  By  slow  cook- 
ing at  a  low  temperature  at  first  (the  temperature 
should  not  exceed  150°  Fahr.  for  the  first  hour),  the 
extractives  and  albuminous  juices  are  drawn  out; 
then,  by  boiling,  the  gelatin  of  the  bones,  flesh,  and 
tissues  is  dissolved.  The  nutritive  qualities  of  these 
broths  may  be  much  increased  by  the  addition  of 
bread,  rice,  tapioca,  barley,  and  sago,  cooked  during 
the  whole  time  so  that  they  may  be  completely  dis- 
solved in  the  liquid. 

BEEF-JUICE 

Bottled.  Select  a  half  pound  of  well-flavored  beef, 
cut  away  everything  except  the  lean  fiber,  divide  it 
into  small  pieces,  put  them  into  a  glass  jar,  cover, 
and  place  in  a  deep  saucepan  of  cold  water;  heat 
gradually  for  one  hour,  but  do  not  allow  the  tem- 
perature at  any  time  to  exceed  160°  Fahr.;  then 
strain  out  the  juice  and  press  the  meat.  The  liquid 
should  be  clear  red,  not  brown  and  flaky.  Add  a 
little  salt,  and  it  is  ready  to  serve.  A  half  pound 
will  make  three  or  four  tablespoons  of  juice.  If  it 
is  to  be  used  constantly,  a  larger  quantity  may  be 
made  at  once,  as  it  will  keep  eighteen  hours  in  a  re- 
frigerator. Beef -juice  may  be  made  into  tea  by  dilut- 
ing it  with  warm  water. 

Broiled.  Prepare  a  fire  of  clear  glowing  coals  from 
which  all  blue  flames  have  disappeared.  Cut  a  piece 
of  lean  beef  (one  half  pound  from  the  round  or  any 
good  lean  portion)  one  and  one  half  inches  thick,  and 
remove  from  it  all  membranous  tissues  and  fat.  Put 
it  into  a  wire  broiler,  and  broil  from  six  to  eight 
minutes  according  to  the  intensity  of  the  fire  (see 


RECIPES  77 

rules  for  broiling).  The  piece  when  done  should  be 
pink  and  full  of  juice,  not  dry  and  hard,  nor,  on  the 
other  hand,  bluish-red  in  the  middle.  More  juice  will 
be  obtained  if  the  heat  has  penetrated  to  the  center 
than  if  the  meat  is  raw.  When  done,  cut  it  into  small 
pieces  and  squeeze  out  the  juice  with  a  meat-press  or  a 
lemon-squeezer.  Add  a  little  salt,  and  it  is  ready  to 
serve.  It  should  be  given  in  spoonfuls,  either  warm 
or  cold.  If  it  is  necessary  to  warm  it,  put  a  little  into 
a  cup  and  place  it  in  a  dish  of  warm  water  on  the  fire. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  the  water  does  not  become 
hotter  than  160°  Fahr.,  for  beyond  that  temperature 
the  albuminous  juices  become  coagulated  and  appear 
as  brown  flakes. 

BEEF-TEA 

Bottled.  Select  and  prepare  the  meat  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  bottled  beef-juice,  except  that  for 
every  half  pound  a  cup  of  water  should  be  used, 
poured  over  after  it  has  been  put  into  the  jar.  The 
liquid  thus  obtained  will  resemble  beef -juice  in  every 
respect  except  in  strength.  Serve  as  a  drink  in  a  red 
wine-glass  or  a  china  cup. 

With  Hydrochloric  Acid.  Hydrochloric  acid  acts  upon 
the  fibers  of  meat  in  such  a  way  that  they  become  more 
easy  of  digestion.  From  a  given  portion  of  meat  much 
more  nutriment  is  extracted  by  the  use  of  hydrochloric 
acid  than  without  it ;  beef -tea  made  with  it  is  recom- 
mended by  physicians  as  the  most  easily  absorbed  form 
of  beef  drink,  and  for  feeble  children  and  patients 
much  weakened  by  sickness  it  is  especially  useful. 

To  Prepare.  Select  a  half  pound  of  good  beef ;  re- 
move from  it  everything  that  is  not  clear  meat, — that 
is,  bone,  gristle,  connective  tissue,  and  fat ;  chop  it 
fine  on  a  meat-board  or  in  a  chopping-tray.  Put 


78  RECIPES 

into  a  bowl  one  cup  of  water  and  five  drops  of  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid;  stir  into  this  the  chopped  meat, 
and  set  it  in  a  refrigerator  or  any  cool  place  for  two 
hours  to  digest.  Then  strain,  flavor  with  salt,  and 
serve  cold  in  a  red  wine-glass. 

Should  there  be  any  objection  to  the  taste  or  color, 
heat  the  tea  until  it  steams  and  changes  to  a  brown- 
ish hue ;  do  not  strain  out  the  flakes  of  coagulated 
albumen  and  fibrin  which  appear,  for  they  are  the 
most  nutritious  portion  of  the  tea. 

Chemically  pure  hydrochloric  acid  may  be  obtained 
of  a  druggist  (it  is  usually  marked  C.  P.) ;  from  it  a 
diluted  solution  may  be  made  by  mixing  it  in  the  pro- 
portion of  five  and  one  half  fluidounces  to  fourteen 
ounces  of  water. 

BEEF  BROTH 

Beef  broth  is  the  juice  of  beef  extracted  by  the 
long  application  of  heat  in  connection  with  some  sol- 
vent, usually  water. 

To  make  beef  broth,  allow  one  pound  of  meat,  or 
meat  and  bone,  to  every  quart  of  water.  "Wash  the 
meat  with  a  cloth  in  cold  water  until  it  is  clean,  or 
wipe  it  with  a  wet  cloth  if  it  is  apparently  fresh  cut ; 
divide  it  into  small  pieces  (half -inch  cubes)  in  order  to 
expose  as  great  an  extent  of  surface  as  possible  to  the 
dissolving  action  of  the  water.  Put  it  into  a  granite- 
ware  kettle  with  cold  water,  and  cook  it  at  a  low  tem- 
perature for  two  hours,  then  boil  it  for  two  hours  to 
dissolve  the  gelatin.  Remove  it  from  the  fire,  and 
strain  it,  using  a  strainer  so  coarse  that  the  flakes  of 
albumen  may  go  through  (an  ordinary  wire  strainer 
will  do).  Skim  as  much  fat  as  possible  from  the  sur- 
face with  a  spoon,  and  then  remove  the  remaining 
small  particles  with  a  sheet  of  clean  paper  (unsized  is 


RECIPES  79 

best)  drawn  over  the  surface.  Season  the  broth  with 
salt  and  pepper,  and  serve  it  very  hot.  If  not  needed 
at  once,  it  may  be  set  away  to  cool,  when  the  fat  will  rise 
to  the  top,  and  form  into  a  cake  which  may  be  lifted  off. 

With  Herbs.  Make  a  broth  according  to  the  above 
rule,  and  flavor  it  with  bay-leaves,  mint,  or  with  a 
bouquet  of  sweet  herbs  in  the  proportion  of  one  tea- 
spoon to  a  quart  of  liquid. 

With  Grains.  One  tablespoon  of  any  of  the  follow- 
ing grains — rice,  barley,  oatmeal,  or  wheat — to  one 
quart  of  liquid,  gives  a  pleasant  consistency  and  fla- 
vor to  beef  broth.  Tapioca,  sago,  cold  dry  toast,  or 
cuttings  of  bread  may  also  be  used.  They  should  be 
put  in  when  the  broth  is  first  set  on  the  fire  to  cook, 
that  they  may  be  completely  dissolved  in  the  liquid. 

With  Vegetables.  Celery,  onion,  carrot,  turnip,  or 
shredded  cabbage  may  be  used  in  broth  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  tablespoon  to  a  quart.  Cabbage  is 
better  in  combination  with  onion  than  alone. 


BROTH  HADE  FROM  BEEFSTEAK 

(A  QUICK  METHOD) 

Scrape  the  pulp  from  a  pound  of  round  or  of  sirloin 
steak,  or  mince  the  meat  in  a  chopping-tray  until  it  is 
fine;  put  it  into  a  saucepan  with  just  enough  cold 
water  to  cover  it,  and  let  it  come  to  the  boiling-point 
slowly;  then  simmer  it  for  fifteen  minutes  (better 
half  an  hour  if  there  is  time).  Strain  it,  take  off  the 
fat  with  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  season  it  with  salt.  This 
is  a  somewhat  expensive  but  savory  broth,  and  may 
easily  be  made  on  a  gas  or  alcohol  stove. 

A  beef  panada  may  be  made  by  leaving  the  pulp  in 
the  broth  and  adding  a  little  rolled  cracker-crumbs  or 
some  bread  softened  and  squeezed  through  a  strainer. 


80  RECIPES 


SCOTCH  BEEF  BROTH 

Put  into  a  granite  stew-pan  a  pint  of  prepared 
beef  broth, — that  is,  broth  which  has  been  strained, 
cleared  of  fat,  and  seasoned.  Add  to  it  one  table- 
spoon of  rolled  oats,  or  of  ordinary  oatmeal,  and  sim- 
mer it  gently  until  the  oatmeal  is  soft  and  jelly-like. 
The  time  required  will  be  about  two  hours.  Then 
strain  it,  and  serve  very  hot.  This  makes  a  good  dish 
for  an  invalid  for  whom  oatmeal  has  not  been  forbid- 
den. If  the  broth  is  reduced  by  the  boiling,  add 
enough  water  to  restore  the  pint. 


CHICKEN  BROTH 

Chicken  broth  should  be  made  with  fowl,  not  with 
young  chicken ;  a  good  one  weighing  three  pounds 
will  make  three  pints  of  broth. 

To  Prepare.  Singe  the  chicken  with  a  piece  of  blaz- 
ing newspaper  to  burn  off  the  long  hairs ;  remove  all 
refuse  or  that  which  is  not  clear  flesh,  viz.,  pin-fea- 
thers, oil-bag,  crop,  lungs,  kidneys,  and,  of  course,  the 
entrails  if  the  fowl  is  not  already  drawn.  If  the  pipes 
in  the  neck  are  not  all  drawn  out  with  the  crop,  they 
may  be  easily  taken  away  when  the  fowl  is  cut  up. 
Scrub  it  well  in  cold  water,  and  then  disjoint  and  cut 
it  into  small  pieces ;  wash  each  piece  thoroughly,  re- 
taining the  skin  if  it  is  clear  and  free  from  pin-fea- 
thers, otherwise  removing  it.  Put  the  chicken  into 
cold  water  and  simmer  it  for  two  hours,  then  boil  it 
for  two  hours.  Finally  strain  it  and  remove  the  fat, 
season  it  with  salt  and  a  bit  of  white  pepper,  and 
serve  very  hot  in  pretty  china  cups,  with  or  without 
a  lunch-cracker  or  a  bit  of  dry  toast. 


EECIPES  81 

With  Herbs.  Parsley,  bay-leaves,  sage,  thyme,  or 
a  bouquet  of  sweet  herbs  will  give  a  pleasant  flavor 
to  chicken  broth.  A  teaspoon  to  a  pint  is  the  right 
proportion. 

With  Grains  or  Vegetables.  Rice  may  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage in  chicken  broth,  and  also  pearl-barley,  sago, 
tapioca,  and  bread.  These  are  among  the  best  addi- 
tions of  the  kind  that  can  be  made,  for  with  them  one 
is  able  to  preserve  the  light  color  so  desirable  in 
chicken  broth.  Onion,  celery,  and  parsley  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  teaspoon  to  a  pint  are  suitable  vegeta- 
bles. Celery  is  especially  nice. 


MUTTON  BROTH 

One  pound  of  mutton  from  the  neck,  or,  better,  the 
loin,  one  quart  of  cold  water,  and  one  teaspoon  of 
chopped  onion  will  be  needed  for  this  broth.  Remove 
from  the  mutton  the  tough  skin,  the  fat,  and  all 
membranes,  and  cut  the  meat  into  small  pieces ;  break 
the  bone,  and  if  it  be  a  part  of  the  spinal  column,  take 
out  the  spinal  cord.  Put  the  pieces  of  meat,  the  onion, 
and  the  water  into  a  saucepan,  and  simmer  them  to- 
gether for  three  hours :  then  strain  out  the  meat,  dip 
off  the  fat  from  the  broth  with  a  spoon,  and  remove 
the  remaining  small  particles  with  paper;  season  it 
with  salt  and  white  pepper.  Serve  hot  in  a  pretty 
cup,  with  a  toasted  cracker. 

A  little  bunch  of  mint,  a  bouquet  of  herbs,  a  few 
bay-leaves,  or  a  sprinkle  of  Cayenne  pepper  or  curry- 
powder  will  vary  the  broth  agreeably.  Pearl-barley 
is  a  particularly  good  addition  to  make,  or  rice  may 
be  used  in  the  proportion  of  one  teaspoon  to  a  pint. 


82  RECIPES 


OYSTER-TEA.    No.  1 

Select  eight  fresh  oysters,  chop  them  fine  in  a  chop- 
ping-tray,  and  turn  them  into  a  saucepan  with  a  cup 
of  cold  water;  set  the  saucepan  on  the  fire,  and  let 
the  water  come  slowly  to  the  boiling-point,  then  sim- 
mer for  five  minutes;  strain  the  liquid  into  a  bowl, 
flavor  it  with  half  a  saltspoon  of  salt,  and  serve  hot 
with  or  without  a  small  piece  of  dry  toast,  or  a 
toasted  cream-cracker. 


OYSTER-TEA.     No.  2 

Put  a  dozen  large  oysters  with  their  liquor  into  a 
stew-pan ;  simmer  for  five  minutes.  Then  strain  the 
liquor,  leaving  out  the  oysters,  and  add  to  it  one  half 
cup  of  milk ;  set  it  back  on  the  stove  and  heat  it  just 
to  the  boiling-point.  Flavor  with  a  sprinkle  of  white 
pepper  and  half  a  saltspoon  of  salt.  Or  make  it  ac- 
cording to  rule  No.  1,  using  milk  instead  of  water. 


CLAM  BROTH 

Six  large  clams  in  their  shells  and  a  cup  of  water 
will  be  needed  for  this  broth.  Wash  the  clams  thor- 
oughly with  a  brush,  and  place  them  with  the  water 
in  a  kettle  over  the  fire.  The  broth  is  simply  the 
juice  of  the  clams  with  the  water  boiled  for  a  minute. 
It  does  not  require  seasoning,  as  clam-juice  is  usually 
salt  enough.  As  soon  as  the  shells  open,  the  broth  is 
done. 

This  broth  and  oyster-tea  No.  1  are  good  in  cases 
of  nausea,  and  will  be  retained  on  the  stomach  when 
almost  everything  else  is  rejected. 


GRUELS 

Gruels  are  cooked  mixtures  of  grain  or  flour,  with 
water,  or  with  water  arid  milk.  They  are  best  made 
with  milk  as  a  part  of  the  liquid,  but  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  put  it  into  the  gruel  until  the  grain  has 
been  thoroughly  cooked  in  water,  and  after  that  the 
mixture  should  not  be  allowed  to  boil,  as  so  high  a 
temperature  changes  the  flavor  and  composition  of 
the  milk,  and  renders  it  a  less  desirable  food  than 
if  it  were  cooked  at  a  lower  temperature, — for  in- 
stance, 190°  or  200°  Fahr. 

The  largest  ingredient  of  grains  is  starch,  which 
is  not  easily  digested  unless  well  cooked;  therefore 
the  time  for  boiling  gruels  should  be  conscientiously 
kept  by  the  clock.  Should  the  water  evaporate,  re- 
store to  the  original  quantity  before  putting  in  the 
milk,  which  should  be  hot,  though  not  boiling.  It  may, 
however,  come  just  to  the  boiling-point  without  any 
special  injury. 

Gruels  served  with  a  cream-  or  a  banquet-cracker 
or  a  square  of  toasted  bread  are  excellent  for  a  con- 
valescent's lunch.  They  may  be  varied  with  flavor- 
ings of  cinnamon,  nutmeg,  almond,  or  a  little  grated 
lemon-peel,  and  sugar.  Sugar  is  mentioned  with 
great  hesitancy,  for  a  sweet  gruel  is  an  abomination, 
and  yet  a  gruel  with  a  very  little  sugar  has  a  pleasanter 
flavor  than  one  without  any. 

Lacking  color,  gruels  may  be  made  attractive  by 

83 


84  RECIPES 

serving  them  in  dainty-hued  china.  Gruels  should 
be  drunk  slowly,  that  the  starch,  which  is  partially 
digested  by  the  action  of  saliva,  may  be  thoroughly 
mixed  with  it  before  it  is  swallowed. 


BARLEY  GRUEL 

1  Tablespoon  of  Robinson's  barley-flour. 

1  Cup  of  boiling  water. 

1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

1  Scant  teaspoon  of  sugar. 

1  Cup  of  milk. 

Mix  the  flour,  salt,  and  sugar  together  with  a  little 
cold  water,  pour  on  the  boiling  water,  and  boil  ten 
minutes;  then  add  the  milk,  bring  just  to  the  boiling- 
point,  strain,  and  serve  very  hot.  This  gruel  may  be 
made  without  the  milk,  but  with  a  pint  instead  of  a 
cup  of  water.  Barley  is  a  nutritious  grain,  rich  in 
phosphates  and  protein. 


ARROWROOT  GRUEL 

1  Tablespoon  of  arrowroot. 

1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

1  Scant  teaspoon  of  sugar. 

1  Cup  of  hot  water. 

1  Cup  of  milk. 

"Wet  the  arrowroot  with  the  sugar  and  salt  in  two 
tablespoons  of  cold  water,  then  pour  on  the  hot  water, 
stirring  constantly.  Boil  it  for  twenty  minutes,  then 
add  the  milk  and  bring  just  to  the  boiling-point. 
Strain  it,  and  immediately  serve. 


RECIPES  85 

Arrowroot  is  almost  pure  starch.  Its  grains  burst 
at  140°  Fahr.;  therefore,  if  boiling  water  be  poured 
upon  it,  it  will  form  into  lumps  which  will  have  to  be 
strained  out,  and  thus  a  part  of  the  material  will  be 
lost;  hence  the  necessity  of  wetting  it  in  cold  water  to 
reduce  the  temperature  so  that  it  may  be  stirred 
smooth  before  the  lumps  form. 

Milk  is  changed  by  long  boiling,  and  loses  some  of 
its  agreeable  taste;  it  is  better,  therefore,  not  to  put 
the  milk  into  the  gruel  until  after  the  flour  has  been 
thoroughly  cooked  in  the  water,  thus  preserving  its 
natural  flavor. 

Arrowroot  gruel  may  be  flavored  with  cinnamon 
by  boiling  a  half  square  inch  of  cinnamon  bark  in  the 
water  with  which  the  gruel  is  made.  Nutmeg,  lemon 
juice  or  peel,  and  sherry  wine  may  also  be  used ;  but 
the  sherry  should  be  avoided  unless  the  gruel  is  to  be 
served  cold. 


OATMEAL  GRUEL  FROM  POUNDED  GRAIN 

Pound  in  a  mortar  or  roll  on  a  bread-board  one  cup 
of  oatmeal  until  it  is  floury.  Put  it  into  a  bowl,  and 
fill  the  bowl  with  cold  water ;  stir  well  and  let  it  set- 
tle for  a  few  seconds ;  then  pour  off  the  milky-looking 
water  into  a  saucepan,  fill  again,  mix  and  pour  off  the 
water,  and  so  continue  until  the  water  no  longer-  ap- 
pears white,  being  careful  at  each  pouring  not  to  allow 
the  brown  cortex  of  the  grain  or  any  of  the  coarse 
portions  to  get  out  of  the  bowl ;  then  boil  the  water 
for  half  an  hour.  For  every  pint  put  in  a  saltspoon 
of  salt  and  half  a  cup  of  sweet  cream,  or,  if  that  is  not 
at  hand,  the  same  quantity  of  milk.  Beef  broth  or  wine 
may  be  used  instead  of  cream.  This  is  the  best  way 
to  make  oatmeal  gruel,  for  by  this  method  the  coarse 

7 


86  EECIPES 


and  irritating  hulls  are  excluded,  while  the  good  flavor 
and  nutritious  properties  are  preserved. 


OATMEAL  GRUEL  (Plain) 

2  Tablespoons  of  oatmeal  (rolled  oats). 

1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

1  Scant  teaspoon  of  sugar. 

1  Cupful  o'f  boiling  water. 

1  Cup  of  milk. 

Mix  the  oatmeal,  salt,  and  sugar  together,  and  pour 
on  the  boiling  water.  Cook  it  in  a  saucepan  for  thirty 
minutes,  or  in  a  double  boiler  two  hours ;  then  strain 
it  through  a  fine  wire  strainer  to  remove  the  hulls,  put 
it  again  on  the  stove,  add  the  milk,  and  allow  it  to 
heat  just  to  the  boiling-point,,  Serve  it  hot.  Good 
oatmeal  gruel  may  be  made  from  cold  porridge,  by 
adding  water,  milk,  and  a  little  sugar  and  straining 
it,  or  it  may  be  served  unstrained.  Many  like  it  so, 
and  it  makes  an  excellent  lunch. 


FLOUR  GRUEL 

1  Tablespoon  of  flour. 

1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

1  Teaspoon  of  sugar. 

1  Cup  of  boiling  water. 

1  Cup  of  milk. 

£  Square  inch  of  cinnamon. 

Mix  the  flour,  salt,  and  sugar,  as  for  other  gruels, 
into  a  paste  with  a  little  cold  water ;  add  the  piece  of 
cinnamon  and  the  hot  water ;  boil  it  for  twenty  min- 


EECIPES  87 

utes,  slowly,  so  that  it  may  not  stick  to  the  bottom  of 
the  pan  and  burn  ;  then  put  in  the  milk  and  bring  to 
the  boiling-point.  Strain  it,  and  serve  it  very  hot.  If 
the  gruel  is  intended  for  a  patient  with  fever,  a  lit- 
tle lemon-juice  is  good  in  place  of  the  cinnamon.  Other 
flavors  may  also  be  used,  such  as  nutmeg,  almond,  and 
vanilla. 

CRACKER  GRUEL 

2  Tablespoons  of  cracker-crumbs. 
1  Scant  saltspoon  of  salt. 
1  Scant  teaspoon  of  sugar. 
1  Cup  of  boiling  water. 
1  Cup  of  milk. 

To  make  the  cracker-crumbs,  roll  some  crackers  on 
a  board  until  they  are  fine.  Bent's  water-crackers 
are  good,  cream-crackers  better;  mix  the  salt  and 
sugar  with  the  crumbs,  pour  on  the  boiling  water, 
put  in  the  milk,  and  simmer  it  for  two  minutes.  The 
gruel  does  not  need  long  cooking,  for  the  cracker- 
crumbs  are  already  thoroughly  cooked.  Do  not 
strain,  it. 

FARINA  GRUEL 

Farina  is  a  grain  which  is  carefully  prepared  from 
the  nitrogenous  part  of  selected  wheat,  and  is  there- 
fore a  better  nutrient  than  rice-flour  or  arrowroot. 

1  Tablespoon  of  Keeker's  farina. 
1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 
1  Teaspoon  of  sugar. 
1  Cup  of  boiling  water. 
1  Cup  of  milk. 


88  EECIPES 


Mix  the  grain,  salt,  and  sugar ;  pour  on  the  boiling 
water,  and  cook  ten  minutes  ;  then  put  in  the  milk, 
boil  for  a  minute,  and  it  is  ready  to  serve.  Farina, 
being  partially  prepared,  does  not  need  long  cooking. 


IMPERIAL  GRANUM 

Imperial  Granum  is  a  dainty,  highly  nutritious  prep- 
aration of  wheat,  very  useful  for  invalids  and  children. 

1  Tablespoon  of  Granum. 
1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 
1  Teaspoon  of  sugar. 
1  Cup  of  boiling  water. 
1  Cup  of  milk. 

Mix  the  meal,  salt,  and  sugar  in  a  saucepan,  pour 
on  the  boiling  water,  and  cook  ten  minutes  5  then  add 
the  milk,  and  let  it  again  reach  the  boiling-point,  when 
it  is  ready  to  serve. 

Mush  and  porridge  may  also  be  made  from  this 
grain  for  the  use  of  children,  for  whom  it  is  an  ex- 
cellent food,  being  similar  to  farina,  but  more  delicate 
and  easier  of  digestion.  Imperial  Granum  may  be 
obtained  at  any  pharmacy. 


RACAHOUT  DES  ARABES 

1  Tablespoon  of  Racahout. 
1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 
1  Cup  of  hot  water. 
1  Cup  of  milk. 

Put  the  Racahout  and  salt  into  a  saucepan,  mix  it 
into  a  paste  with  a  little  cold  water,  and  then  pour  on 


RECIPES  89 

the  hot  water;  simmer  for  ten  minutes.  Have  the 
milk  scalding  hot  in  another  pan,  and  when  the  gruel 
has  cooked  the  full  time  pour  it  in.  Strain  and  serve. 
Racahout  is  a  compound  consisting  principally  of 
sugar,  arrowroot,  rice-flour,  and  French  chocolate. 
It  makes  a  most  appetizing  gruel,  and  is  quite  nu- 
tritious. Racahout  des  Arabes  is  imported  largely 
from  France.  It  may  be  obtained  at  any  first-class 
grocery  store. 

INDIAN-MEAL  GRUEL 

2  Tablespoons  of  corn-meal. 
1  Tablespoon  of  flour. 
1  Teaspoon  of  salt. 
1  Teaspoon  of  sugar. 
1  Quart  of  boiling  water. 
1  Cup  of  milk. 

Mix  the  corn-meal,  flour,  salt,  and  sugar  into  a  thin 
paste  with  cold  water,  and  pour  into  it  the  boiling 
water.  Cook  it  in  a  double  boiler  for  three  hours. 
No  less  time  than  that  will  cook  the  corn-meal  thor- 
oughly. Then  add  the  milk,  and  it  is  ready  to  serve. 

Use  the  fine  granulated  meal  which  comes  in  paste- 
board packages,  prepared  for  the  table,  and  may  be 
bought  of  almost  any  grocer. 


MUSH  AND  POEEIDGE 

Mush  is  meal  or  grain  cooked  in  water  to  the  con- 
sistency of  rather  thin  pudding.  Porridge  is  like 
mush,  only  thinner.  The  most  important  point  con- 
nected with  the  preparation  of  these  is  thoroughness 
in  the  cooking.  Made  as  they  generally  are  of  coarsely 
ground  or  of  rolled  grains,  they  need  long  boiling  to 
soften  the  cellulose  and  to  cook  the  starch  properly. 

Oatmeal.  Oatmeal  should  be  cooked  for  at  least 
three  hours  in  a  double  boiler.  It  is  at  its  best  pre- 
pared the  day  before  it  is  needed,  and  then  reheated 
as  it  is  wanted.  If  it  is  done  in  this  way,  the  flavor 
is  fine,  and  there  is  no  danger  that  the  grains  will  be 
hard.  When  taken  from  the  kettle,  the  oatmeal  should 
be  of  the  consistency  to  pour,  and  on  cooling  it  ought 
to  form  into  a  tender,  jelly-like  pudding.  Sometimes 
oatmeal  is  cooked  so  that  the  grains  are  whole  and 
separate,  but  it  is  not  easily  digested  so,  and  lacks  the 
delicious  flavor  which  long  cooking  gives. 

Oatmeal  for  those  for  whom  there  is  no  objection 
to  its  use  is  a  valuable  nutrient,  furnishing  more  for 
the  money  than  almost  any  other  food.1 

i  Composition  of  oatmeal : 

Nitrogenous  matter 12.6% 

Carbohydrates,  starch,  etc 63.8% 

Fatty  matter 5.6% 

Mineral  matter 3.0% 

Water 15.0% 

Total 100.00% 

LETHKEBY. 

From  Prof.  Mott's  Chart  of  the  Composition,  Digestibility,  and  Nu- 
tritive Value  of  Food. 

90 


RECIPES  91 

Indian  Meal.  Indian  meal  also  requires  many  hours' 
cooking.  Even  if  it  be  in  a  single  vessel  and  actually 
boiled,  not  less  than  an  hour  and  a  half  of  exposure 
to  heat  is  safe. 

Farina.  Farina  having  been  already  subjected  to  a 
high  degree  of  heat  in  its  preparation,  is  thereby  par- 
tially cooked,  and  does  not  require  as  long  a  time  as 
the  raw  grains. 

Mushes  and  porridges  made  from  oatmeal,  cracked 
wheat,  or  any  grain  on  which  the  tough  outside  cov- 
ering remains,  are  to  be  avoided  in  all  cases  of  irri- 
tation or  disease  of  the  alimentary  canal,  particularly 
in  diseases  of  the  intestines,  for  the  hard  hulls  are 
very  irritating  to  the  delicate  lining  membranes. 
Young  children  have  exceedingly  delicate  digestive 
powers,  and  are  often  made  ill  by  coarse,  starchy  food. 
For  them  it  is  always  safest  to  use  the  prepared 
grains,  such  as  farina,  granula,  and  Imperial  Granum. 

All  of  the  grains  given  in  these  recipes  may  be 
made  into  porridges  by  following  the  rules  given  for 
mushes,  except  that  a  larger  proportion  of  water 
should  be  used.  Porridges  are  like  mushes,  only 
thinner. 

OATMEAL  MUSH 

f  Cup  of  rolled  oats,  or  £  cup  of  granulated  oatmeal. 

£  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

1  Pint  of  boiling  water. 

Pick  over  the  oatmeal,  and  put  it  into  a  double 
boiler  with  the  salt.  Pour  on  the  boiling  water, 
place  the  upper  vessel  of  the  boiler  on  the  stove,  and 
boil  two  minutes.  This  effectually  starts  the  cooking. 
Then  put  the  upper  vessel  into  the  lower,  and  cook 
for  five  hours.  The  water  in  the  under  boiler  should 


92  EECIPE8 

boil  during  this  time,  and  will  occasionally  need  re- 
plenishing. Serve  the  mush  steaming  hot  with  sugar 
and  cream,  and  baked  apples,  apple  sauce,  or  tart  jelly 
if  one  is  fond  of  something  acid. 

If  rolled  oats  be  used,  three  hours  are  sufficient  to 
cook  it,  but  both  kinds  are  best  cooked  the  day  before 
they  are  needed,  as  long  cooking  improves  rather  than 
injures  the  grain. 

FARINA 

Farina  being  a  prepared  grain  and  free  from  hulls 
and  waste,  so  large  a  proportion  will  not  be  required 
to  make  a  mush  as  of  the  raw  grains. 

3  Tablespoons  of  farina. 
£  Saltspoon  of  salt. 
1  Pint  of  boiling  water. 

Cook  the  mixture  in  a  saucepan  for  twenty  minutes 
after  it  actually  boils,  or  in  a  double  boiler  for  one 
hour.  This  is  a  delicious  food  for  children,  served 
with  cream,  or  milk,  and  sugar. 

WHEAT  GERM 

Wheat  germ  is  a  delicate  and  nutritious  prepara- 
tion of  wheat.  It  is  made  so  that  by  boiling  for  a 
short  time  it  is  ready  for  the  table,  and  makes  a  de- 
licious breakfast  dish. 

£  Cup  of  germ. 

|  Teaspoon  ful  of  salt. 

1£  Cups  of  boiling  water. 

Boil  in  a  saucepan  without  a  cover  for  half  an  hour, 
or  cook  in  a  double  boiler  twice  as  long.  The  direc- 


RECIPES  93 

tions  on  the  packages  give  a  shorter  time,  but  it  is 
extremely  doubtful  whether  this  grain  can  be  whole- 
some with  the  few  minutes'  cooking  usually  advised. 


IMPERIAL  GRANUM 

Imperial  Granum,  cooked  according  to  the  above 
rule,  is  always  a  wholesome  and  safe  dish  for  children; 
or  it  may  be  made  into  a  very  thin  gruel,  and  used  as 
a  drink  instead  of  water. 


GRANULA 

Granula  is  a  breakfast  grain  which  has  been  par- 
tially prepared  by  dry  heat,  and  is  almost  cooked 
enough  to  use.  It  is  sometimes  recommended  that  it 
be  prepared  by  simply  boiling  a  minute  in  milk.  It 
is,  however,  both  softened  and  improved  in  flavor  by 
boiling  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  in  one  and  one 
half  times  its  bulk  of  water,  with  salt  in  the  propor- 
tion of  a  teaspoon  to  a  cup  of  grain. 


CRACKED   OR  ROLLED  WHEAT 

1  Cup  of  cracked  wheat. 
1  Teaspoon  of  salt. 
3  Cups  of  water. 

Pick  over  the  wheat,  to  remove  any  foreign  sub- 
stance that  may  be  in  it.  Put  it  with  the  salt  and 
the  water  (boiling)  into  a  double  boiler,  and  cook  for 
two  hours.  Serve  with  cream  and  sugar,  either  hot 
or  cold.  If  it  is  desirable  to  have  it  cold,  it  may  be 
molded  in  cups  or  small  round  jelly-molds. 


94  RECIPES 


INDIAN-MEAL  MUSH 

1  Cup  of  corn-meal. 

1  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

1  Quart  of  boiling  water. 

No.  1.  Make  the  corn-meal  and  salt  into  a  paste 
with  a  little  cold  water,  then  pour  in  the  boiling 
water  and  cook  it  in  a  double  boiler  for  five  hours. 

No.  2.  Put  the  salt  into  the  water,  and  when  the 
water  reaches  the  boiling-point  stir  in  the  dry  meal 
by  taking  a  handful  and  sprinkling  it  slowly  through 
the  fingers.  Use  a  wooden  spoon  for  stirring.  Boil 
an  hour  and  a  half.  Or,  wet  the  meal  in  a  little  cold 
water,  and  pour  over  it  the  boiling  water.  The  most 
important  point  is  thoroughness  in  the  cooking,  which 
should  be  done  carefully  so  that  the  pudding  may  not 
burn  on  the  bottom  of  the  dish.  If  the  temperature 
be  regulated  so  that  it  just  simmers,  there  will  be  lit- 
tle danger  of  this.  Serve  with  maple  syrup,  or  with 
cream. 

HOMINY  MUSH 

1  Cup  of  hominy. 
1  Teaspoon  of  salt. 
1£  Quarts  of  water. 

Put  all  together  in  a  double  boiler,  and  cook  for 
three  hours.  Add  more  water  if  the  mush  seems  stiff 
and  thick;  all  preparations  of  corn  absorb  a  great 
deal  in  cooking,  and  hominy  usually  needs  a  little 
more  than  four  times  its  bulk.  Hominy  is  exceed- 
ingly indigestible  unless  well  cooked,  but  sweet  and 
nutritious  when  subjected  to  a  high  temperature  for 
a  long  time. 


DRINKS 


EGG-NOG 

Break  into  a  bowl  one  egg,  add  to  it  a  saltspoon  of 
salt  and  two  teaspoons  of  sugar;  beat  it  until  it  is 
light  but  not  foamy;  then  add  one  cup  of  slightly 
warm  milk — that  is,  milk  from  which  the  chill  has  been 
taken  (for  it  is  not  well  to  use  that  which  is  ice-cold)  — 
and  one  or  two  tablespoons  of  French  brandy;  mix 
and  strain  it  into  a  tall  slender  glass,  and  serve  at 
once.  Egg-nog  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  after 
it  is  made,  for  both  the  egg  and  the  milk  lose  some  of 
their  freshness  by  exposure  to  the  air. 


MILK-PUNCH 

1  Cup  of  milk. 

2  Tablespoons  of  brandy. 
1  Teaspoon  of  sugar. 

A  little  grated  nutmeg. 

Sweeten  the  milk  with  the  sugar,  stir  into  it  the 
brandy,  and  mix  thoroughly  by  pouring  from  one 
glass  to  another.  Then  grate  a  bit  of  nutmeg  over 
the  top. 

Milk-punch  is  conveniently  made  with  two  tin  cups; 
the  mouth  of  one  should  be  smaller  than  the  mouth 
of  the  other,  so  that  the  one  will  fit  into  the  other. 

95 


96  EECIPES 

In  these  the  milk  should  be  shaken  back  and  forth 
until  a  froth  is  formed.  This  does  not  add  materi- 
ally to  the  taste,  but  rather  to  the  appearance,  and 
thoroughly  mixes  in  the  sugar  and  brandy. 


WINE   WHEY 

"Warm  one  cup  of  milk  to  a  little  more  than  blood- 
heat,  or  100°  Fahr.,  then  pour  into  it  one  half  cup  of 
sherry  wine.  The  acid  and  alcohol  of  the  wine  will  in  a 
few  minutes  coagulate  the  albumen,  which  may  be  sep- 
arated from  the  whey  by  straining.  Do  not  squeeze 
the  curd  through  the  strainer,  but  let  the  liquid  drip 
until  it  is  all  out.  If  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  whey 
quickly,  heat  the  milk  to  the  boiling-point  before  add- 
ing the  wine. 


WINE   WHEY  WITH  RENNET 

(SWEET  WHEY) 

1  Pint  of  milk  heated  to  100°  Fahr. 

1  Teaspoon  of  prepared  rennet. 

2  Tablespoons  of  wine. 

'  Stir  the  rennet  and  wine  into  the  milk  quickly,  so 
that  the  wine  may  not  curdle  the  milk  in  blotches. 
Let  it  stand  in  a  warm  place  (on  the  stove-hearth,  for 
instance)  for  half  an  hour,  and  then  separate  the  curd 
from  the  whey  by  straining.  This  whey  is  excellent 
for  children  with  delicate  digestion  who  need  a  little 
stimulant.  It  is  very  good  also  as  a  drink  for  invalids 
at  any  time. 

Whey  is  the  water  of  milk  with  the   sugar  and 
various  salts  of  the  milk  in  solution  in  it.    The  sugar 


RECIPES  07 

furnishes  some  nutriment,  and  the  salts  supply  some 
of  the  mineral  matter  needed  in  the  body. 

Whey  may  also  be  made  with  vinegar  or  lemon- 
juice.  These  acids  will  act  more  quickly  when  the 
milk  is  warmed  before  they  are  added. 


LEMONADE 

1  Lemon. 

1£  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 

1  Cup  of  boiling  water. 

Wash  and  wipe  a  lemon,  cut  a  very  thin  slice  from 
the  middle,  and  squeeze  the  rest  into  a  bowl;  then  put 
in  the  sugar,  pour  on  the  boiling  water,  and  strain  it. 
When  it  has  become  cold,  serve  it  in  a  tumbler  with 
the  slice  of  lemon  floating  on  the  top. 

Lemonade  has  a  better  flavor  when  made  with 
boiling  water,  though  it  may  be  made  with  cold  water. 
A  few  strawberries  or  raspberries  may  be  put  in,  in- 
stead of  the  slice  of  lemon;  or  it  may  be  colored  pink 
with  a  little  grape-jelly  or  carmine,  and  served  with 
a  straw. 

MILE  LEMONADE 

1  Tablespoon  of  sugar. 
1  Cup  of  boiling  water, 
i  Cup  of  lemon-juice. 
£  Cup  of  sherry. 
1J  Cups  of  cold  milk, 

Pour  the  boiling  water  over  the  sugar,  and  then  put 
in  the  lemon-juice  and  sherry.  Stir  it  until  the  sugar 
dissolves,  add  the  cold  milk,  and  stir  again  until  the 


98  RECIPES 

milk  curdles,   then  strain  through   a   jelly-bag  or 
napkin. 

This  is  a  cool  and  refreshing  drink,  especially  for 
children. 

BRANDY-MILK  WITH  EGG 

Heat  some  milk  in  a  granite  saucepan  for  half-  an 
hour  to  sterilize  it,  but  do  not  let  it  boil ;  then  pour 
it  into  a  pitcher,  and  set  it  aside  to  cool.  When  the 
milk  is  cold,  beat  one  egg  with  one  tablespoon  of 
sugar  until  the  sugar  is  well  mixed;  add  to  it  two 
tablespoons  of  brandy  and  a  cup  of  the  cold  milk. 
Strain  it  into  a  tall  slender  glass,  and  serve  at  once. 

Heating  the  milk  renders  it  perfectly  wholesome 
and  much  safer  for  an  invalid  than  raw  milk,  and  also 
improves  the  flavor  of  the  drink. 


SHERRY  AND  EGG 

Break  an  egg  into  a  bowl,  and  put  in  a  teaspoon  of 
sugar;  beat  the  two  together  until  the  sugar  is 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  egg,  but  not  enough  to 
make  the  egg  froth;  to  this  add  two  tablespoons  of 
sherry  wine,  and  a  fourth  of  a  cup  of  cold  water, 
mixing  them  thoroughly.  Strain  all  into  a  tumbler, 
and  serve  immediately. 


STERILIZED  MILE 

The  change  which  takes  place  in  milk  known  as 
"souring"  is  caused  by  the  growth  of  micro-organ- 
isms in  it,  which  are  killed  by  heat ;  therefore,  to  pre- 
vent souring,  milk  must  be  subjected  to  a  temperature 


EECIPES  99 

sufficiently  high  to  insure  their  destruction.  Some 
micro-organisms  are  killed  at  136°  Fahr.,  but  this 
temperature  cannot  be  said  to  destroy,  or  to  inhibit 
the  growth  of  all  bacteria  commonly  found  in  milk. 
We  must  endeavor  then  to  use  such  a  degree  of  heat 
as  shall  accomplish  this  without  seriously  injuring  the 
natural  properties  and  flavors  of  the  liquid.  Authori- 
ties vary  on  this  point,  some  putting  the  temperature 
as  high  as  212°  Fahr.,  and  others  as  low  as  167° 
Fahr.  The  author  has  found,  in  an  experience  of 
two  years  in  sterilizing  milk  every  day,  that  190° 
Fahr.  is,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  a  safe  and 
easily  practicable  temperature  to  employ.  With  this 
degree  of  heat  the  flavor  of  the  milk  is  excellent. 

The  process  is  as  follows :  The  milk  is  put  into  clean 
glass  flasks  or  bottles  with  small  mouths  which  are 
stoppered  with  plugs  of  cotton  batting,  or,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  "  cotton-wool."  These  are  placed  in 
a  wire  basket,  and  the  basket  immersed  in  a  kettle  of 
warm  water,  the  temperature  of  which  is  not  allowed 
to  exceed  190°  Fahr.  As  soon  as  the  heat  is  at  or  near 
that  point  the  time  is  marked,  and  the  milk  is  kept 
at  that  temperature  for  one  hour.  Then  the  bottles 
are  removed,  cooled  quickly,  and  placed  in  the  re- 
frigerator. If  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the  milk  an  in- 
definite time,  the  process  should  be  repeated  the  second 
day,  and  again  the  third  day,  a  third  sterilization  be- 
ing necessary  to  insure  success,  since  spores  of  organ- 
isms may  escape  the  first  and  even  the  second  heating. 

For  all  ordinary  household  purposes,  however,  and 
as  a  safe  food  for  the  sick,  heating  once  is  all  that  is 
necessary.  Milk  thus  treated  will  keep  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  an  ordinary  room,  even  in  warm  weather,  from 
twenty  to  thirty  hours.  By  using  the  small-mouthed 
flasks  very  little  scum  is  formed,  and  thus  the  valu- 
able albuminous  portion  is  preserved  in  the  milk. 


100  EECIPES 

Also,  a  small  quantity  at  a  time  may  be  used  with- 
out disturbing  the  rest. 

To  Sterilize  for  Family  Use.  Milk  may  also  be  pre- 
served by  open  sterilization  in  a  saucepan  or  kettle 
by  the  following  simple  process :  Heat  the  milk  until 
a  scum  forms  over  it;  keep  it  at,  or  near,  the  tem- 
perature it  then  has  for  one  hour,  then  pour  it  into  a 
thoroughly  washed  and  scalded  pitcher,  cool  it,  and 
put  it  into  a  refrigerator  or  some  cool  place.  It  will 
remain  sweet  for  twenty-four  hours,  and,  unless  the 
weather  be  very  warm,  it  will  be  good  at  the  end  of 
thirty-six  hours.  Should  it  sour  before  the  end  of 
twenty-four  hours,  it  indicates  that  the  temperature 
was  too  low,  or  the  time  of  exposure  to  the  heat  too 
short.  A  chemist's  thermometer  costs  but  little,  and 
will  be  found  very  useful  for  testing  milk.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind,  in  this  connection,  that  milk  is  not 
rendered  absolutely  sterile, — that  is,  free  from  all  pos- 
sible organisms  and  spores  which  may  occur  in  it, — 
except  at  a  temperature  of  at  least  212°  Fahr.,  or  even 
higher. 

Sterilized  milk  diluted  with  water  is  a  nutritious 
and  wholesome  drink  for  the  sick.  Of  course  the 
water  with  which  it  is  diluted  should  be  boiled.1 

In  hospital  practice  nurses  have  told  me  that  pa- 
tients suffering  from  sleeplessness  will  often  fall  into 
quiet  slumber  after  drinking  hot  milk,  and  that  not 
infrequently  the  ordered  hypodermic  of  morphine  is 
not  needed  when  hot  milk  is  used. 

MILE  AND   SELTZER 

Mix  equal  quantities  of  sterilized  milk  and  seltzer- 
water.  Drink  immediately. 

i  For  a  further  account  of  micro-organisms  in  milk,  see  the  chap- 
ter on  Milk. 


EECIPES  101 


MILK  AND  SODA-WATER 

Into  a  glass  half  full  of  fresh  milk  put  an  equal 
quantity  of  soda-water.  Use  at  once.  This  is  an 
agreeable  way  to  take  milk,  and  is  a  nutritious  and 
refreshing  drink. 


TOAST-WATER 

Cut  three  slices  of  bread  each  a  third  of  an  inch 
thick,  and  toast  them  slowly  until  very  brown  and 
dry  throughout ;  break  them  into  small  pieces,  put 
them  into  a  bowl  with  a  pint  of  cold  water,  and  set 
aside  to  soak  for  an  hour;  at  the  end  of  that  time 
turn  it  into  a  strainer  or  napkin,  and  squeeze  out  the 
liquid  with  the  back  of  a  spoon.  To  the  water  thus 
obtained  add  a  little  cream  and  sugar,  and  serve  it  cold 
in  a  tumbler.  It  may  also  be  served  without  the 
cream. 


BARLEY-WATER 

1  Tablespoon  of  barley  flour. 
1  Teaspoon  of  sugar. 
1  Teaspoon  of  lemon-juice. 
1  Quart  of  water. 

Boil  the  flour,  water,  and  sugar  together  fifteen 
minutes,  then  add  the  lemon- juice,  and  strain. 

Tamarinds  may  be  used  instead  of  lemon-juice  for 
flavor — two  or  three  boiled  with  the  water.  Barley- 
water  may  also  be  made  by  boiling  two  tablespoons 
of  barley  (the  grain)  in  a  quart  of  water  for  one  hour. 


102  RECIPES 


BICE-WATER 

Pick  over  and  wash  two  tablespoons  of  rice;  put  it 
into  a  granite  saucepan  with  a  quart  of  boiling  water; 
simmer  it  for  two  hours,  when  the  rice  should  be 
softened  and  partially  dissolved ;  then  strain  the  li- 
quid through  a  fine  wire  strainer  into  a  bowl  or 
pitcher,  add  to  it  a  saltspoon  of  salt,  and  serve  it 
either  warm  or  cold. 

If  a  patient  may  take  or  needs  stimulants,  two  ta- 
blespoons of  sherry  or  of  port  wine  is  an  agreeable 
addition,  especially  if  the  drink  be  taken  cold. 


FRUIT-SODA.    No.   1 

From  Strawberries.  Remove  the  stems  from  one 
quart  of  strawberries,  and  pick  them  over  carefully. 
Wash  them  under  a  stream  of  water  in  a  colander, 
gently,  so  that  they  may  not  be  crushed;  then  put 
them  into  a  double  boiler  with  half  their  bulk  of  sugar, 
and  heat  for  an  hour  or  more  until  the  berries  are 
soft.  When  this  is  accomplished,  turn  them  into  a 
jelly-bag  and  drain  until  the  juice  has  completely 
oozed  out,  which  will  require  two  or  more  hours.  Do 
not  squeeze  them.  Then  put  the  juice  into  a  sauce- 
pan and,  returning  to  the  fire,  heat  it  to  a  temperature 
of  200°  Fahr.,  and  keep  it  at  that  temperature  for  one 
hour.  If  a  thermometer  is  not  at  hand,  heat  the  juice 
until  it  steams  a  little,  but  do  not  let  it  boil,  for  the 
flavor  is  not  nearly  so  delicate  with  the  high  tempera- 
ture. Then  it  may  be  canned  or  bottled  for  future 
use.  If  the  bottle  be  scalded  and  carefully  sealed  as 
in  preserving  fruits,  the  juice  will  keep  indefinitely. 

The  length  of  time  that  it  remains  at  200°  is  impor- 


RECIPES  103 

tant,  as  it  is  a  process  of  sterilization  which  takes 
place,  and  the  temperature  must  be  maintained  for  a 
given  time  or  the  desired  result  will  not  be  accom- 
plished. The  condition  of  the  bottle  also  must  be 
carefully  considered,  as  the  thorough  cleaning  and 
scalding  is  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  it  sterile. 
This  is  most  easily  and  thoroughly  done  by  filling 
the  bottle  with  hot  water  and  placing  it  in  a  kettle  of 
boiling  water  for  half  an  hour. 

To  Use.  Dilute  the  juice  with  cool  water  (not  iced 
water)  or  soda-water  in  the  proportion  of  one  half 
juice  to  one  half  water. 

From  Oranges.  The  oranges  should  be  peeled  and  the 
seeds  removed,  and  then  treated  in  the  same  way  as  the 
strawberries  in  the  preceding  rule,  except  that  to  every 
quart  of  fruit  the  juice  of  two  lemons  should  be  added. 

From  Raspberries.  Employ  the  same  method  as  for 
strawberries. 

From  Currants.  The  same  as  for  strawberries,  ex- 
cept that  three  fourths  of  the  bulk  of  the  fruit  of 
sugar  should  be  used  instead  of  one  half. 

With  Other  Fruits.  Other  fruits,  such  as  apricots, 
peaches,  cranberries,  apples,  etc.,  may  be  used  for 
syrups,  varying  the  water  and  sugar  according  to  the 
kind  of  fruit  used.  Apples,  apricots,  and  peaches 
will  require  half  their  bulk  of  water. 


FRUIT-SODA.   No.  2 

Sprinkle  two  cups  of  sugar  over  one  box  of  ripe 
strawberries,  which,  of  course,  have  been  hulled  and 
washed,  and  set  them  away  for  three  hours,  or  until 
the  juice  has  oozed  out  of  the  fruit  and  made  a  thick 
syrup  with  the  sugar.  Strain  the  juice,  bottle  it,  and 
put  it  in  a  cool  place.  It  will  keep  for  three  days. 


104  RECIPES 

To  Use.  Pour  one  third  of  a  cup  into  a  tumbler, 
add  two  tablespoons  of  cream,  and  fill  the  tumbler 
with  soda-water  from  a  siphon.  This  makes  a  de- 
licious and  cooling  drink. 

Oranges,  raspberries,  currants,  or  any  other  juicy 
fruit  may  be  used  for  syrup,  which  is  very  palatable 
when  made  from  fresh  uncooked  fruits.  These  syrups 
are  useful  not  only  for  drinks,  but  for  flavoring  ice- 
creams and  pudding  sauces. 


COFFEE  SYRUP 

Make  some  strong  coffee  with  two  tablespoons  of 
the  ground  berry  (Mocha  and  Java  mixed),  a  little 
white  of  egg,  and  one  cup  of  boiling  water.  Simmer 
together  one  cup  of  sugar  and  one  third  of  a  cup  of 
water  for  five  minutes,  then  add  to  it  one  half  of  a  cup 
of  the  coffee.  Strain  and  bottle  it  for  use.  This  is 
delicious  with  soda-water  and  cream. 


VANILLA  SYRUP 

Make  a  sugar  syrup  by  boiling  together  one  cup  of 
sugar  and  one  half  of  a  cup  of  water  for  five  minutes. 
Add  to  it  two  or  three  tablespoons  of  vanilla  extract. 
It  is  to  be  used,  like  coffee  syrup,  with  soda-water  and 
sweet  cream. 

OTHER   SYRUPS 

A  variety  of  syrups  may  be  made,  besides  those  men- 
tioned, by  using  a  sugar  syrup  like  that  in  the  above 
recipe,  and  flavoring  it  with  cinnamon,  lemon,  al- 
mond, rose-water,  chocolate,  etc.  All  of  the  cooked 
syrups  will  keep  indefinitely. 


EECIPES  105 


GRAPE  JUICE 

Grape  juice  mixed  with  cold  water  or  with  soda-water 
makes  a  pleasant  and  invigorating  drink  for  a  sick  per- 
son. The  best  grapes  for  the  purpose  are  the  blue  varie- 
ties, such  as  Isabellas,  Concords,  or  Black  Hamburgs. 

To  Make  a  Bottle  of  Juice.  Pick  over  (and  wash  if 
they  need  it)  one  quart  of  grapes.  Remove  them  from 
the  stems,  and  put  them  into  a  double  boiler  with 
just  enough  cold  water  to  cover  them.  Heat  them 
slowly  until  the  juice  oozes  out  and  the  fruit  becomes 
soft,  which  will  take  two  or  three  hours.  Then  turn 
the  fruit  into  a  jelly-bag  made  like  a  long  pointed 
pocket,  draw  the  string  at  the  top  and  hang  it  to 
drain.  Do  not  squeeze  or  press  the  bag,  and  use  only 
the  juice  which  drips  out,  which  will  practically  be  all 
that  the  grapes  contain.  To  this  add  one  fourth  of 
the  quantity  of  sugar — that  is,  if  there  is  a  quart  of 
juice,  put  in  one  cup  of  sugar — and  heat  it  until  it  is 
quite  hot,  or  to  a  temperature  of  200°  Fahr.,  and  keep 
it  at  that  temperature  for  one  hour,  but  do  not  let 
it  boil.  Then  ptfur  it  into  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
scalded  hot  bottles, — in  other  words,  those  which  are 
sterile.  Seal  the  bottles  with  wax,  and  set  them  away 
in  a  cool  place. 

To  Use.  Mix  equal  quantities  of  juice  and  cold 
water,  and  serve  at  once. 


FLAXSEED  TEA  WITH  IEMON 

1  Tablespoon  of  flaxseed. 
1  Pint  of  water. 
1  Tablespoon  of  sugar. 
Juice  of  one  lemon. 


106  RECIPES 

Boil  the  flaxseed  one  hour  in  the  water ;  strain  it, 
and  add  the  lemon-juice  and  sugar.  The  flaxseed 
should  be  examined  for  little  black  grains  which  often 
occur  in  it,  and  which  injure  the  delicate  flavor  of  the 
drink.  Serve  this  tea  either  cold  or  warm.  It  is  ex- 
cellent for  croup,  or  for  any  irritated  condition  of  the 
throat  or  lungs. 

APPLE  TEA 

Wash  and  wipe  a  good  sour  apple,  cut  it  into  small 
pieces,  and  boil  it  in  a  cup  of  water  until  it  is  soft. 
Then  strain  the  water  into  a  bowl,  add  a  bit  of  sugar, 
and  serve  when  cold. 

If  the  apple  is  of  good  flavor  this  is  a  pleasant  drink, 
and  may  be  given  to  fever  patients,  children  with 
measles,  or  whenever  there  is  much  thirst. 


KUMISS 

1  Quart  of  perfectly  fresh  milk. 

£  of  a  two-cent  cake  of  Fleischmann's  yeast. 

1  Tablespoon  of  sugar. 

Dissolve  the  yeast  in  a  little  water  and  mix  it  with 
the  sugar  and  milk.  Put  the  mixture  into  strong 
bottles, — beer-bottles  are  good, — cork  them  with 
tightly  fitting  stoppers,  and  tie  down  securely  with 
stout  twine.  Shake  the  bottles  for  a  full  minute  to 
mix  thoroughly  the  ingredients,  then  place  them 
on  end  in  a  refrigerator,  or  some  equally  cool  place, 
to  ferment  slowly.  At  the  end  of  three  days  lay 
the  bottles  on  their  sides;  turn  them  occasionally. 
Five  days  will  be  required  to  perfect  the  fermenta- 
tion, and  then  kumiss  is  at  its  best.  It  will  keep  in- 
definitely in  a  refrigerator. 


RECIPES  107 

To  Make  Sweet  Kumiss.  Ferment  the  kumiss  mix- 
ture for  twelve  hours  in  a  temperature  of  70°  Fahr., — 
that  is,  the  same  degree  of  heat  that  is  required  for 
raising  bread. 

Do  not  attempt  to  open  a  bottle  of  kumiss  without 
a  champagne-tap,  for  the  carbonic  acid  generated  in 
the  fermenting  liquid  has  enormous  expansive  force, 
and  will  throw  the  contents  all  over  the  room  if  the 
bottle  be  opened  in  the  ordinary  way. 

In  an  emergency,  however,  the  cork  may  be  punc- 
tured with  a  stout  needle  to  let  the  gas  escape.  The 
mouth  of  the  bottle  may  then  be  held  in  a  large  bowl 
or  dish  and  the  cords  cut,  when  the  kumiss  will  rush 
out,  usually,  however,  without  so  much  force  but  that 
it  may  nearly  all  be  caught.  It  should  look  like  thick, 
foamy  cream. 

Kumiss  is  highly  recommended  as  an  article  of  sick 
diet,  being  especially  valuable  for  many  forms  of  in- 
digestion and  for  nausea.  Often  it  will  be  retained 
in  the  stomach  when  almost  anything  else  would  be 
rejected.  It  is  partially  predigested  milk,  containing 
carbonic  acid  and  a  little  alcohol,  both  of  which  have 
a  tonic  effect. 

True  kumiss  is  an  Eastern  product  made  from  mare's 
milk,  but  in  this  country  cow's  milk  is  always  em- 
ployed. Sometimes  the  term  liefer  is  given  to  it,  to 
distinguish  it  from  that  made  from  mare's  milk.  It 
may  be  obtained  in  nearly  all  pharmacies,  but  a  better 
quality  can  be  made  at  home  at  slight  expense. 

Sometimes  patients  will  object  to  taking  kumiss,  on 
account  of  the  odor,  which  is  not  pleasant  to  every  one, 
but  it  leaves  a  peculiarly  agreeable  after-taste  in  the 
mouth,  and  one  who  has  once  taken  a  glass  of  it  will 
seldom  refuse  a  second  offer.  The  kumiss  of  com- 
merce sold  under  the  name  of  "Cream  Koumyss"  is 
an  excellent  preparation. 


108  EECIPES 


THE  COCOA-BEAN 

The  cocoa-bean  is  a  product  of  the  tropics.  It  is 
dried,  roasted  like  coffee,  and  cracked,  or  ground  into 
powder,  for  use.  It  is  one  of  our  best  foods,  contain- 
ing in  good  proportions  nearly  all  the  elements  neces- 
sary to  nourish  the  body. 

There  are  many  preparations  of  the  bean.  The 
most  common,  and  those  usually  found  in  our  markets, 
are  shells,  cracked  cocoa,  chocolate,  and  various  forms 
of  powder. 

Shells  are  the  outer  husk  or  covering  of  the  bean, 
and  from  them  a  delicate  drink  may  be  made  with 
long,  slow  boiling. 

Cracked  cocoa,  or  cocoa-nibs  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
is  made  by  breaking  the  beans  into  small  pieces. 

Chocolate  is  prepared  by  grinding  the  cocoa-bean 
into  powder,  mixing  it  with  sugar,  and  molding  it 
into  blocks.  There  is  some  temptation  on  the  part  of 
manufacturers  to  substitute  foreign  fats,  corn-starch, 
and  other  cheap  materials  for  the  natural  ingredients 
of  the  bean  in  the  making  of  chocolate. 

The  powdered  forms  of  cocoa  generally  contain  a 
good  percentage  of  the  bean  except  the  fat,  which  is 
always  extracted.  All  Dutch  brands  are  excellent. 
Weight  for  weight,  they  cost  more  than  some  other 
kinds,  but  so  much  less  is  needed  to  make  a  cup  of 
drink  that  they  are  really  the  least  expensive. 

COCOA 

£  Teaspoon  of  any  Dutch  cocoa. 
1  Cup  of  boiling  water. 
1  Cup  of  boiling  milk. 
1  Tablespoon  of  sugar. 


RECIPES  109 

Put  the  cocoa  and  sugar  into  a  saucepan,  and  pour 
in  the  boiling  water  j  cook  for  two  minutes,  then  add 
the  milk,  and  let  it  heat  just  to  the  boiling-point. 
When  most  other  brands  are  used,  as  a  general  thing 
a  larger  proportion  of  powder  will  be  necessary.  It 
is  therefore  important  to  experiment  with  each  until 
it  is  found  what  amount  will  make  a  drink  equal  in 
strength  to  the  above.  This  valuable  food  is  often 
made  so  strong  that  ill  persons  cannot  digest  it. 


COCOA-SHELLS 

Put  a  tablespoon  of  shells  into  a  pint  of  water,  and 
simmer  for  two  hours;  add  one  tablespoon  of  sugar 
and  a  cup  of  milk,  then  strain  out  the  shells,  and  it  is 
ready  to  serve.  This  is  a  mild  and  delicately  flavored 
drink,  and  may  be  used  freely  in  cases  of  great  thirst. 


COCOA-NIBS 

Boil  one  teaspoon  of  cracked  cocoa  in  a  pint  of 
water  one  hour ;  then  add  a  cup  of  milk  and  a  table- 
spoon of  sugar,  let  it  heat  to  the  boiling-point  again, 
strain  out  the  nibs,  and  it  is  ready  to  serve. 

It  is  necessary  to  boil  cracked  cocoa,  otherwise  you 
will  have  a  bitter  infusion,  lacking  the  good  flavor 
which  is  extracted  by  the  higher  degree  of  heat.  This 
is  an  instance  in  which  a  few  degrees  more  or  less 
of  heat  make  a  great  difference  in  the  result. 


CHOCOLATE 

Put  one  third  of  a  square  (one  ounce)  of  Baker's 
chocolate,  with  one  cup  of  boiling  water  and  a  table- 


110  RECIPES 

spoon  of  sugar,  into  a  saucepan.  Set  the  saucepan 
on  the  fire,  and  stir  for  a  while,  moving  the  piece  of 
chocolate  through  the  water  occasionally  until  it  is 
melted.  As  soon  as  it  boils  add  a  cup  of  milk,  and 
when  it  again  reaches  the  boiling-point  it  will  be 
ready  to  serve.  If  chocolate  is  allowed  to  boil  for  a 
length  of  time,  separation  of  the  fat  from  the  other 
ingredients  takes  place,  rendering  it  indigestible. 
Chocolate,  if  delicately  and  carefully  made,  is  as  nice 
as  cocoa,  much  more  nutritious,  on  account  of  the  fat 
which  it  contains,  and  less  expensive. 


TEA 

Tea  has  refreshing  and  invigorating  properties  very 
comforting  to  one  spent  with  toil.  Its  active  prin- 
ciple is  theine,  a  crystalline  alkaloid  found  in  both 
tea  and  coffee.  Theine  and  caffeine  were  once  sup- 
posed to  be  different  substances,  but  have  recently 
been  found  to  be  identical. 

Tea  is  a  valuable  article  of  diet,  though  not  a 
direct  nutrient.  It  is  classed  with  the  so-called  "ac- 
cessory" foods,  and,  although  not  itself  nutritious, 
aids,  by  its  good  flavor  and  stimulating  properties, 
the  digestion  of  other  things.  It  is  a  nerve  tonic,  and 
is  quite  valuable  as  a  curative  agent  for  headache  and 
some  forms  of  indigestion.  The  slight  stimulation 
resulting  from  its  use  is  unattended  by  any  after  ill 
effects. 

It  is  good  for  soldiers,  hard-working  people,  travel- 
ers, and  others  who  are  much  exposed  to  the  rigors 
of  climate.1 

i  George  Kennan,  in  his  accounts  of  his  perilous  journeyings  through 
Siberia,  bears  ample  testimony  to  the  comforting  effects  of  hot  tea. 
Often  when  he  and  his  companion  were  chilled  through,  and  almost 
dead  with  cold  and  fatigue,  after  many  hours'  travel  over  the  frozen 
snows,  they  were  revived  by  draughts  of  hot  tea  provided  at  the 
stations. 


RECIPES  111 


COMPOSITION  OF  TEA 

Black.          Green. 

Essential  oil 60 .79 

Chlorophyl 1.84 2.22 

Wax 28 

Resin 3.64  2.22 

Gum 7.28 8.56 

Tannin 12.88 17.80 

Theine .46 43 

Extractive  matter 21.36  22.80 

Coloring  substances 19.19 23.60 

Albumen 2.80 3.00 

Fiber 28.33  ....  17.80 

Ashl 5.24 5.56 

MULDEN. 

From  Prof.  Mott's  Chart  on  the  Composition,  Digestibility, 
and  Nutritive  Value  of  Food. 

Two  of  the  most  important  points  suggested  by  a 
study  of  tea  are  the  few  adulterations  and  the  great  dif- 
ference between  different  varieties,  comparing  weight 
and  bulk.  Some  kinds  of  very  cheap  tea  are  adulter- 
ated with  sage  and  raspberry  leaves,  and  leaves  of 
other  plants  dried  to  simulate  tea,  and  often  flavored 
with  essences  to  give  an  agreeable  taste,  but  a  vast 
amount  of  the  tea  which  is  sold  is  pure.  Adulterations 
with  chemicals  are  now  rare,  on  account  of  the  exten- 
sive cultivation  of  tea  and  the  large  quantities  sold. 

Teas  vary  greatly  in  weight, —  that  is,  a  given  bulk 
of  one  tea  weighs  very  differently  from  the  same  bulk 
of  another.  This  is  especially  marked  in  the  com- 
parison of  Oolong  and  Gunpowder. 

Below  are  given  the  weights  of  a  moderate-sized 
caddy-spoon  of  each  of  these  teas. 

/•..,.-.       tfo>  of  spoons 
KINDS  OF  TEA.  Grains.       to  ggj£££ 

Oolong 39  179 

Hyson 66  106 

Gunpowder 123  57 

i  The  ash  of  tea  contains  potash,  soda,  magnesia,  phosphoric  acid, 
chlorin,  carbonic  acid,  iron,  silica,  and  traces  of  manganese. 


112  RECIPES 

From  this  it  appears  that  Gunpowder  tea,  bulk  for 
bulk,  is  more  than  three  times  as  heavy  as  Oolong; 
consequently  in  using  it  only  about  one  third  as  much 
should  be  taken  for  a  given  amount  of  water.  In  mak- 
ing the  infusion  teas  should  be  weighed,  not  measured, 
but  it  is  not  easily  practicable  in  all  households  to  do 
so  j  however,  it  can  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
closely  rolled  teas,  such  as  Gunpowder,  Young  Hyson, 
and  Japan,  should  be  used  in  smaller  proportion  than 
those  which  are  loosely  rolled,  like  Oolong,  English 
Breakfast,  and  other  black  teas. 

There  is  a  popular  notion  that  green  teas  are  dried 
on  copper,  but  according  to  unquestionable  authorities 
it  is  an  erroneous  one.  Green  teas  are  dried  quickly 
so  that  the  natural  color  of  the  leaves  is  preserved. 
Black  teas  are  dried  slowly  for  many  hours  until  a 
sort  of  fermentation  sets  in,  which  causes  the  differ- 
ence in  color,  as  pickings  from  the  same  plant  may, 
in  the  process  of  curing,  become  either  green  or  black 
tea,  according  to  the  method  employed.  Also,  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  tea  may  be  made  from  the  same 
branch  by  difference  of  treatment  in  curing,  the  aro- 
matic flavors,  which  did  not  exist  in  the  leaves  before, 
being  produced  by  the  drying.  Different  varieties  or 
kinds  of  tea  are  also  made  from  the  same  plant  by 
gathering  the  leaves  at  different  ages. 

Black  tea  should  be  black,  but  not  dead  black, — ra- 
ther of  a  grayish  hue.  No  red  leaves  should  be  mixed 
with  it.  It  should  be  regular  in  appearance,  each  leaf 
with  a  uniform  twist,  that  is,  in  all  except  the  "  broken  " 
teas.  The  leaves  of  tea  are  gathered  four  times  a  year 
by  hand,  and  the  finest  kind  is  made  from  the  tender 
young  buds.  Young  Hyson  is  made  from  the  early 
buds  of  April,  and  is  noted  for  its  mild,  delicate  flavor. 

The  principle  most  to  be  avoided  in  tea  is  the  tan- 
nin, which  in  any  considerable  quantity  is  injurious 


RECIPES  113 

to  health.  It  dissolves  easily  when  tea  is  either 
steeped  for  a  length  of  time,  or  boiled.  The  important 
point,  therefore,  is  not  to  make  tea  more  than  a  few 
minutes  before  it  is  to  be  drunk,  and  not  to  boil  it. 

The  principal  kinds  of  tea  in  common  use  are 
Oolong,  Japan,  English  Breakfast,  Imperial,  Gun- 
powder, and  Young  Hyson.  Gunpowder,  Japan, 
Young  Hyson,  and  Imperial  are  green  teas;  the  others 
are  black. 

To  Prepare  Tea. 

1  Teaspoon  of  tea. 

1  Cup  of  boiling  water. 

Fill  a  cup  with  boiling  water,  and  let  it  stand  a 
minute,  or  until  the  cup  is  heated  through.  Then 
empty  it,  put  the  teaspoon  of  tea  into  a  tea-ball, 
place  it  in  the  hot  cup,  and  pour  on  the  boiling  water 
slowly  until  it  is  full,  leaving  the  tea-ball  in  for  three 
minutes.  This  will  give  you  a  delicious  and  fragrant 
drink.  If  there  is  not  a  tea-ball  at  hand,  use  a  small 
strainer,  holding  it  so  that  the  tea  is  under  water  for 
the  required  time. 

The  same  principle  is  to  be  followed  in  making  a 
pot  of  tea,  except  that  the  time  of  steeping  should  be 
somewhat  longer.  Scald  the  pot,  which  should  be 
either  of  silver,  granite-ware,  or  earthenware,  not  tin. 
Put  into  it  the  tea,  in  the  proportion  of  one  teaspoon 
to  a  cup  of  water  (one  half  pint),  and  let  it  infuse  for 
five  minutes,  but  by  no  means  allow  it  to  boil,  for  boil- 
ing dissipates  the  aroma,  and  extracts  the  tannin, 
which  is  the  injurious  principle.  Serve  it  in  hot  tea- 
cups with  loaf-sugar  and  cold  cream  or  milk.  I  think 
it  is  Miss  Lincoln  who  says :  "  Never  disgrace  your- 
self by  serving  that  abomination,  boiled  lukewarm  tea 
in  a  cold  cup." 


114  EECIPES 

Water  for  tea  should  be  fresh,  and  soft  water — that 
is,  water  which  is  free  from  lime — is  to  be  preferred; 
by  taking  one  teaspoon  of  tea  and  a  cup  of  water  as  the 
unit,  any  amount  may  be  made ;  for  instance,  for  a  pot 
of  tea  for  five  or  six  persons,  six  teaspoons  of  tea  and 
a  quart  and  a  half  (6  cups)  of  water  will  be  required. 
The  time  of  exposure  to  the  heat  is,  of  course,  not 
multiplied,  the  same  number  of  minutes  being  enough 
for  a  greater  or  a  lesser  amount. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  tea,  it  is  a  very 
interesting  fact  that  most  authorities  agree  as  to  the 
time  of  steeping.  There  seems  to  be  the  unanimous 
opinion  that  it  should  not  exceed  fifteen  minutes.  Five 
minutes  is  the  usual  time  given  for  the  average  kinds 
of  tea,  but  for  the  fine,  pure  teas  from  eight  to  ten  is 
a  wise  rule  to  follow. 

COFFEE 

Coffee  is  a  product  of  the  East,  where  it  has  been 
used  since  very  ancient  times.  It  grows  on  trees,  the 
fruit  in  clusters  which  singly  look  somewhat  like 
cherries,  each  containing  two  beans.  Unroasted  coffee- 
beans  are  tough,  and  a  drink  made  from  them  is  bit- 
ter, acrid,  and  very  unpleasant.  Coffee  was  brought 
to  western  Europe  in  the  seventeenth  century,  where  it 
seems  to  have  immediately  become  a  popular  drink. 
When  coffee-houses  were  first  opened  in  England, 
they  were  opposed  by  the  liquor-dealers,  who  claimed 
that  their  trade  would  be  spoiled.  Its  introduction  was 
also  bitterly  opposed  by  others,  and  even  denounced 
from  the  pulpit.  It  was  regarded  somewhat  in  the 
light  of  a  dangerous  Eastern  drug.  From  western 
Europe  it  was  brought  to  America,  and  at  the  present 
time  is  the  most  extensively  used  food  beverage  in 
the  world. 


RECIPES  115 

The  kinds  in  common  use  in  this  country  are  Java 
and  Mocha  from  the  East,  and  the  South  American 
coffees  Rio,  Santos,  and  Maracaibo.  The  soil  and 
method  of  cultivation  influence  the  quality  of  coffee, 
as  does  also  the  age  of  the  beans.  The  longer  the 
beans  are  kept  (unbrowned)  the  finer  the  flavor. 

Coffee  is  adulterated  with  grains  of  different  kinds, 
chicory,  caramel,  carrots  and  some  other  roots,  and 
with  pastes  made  to  resemble  the  coffee-bean.  The 
use  of  chicory  is  prohibited  by  law,  unless  the  mixture 
be  labeled  "Mixture  of  coffee  and  chicory."  Never- 
theless, its  use  is  common,  and  in  nearly  all  hotels 
and  restaurants  coffee  is  flavored  with  it. 

"The  detection  of  the  presence  of  chicory,  caramel, 
and  some  sweet  roots,  as  turnips,  carrots,  and  parsnips, 
is  quite  easy.  If  a  few  grains  of  the  suspected  sam- 
ple are  placed  on  the  surface  of  water  in  a  glass  ves- 
sel, beaker,  or  tumbler,  each  particle  of  chicory,  etc., 
will  become  surrounded  by  a  yellow-brown  cloud 
which  rapidly  diffuses  through  the  water  until  the 
whole  becomes  colored.  Pure  coffee  under  the  same 
conditions  gives  no  sensible  color  until  after  the 
lapse  of  about  fifteen  minutes.  Caramel  (burnt  sugar) 
of  course  colors  the  water  very  deeply.  Dandelion 
root  gives  a  deeper  color  than  coffee,  but  not  as  deep 
as  chicory.  The  same  is  true  of  bread  raspings. 
Beans  and  pease  give  much  less  color  to  the  water 
than  pure  coffee.  They  can  be  readily  detected  by 
the  microscope,  as  can  roasted  figs  and  dates  or  date- 
stones."  (Mrs.  Richards,  in  "Food  Materials  and 
Their  Adulterations.") 

Coffee  is  said  to  owe  its  refreshing  properties  to  (a) 
caffeine,  (b)  a  volatile  oil  developed  by  heat,  not  con- 
tained in  the  unroasted  bean,  and  to  (c)  astringent 
acids. 

Coffee  diminishes  the  sensation  of  hunger,  exhilar- 


116  RECIPES 

ates  and  refreshes,  and  decreases  the  amount  of  wear 
and  tear  of  the  system. 

Its  composition,  according  to  Payen,  is  as  follows: 

Cellulose 34.000 

Water 12.000 

Fatty  matter   13.000 

Glucose,  dextrine,  and  undetermined  vegetable  acids  15.500 

Legumin,  casein,  etc 10.000 

Chlorogenate  of  potash  and  caffeine 3  to  5.000 

Nitrogenized  structure 3.000 

Caffeine 800 

Essential  oil 001 

Aromatic  essence 002 

Mineral  substances 6.970 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  coffee  may  be 
classed  as  a  food,  but  that  it  has  value  as  an  adjunct 
to  true  nutrients  there  can  be  no  doubt.  There  is 
a  general  agreement  among  physiologists  that  cof- 
fee is  invigorating,  that  it  aids  digestion  both  in  the 
sick  and  the  well,  that  it  is  capable  of  allaying  or 
retarding  waste  and  thereby  acting  indirectly  as  a 
food.  But  the  mistake  should  not  be  made  that  cof- 
fee will  replace  food.  Coffee  may  be  compared  in  its 
effects  on  the  system  to  beef -tea — it  is  valuable  for  its 
flavors  rather  than  for  actual  nutritious  principles. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  coffee  is  most  frequently 
made  in  such  a  way  that  its  valuable  flavors  are  un- 
developed or  destroyed.  Care  must  be  taken  that 
the  roasting  be  not  carried  so  far  as  to  char  the  cof- 
fee-beans, yet  far  enough  to  convert  the  sugar  into 
caramel,  and  to  change  the  nature  of  the  volatile  oil, 
so  that  the  highest  point  of  flavor  will  be  reached. 
This  can  be  best  accomplished  in  regular  roasting- 
houses,  where  the  temperature  and  time  may  be 
accurately  measured. 

It  is  best  to  get  a  supply  of  fresh  roasted  coffee 
every  day,  but  when  this  is  not  practicable,  once  in 


EECIPES  117 

three  days,  or  once  a  week,  will  do.  Although  theo- 
retically the  roasting  of  coffee  should  be  a  part  of  its 
preparation — that  is,  it  should  be  roasted,  immedi- 
ately ground,  and  made  into  drink — practically  it  is 
very  seldom  done. 

COFFEE.    No.  1 

A  favorite  mixed  coffee  is  made  with  two  thirds 
Java  and  one  third  Mocha.  It  should  be  ground  just 
before  it  is  -needed.  For  a  pot  of  coffee  use  the  pro- 
portions of  one  heaped  tablespoon  to  a  cup  of  water. 
It  is  well  to  calculate  the  number  of  persons  there  are 
to  be  served,  and  allow  one  cup  (one  half  pint)  for  each ; 
this  amount,  with  the  milk  or  cream  used,  will  make 
two  ordinary  china  cups  of  coffee.  To  the  ground 
coffee  add  a  little  yolk  or  white  of  egg,  with  a  spoon- 
ful of  water  to  dilute  it ;  mix  thoroughly  until  all  the 
grains  are  coated  over  with  albumen,  then  pour  on  the 
boiling  water,  simmer  for  five  minutes,  and  steep  at 
a  temperature  just  short  of  simmering  for  ten  min- 
utes more.  The  coffee  is  then  done.  It  should  be 
served  at  once  with  loaf-sugar,  and  either  hot  or  cold 
cream,  or  hot  milk.  The  coffee  should  be  perfectly 
clear  and  of  fine  color  and  flavor. 

There  are  many  methods  of  making  coffee,  but  the 
above,  everything  considered,  seems  the  most  desirable 
for  family  use.  One  egg  is  enough  to  clear  three  quarts 
of  coffee,  and  both  yolk  and  white  are  of  equal  value 
for  the  purpose. 

COFFEE.    No.  2 

For  every  cup  of  water  use  a  heaped  tablespoon  of 
coffee ;  soak  the  coffee  overnight  or  for  several  hours 
in  cold  water,  then  bring  it  to  the  boiling-point,  and 
let  it  simmer  for  a  few  minutes  just  before  using. 


118  RECIPES 

This  is  said  to  be  the  most  economical  method  of  mak- 
ing, as  more  is  obtained  from  the  coffee  by  this  treat- 
ment. The  flavor  is  certainly  fine. 

Long  boiling  dissipates  the  delicious  aromatic  oils, 
and  as  probably  these  are  the  most  valuable  properties 
of  the  coffee,  the  necessity  of  preserving  them  is  easily 
seen.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  boil  coffee  for  more 
than  from  three  to  five  minutes,  and  simmer  rather 
than  boil,  so  as  to  preserve  as  much  as  possible  the  fine 
flavors  which  are  so  quickly  dissipated  by  boiling ;  yet 
the  high  temperature  seems  to  be  necessary  to  extract 
the  desirable  properties  of  the  bean.  One  must  there- 
fore ever  bear  in  mind  the  seeming  paradox  that  coffee 
should  reach  the  boiling-point,  and  yet  not  boil. 

We  do  not  estimate  highly  enough  the  value  of 
flavors.  It  is  a  well-demonstrated  fact  among  a  few 
persons  that  many  dishes  containing  actual  nutri- 
tious principles  are  but  partially  or  imperfectly  di- 
gested, because  of  their  lack  of  good  flavor,  either 
from  want  of  proper  preparation,  lack  of  seasoning, 
or  poor  cooking.  There  is  no  doubt  that  many  peo- 
ple suffer  from  indigestion  after  eating  such  food. 

Use  in  coffee-making  either  silver,  granite-ware,  or 
earthenware  urns  or  pots,  never  tin.  They  should 
be  made  perfectly  clean  before  using,  especial  atten- 
tion being  necessary  for  the  spout. 


MULLED  WINE 

lEgg. 

1  Tablespoon  of  Sugar. 

1  Clove. 

i  Square  inch  of  cinnamon. 

£  Cup  of  wine. 

£  Cup  of  water. 


RECIPES  119 

Put  the  water  and  spice  together  in  a  saucepan,  and 
boil  for  ten  minutes;  then  add  the  wine,  and  let  the 
liquid  just  reach  the  boiling-point;  meanwhile  beat 
the  egg  and  sugar  in  a  bowl,  and  just  at  the  moment 
when  the  wine  begins  to  boil,  pour  it  slowly  into  the 
egg,  stirring  constantly  to  distribute  the  heat  through- 
out the  whole.  Unless  the  weather  is  very  cold,  there 
is  usually  enough  heat  in  the  boiling  liquid  to  coagu- 
late the  albumen  of  the  egg  slightly,  but  should  this 
not  be  accomplished,  set  it  on  the  fire  for  a  minute  to 
finish.  "When  done  it  should  be  of  the  consistency  of 
cream.  Do  not  let  the  wine  and  water  boil  for  any 
appreciable  time,  for  boiling  dissipates  some  of  the 
pleasant  flavor  of  the  wine. 

Beer,  ale,  and  porter  are  excellent,  mulled  in  the 
same  way. 

COCOA   CORDIAL 

£  Teaspoon  of  Dutch  cocoa. 
Some  boiling  water. 
2  Blocks  of  loaf-sugar. 
2  Tablespoons  of  port  wine. 

Put  the  cocoa  and  sugar  into  a  china  cup,  and  pour 
directly  upon  them  some  boiling  water,  then  add  the 
wine,  making  in  all  the  usual  amount  called  a  cupful. 
Serve  at  once.  This  is  an  excellent  drink  for  those 
who  are  chilled  or  exhausted,  or  to  take  after  a  bath. 


JELLIES 

(FROM  GELATINE) 

Gelatin  is  always  of  animal  origin.  The  gelatinous 
substance  obtained  from  apples,  grapes,  cranberries, 
and  other  fruits  is  not  gelatin;  it  is  a  different  ma- 
terial, derived  by  the  action  of  heat  from  pectose,  a 
substance  which  occurs  in  plants  and  is  closely  asso- 
ciated with  cellulose.  Unprepared  gelatin  is  some- 
times distinguished  in  writing  from  the  gelatine  of 
commerce  by  the  difference  of  an  e  in  spelling. 

Gelatin  enters  into  the  composition  of  all,  or  nearly 
all,  the  tissues  of  the  body.  The  walls  of  the  micro- 
scopic cells  of  flesh  are  composed  of  it.  It  is  found 
also  in  cartilage,  tendons,  connective  tissue,  bone,  and 
in  the  larynx  and  joints.  Spiders'  webs  and  the  thread 
of  silkworms  are  gelatin  in  a  liquid  state,  which  so- 
lidifies upon  exposure  to  the  air.  Another  kind  of 
gelatin  forms  the  framework  of  insects,  such  as  the 
locusts  on  which  John  the  Baptist  fed.  It  also  forms 
the  true  skeleton  of  lobsters,  crabs,  and  shrimps. 
The  edible  birds'  nests  of  the  Chinese  are  a  delicate 
kind  of  gelatin  more  digestible  than  some  other  kinds, 
for  it  is  made  from  the  saliva  of  a  swallow,  and  prob- 
ably contains  pepsin.  (M.  Williams.) 

The  part  which  gelatin  plays  as  a  food  is  not  well 
understood.  Many  experiments  have  recently  been 
made  by  scientists  on  dogs  and  other  animals,  to  test 
the  value  of  gelatin  in  this  respect.  From  these  ex- 
periments the  following  conclusions  have  been  drawn: 

120 


RECIPES  121 

1.  That  gelatin  alone  is  not  sufficient  as  a  food.  2. 
That  although  insufficient  it  is  not  worthless.  3.  That 
gelatin  is  sufficient  to  sustain  life  when  combined 
with  other  substances  which  would  themselves  be 
wholly  insufficient  if  given  alone.  4.  That  gelatin 
must  always  be  flavored  to  render  it  digestible  and 
nutritious. 

Mattieu  Williams  says :  "  It  would  seem  that  gela- 
tin alone,  although  containing  the  elements  required 
for  nutrition,  needs  something  more  to  render  it  di- 
gestible. We  shall  probably  not  be  far  from  the  truth 
if  we  picture  it  to  the  mind  as  something  too  smooth, 
too  neutral,  too  inert,  to  set  the  digestive  organs  at 
work,  and  that  therefore  it  requires  the  addition  of  a 
decidedly  sapid  something  that  shall  make  these  or- 
gans act." 

Gelatin  dissolves  easily  in  warm  liquid.  Albumen 
coagulates  under  similar  circumstances. 

The  gelatine  of  commerce  is  made  from  the  tissues 
of  animals,  particularly  from  the  thick  skin  of  certain 
portions  of  the  body  and  from  the  head  and  feet. 
When  well  flavored  and  in  a  liquid  state  as  in  broths, 
or  of  a  tender  consistency  as  in  well-made  jelly,  it  is 
a  most  desirable  food  for  the  sick.  Lemon  and  orange 
juice,  strawberry,  raspberry,  grape,  and  indeed  any 
fruit  syrup,  coffee,  cocoa,  vanilla,  wine,  brandy,  and 
Jamaica  rum,  and  strong  meat  broths  which  have 
been  cleared,  may  be  used  for  flavoring.  The  jelly 
should  not  be  made  hard  and  tenacious,  but  tender 
and  jelly-like,  though  firm. 

The  phosphated  gelatine  which  may  be  bought  of 
any  grocer  is  delicious  for  wine  jelly  made  accord- 
ing to  the  usual  rule  for  jelly,  with  the  exception  of 
omitting  the  lemon.  Chalmer's  and  Nelson's  are  other 
well-known  brands.  All  jellies  made  with  gelatine 
are  excellent  for  invalids.  They  are  especially  valu- 


122  RECIPES 

able  in  cases  of  disease  of  the  intestines,  such  as 
typhoid  fever  and  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  be- 
cause, being  digested  and  absorbed,  for  the  most 
part  or  entirely,  in  the  stomach,  those  organs  are  re- 
lieved of  effort,  at  the  same  time  that  the  system  is 
supplied  with  a  nutritious  form  of  solid  food. 


WINE  JELLY.    No.  1 

J  Box  of  Nelson's  gelatine, 
i  Cup  of  cold  water. 
1J  Cups  of  boiling  water. 
£  Cup  of  sugar. 
£  Square  inch  of  cinnamon. 
1  Clove. 
£  Cup  of  sherry  wine. 

Put  the  gelatine  and  cold  water  together  in  a  dish 
large  enough  to  hold  the  whole  mixture;  let  it 
soak  for  half  an  hour;  then  pour  the  boiling  water, 
in  which  the  clove  and  cinnamon  have  been  sim- 
mering, over  the  softened  gelatine,  add  the  sugar 
and  wine,  and  stir  until  the  sugar  and  gelatine  are 
perfectly  dissolved;  then  strain  through  a  fine  nap- 
kin into  a  granite-ware  or  earthenware  pan  or  mold, 
and  cool  it  in  a  refrigerator  or  in  a  pan  of  iced 
water.  Wine  jelly  made  from  phosphated  gelatine, 
omitting  the  spice,  is  delicious. 


WINE  JELLY  (No.  2)  WITH  LEMON 

The  same  proportions  and  ingredients  are  to  be 
used  as  in  the  above  recipe,  except  that  the  juice  of 
half  a  lemon  should  be  substituted  for  the  spice. 


KECIPES  123 


LEMON  JELLY 

J  Box  of  gelatine. 
£  Cup  of  cold  water. 
1£  Cups  of  boiling  water. 
£  Cup  of  sugar. 
J  Cup  of  lemon-juice. 
1  Tablespoon  of  brandy. 

Put  the  gelatine  and  water  together  in  a  dish,  and 
let  them  soak  half  an  hour;  then  pour  on  the  boiling 
water,  and  stir  until  the  gelatine  is  dissolved.  Do 
not  put  in  the  sugar  and  then  pour  on  the  boiling 
water,  as  there  may  not  be  heat  enough  in  making  a 
small  quantity  of  jelly  to  dissolve  both,  but  add  the 
sugar  after  the  water,  then  the  lemon-juice  and 
brandy.  Strain  it  through  a  napkin  and  cool  it  in  a 
refrigerator  or  in  a  pan  of  iced  water.  Use  china  or 
granite-ware  molds,  never  tin,  for  the  acid  of  lemon 
acts  chemically  upon  it,  forming  compounds  that  are 
injurious  to  health. 

ORANGE  JELLY 

£  Box  of  gelatine. 
|  Cup  of  cold  water. 
£  Cup  of  boiling  water. 
£  Cup  of  sugar. 
1  Cup  of  orange-juice. 
Juice  of  half  a  lemon. 

Soften  the  gelatine  in  the  cold  water  by  soaking  it 
for  half  an  hour;  then  pour  in  the  boiling  water,  stir- 
ring as  previously  directed  until  the  gelatine  is  dis- 
solved; add  the  sugar,  orange-juice,  and  lemon-juice, 


124  RECIPES 

in  the  order  in  which  they  are  given,  stir  for  a  mo- 
ment, and  then  strain  the  liquid  through  a  napkin  into 
molds,  and  set  it  to  cool.  Use  earthenware  or  granite- 
ware  molds,  not  tin.  The  point  most  to  be  observed 
in  making  this  jelly  is  getting  the  juice  from  the 
oranges.  The  most  natural  way  for  one  to  do  would 
be  to  cut  the  oranges  in  halves,  and  squeeze  them  in 
a  lemon-squeezer,  but  that  will  not  do,  for  the  orange- 
oil  of  the  rind  is  extracted  in  such  large  quantities 
as  to  destroy  the  delicate  flavor  of  the  jelly.  The 
proper  way  to  do  is  to  peel  the  fruit,  cut  it  in  pieces, 
put  them  in  a  jelly-bag,  and  squeeze  out  the  juice 
with  the  hand. 

COFFEE  JELLY 

£  Box  of  gelatine. 
J  Cup  of  cold  water. 
1  Cup  of  boiling  water. 
£  Cup  of  strong  coffee. 
£  Teaspoon  of  vanilla. 
£  Cup  of  sugar. 

Soak  the  gelatine  in  the  cold  water  for  half  an  hour ; 
then  pour  on  the  boiling  water,  and  put  in  the  sugar, 
coffee,  and  vanilla.  Strain  it  through  a  napkin  into  a 
glass  dish  in  which  it  may  be  served,  and  cool  it  as  j  ellies 
are  usually  cooled,  either  in  a  refrigerator  or  in  cold 
water,unless  of  course  it  is  winter,  when  the  j  elly  quickly 
becomes  firm  in  any  cool  place,  or  it  may  be  molded. 
Serve  it  with  sweet  cream  and  sugar,  or,  if  it  be 
molded, with  whipped  cream  arranged  around  the  form. 
The  coffee  should  be  strong,  made  with  the  propor- 
tion of  two  tablespoons  of  coffee  to  a  cup  of  water. 

This  delicious  jelly  is  acceptable  to  most  invalids. 


EECIPES  125 


FRENCH  JELLY  WITH  FRESH  FRUITS 

Make  a  wine  jelly  according  to  the  recipe  on  page 
122.  When  it  has  lost  some  of  its  heat,  but  before  it 
begins  to  thicken,  pour  into  it  a  pint  of  carefully 
picked  and  cleaned  raspberries,  distributing  them 
evenly  through  the  liquid ;  then  set  it  away  in  a  cool 
place,  or  in  a  refrigerator,  to  harden.  This  makes  a 
nice  dessert  when  served  with  sugar  and  cream.  Other 
fruits  and  other  jellies  may  be  combined  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  maker.  Orange  jelly  with  oranges  and 
bananas  is  very  good. 


RESTORATIVE  JELLY 

£  Box  of  gelatine. 
1  Cup  of  port  wine. 

1  Tablespoon  of  powdered  gum  arabic. 

2  Tablespoons  of  lemon-juice. 

3  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 
2  Cloves. 

£  Square  inch  of  cinnamon. 

Put  the  gelatine,  wine,  and  spice  into  a  double 
boiler,  or  if  one  is  not  at  hand,  improvise  one  by 
placing  a  bowl  in  a  pan  of  water.  Set  the  boiler  on 
the  fire,  and  when  the  gelatine  is  dissolved,  put  in 
the  gum  arabic,  lemon,  and  sugar.  Stir  thoroughly ; 
strain  it  quickly  through  a  fine  napkin,  and  cool  it  in 
a  shallow  dish,  so  that  the  layer  of  jelly  shall  be  an 
inch  thick.  It  is  to  be  cut  into  cubes,  which  may  be 
served  two  or  three  at  a  time,  to  be  held  in  the  mouth 
until  melted. 


126  EECIPES 


CHICKEN  JELLY 

Clean  a  small  chicken,  disjoint  it,  and  cut  the 
meat  into  small  pieces;  remove  the  fat,  break  or 
pound  the  bones,  and  put  all  into  cold  water,  using 
the  following  proportion :  A  pint  for  every  pound  of 
chicken.  Heat  the  water  very  slowly  at  first,  and 
then  simmer  it  until  the  meat  is  tender;  it  will  re- 
quire three  or  four  hours.  Boil  down  to  one  half  the 
quantity.  Strain  it  and  remove  the  fat;  then  clear 
it  with  an  egg,  and  season  it  with  salt,  pepper,  and 
lemon.  Strain  it  through  a  fine  napkin,  pour  into 
small  cups,  and  cool.  Parsley,  celery,  and  bay -leaves 
give  a  good  flavor.  A  suspicion  of  red  pepper  is  also 
an  addition. 


PUNCHEON  JELLY 

£  Box  of  phosphated  gelatine. 

1  Cup  of  cold  water. 

£  Cup  of  hot  tea. 

£  Cup  of  sugar. 

\  Cup  of  Jamaica  rum. 

1  Tablespoon  of  brandy. 

5  Drops  of  almond  extract. 

Put  the  gelatine  to  soak  in  the  cold  water,  and  at 
the  end  of  thirty  minutes  pour  on  the  hot  tea ;  then 
add  the  sugar,  rum,  brandy,  and  almond:  strain  it 
through  a  fine  napkin,  and  set  it  in  a  cool  place  to 
become  firm. 

Phosphated  gelatine  is  a  delicate  acidulated  prep- 
aration, very  nice  for  wine,  lemon,  or  puncheon  jelly. 


EECIPES  127 

but  it  cannot  be  used  for  creams  on  account  of  the 
acid,  which  curdles  them.  Some  of  the  directions  in- 
dicate that  it  may  be  neutralized  with  soda;  that, 
however,  should  not  be  done,  since  there  is  no  accu- 
rate means  of  ascertaining  how  much  acid  there  is  in 
a  given  amount,  or  how  strong  it  is;  consequently 
there  is  no  guide  to  the  amount  of  soda  required. 


TOAST 

The  principal  constituent  of  ordinary  wheaten 
bread  is  starch. 

When  starch  is  subjected  to  a  high  temperature,  it  is 
changed  into  the  easily  digested  substance  dextrine. 
In  the  ordinary  cooking  of  a  loaf  of  bread,  the  starch 
in  the  outer  layers  is  changed  into  dextrine,  which 
helps  to  give  the  crust  of  bread  that  peculiar,  agree- 
able flavor  which  we  call  "  sweet."  Slices  of  bread 
undergo  a  similar  change  when  toast  is  made. 

To  make  toast  successfully,  one  should  endeavor  to 
convert  as  much  as  possible  of  the  starch  into  dex- 
trine. To  do  this,  cut  the  bread  one  third  of  an  inch 
thick,  place  the  slices  in  a  toaster,  or  wire  broiler,  and 
dry  them  slowly,  either  in  a  moderate  oven,  or  by 
holding  the  broiler  some  distance  from  the  fire.  The 
object  is  to  give  the  heat  time  to  penetrate  to  the  cen- 
ter of  the  slice  before  the  outside  has  begun  to  change 
color.  If  a  sheath  be  formed  over  the  outside  at  once, 
the  moisture  will  be  shut  in,  and  the  middle  of  the 
slice  will  be  prevented  from  becoming  sufficiently 
hearted  to  change  its  starch,  for  the  temperature  will 
not  rise  much  above  212°  Fahr.  until  the  water  is 
dried  out.  (Starch  is  changed  into  dextrine  at  401° 
Fahr.) 

Toast  that  is  clammy  in  the  middle  and  blackened 
on  the  outside  is  less  wholesome  than  untoasted 
bread.  Great  care  should  therefore  be  taken  with 
the  drying.  When  this  has  been  accomplished,  lower 

128 


EECIPES  129 

the  broiler  a  little  nearer  the  coals,  when  the  toast 
will  quickly  turn  a  golden  brown.  An  ideal  piece 
of  toast  is  crisp  and  golden  throughout.  But  many 
will  say  that  they  prefer  toast  that  is  soft  inside, 
and  that  they  cannot  eat  hard,  dry  toast.  The  ideal 
piece  of  toast  is  not  really  so  hard  as  it  seems. 
It  breaks  and  crumbles  very  easily,  and  is  quickly 
moistened  by  the  saliva.  If  one  would  persevere  with 
a  slice,  he  would  soon  learn  to  prefer  it  to  any  other 
kind;  at  all  events,  that  which  is  soft  inside  should 
not  be  given  to  the  sick.  It  is  better  to  make  the  toast 
dry,  and  then  moisten  it,  if  need  be,  by  dipping  the 
slices  into  hot  water  for  an  instant,  but  do  not  soak 
them. 

Dry  toast  should  be  served  directly  from  the  fire,  if 
possible.  When  this  is  not  practicable,  pile  it  on  a 
platter,  cover  it  with  a  napkin,  and  put  it  on  the  hearth 
or  in  the  oven. 

Toast  is  given  in  all  slight  cases  of  illness,  because 
it  is  so  easily  digested.  The  more  thorough  the  con- 
version of  the  starch,  the  more  easily  and  perfectly 
the  system  will  manage  it,  for  the  change  of  starch 
into  dextrine,  by  the  action  of  heat,  is  simply  doing 
outside  of  the  body  that  which  takes  place  in  it  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  digestion,  by  the  action  of  the  di- 
gestive fluids.  Therefore,  when  this  is  accomplished 
by  artificial  means,  nature  is  spared  so  much  energy. 


BUTTERED  WATER  TOAST 

Toast  four  thin  slices  of  bread.  Put  into  a  shallow 
pan  a  pint  of  water  with  half  a  teaspoon  of  salt.  Dip 
each  slice  quickly  into  the  water,  place  it  in  a  covered 
dish,  and  spread  it  with  butter,  piling  one  slice  above 
another. 


130  RECIPES 

Do  not  let  the  bread  soak  in  the  water.  Endeavor 
to  keep  a  suggestion  of  crispness  in  it,  for  sloppy, 
sodden  toast  is  not  nice.  Serve  it  very  hot,  with  apple 
sauce,  sweet  baked  apples,  or  tart  jelly.  Water  toast 
is  really  delicious  if  care  is  taken  to  have  it  hot.  It 
will  be  eaten  with  relish  much  longer  than  that  made 
with  milk. 

MILE  TOAST 

Put  a  cup  of  rich  milk  into  a  saucepan,  and  place  it 
on  the  stove.  While  it  is  heating,  toast  three  slices  of 
bread  a  delicate  brown.  Put  them  one  at  a  time  into 
a  covered  dish,  and  when  the  milk  is  boiling  hot  season 
it  with  a  saltspoon  of  salt  and  pour  it  over  the  bread. 
A  little  butter  may  be  spread  upon  each  slice  before 
the  milk  is  poured  over,  but  it  is  a  more  delicate  dish 
without  it. 

CREAM  TOAST 

1  Pint  of  milk. 

1  Tablespoon  of  flour. 

1  Tablespoon  of  butter. 

1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

4  Large  or  6  small  slices  of  bread. 

Make  a  white  sauce  with  the  milk,  flour,  and  butter 
according  to  the  following  directions.  Pour  the  milk 
into  a  saucepan,  and  set  it  on  the  fire  to  heat.  Put 
the  butter  and  flour  together  in  another  saucepan, 
place  it  on  the  fire,  and  stir  gently  until  the  butter 
melts;  let  them  bubble  together  two  or  three  min- 
utes. The  high  temperature  which  the  butter  quickly 
attains  will  thoroughly  cook  the  flour  in  a  short  time. 
Then  pour  in  a  little  of  the  milk,  and  stir  until  the 


RECIPES  131 

two  are  mixed;  add  a  little  more  milk,  and  stir  again 
until  it  bubbles ;  if  at  this  point  the  mixture  does  not 
seem  smooth,  lift  it  from  the  fire,  and  beat  it  until  it  is 
waxy  and  perfectly  free  from  lumps.  Then  add  more 
milk,  stir  again,  and  so  continue  until  all  the  milk  is 
in.  Let  it  simmer  slowly  until  the  toast  is  ready, 
which  should  be  made  according  to  the  rule  for  dry 
toast.  Then  soak  the  slices  in  boiling  salted  milk 
(four  if  from  a  large,  and  six  if  from  a  small  loaf  of 
bread),  arrange  them  in  a  covered  dish,  and  pour  the 
cream,  salted,  between  and  over  them.  Irregular 
pieces  and  odds  and  ends  of  bread  may  be  used  in- 
stead of  whole  slices,  and  are  very  nice  toasted  in  a  tin 
pan  in  the  oven. 

One  precaution  is  necessary  in  making  this  dish ; 
that  is,  to  soak  the  bread  thoroughly  in  the  boiling 
milk,  for  the  sauce  or  cream  is  too  thick  to  soften  it. 
On  account  of  the  high  temperature  to  which  the 
butter  rises,  the  starch  is  more  perfectly  cooked  in  it 
than  if  the  flour  were  mixed  with  cold  water  and 
poured  into  the  boiling  milk,  as  is  sometimes  done. 


FRENCH  OR  EGG  TOAST 

lEgg. 

1  Cup  of  milk  or  cream. 
1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 
3  Slices  of  bread. 

Break  the  egg  on  a  plate,  and  beat  it  with  a  fork  for 
a  minute,  or  until  the  viscousness  is  destroyed.  Then 
mix  in  the  milk  and  salt.  In  this  mixture  soak  the 
slices  of  bread  until  they  are  soft,  lay  them  in  a  but- 
tered omelet-pan,  and  fry  them  slowly  until  a  golden 
brown.  Then  place  a  bit  of  butter  on  the  upper  side 


132  RECIPES 


of  each  slice,  turn  and  brown  that  side.  Spread  a 
little  butter,  powdered  cinnamon,  and  sugar  on  each 
slice  and  arrange  them  one  above  another  in  a  covered 
dish.  Serve  very  hot. 


CROUTONS 

Crouton  is  a  French  word  which  in  English  means 
crust.  The  term  was  first  applied  to  the  paste  of  saw- 
dust, flour,  and  water  in  which  the  peasants  of  south- 
ern France  used  long  ago  to  inclose  their  pieces  of 
meat  before  roasting.  After  the  meat  was  done  the 
crust  was  broken  open  and  thrown  away.  The  word 
with  us  is  applied  to  little  cubes  of  buttered  bread 
which  have  been  browned  in  the  oven.  They  are  used 
in  soups  and  stews,  sprinkled  in  just  before  serving. 

To  Make  Croutons.  Butter  a  slice  of  evenly  cut 
bread.  Divide  it  into  cubes  that  will  be  one  third  of 
an  inch  on  a  side.  This  will  necessitate  cutting  the 
slice  of  bread  exactly  a  third  of  an  inch  thick.  Place 
these  little  cubes  on  a  tin  plate,  or  shallow  dish,  and 
put  the  dish  on  the  grate  in  a  moderate  oven  for 
fifteen  minutes.  When  done  they  should  be  light 
golden  brown  throughout,  crisp  and  brittle.  Some- 
times cubes  of  bread  are  fried  in  fat  to  resemble 
croutons,  but  unless  done  by  a  skilful  hand  they  are 
usually  soaked  with  fat.  Even  at  the  best  they  lack 
the  delicate  flavor  of  those  which  are  buttered,  and 
browned  in  an  oven. 


SIPPETS 

Sippets  are  evenly  cut  oblongs  of  bread  delicately 
toasted.    They  may  be  served  as  dry  toast,  or  with 


BECIPES  133 

broiled  birds  or  broiled  oysters.    They  are  also  nice 
for  a  lunch  with  a  cup  of  tea  or  cocoa. 

To  Make  Sippets.  Cut  thin  slices  of  bread,  and  from 
them  make  oblongs  one  inch  wide  by  four  inches 
long.  Toast  carefully  so  that  they  will  not  break, 
and  pile  on  a  small  bread-plate  if  they  are  to  be 
served  dry. 

VERMICELLI  TOAST 

Prepare  a  cream  toast  according  to  the  rule  on  page 
130,  except  arrange  the  slices  on  a  platter  and  pour  the 
sauce  evenly  over  them.  Press  through  a  coarse  wire 
strainer  enough  hard-boiled  yolk  of  egg  to  lightly 
cover  it.  It  will  fall  in  irregular,  broken,  crinkled 
threads,  somewhat  resembling  vermicelli,  hence  the 
name. 


SOUPS 

OYSTER  SOUP 

1  Cup  of  fresh  oysters. 
1  Cup  of  milk. 

1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

2  Tablespoons  of  rolled  cracker-crumbs. 
A  sprinkle  of  pepper. 

J  Teaspoon  of  butter. 

Put  the  milk  with  the  cracker-crumbs  into  a  sauce- 
pan on  the  stove;  while  it  is  heating  pick  over  the 
oysters  on  a  plate,  and  remove  any  bits  of  shell  that 
may  be  among  them.  Have  a  hot  omelet-pan  ready 
to  receive  them,  and  when  the  milk  reaches  the  boil- 
ing-point, put  the  oysters  into  the  omelet-pan.  Stir 
and  turn  them  until  they  become  plump,  or  while 
about  sixty  can  be  slowly  counted ;  then  drop  the 
oysters  into  the  boiling  milk,  take  it  immediately 
from  the  fire,  add  the  salt,  pepper,  and  butter,  and 
serve  at  once.  The  point  which  requires  the  most  at- 
tention is  the  cooking  of  the  oysters  in  the  omelet- 
pan.  Do  not  let  them  cook  quite  enough,  as  the  milk 
has  sufficient  heat  to  finish  them.  If  too  long  ex- 
posed to  the  heat,  the  albuminous  juice  becomes  over- 
cooked, and  the  oysters  consequently  tough  and 
leathery.  For  thickening  oyster  soup,  two  tablespoons 
of  white  sauce  may  be  substituted  for  the  cracker- 
crumbs. 

134 


RECIPES  135 


CHICKEN   SOUP 

Thoroughly  clean  a  good  fowl.  Separate  it  at  the 
joints  and  cut  it  into  small  pieces.  Put  the  meat  into 
a  saucepan  with  three  pints  of  water,  and  stew  it  for 
two  and  one  half  or  three  hours,  or  until  it  becomes 
very  tender.  Then  take  out  the  meat,  let  the  liquor 
continue  to  boil,  and  to  it  add  one  tablespoon  of  rice, 
one  tablespoon  of  finely  cut  onion  which  has  been 
fried  with  a  bit  of  butter  until  soft,  but  not  brown, 
and  three  peppercorns.  Cut  the  nicer  portions  of  the 
meat  into  small  pieces,  after  removing  all  the  skin, 
gristle,  and  bone.  Put  these  pieces,  with  one  tea- 
spoon of  salt,  into  the  soup,  and  let  all  simmer  until 
the  rice  is  very  soft.  Then  take  out  the  peppercorns. 
A  very  little  white  pepper  and  a  little  celery-salt  or 
curry-powder  may  be  added.  Serve  hot  with  crou- 
tons. If  the  water  boils  away  during  the  cooking, 
which  it  will  do  unless  the  simmering  is  very  gentle, 
restore  the  quantity. 


MOCK-BISftUE   SOUP 

1  Pint  of  tomatoes,  measured  after  they 

have  been  stewed  and  strained. 
1  Pint  of  white  sauce. 
1  Teaspoon  of  salt. 
£  Saltspoon  of  pepper. 
£  Saltspoon  of  soda. 

Although  mock-bisque  soup  is  better  made  with 
fresh  tomatoes,  the  canned  fruit  may  be  used,  with 
the  precaution  that  it  be  allowed  to  stew  only  just 
long  enough  to  soften  it  through,  for  long  boiling 


136  RECIPES 

develops  in  it  a  very  strong  acid.  When  the  toma- 
toes are  soft,  strain  them  through  a  soup-strainer,  or 
other  coarse  wire  strainer,  until  there  is  nothing  left 
but  the  seeds.  Measure  a  pint  of  the  liquid,  add  the 
soda,  salt,  and  pepper,  and  set  it  on  the  stove  to  heat 
slowly.  Meanwhile  make  a  white  sauce  with  one  ta- 
blespoon of  butter,  one  of  flour,  and  a  pint  of  milk, 
according  to  the  rule  on  page  130.  Add  this  sauce  to 
the  tomato,  strain  all  into  a  double  boiler,  return  to 
the  fire,  and  serve  as  soon  as  it  becomes  steaming  hot. 

If  fresh  tomatoes  can  be  obtained,  wash  and  wipe 
them,  cut  out  the  green  part  near  the  stem,  divide 
them  into  small  pieces  without  taking  off  the  skins, 
and  stew  without  water  until  the  fruit  is  just  soft 
enough  to  mash.  If  the  tomatoes  are  fully  ripe  and 
carefully  cooked,  they  will  not  require  the  soda,  but 
when  soda  is  necessary,  fresh  tomatoes  need  only  half 
the  amount  used  for  canned  fruit. 

This  is  an  appetizing  and  delicate  soup,  and  may 
be  freely  used  by  most  invalids. 


POTATO   SOUP 

3  Medium-sized  potatoes. 

1  Teaspoon  of  chopped  onion. 

2  Saltspoons  of  celery-salt,  or  3  stalks 
1  Teaspoon  of  salt.  [of  celery. 
A  little  white  pepper. 

A  speck  of  cayenne. 

1  Teaspoon  of  flour. 

2  Teaspoons  of  butter. 
1  Pint  of  milk. 

Pare  and  boil  the  potatoes.   Cook  the  onion  and  cel- 
ery in  the  milk,  with  which  make  a  white  sauce  with 


EECIPES  137 

the  flour  and  butter.  When  the  potatoes  are  done, 
drain  off  the  water  and  dry  them  over  the  fire  by  mov- 
ing the  pan  back  and  forth  on  the  stove  to  keep  them 
from  sticking.  Then,  without  removing  the  pan  from 
the  fire,  mash  them  thoroughly  with  a  potato-masher, 
and  put  in  the  sauce,  pepper,  cayenne,  and  salt;  strain 
all  through  a  soup-strainer,  and  if  the  consistency  be 
not  perfectly  smooth  and  even,  strain  it  again.  Put 
it  into  a  double  boiler,  set  back  on  the  stove,  and 
when  hot  it  is  ready  to  serve.  If  the  soup  seems  very 
thick,  add  a  little  more  milk,  for  some  potatoes  are 
drier  than  others,  and  will  consequently  absorb  more 
moisture.  It  should  be  like  a  thin  puree. 

This  soup  may  be  varied  by  using  a  quart  instead 
of  a  pint  of  milk,  and  the  whites  of  two  eggs  well 
beaten,  the  latter  to  be  added  just  two  minutes  before 
it  is  removed  from  the  fire,  which  will  be  sufficient 
time  for  the  egg  to  cook.  Care  should  be  taken  not 
to  allow  the  egg  to  harden,  or  the  soup  will  have  a 
curdled  appearance. 


CREAM-OF-CELERY  SOUP 

1  Head  of  celery. 

1  Pint  of  water. 

1  Pint  of  milk. 

1  Tablespoon  of  butter. 

1  Tablespoon  of  flour. 

£  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

£  Saltspoon  of  white  pepper. 

Wash  and  scrape  the  celery,  cut  it  into  half -inch 
pieces,  put  it  into  the  pint  of  boiling  water,  and  cook 
until  it  is  very  soft.  When  done  mash  it  in  the  water 
in  which  it  was  boiled,  and  add  the  salt  and  pepper. 


138  EECIPES 

Cook  the  onion  in  the  milk,  and  with  it  make  a  white 
sauce  with  the  butter  and  flour;  add  this  to  the  celery, 
and  strain  it  through  a  soup-strainer,  pressing  and 
mashing  with  the  back  of  a  spoon  until  all  but  a  few 
tough  fibers  of  the  celery  are  squeezed  through.  Re- 
turn the  soup,  in  a  double  boiler,  to  the  fire,  and  heat 
it  until  it  is  steaming,  when  it  is  ready  to  serve. 

By  substituting  chicken  broth  for  water,  and  using 
celery-salt  instead  of  fresh  celery  when  it  is  not  in  sea- 
son, a  very  acceptable  variation  of  this  soup  may  be 
*oade. 

CREAM-OF-RICE  SOUP 

J  Cup  of  rice. 

1  Pint  of  chicken  broth  or  stock. 

1  Pint  of  sweet  cream. 

1  Teaspoon  of  chopped  onion. 

1  Stalk  of  celery. 

3  Saltspoons  of  salt. 

A  little  white  pepper. 

£  Saltspoon  of  curry-powder. 

Pick  over  and  wash  the  rice,  and  put  it  into  the 
chicken  broth  in  a  saucepan  to  cook.  Simmer  it  slowly 
until  the  rice  is  very  soft.  It  will  require  two  hours' 
cooking  to  accomplish  this.  Half  an  hour  before  the 
rice  is  done  put  the  cream  into  a  saucepan  with  the 
onion,  celery,  pepper,  and  curry,  and  let  them  simmer 
slowly  for  twenty  minutes;  then  pour  the  mixture 
into  the  rice;  press  all  through  a  soup-strainer;  add 
the  salt,  and  set  it  back  on  the  stove  to  heat  to  the 
boiling-point  It  should  be  a  rather  thin  soup,  not  a 
puree.  Should  the  broth  boil  away  while  the  rice  is 
cooking,  or  should  the  soup  be  too  thick,  add  more 
broth,  or  some  water. 


RECIPES  139 


QUEEN  VICTORIA'S  FAVORITE   SOUP 

1  Cup  of  chopped  chicken  meat. 

1  Pint  of  strong  chicken  broth. 

1  Pint  of  sweet  cream. 

£  Cup  of  cracker-  or  bread-crumbs. 

3  Yolks  of  eggs. 

1  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

£  Saltspoon  of  pepper. 

The  chicken  may  be  obtained  from  what  remains  of 
a  roast,  in  which  case  the  bones,  skin,  tendons,  and  all 
the  scraps  left  should  be  boiled  for  the  broth.  It  is 
better,  however,  to  use  a  fowl  which  has  been  cooked 
on  purpose,  as  the  broth  from  such  a  one  is  of  finer 
flavor.  Soak  the  cracker-crumbs  in  a  little  of  the 
cream.  Break  three  eggs,  separate  the  whites  from 
the  yolks,  and  carefully  drop  the  yolks  into  hot  water; 
boil  them  until  they  are  hard.  Chop  the  chicken  in  a 
chopping-tray  until  it  is  as  fine  as  meal,  previously 
having  removed  everything  except  the  clear  meat; 
mix  the  soaked  cracker  with  it ;  press  the  hard  egg- 
yolks  through  a  coarse  wire  strainer  and  put  them  in, 
and  also  the  salt,  pepper,  and  broth.  Then  strain  the 
whole  through  a  colander,  adding  the  cream  a  little 
at  a  time,  and  pressing  through  all  of  the  meat.  Boil 
it  for  five  minutes  in  a  saucepan,  or  cook  it  in  a 
double  boiler  for  half  an  hour.  This  makes  a  deli- 
cious soup. 

CHICKEN-TAPIOCA  SOUP 

2  Tablespoons  of  tapioca. 

£  Cup  of  cold  water. 

1  Pint  of  strong  chicken  broth  or  white  stock. 


140  RECIPES 

1  Pint  of  milk. 

1  Stalk  of  celery,  or  some  celery-salt. 

1  Tablespoon  of  chopped  onion. 

£  Square  inch  of  mace. 

1  Scant  teaspoon  of  salt. 

£  Saltspoon  of  white  pepper. 

£  Teaspoon  of  butter. 

The  broth  for  this  dish  may  be  made  by  boiling  the 
bones  of  a  roast  with  the  left-over  pieces  of  meat,  and 
then  reducing  the  liquor  until  it  is  strong  enough. 
Put  the  tapioca  to  soak  in  the  cold  water,  overnight 
if  it  be  the  common,  coarse  kind,  but  if  pearl  or  gran- 
ulated tapioca  is  used,  twenty  minutes  will  do.  Then 
add  the  chicken  stock,  and  simmer  it  until  the  tapioca 
is  completely  softened.  It  will  require  two  or  three 
hours.  About  half  an  hour  before  the  tapioca  will  be 
done,  put  the  milk,  celery,  onion,  and  mace  into  a 
saucepan  to  cook,  and  as  soon  as  the  tapioca  becomes 
soft  pour  it  in  °,  remove  from  the  fire,  and  strain  the 
whole  through  a  wire  strainer,  forcing  through  with 
a  spoon  all  the  grains  of  tapioca.  Then  add  the  salt, 
pepper,  and  butter ;  set  it  back  on  the  stove,  and  heat 
it  just  to  the  boiling-point,  when  it  is  ready  to  serve. 


BEEF-TAPIOCA  SOUP 

|  Cup  of  granulated  tapioca. 

£  Cups  of  water. 

1  Pint  of  strong  beef  broth. 

£  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

£  Teaspoon  of  mixed  sweet  herbs. 

1  Teaspoon  of  minced  onion. 

A  little  black  pepper. 


RECIPES  141 

Soak  the  tapioca  for  twenty  minutes  in  a  half  cup 
of  cold  water,  then  set  it  to  cook  in  a  double  boiler 
with  the  rest  of  the  water  (one  cupful).  When  the 
grains  become  soft  and  begin  to  look  transparent,  put 
in  all  the  other  ingredients  and  cook  until  the  tapioca 
is  completely  dissolved.  This  will  require  two  or 
three  hours.  Strain  it,  and  return  it  to  the  fire  to 
boil  for  five  minutes,  when  it  is  ready  to  serve.  This 
soup  may  be  made  with  the  ordinary  stock  from  a 
stock-kettle.  A  little  chicken  broth  is  an  improving 
addition,  and  really  makes  a  most  savory  soup. 


CHICKEN   PANADA 

A  panada  is  a  dish  the  foundation  of  which  is  bread. 
For  chicken  panada  there  will  be  needed : 

1  Cup  of  chicken  meat. 

£  Cup  of  bread  soaked  in  milk. 

1  Pint  of  chicken  liquor  or  broth. 

£  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

J  Saltspoon  of  pepper. 

The  chicken  may  be  obtained  from  a  cold  roast, 
the  bones,  gristle,  and  tendons  of  which  should  be 
boiled  for  the  broth,  or  a  fowl  may  be  used  on  pur- 
pose for  it. 

Put  the  bread-crumbs  to  soak  in  enough  milk  to 
cover  them.  Cut  the  chicken  into  small  pieces,  leaving 
out  everything  which  is  not  clear  meat,  and  chop  it 
in  a  chopping-tray  until  it  is  very  fine.  Press  the 
bread-crumbs  through  a  coarse  wire  strainer  into  it, 
pour  in  the  broth  (from  which  the  fat  has  been  re- 
moved by  skimming  with  a  spoon),  and  add  the  pepper 
and  salt.  Boil  for  one  minute.  The  panada  should 


142  RECIPES 

be  about  the  consistency  of  thick  gruel.  It  may  be 
varied  by  seasoning  it  with  either  celery-salt  or  curry- 
powder.  Two  tablespoons  of  sweet  cream  is  also  a 
desirable  addition. 


CONSOMME 

3  Quarts  of  cold  water. 
J  of  a  good  fowl. 

2  Pounds   of  lean  beef,  or  2£  pounds  of 

beef  and  bone. 
^  Pound  of  lean  ham. 
1  Tablespoon  of  chopped  carrot. 
1  Tablespoon  of  chopped  turnip. 
1  Teaspoon  of  minced  onion. 
1  Tablespoon  of  celery. 

3  Cloves. 

3  Peppercorns. 

1  Tablespoon  of  mixed  sweet  herbs. 

Wipe  but  do  not  wash  the  beef,  unless,  of  course,  it 
is  very  dirty.  Cut  it  into  small  slices,  and  fry  it  in  a 
hot  frying-pan  to  brown  it  and  to  develop  the  flavor 
of  the  meat.  Then  divide  the  slices  into  small  pieces, 
so  as  to  expose  as  large  a  surface  as  possible  to  the 
action  of  the  water.  Put  it,  with  the  chicken  (after  it 
has  been  cleaned  and  cut  into  small  pieces),  into  a 
porcelain-lined  or  granite-ware  soup-digester,  with  the 
piece  of  ham  and  three  quarts  of  cold  water.  Let  it 
slowly  reach  the  boiling-point,  and  simmer  it  gently 
for  six  hours.  Boiling  briskly  dissipates  the  flavors 
by  separating  certain  subtle  substances  which  are  per- 
ceptible to  the  sense  of  smell,  and  if  they  are  in  the  air 
they  cannot  also  be  in  the  broth. 

When  it  has  been  cooking  for  three  hours,  fry  the 


RECIPES  143 

carrot,  turnip,  and  onion  together  in  a  little  butter 
until  they  are  brown,  and  put  them  with  the  cloves, 
sweet  herbs,  peppercorns,  and  celery  into  the  soup.  If 
these  are  cooked  with  the  meat  from  the  beginning, 
the  flavor  is  not  so  good. 

At  the  end  of  the  six  hours,  when  the  meat  is  in 
rags,  strain  the  liquid  into  a  china  bowl,  and  set  it 
away  to  cool  until  all  the  fat  rises  and  forms  in  a 
cake  on  the  top.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  cool  it  over- 
night when  there  is  plenty  of  time.  Every  particle 
of  fat  must  be  removed,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  do 
this  unless  the  soup  is  cooled.  To  clear  consomme 
return  it  to  the  fire,  and  as  soon  as  it  becomes  liquid 
break  into  it  two  eggs,  and  stir  slowly  until  the  soup 
begins  to  steam  and  the  albumen  of  the  eggs  is  coagu- 
lated. The  coagulum  will  entangle  all  the  insoluble 
matter ;  then  strain  the  liquid  through  a  napkin,  salt 
it,  and  heat  it  just  to  the  boiling-point,  when  it  is 
ready  to  serve. 

It  should  be  perfectly  clear,  and  of  a  golden-brown 
color  like  sherry  wine.  If  the  color  is  not  dark  enough, 
a  little  caramel  (burnt  sugar)  may  be  added. 

The  above  quantity  of  meats  and  flavoring  should 
give  a  quart  of  consomme". 


BOUILLON 

Make  a  plain  beef  broth  according  to  the  rule  on 
page  78.  To  a  quart  of  this  add  a  pinch  each  of 
thyme,  sage,  sweet  marjoram,  and  mint  (or  enough  to 
make  in  all  what  will  fill  a  teaspoon),  and  a  teaspoon 
each  of  chopped  onion  and  carrot.  Boil  all  together 
until  the  broth  is  reduced  to  one  pint.  Strain,  season 
with  salt  and  pepper,  and  serve  very  hot  in  covered 
cups. 


144  RECIPES 


APPLE  SOUP 

2  Cups  of  apple. 

2  Cups  of  water. 

2  Teaspoons  of  corn-starch. 

1£  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 

1  Saltspoon  of  cinnamon. 

A  bit  of  salt. 

Stew  the  apple  in  the  water  until  it  is  very  soft. 
Then  mix  together  into  a  smooth  paste  the  corn- 
starch,  sugar,  salt,  and  cinnamon  with  a  little  cold 
water.  Pour  this  into  the  apple,  and  boil  for  five 
minutes.  Strain  it  into  a  soup-tureen,  and  keep  hot 
until  ready  to  serve.  This  is  very  good  eaten  with 
hot  buttered  sippets. 


OYSTERS 

Oysters  are  a  highly  prized  food,  though  why  it  is 
difficult  to  say,  as  they  are  neither  very  easy  of  diges- 
tion nor  very  nutritious.  But  they  possess  a  delicate 
insinuating  flavor  that  is  generally  acceptable  to  most 
palates,  and  probably  are  really  valuable  for  the  salts 
which  they  contain. 

The  composition  of  oysters  (Payen's  analysis)  is  as 
follows : 


Nitrogenous  matter 14.010% 

Fat 1.515% 

Saline  substances 2.695% 

Water 80.385% 

Non-nitrogenous  matter  and  waste 1.395% 

Total..  . .  100.000 


According  to  Professor  Mott's  Chart  of  the  Compo- 
sition, Digestibility,  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Foods, 
from  actual  experiment  the  time  required  for  the 
digestion  of  oysters  is  as  follows : 

Hours.  Minutes. 

Saw  oysters 2  55 

Roasted  oysters 3  15 

Stewed  oysters 3  30 


This  shows  that  they  require  a  longer  time  than  do 
most  kinds  of  fish,  venison,  beefsteak,  tripe,  soused 

145 


146  EECIPES 

pig's  feet,  eggs,  and  roast  beef,  all  of  which  are  di- 
gested in  varying  times  less  than  those  mentioned. 

Oysters  are  found  in  greatest  perfection  in  the 
Eastern  States,  and  in  the  cooler  waters  of  the  west- 
ern Atlantic.  The  choicest  varieties  in  the  world 
come  from  the  shores  of  Long  Island,  and  from  the 
Providence  River.  Chesapeake  Bay  is  noted  for  the 
abundance  of  its  oysters. 

Oysters  are  in  season  from  September  to  May;  dur- 
ing the  rest  of  the  year  they  are  insipid  and  unfit  for 
food,  although  they  are  sometimes  used. 

Convalescents  often  begin  with  fresh,  sound  oys- 
ters, before  they  venture  to  try  other  kinds  of  solid 
animal  food. 

Oysters  may  be  used  in  a  variety  of  ways,  but 
served  raw  and  broiled  slightly  in  the  shells  are  per- 
haps the  two  most  desirable  ways  with  which  to 
begin.  Afterward  stews  and  soups  are  recommended 
on  account  of  their  liquid  form  and  warmth,  warm 
foods  being  always  so  much  more  desirable  than  cold. 

There  are  some  points  to  be  carefully  observed  in 
preparing  oysters  for  the  sick.  (1)  Make  every  effort 
to  have  the  oysters  alive  when  used.  If  this  is  im- 
possible, buy  salt-water  oysters  as  fresh  as  they  can 
be  obtained  of  a  reliable  dealer.  Many  serious  cases 
of  illness,  and  even  death,  have  been  caused  by  eating 
oysters  so  long  dead  that  poisonous  substances  had 
formed  in  them.  (2)  Remember  that  oysters  contain 
an  albuminous  juice  which  increases  in  hardness  with 
an  increase  of  temperature,  just  as  the  albumen  of  an 
egg  does.  When  oysters  are  cooked  with  reference 
to  this  juice  alone,  they  are  also  cooked  in  the  best 
possible  manner  with  reference  to  their  other  ingre- 
dients ;  therefore  subject  them  to  a  low  temperature, 
and  for  a  short  time,  bearing  in  mind  that  160°  Fahr. 
is  the  cooking  temperature  of  albumen. 


RECIPES  147 


EAW  OYSTERS 

"Wash  and  scrub  the  shells  well  under  a  stream  of 
water,  with  a  vegetable  brush.  With  a  hammer  break 
the  thin  edges  of  the  shell  so  that  a  knife  may  be  in- 
serted to  sever  the  muscle  which  holds  the  two  parts 
of  the  shell  together;  when  this  is  cut  remove  the  up- 
per half,  and  wipe  the  edges  free  from  any  grains  of 
sand.  Then  sever  the  muscle  which  joins  the  oyster 
to  the  other  half,  so  that  it  may  be  easily  lifted  out, 
without  the  necessity  of  cutting.  Arrange  them  on 
an  oyster-plate,  and  serve  with  salt,  black  pepper,  and 
lemon-juice.  A  half  or  a  quarter  of  a  lemon  may  be 
placed  in  the  center  of  the  plate,  which  usually  has 
a  groove  on  purpose  for  it. 


OYSTERS  ROASTED  IN  THE  SHELL 

Wash  the  shells  very  carefully  with  a  brush.  Put 
them  in  a  wire  broiler  over  glowing  coals,  the  round 
side  of  the  shell  down  so  as  to  hold  the  juice.  Cook 
them  quickly,  turning  once  or  twice  until  the  shells 
open.  They  may  also  be  done  in  a  hot  oven.  When 
done,  remove  the  upper  half  of  the  shell ;  season  them 
quickly  with  salt,  pepper,  and  a  tiny  bit  of  butter, 
and  vinegar,  if  liked,  and  serve  them  while  they  are 
very  hot.  The  true  oyster  flavor  is  delightfully  de- 
veloped by  preparing  in  this  way.  They  may  also  be 
served  with  melted  butter,  seasoned  with  salt,  pepper, 
and  lemon- juice. 

OYSTER  SOUP 

See  recipe  under  Soups,  on  page  134. 


148  EECIPES 


OYSTEE  STEW 

1  Cup  of  oysters. 

1  Cup  of  riclj  milk. 

2  Saltspoons  of  salt. 
A  little  white  pepper. 
£  Teaspoon  of  butter. 

Set  the  milk  in  a  saucepan  on  the  fire  to  heat.  Pre- 
pare the  oysters  by  pouring  over  them  a  cup  of  cold 
water  to  wash  them,  from  which  lift  them  out  with  a 
fork,  and  search  for  bits  of  shell  which  sometimes  ad- 
here when  they  are  opened.  Then  lay  them  on  a 
napkin  or  a  piece  of  clean  cloth,  to  drain  off  as  much 
as  possible  of  the  water.  Unless  oysters  are  just  taken 
from  the  shells,  the  liquor  is  not  of  much  value.  Just 
as  the  milk  reaches  the  boiling-point,  put  the  oysters 
into  an  omelet-pan,  which  has  been  previously  set  on 
the  stove  to  heat,  and  cook  them  for  a  minute,  or 
until  they  become  plump,  turning  them  every  ten 
seconds  with  a  fork.  The  moment  the  edges  or  frills 
begin  to  curl,  drop  them  into  the  milk  and  remove  it 
immediately  from  the  fire.  Now  add  the  seasoning 
and  butter,  and  the  stew  is  ready  to  serve — which 
should  be  done  as  soon  as  possible. 

Oyster  stew  may  also  be  made  by  preparing  the 
oysters  as  above  and  then  dropping  them  into  boiling- 
hot  milk,  which  should  remain  for  one  or  two  minutes 
on  the  fire  before  removal. 


CREAMED  OYSTERS 

Clean  a  pint  of  oysters  according  to  the  directions 
in  the  previous  rule.    After  drying  them  on  a  napkin, 


EECIPES  149 

spread  them  on  a  plate  and  season  them  with  salt, 
pepper,  and  a  suspicion  of  cayenne. 

Make  a  rich  cream  sauce  with  one  pint  of  cream, 
one  tablespoon  of  butter,  and  two  tablespoons  of  flour. 

When  the  sauce  is  cooked,  roll  into  it  the  seasoned 
oysters,  put  them  in  individual  scallop-dishes,  or  a  dish 
such  as  might  be  used  for  scalloped  oysters,  or  any 
shallow  baking-dish  that  is  good  enough  to  serve; 
then  bake  them  in  a  hot  oven,  on  the  grate,  for  ten 
minutes  if  in  small  dishes,  or  for  fifteen  if  in  a  single 
large  one.  This  gives  time  enough  for  the  oysters  to 
become  cooked  but  not  hardened.  The  mixing  of  the 
oysters  and  sauce  should  be  done  quickly,  so  that  the 
sauce  may  not  become  cold  before  they  are  put  into 
the  oven ;  for  if  there  is  much  delay,  it  will  take  longer 
to  cook  them  than  the  time  given. 

This  is  a  good  way  to  cook  oysters  for  the  sick,  for 
the  sauce  made  according  to  the  rule  for  such  sauces 
(page  130)  is  easily  digested,  nutritious,  and  of  good 
flavor. 

BROILED   OYSTERS 

Select  large  oysters.  Drain  them  on  a  cloth  or 
napkin,  turning  them  from  one  side  to  the  other,  to 
make  them  as  dry  as  possible.  Meanwhile  soften 
some  butter,  and  season  some  cracker-crumbs  with  salt 
and  pepper.  Then,  holding  each  oyster  on  a  fork,  dip  it 
into  the  crumbs,  then  into  the  melted  butter,  and  again 
into  the  crumbs.  Arrange  them  in  an  oyster-broiler 
(which  differs  from  ordinary  broilers  by  having  the 
wires  closer  together),  and  broil  over  a  hot  fire  for 
about  two  minutes,  turning  the  broiler  every  few  sec- 
onds. They  should  not  be  shriveled,  but  plump,  soft, 
tender,  and  juicy.  The  salt  and  pepper  in  the  crumbs 
will  sufficiently  season  them. 
11 


150  RECIPES 


FANCY  BOAST  OE  PAN-BROILED  OYSTEBS 

Eight  oysters  will  be  enough  for  one  person. 
Drain  the  oysters  on  a  cloth  or  napkin,  making  them 
as  free  from  moisture  as  possible.  Heat  an  omelet- 
pan,  with  a  small  piece  of  butter  in  it,  very  hot ;  then 
drop  the  oysters  one  by  one  into  the  pan,  turning  each 
before  the  next  is  put  in.  One  should  work  quickly, 
otherwise  the  first  will  be  overdone  before  the  last  is 
put  in.  When  the  pan  is  full,  shake  it  a  moment,  lift  it 
from  the  fire,  and  turn  the  oysters  quickly  into  a  square 
covered  dish,  with  toast-points  in  the  corners.  Sea- 
son them  with  salt,  pepper,  and  a  bit  of  butter,  and 
serve  them  as  quickly  as  convenient. 

Each  oyster  should  be  cooked  so  quickly  that  its 
juices  are  shut  into  itself  and  do  not  ooze  out  into 
the  pan.  There  is  usually  a  very  little  juice  with  the 
butter,  but  if  it  is  considerable,  one  may  know  that 
the  oysters  have  not  been  cooked  in  a  sufficiently  high 
temperature.  Oysters  are  very  nice  done  in  this  way, 
but  it  takes  a  skilful  worker  to  do  them  without 
letting  the  juice  ooze  out,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  over- 
cooking them.  The  toast-points  are  made  by  cutting 
small  squares  of  bread  diagonally  across. 


OYSTEB  BROTH 

Chop  a  dozen  oysters  in  a  chopping-tray  until  they 
are  quite  fine.  Turn  them  into  a  small  saucepan  with 
a  cup  of  cold  water,  and  let  them  slowly  approach  the 
boiling-point,  and  then  simmer  them  for  five  minutes, 
the  object  being  to  get  as  much  as  possible  of  the  flavor 
of  the  oysters  into  the  water.  Then  strain  out  the 
oysters,  season  the  liquor  with  a  bit  of  salt,  and  serve. 


EECIPES  151 

A  broth  with  milk  may  be  made  by  putting  in  less 
water,  and  adding  milk  three  or  four  minutes  before 
the  broth  is  taken  from  the  fire. 


OYSTERS  COOKED  IN  A  CHAFING-DISH 

Chafing-dishes  are  generally  made  of  silver,  and 
are  much  used  just  at  present  for  cooking  oysters 
at  the  table.  A  chafing-dish  consists  of  a  covered 
dish  resting  in  a  frame,  and  heated  from  below  with 
an  alcohol  lamp.  It  is  brought  to  the  table  with  the 
lamp  lighted  and  the  raw  oysters  ready  to  be  cooked. 
Some  member  of  the  family  takes  it  in  charge,  and 
the  result  is  a  much  more  satisfactory  dish  than  could 
be  otherwise  obtained,  for  it  requires  intelligence  and 
a  cultivated  taste  to  cook  and  season  these  delicious 
bivalves. 

Uses  of  the  Chafing-dish.  It  may  be  used  for  broth, 
stew,  soup,  and  fancy  roast,  the  treatment  being  ex- 
actly the  same  as  with  a  saucepan  or  an  omelet-pan 
on  a  stove. 


EGGS 

Eggs,  next  to  milk,  are  the  most  valuable  form  of 
food  for  those  who  are  very  ill.  They  contain  in  ex- 
cellent proportion  most  of  the  elements  necessary  to 
nourish  the  body;  but  being  a  concentrated  form 
of  food,  it  is  well  to  associate  with  them  milk  or 
some  other  liquid,  and  such  starchy  foods  as  bread, 
potatoes,  etc. 

According  to  Laws  and  Gilbert  the  composition  of 
egg  is  as  follows: 

SHELL Carbonate  of  lime  10.00% 

{Nitrogenous  matter 16.00% 
Fatty  matter 30.70% 
Saline  matter 1.30% 
Water 52.00% 

Total 100.00% 

{Nitrogenous  matter 20.40%" 
Saline  matter 1.60% 
Water  78.00% 

Total 100.00% 

A  large  proportion  of  both  yolk  and  white  is  albu- 
men.1 It  has  been  found  by  experiment  (page  25) 
that  when  white  of  egg  is  subjected  to  a  temperature 

(Water 74.00% 
Nitrogenous  matter 14.0096 
Fat 10.50% 
Inorganic  matter 1.50% 

PAVT. 
152 


RECIPES  153 

of  134°-140°  Fahr.  little  white  threads  appear  in  it; 
that  if  the  temperature  be  increased  to  160°  Fahr., 
the  whole  mass  becomes  a  white,  but  tender,  easily 
divided  substance;  that  if  the  heat  be  raised  to  200° 
Fahr.  it  loses  its  tender,  jelly-like  consistency,  and 
becomes  firm  and  tenacious ;  and  that  with  continued 
rise  of  temperature  the  toughness  increases  until  at 
from  300°-350°  Fahr.  it  becomes  so  hard  that  it  is 
used  as  a  cement  for  marble. 

From  these  statements  it  will  at  once  be  inferred 
that  the  proper  cooking  temperature  of  eggs  is  not 
that  of  boiling  water,  but  52°  lower.  Eggs  cooked 
the  customary  three  minutes  in  boiling  water  will  be 
overdone  in  the  part  nearest  the  shell,  and  not  cooked 
at  all  in  the  center  of  the  yolk,  as  three  minutes  is 
not  long  enough  for  the  heat  to  penetrate  to  that 
point.  The  yolk,  though  not  injurious  in  this  condi- 
tion, is  not  as  palatable  as  when  it  is  cooked.  The 
condition  of  the  white,  however,  is  of  grave  impor- 
tance, as  even  well  persons  are  sometimes  made  ill  by 
eating  it. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  although  albumen  will 
coagulate  at  a  temperature  somewhat  lower  than  160° 
Fahr.,  the  degree  of  firmness  obtained  by  exposing  it 
to  this  temperature  is  the  most  desirable  for  food. 
Therefore  we  speak  of  160°  Fahr.  as  its  cooking  tem- 
perature. An  egg  cooked  ideally  would  be  subjected 
to  that  temperature  for  a  sufficient  time  to  allow  the 
heat  to  penetrate  and  act  upon  all  portions  of  it.  The 
time  required  is  half  an  hour.  Cooked  according  to 
this  method,  the  white  would  be  opaque  and  firm,  but 
tender  and  delicate,  the  yolk  not  liquid  and  lukewarm, 
but  thick  and  almost  firm.  The  flavor  of  both  is  de- 
licious. 

A  knowledge  of  the  proper  temperature  necessary 
to  bring  about  this  change  is  absolutely  essential  to 


154  EECIPES 

any  one  who  would  cook  eggs,  and  dishes  which  con- 
tain them,  such  as  creams,  puddings,  etc.,  as  they 
should  be  cooked.  A  great  deal  of  the  philosophy  of 
cooking  depends  upon  this  knowledge,  for  nearly  all 
kinds  of  meat,  fish,  oysters,  milk,  and  other  albuminous 
foods  contain  as  one  of  their  most  valuable  nutrients 
the  substance  known  as  albumen.  When  they  are 
cooked  with  reference  to  this  alone,  we  find  that  they 
are  also  done  in  the  best-known  way  with  reference 
to  their  other  ingredients. 

Practically  with  our  present  kitchen  appliances  it 
is  exceedingly  difficult  to  maintain  for  half  an  hour 
a  steady  temperature  of  160°,  but  excellent  results 
may  be  obtained  by  the  following  method. 


SOFT-COOKED  EGGS 

Pour  enough  boiling  water  into  a  saucepan  to  more 
than  cover  whatever  number  of  eggs  are  to  be  cooked ; 
then  put  in  the  eggs,  and  let  them  stand  for  ten  min- 
utes on  the  hearth  or  any  place  where  the  water  will 
not  lose  its  warmth  too  quickly.  Remember  that  it 
is  the  heat  in  the  water  which  is  to  do  the  cooking. 
The  saucepan  should  remain  uncovered.  Practically 
this  is  an  excellent  way  to  do,  for  the  amount  of  heat 
in  the  water  will  not  fall  below  160°  Fahr.  in  the  ten 
minutes,  and  that  time  is  sufficient  for  it  to  penetrate 
to  the  center  of  the  egg.  Moreover,  if  the  egg  be  for- 
gotten, and  remains  in  the  water  for  a  longer  time,  it 
will  not  become  hard  unless  the  temperature  of  the 
water  be  raised. 

Theoretically  an  egg  should  be  cooked  at  160°  Fahr., 
but  practically  this  would  involve  a  considerable 
waste  of  time  and  necessitate  the  use  of  a  thermom- 
eter. Almost  the  same  result  is  obtained  in  an  easy 


RECIPES  155 

and  convenient  way  by  the  above  method,  although 
it  is  not  an  exact  one.  The  proportion  of  boiling 
water  for  each  egg  which  will  insure  cooking  in  the 
time  given  is  one  pint,  but  somewhat  less  will  do  if 
many  are  to  be  cooked;  for  instance,  eight  eggs  will 
do  in  six  pints,  as  comparatively  less  heat  is  lost  in 
warming  the  pan. 


POACHED   OR  DROPPED   EGGS 

From  a  thin,  even  slice  of  home-made  bread  cut  out 
a  round  piece  with  a  biscuit-cutter;  toast  it  a  delicate 
brown. 

Pour  some  boiling  water  into  a  small  saucepan  and 
salt  it,  using  a  saltspoon  of  salt  to  a  cup  of  water; 
place  it  on  the  stove  to  boil.  Break  a  fresh  egg  into 
a  cup,  and  when  the  water  is  boiling  slip  it  gently 
into  the  pan.  At  first  the  egg  will  cool  the  water 
below  the  boiling-point,  but  should  the  water  again 
begin  to  boil,  withdraw  the  pan  to  a  cooler  part  of 
the  stove.  When  the  white  is  firm,  or  at  the  end  of 
about  two  minutes,  lift  out  the  egg  by  means  of  two 
spoons  or  a  skimmer  (being  careful  not  to  break  the 
yolk),  and  place  it  on  the  round  of  toast.  The  egg 
should  not  be  trimmed.  Season  it  with  a  speck  of 
salt,  a  little  pepper,  and  a  bit  of  butter  placed  on  the 
middle  of  the  yolk.  This  is  a  dainty  and  easy  way  of 
preparing  eggs  for  the  sick,  and  one  is  always  sure 
of  the  condition  of  the  eggs,  which  is  not  the  case 
when  they  are  cooked  in  the  shell. 

A  layer  of  minced  ham  or  of  minced  chicken  laid 
on  the  toast  makes  a  palatable  variation. 

Egg-poachers,  or  little  tin  cups  with  perforated 
bottoms  set  in  a  frame,  may  be  bought  for  poaching 
eggs,  but  in  those  that  the  author  has  seen  the  raw 


156  RECIPES 

albumen  runs  into  the  little  holes  and  makes  it  dif- 
ficult to  remove  the  egg  after  it  is  done  without 
breaking  it.  Muffin-rings  may  also  be  used. 


SCRAMBLED   EGOS.     No.  1 

Break  two  eggs  into  a  plate,  and  sprinkle  on  a  little 
pepper  and  a  saltspoon  of  salt;  beat  them  with  a  fork 
for  one  minute,  add  two  tablespoons  of  milk  or,  better, 
thin  sweet  cream;  beat  again  and  pour  the  mixture 
into  a  buttered  pan;  stir  it  gently,  letting  it  cook 
slowly  for  about  two  minutes,  or  until  the  albumen 
of  the  egg  is  coagulated.  It  should  be  soft  and  ten- 
der, not  hardened.  Serve  it  on  toast,  or  in  a  small, 
square  covered  dish. 


SCRAMBLED  EGGS.     No.  2 

Beat  two  eggs,  a  saltspoon  of  salt,  and  a  sprinkle 
of  white  pepper  in  a  bowl  with  a  Dover  egg-beater 
until  quite  light;  add  two  tablespoons  of  sweet  cream 
or  of  milk,  and  turn  the  mixture  into  a  double  boiler 
to  cook,  stirring  it  constantly  until  the  albumen  is  just 
coagulated.  A  delicate  and  easily  digested  dish  is  the 
result.  It  is  a  safer  way  to  use  the  double  boiler 
rather  than  an  omelet-pan.  If  no  double  boiler  is  at 
hand,  one  may  be  improvised  with  a  bowl  or  dish  set 
into  a  kettle  of  hot  water. 


OMELETS 

Omelets  may  be  made  in  a  great  variety  of  ways, 
the  kind  depending  not  upon  a  difference  in  mixing 


RECIPES  157 

the  eggs,  but  upon  the  ingredients  which  are  added. 
Spanish  omelet  is  ordinary  omelet  with  onion.  Truf- 
fles, mushrooms,  chopped  oysters,  rum,  and  tomato 
make  other  varieties.  Flour  should  never  be  used  in 
them,  as  it  cannot  be  properly  cooked  in  the  short 
time  that  should  be  given  to  the  eggs.  If  it  should 
happen  that  an  omelet  is  to  be  made,  and  there  is  no 
milk  at  hand,  water  may  be  substituted,  but  an  ome- 
let should  never  be  made  without  one  or  the  other. 


CREAMY  OMELET 

Beat  four  eggs  slightly  with  a  fork  until  you  can 
take  up  a  spoonful ;  add  two  saltspoons  of  salt,  half 
a  saltspoon  of  pepper,  four  tablespoons  of  milk  or 
cream,  and  mix  well.  Butter  an  omelet-pan,  and  be- 
fore the  butter  browns  turn  in  the  mixture.  Then 
with  the  point  of  a  fork  pick  or  lift  up  the  cooked 
egg  from  the  center,  and  let  the  uncooked  egg  run 
under.  This  leaves  the  butter  on  the  pan,  and  is  bet- 
ter than  stirring.  Continue  the  lifting  until  the 
whole  is  of  a  soft  creamy  consistency,  then  place  it 
over  a  hotter  part  of  the  fire  and  brown  slightly,  fold 
and  turn  out  as  usual.  (Adapted  from  Mrs.  D.  A. 
Lincoln's  ''Boston  Cook  Book.") 

For  an  invalid's  use  take  half  the  quantities  men- 
tioned above — that  is,  use  two  eggs,  two  tablespoons 
of  milk  or  cream,  a  saltspoon  of  salt,  and  a  bit  of  pep- 
per; and  instead  of  having  the  omelet-pan  hot, 
have  it  just  warm  enough  to  melt  the  butter;  other- 
wise the  first  layer  of  egg  which  is  cooked  may  be 
overdone  and  hardened. 


158  EECIPES 


FOAMY  OMELET 

Separate  the  yolks  from  the  whites  of  two  eggs,  and 
put  them  into  bowls.  To  the  yolks  add  a  saltspoon 
of  salt  and  one  fourth  of  a  saltspoon  of  pepper.  Beat 
with  a  Dover  egg-beater  until  light.  Then  add  two 
tablespoons  of  milk.  Beat  the  whites  until  stiff,  but 
not  as  stiff  as  possible,  and  fold,  not  beat  them  into 
the  yolks,  so  that  the  whole  shall  be  very  light  and 
puffy.  Pour  the  mixture  into  a  buttered  omelet- 
pan,  and  cook  slowly  until  the  under  side  begins  to 
change  color  and  become  brown,  or  for  about  two 
minutes.  Then  put  the  pan  on  the  grate  in  the  oven 
for  about  one  minute,  to  cook  the  upper  surface.  One 
must  endeavor  to  avoid  both  over  and  under  cooking. 
If  the  omelet  is  not  done  enough,  the  raw  egg  will 
ooze  out  after  it  is  folded ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  is 
cooked  too  much,  it  will  be  dry  and  tough.  When  it 
seems  to  be  coagulated  on  the  upper  surface,  run  a 
case-knife  under  it  to  separate  it  from  the  pan,  and 
fold  one  half  over  the  other.  Take  the  platter  which 
is  to  receive  it  in  the  right  hand,  lay  it  against 
the  edge  of  the  pan,  and  tip  the  omelet  out.  Serve 
immediately. 

An  omelet  is  a  dainty  and  delicate  way  of  serving 
eggs,  and  may  be  well  made  by  any  one  who  will  bear 
in  mind  that  the  cooking  temperature  of  albumen  is 
160°  Fahr.,  and  that  if  exposed  to  a  very  much  higher 
degree  of  heat  for  many  minutes,  it  will  be  spoiled, — 
rendered  both  unpalatable  and  indigestible. 


OMELET   WITH  HAM.    No.  1 

Broil  a  thin,  small  slice  of  ham  until  thoroughly 


RECIPES  159 

well  done.    Lay  it  between  the  folds  of  an  omelet. 
Either  creamy  or  foamy  omelets  may  be  used. 


OMELET  WITH  HAM.     No.  2 

Mince  a  piece  of  cooked  hain  until  it  is  fine.  Stir  it 
into  an  omelet  in  the  proportion  of  one  teaspoon  to 
an  egg,  or  it  may  be  sprinkled  over  the  surface  just 
before  folding.  When  seasoned  with  a  little  mustard, 
it  makes  a  very  piquant  addition.  Either  creamy  or 
foamy  omelets  may  be  used. 


OMELET  WITH  JELLY 

Spread  a  tablespoon  of  grape  or  currant  jelly  over 
the  middle  of  the  upper  surface  of  a  two-egg  omelet 
just  before  folding  it. 


OMELET  WITH  CHICKEN 

Chop  fine  the  cooked  white  meat  of  a  piece  of 
chicken.  Season  it  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  sprinkle 
it  over  an  omelet,  or  stir  it  into  the  egg  before  cook- 
ing, in  the  proportion  of  one  teaspoon  to  an  egg,  as 
is  done  with  ham. 


OMELET  WITH  TOMATO 

Prepare  thin  slices  of  very  ripe  tomatoes,  by  re- 
moving the  skin  and  seasoning  slightly  with  salt. 


160  EECIPES 

Lay  them  on  that  part  of  the  omelet  which  is  to  be 
the  lower  half,  and  fold ;  or  the  tomato  may  be 
tucked  into  the  omelet  after  folding. 

OMELET  WITH  PARSLEY 

Wash  some  parsley.  Break  off  the  stems  and  roll 
the  rest  into  a  little  ball ;  then,  holding  it  firmly  in  the 
left  hand,  cut  slices  from  it,  or  chop  it  on  a  board. 
Stir  it  into  the  omelet  mixture  before  it  is  cooked,  in 
the  proportion  of  one  teaspoon  for  each  egg. 

SPANISH  OMELET 

To  an  omelet  mixture  add  two  drops  of  onion- juice 
for  each  egg,  or  half  a  teaspoon  of  very  finely  minced 
onion. 

ORANGE  OMELET 

"The  thinly  grated  rind  of  one  orange  and  three 
tablespoons  of  the  juice,  three  eggs,  and  three  tea- 
spoons of  powdered  sugar.  Beat  the  yolks,  add  the 
sugar,  rind,  and  juice,  fold  in  the  beaten  whites,  and 
cook.  Fold,  turn  out,  sprinkle  thickly  with  powdered 
sugar,  and  score  in  diagonal  lines  with  a  clean  red- 
hot  poker.  The  burnt  sugar  gives  to  the  omelet  a 
delicious  flavor. 

"  This  is  a  convenient  dessert  for  an  emergency,  and 
may  be  prepared  in  ten  minutes  if  one  has  the  oranges." 
(From  Mrs.  D.  A.  Lincoln's  "Boston  Cook  Book.") 


POTATOES 

Next  to  wheat  flour,  potatoes  are  our  most  common 
form  of  starch  food.  The  potato  is  a  tuber,  a  native 
of  America,  and  may  be  said  to  have  been  discovered 
to  the  civilized  world  by  the  Spaniards,  who  found  it 
growing  in  Chili  and  Peru.  Thence  it  was  carried  to 
Spain,  and  from  there  to  other  parts  of  Europe,  some 
time  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Potatoes  were  at  first 
used  as  luxuries,  but  are  now  almost  ranked  among 
the  necessities  of  life. 

The  composition  of  potatoes  (Letherby)  is  as  follows : 

Water 75.00% 

Starch 18.80% 

Nitrogenous  matter 2.00% 

Sugar 3.00% 

Fat 20% 

Salts 1.00%i 

From  this  we  see  that  starch  is  the  principal  nutri- 
ent, therefore  potatoes  in  use  for  food  should  be  associ- 
ated with  nitrogenous  substances,  such  as  eggs,  meat, 
fish,  and  milk.  The  potash  salts  which  potatoes  con- 
tain are  very  valuable.  According  to  Letherby,  an 

1  Another  analysis  is  that  of  Payen,  the  distinguished  French  chemist. 

Water 74.4% 

Starch,  sugar,  pectose 21.2% 

Nitrogenous  matter 1.7% 

Pat l% 

Cellulose  and  epidermis 1.5% 

Inorganic  matter 1.1% 

Total 100.009'o 

Pohl  found  the  proportion  of  starch,  judging  by  specific  gravity  in  dif- 
ferent varieties,  to  be  as  follows :  16.38%,  17.11%,  18.43%,  18.95%.  20.45%, 
21.32%,  24.14%.  Dr.  SMITH'S  "  Food." 

161 


162  RECIPES 

average  of  thirty -one  analyses  of  the  ash  of  potatoes 
gave  59.8  per  cent,  of  potash,  19.1  per  cent,  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  the  other  ingredients  being  in  exceedingly 
small  proportions.  These  salts  are  necessary  to  a 
healthy  condition  of  the  blood.  Potatoes  are  a  valu- 
able antiscorbutic. 

According  to  Mattieu  Williams,  scurvy  prevailed 
in  Norway  to  a  very  serious  extent  until  the  intro- 
duction of  the  potato;  and  Lang,  with  other  good 
authorities,  testifies  that  its  disappearance  is  due  to 
the  use  of  potatoes  by  a  people  who  formerly  were  in- 
sufficiently supplied  with  salts-giving  vegetable  food. 

The  salts  of  the  potato  are  most  abundant  in  or 
near  the  skin,  and  the  decision  of  the  question  as  to 
whether  potatoes  shall  be  pared  or  not  before  cook- 
ing is  somewhat  aided  by  this  fact.  For  persons 
who  eat  but  few  other  fresh  vegetables  by  all  means 
leave  the  skins  on,  but  for  those  who  have  access  to 
a  good  kitchen  garden  and  have  plenty  of  other 
vegetables  and  fruits  from  which  to  get  their  salts, 
it  makes  no  important  difference  whether  the  skins 
are  removed. 

The  potato  is  eminently  a  starch  food,  and  this 
knowledge  indicates  the  method  of  treatment  in  cook- 
ing. Since  starch  is  its  principal  ingredient  (the 
amount  of  nitrogenous  matter  being  very  small),  if 
it  is  cooked  with  reference  to  that  alone,  it  will  be 
done  in  the  best  possible  manner. 

Starch,  in  order  to  be  rendered  most  digestible  and 
acceptable  to  the  human  system,  must  be  subjected  to 
a  high  temperature  in  the  presence  of  some  liquid.  At 
401°  Pahr.  (see  pages  33  and  34)  it  is  converted  into 
dextrine.  This  change,  if  not  performed  outside  the 
body,  will  be  done  in  the  ordinary  processes  of  diges- 
tion after  the  starch  is  eaten ;  therefore  the  nearer  we 
approach  to  it  in  cooking,  the  more  perfectly  is  the 
food  prepared  which  contains  it. 


RECIPES  163 

Usually  the  first  vegetable  prescribed  by  the  physi- 
cian for  a  sick  person  who  is  beginning  to  use  solids,  is 
a  baked  potato.  A  baked  potato,  however,  may  be  no 
better  than  a  boiled  potato  unless  it  is  cooked  in  so 
high  a  temperature  that  the  starch  is  affected.  Boiled 
potatoes  cannot  be  subjected  to  a  higher  temperature 
than  212°  Fahr.  Baked  potatoes  may  be  done  in  such 
a  way  that  they  are  but  little  better  than  boiled — for 
instance,  done  in  a  slow  oven.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  they  are  put  into  a  temperature  of  380°  or  400° 
Fahr.,  or  a  hot  oven,  they  will  be  done  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  conversion  of  starch  will  in  a  degree  take 
place,  and  they  will  be  consequently  both  palatable 
and  easily  digested. 

Potatoes  roasted  in  hot  ashes  or  embers  are  deli- 
cious, and  for  the  same  reason.  But  it  must  not  be 
understood  that  by  cooking  potatoes  in  a  high  tem- 
perature the  starch  which  they  contain  is  all  changed 
into  dextrine.  This  does  not  usually  take  place  ex- 
cept in  slight  degree,  but  by  the  high  temperature  it 
is  better  prepared  for  this  change  in  the  processes  of 
digestion.  Probably  what  does  take  place  is  a  sort 
of  hydration  of  the  starch,  resulting  in  the  complete 
swelling  and  final  bursting  of  the  granules,  with  pos- 
sibly an  intermediate  change  between  this  and  dex- 
trine. Just  at  the  moment  when  potatoes  are  done 
they  should  be  immediately  taken  from  the  fire  and 
served  at  once.  The  potato  is  capable  of  being  made 
into  a  variety  of  dishes,  and  when  properly  prepared 
has  a  delicate  flavor  which  is  very  acceptable  to  most 
people.  It  is  one  of  the  most  easily  digested  forms  of 
starch-containing  food. 

BOILED   POTATOES 

For  boiled  potatoes,  if  they  are  to  be  served  whole, 
select  those  of  the  same  shape  and  size.  Wash  them 


164  RECIPES 

under  a  stream  of  water  with  a  vegetable  brush.  Pare 
carefully  so  as  not  to  waste  the  potato,  and  evenly, 
that  they  may  look  smooth  and  shapely.  Cook  them 
in  a  granite-ware  kettle  or  covered  saucepan,  in 
enough  salted  boiling  water  to  just  cover  them.  If 
cold  water  is  used,  there  is  a  greater  loss  of  potash  salts 
by  solution,  because  of  the  longer  time  of  exposure  to 
the  action  of  the  liquid.  The  proportion  of  salt  should 
be  one  teaspoon  to  a  quart  of  water. 

Potatoes  being  already  hydrated,  it  makes  no  great 
difference  whether  they  are  put  into  hot  or  cold  water, 
except  in  the  time  which  will  be  required  to  boil  them 
and  the  slight  loss  of  salts.  For  medium-sized  pota- 
toes from  thirty  to  forty  minutes  will  be  necessary 
after  they  begin  to  boil.  The  moment  they  feel  soft 
when  pierced  with  a  fork  they  are  done.  Take  them 
at  once  from  the  fire,  drain  off  all  the  water,  and  dry 
them  by  gently  moving  the  pan  back  and  forth  over 
the  top  of  the  stove  for  a  minute.  Serve  as  quickly 
as  possible.  Unless  they  are  to  be  eaten  at  once,  it  is 
better  to  mash  them,  and  keep  them  in  the  oven  until 
needed. 

MASHED  POTATOES 

For  mashed  potatoes  the  uneven  sizes  may  be  used ; 
the  large  ones  should  be  cut  into  small  pieces.  Pre- 
pare according  to  the  foregoing  rule,  and  when  they 
are  cooked  and  dried,  add  salt,  butter,  pepper,  and 
cream,  in  the  following  proportions: 

1  Pint  of  potatoes. 

1  Teaspoon  of  butter. 
£  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

£  Saltspoon  of  pepper  (white). 

2  Tablespoons  of  sweet  cream  or  of  milk. 


EECIPES  165 

Put  into  the  potatoes  the  butter,  salt,  and  pepper, 
and  mash  them  on  the  stove,  in  the  dish  in  which  they 
were  boiled,  to  keep  them  hot.  Use  an  open  wire 
potato-masher,  and  mash  quickly  so  that  they  may  be 
light  and  dry,  not  "gummy."  Last  put  in  the  cream, 
mix  for  a  moment,  and  serve  immediately  in  a  covered 
vegetable-dish.  If  it  is  necessary  to  keep  them  for  a 
time,  arrange  them  like  a  cake  in  the  dish  in  which 
they  are  to  be  served,  smooth  over  the  top,  dot  it 
with  little  bits  of  butter,  or  brush  it  over  with  milk 
or  the  beaten  white  of  egg,  and  brown  them  a  delicate 
golden  color  by  placing  the  dish  on  the  grate  in  the 
oven. 

BAKED   POTATOES 

For  baked  potatoes,  select  those  which  are  of  uni- 
form size  and  not  very  large.  Scrub  them  thoroughly 
in  a  stream  of  water  from  the  faucet,  to  wash  off  every 
particle  of  sand,  for  many  like  to  eat  the  outside. 
Bake  them  in  a  hot  oven  for  from  forty-five  to  fifty 
minutes.  If  the  potatoes  are  of  medium  size,  and  do 
not  cook  in  that  time,  it  indicates  that  the  oven  is  not 
of  the  proper  temperature. 

Baked  potatoes,  not  being  exposed  to  the  solvent 
action  of  a  liquid,  lose  none  of  their  potash  salts  in 
cooking,  as  boiled  potatoes  do.  The  same  is  true  of 
those  roasted,  and  of  those  fried  raw  in  deep  fat. 


ROASTED   POTATOES 

Bury  medium-sized  potatoes  in  the  embers  or  ashes 

of  an  open  fire  for  a  half  hour  or  more,  according  to 

their  size.    At  the  end  of  that  time  dust  off  the  ashes 

with  a  brush.     Burst  the  shells  by  squeezing  them  in 

12 


166  EECIPES 


the  hand,  and  serve  at  once  with  salt,  and  butter  or 
cream.  Either  baked  or  roasted  potatoes  are  delicious 
eaten  with  sweet  cream,  salt,  and  pepper. 


CREAMED   POTATOES 

Left-over  potatoes  may  be  used  for  this  dish,  or 
potatoes  may  be  boiled  on  purpose  for  it.  Whichever 
is  used,  cut  them  into  half -inch  dice,  put  them  in  an 
omelet-pan,  season  them  with  salt  and  pepper,  and 
pour  in  milk  until  it  is  even  with  the  surface  of  the 
potato ;  then  simmer  gently  until  all  the  milk  is  ab- 
sorbed, or  for  about  half  an  hour.  For  every  pint  of 
potatoes  make  a  pint  of  white  sauce,  season  it  with 
a  saltspoon  of  salt  and  a  teaspoon  of  chopped  pars- 
ley, and  pour  it  over.  Potatoes  are  very  nice  done 
in  this  way,  if  care  is  taken  in  simmering  them  in  the 
milk.  Unless  this  is  done  according  to  the  rule,  they 
will  have  the  cold-potato  taste,  which  is  not  at  all 
palatable. 

A  little  chopped  onion  may  replace  the  parsley  with 
good  effect. 

DUCHESS   POTATOES 

1  Pint  of  potatoes. 

1  Teaspoon  of  butter. 

£  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

lEgg. 

4  Teaspoon  of  white  pepper. 

Wash,  pare,  and  boil  the  potatoes.  Drain  out  every 
drop  of  water,  and  dry  them  in  the  usual  way.  When 
dry  and  mealy,  put  in  the  butter,  salt,  and  pepper,  and 
mash  them  thoroughly  and  quickly.  If  potatoes  are 


EECEPES  167 

mashed  for  a  long  time  slowly,  they  become  waxy, 
so  endeavor  to  do  it  quickly  and  as  lightly  as  possible. 
Then  add  the  egg,  well  beaten,  and  the  cream  j  mix, 
and  form  it  into  a  flat  cake  (on  a  board)  about  half  an 
inch  thick.  Cut  it  into  oblongs  or  squares,  or  shape 
it  into  rounds  or  balls,  brush  over  with  the  beaten 
white  of  egg,  or  milk,  and  bake  in  a  hot  oven  until 
a  delicate  brown.  Serve  the  cakes  on  a  platter  as 
soon  as  they  are  done. 


MEATS 

(BROILED) 

Of  the  different  ways  of  cooking  the  flesh  of  ani- 
mals, especially  for  the  sick,  broiling  is  at  once  the 
most  delicious  and  the  most  difficult. 

The  difference  between  broiled  meat  and  meat 
cooked  in  water  is  that  the  broiled  meat  is  cooked  in 
its  own  juices,  while  the  other  is  not.  The  albumen 
is  coagulated  in  both  cases,  and  the  gelatinous  and 
fibrinous  tissues  are  softened  by  being  heated  in  a 
liquid.  In  broiling  or  roasting  meat  the  juices  are 
retained,  while  in  stewing  they  go  more  or  less  into 
the  water,  and  the  loosening  of  the  fibers  and  solu- 
tion of  the  gelatin  and  fibrin  may  be  carried  further, 
on  account  of  the  longer  exposure  to  heat  and  the 
larger  amount  of  solvent.  In  broiling,  as  the  meat  is 
to  be  cooked  in  its  own  juices,  it  is  evident  that  these 
must  be  retained  as  completely  as  possible;  and  in 
order  to  succeed  in  this,  we  have  to  struggle  with  a 
dry  heat,  which  may  not  only  cause  rapid  evaporation, 
but  may  volatilize  or  decompose  some  of  the  flavoring 
principles.1 

We  should,  therefore,  endeavor  to  have  such  a  tem- 
perature as  shall  at  first  be  sufficiently  high  to  quickly 
coagulate,  even  harden,  the  albumen  in  the  outside 
surface,  and  thus  form  a  layer  or  protecting  coat  over 
the  whole,  and  then  to  so  modify  and  regulate  the 

1  Mattieu  Williams. 
168 


EECIPES  169 

heat  afterward  that  the  interior  shall  be  raised  to 
such  a  temperature  as  shall  properly  cook  it  without 
loss  of  its  nutritive  properties. 

The  time  of  exposure  will  be  different  for  different 
kinds  of  meat — beef  and  mutton  requiring  a  shorter 
time  than  lamb,  chicken,  or  game.  Beef  and  mutton 
are  best  when  cooked  rare ;  lamb,  chicken,  and  some 
kinds  of  game  are  best  when  well  done.  Game  with 
white  flesh  should  be  well  done;  all  other  kinds,  gener- 
ally speaking,  may  be  rare. 

Much  of  the  science  of  cooking  depends  upon  a 
knowledge  of  the  effects  of  heat ;  and  as  many  changes 
in  food  are  due  to  the  dissociation  caused  by  heat,  the 
degree  of  change  depending  upon  the  temperature, 
the  value  of  a  sound  knowledge  of  the  subject  can- 
not fail  to  be  seen. 

To  illustrate:  aside  from  the  evaporation  of  juices 
and  coagulation  of  albumen  in  a  piece  of  steak,  the 
chemical  separation  of  its  constituents,  especially  of 
the  outside  shell  or  sheath,  will  vary  with  the  degree 
of  heat  in  which  it  is  cooked. 

Not  only  for  meats,  but  for  most  animal  foods,  a 
cooking  temperature  less  than  212°  but  above  160°  is 
most  advisable.  This  applies  particularly  to  milk, 
eggs,  oysters,  meats,  and  fish.  Of  course  in  broiling 
we  partially  sacrifice  the  outside  by  cooking  in  a 
high  temperature  for  the  sake  of  preserving  the  inner 
portions. 

BEEF 

Beef  is,  without  doubt,  our  most  valuable  kind  of 
meat.  It  is  nutritious,  of  excellent  flavor,  and  com- 
paratively easy  of  digestion.  It  contains  many  of  the 
substances  necessary  to  nourish  the  body — water,  fat, 
albumen,  gelatin,  fibrin,  salts,  and  flavoring  proper- 


170  RECIPES 

ties.  The  direct  nutrients  which  it  contains  are  fat 
and  protein. 

The  quality  of  beef  varies  with  the  age  of  the  ani- 
mal and  the  manner  in  which  it  has  been  fattened. 
It  requires  a  considerable  amount  of  study  to  be 
able  to  select  a  good  roast  or  steak.  If  the  fat  be 
of  light,  golden  color,  firm  and  thick,  and  the  lean 
be  streaked  with  fine  lines  of  fat,  it  is  one  indication 
of  a  well-nourished  animal.  A  reliable  dealer  may 
be  of  great  service  in  aiding  one  to  distinguish  be- 
tween good  and  poor  qualities. 

The  best  portions  for  steak  are  from  the  loin,  top 
of  the  round,  and  rump.  The  cut  called  "porter- 
house" is  from  near  the  middle  of  the  loin,  and  is 
the  best  portion  of  the  animal.  It  has  a  rich,  fine 
flavor,  and  contains  a  section  of  tenderloin.  Sirloin 
steak  is  from  the  loin,  and  is  also  very  nice.  The 
first  and  second  cuts  from  the  top  of  the  round  are 
excellent,  containing  much  well-flavored  juice.  The 
composition  of  a  round  steak  free  from  bones  is  as 
follows  (in  100  parts) : 

(  Protein,  gelatin,  fibrin,  etc 23.00% 

NUTRIENTS.  .  ^  Fats ,      9.00% 

'  Mineral  matters  • 1.30% 

WATER 66.70% 

Total 100.00% 

ATWATER. 


The  time  given  below  for  the  digestion  of  beef  is 
taken  from  calculations  by  Dr.  Beaumont: 

Hours.  Minutes. 

Beefsteak  broiled 3 

Beef,  fresh,  lean,  roasted 3  30 

Beef  fried 4 


EECIPES  171 


VALUE  OF  BEEP 

As  material  for  muscle 19 

As  heat-giver 14 

As  food  for  brain  and  nervous  system 2 

Water 65 

ATWATER. 


To  Broil  Steak.  Select  a  steak  from  the  loin,  top  of 
the  round,  or  rump.  Have  it  cut  an  inch  and  a  half 
(or,  better,  two  inches)  thick.  If  there  is  a  great  deal 
of  fat,  trim  off  part  of  it,  and  wipe  the  steak  with  a 
clean,  wet  cloth.  A  fire  of  glowing  red  coals  is  neces- 
sary to  do  broiling  well.  Place  the  steak  in  a  wire 
broiler,  and  put  it  as  near  the  coals  as  possible  (one 
writer  says  plunge  it  into  the  hottest  part  of  the  fire), 
count  ten  and  turn  it,  count  again  and  turn  again  until 
it  has  been  turned  five  or  six  times  so  as  to  quickly  cook 
a  thin  layer  all  over  the  outside,  to  shut  in  the  juices 
of  the  meat,  and  to  form  a  protecting  sheath  of 
coagulated  albumen  over  the  whole.  Then  lift  the 
broiler  away  from  the  coals  and  do  the  rest  of  the 
process  slowly, — that  is,  in  a  lower  temperature,  that 
the  heat  may  have  time  to  penetrate  to  the  center  of 
the  piece  and  raise  the  juices  to  a  sufficiently  high 
temperature  to  soften  the  fibers,  but  not  so  high  as 
to  hornify  the  albumen  or  char  the  outside.  Turn  it 
every  half  minute  until  done. 

If  the  fat  melts  and  flames,  do  not  lift  up  the  broiler; 
it  will  do  no  harm,  and  the  black  deposit  which  results 
is  only  carbon.  This  carbon  is  not  injurious;  the  color 
is  not  especially  attractive,  but  the  taste  will  be  good. 
The  cautious  cook  who  does  not  appreciate  this  will  lift 
up  the  broiler,  thus  cooling  the  meat,  and  will  perhaps 


172  RECIPES 

blow  out  the  flame,  a  proceeding  which  is  open  to 
question  as  a  point  of  neatness. 

As  coal  fires  are  never  twice  alike,  and  the  amount 
of  heat  sent  out  is  variable,  it  is  constantly  necessary 
to  judge  anew  as  to  where  the  broiler  shall  be  placed. 
A  certain  amount  of  practice  is  required  to  be  able 
to  broil  with  even  fair  success.  When  done  a  steak 
should  be  brown  on  the  outside,  pink  and  juicy  inside, 
and  plump,  not  shriveled.  Steak  should  be  at  least  an 
inch  thick,  otherwise  the  proportion  of  surface  ex- 
posed to  the  heat  will  be  so  great  in  proportion  to 
the  amount  of  meat  as  to  cause  the  loss  by  evapora- 
tion of  most  of  the  juice,  thus  making  the  steak 
tough  and  dry. 

From  five  to  seven  minutes  will  be  required  to  cook 
a  steak  an  inch  thick;  if  an  inch  and  a  half  thick, 
from  eight  to  ten  minutes.  Serve  the  steak  on  a  hot 
platter  after  having  seasoned  both  sides  of  it  with  salt 
and  pepper,  but  no  butter.  If  it  is  desirable  to  use 
butter,  serve  it  with  the  steak  rather  than  on  it. 

HAMBURG  STEAK.    No.  1 

(SCEAPED  BEEF) 

Cut  a  piece  of  tender  steak  half  an  inch  thick.  Lay 
it  on  a  meat-board,  and  with  a  sharp  knife  scrape  off 
the  soft  part  until  there  is  nothing  left  but  the  tough, 
stringy  fibers.  Season  this  pulp  with  salt  and  pep- 
per, make  it  into  little  flat,  round  cakes  half  an  inch 
thick,  and  broil  them  two  minutes.  Serve  on  rounds 
of  buttered  toast.  This  is  a  safe  and  dainty  way  to 
prepare  steak  for  one  who  is  just  beginning  to  eat 
meat.  When  it  is  not  convenient  to  have  glowing 
coals,  these  meat-cakes  may  be  broiled  in  a  very  hot 
omelet-pan. 


RECIPES  173 


HAMBURG  STEAK.     No.  2 

Pound  a  thin  piece  of  beefsteak  until  the  fibers  are 
broken;  season  it  with  salt  and  pepper,  fold  and 
pound  again  5  then  broil  it  three  or  four  minutes  over 
a  clear  hot  fire.  Serve  at  once. 


TENDERLOIN  STEAK 

Broil  a  tenderloin  steak,  and  at  the  same  time  a 
small  piece  of  round  steak,  which  usually  contains 
a  great  deal  of  well-flavored  juice.  Cut  the  round 
steak  into  small  pieces,  and  squeeze  the  juice  from  it 
over  the  tenderloin.  Tenderloin  steak  is  tender,  but 
usually  neither  juicy  nor  particularly  well  flavored. 
By  this  method  one  gets  a  delicious  steak. 


BEEFSTEAK  A  LA  MAITBE  D'HOTEL 

Broil  a  steak,  place  it  on  a  platter,  and  season  it  with 
salt  and  pepper ;  sprinkle  it  with  finely  chopped  pars- 
ley, drops  of  lemon-juice,  and  some  little  bits  of 
butter.  Set  it  in  the  oven  long  enough  to  soften  the 
butter.  A  steak  done  in  this  way  may  be  made  quite 
attractive  by  garnishing  it  with  hot  mashed  and  sea- 
soned potatoes  which  have  been  squeezed  through  a 
potato-strainer.  A  colander  may  be  used  in  lieu  of  a 
strainer.  The  potato  loses  some  of  its  heat  in  the 
process,  so  care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  dish  very 
hot  or  to  place  it  in  the  oven  until  it  becomes  so. 

A  steak  may  always  be  garnished  with  parsley, 
water-cress,  or  slices  of  lemon. 


174  RECIPES 

CHICKEN 

(BROILED) 

For  broiling,  select  a  young  chicken — one  from 
three  to  eight  months  old.  Singe  it.  Split  it  down 
the  back,  and  free  it  from  all  refuse,  such  as  pin- 
feathers,  lungs,  kidneys,  oil-bag,  windpipe,  and  crop 
(the  latter  is  sometimes  left  in  when  the  chicken  is 
drawn).  Wash  it  quickly  in  cold  water,  fold  it  in  a 
clean  cloth  kept  for  the  purpose,  and  clap  gently 
between  the  hands  until  all  the  water  is  absorbed. 
Separate  the  joints — the  lower  joint  of  the  leg  and  the 
upper  joint  of  the  wing — by  cutting  the  flesh  on  the 
under  side  and  severing  the  white  tough  tendons. 
Soften  some  butter  until  it  runs,  then  dip  the  chicken 
into  it,  season  it  with  salt  and  pepper,  dredge  with 
flour,  and  broil  it  in  a  wire  broiler  for  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes,  according  to  the  size. 

The  same  principle  holds  in  broiling  chicken  as  in 
steak.  The  first  part  of  the  process  should  be  done 
in  a  high  temperature  to  coagulate  the  juices  of  the 
outer  layers,  and  the  last  part  very  slowly.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  it  is  thoroughly  done  at  the  thick 
joints  of  the  wing  and  leg.  Serve  hot. 

To  Buy  a  Chicken.  The  best  chickens  have  yellow 
skin,  but  one  may  be  deceived  if  guided  by  this  alone, 
for  foivls  often  have  yellow  skin  also.  The  flexibility 
of  the  end  of  the  breast-bone  is  always  a  sure  means 
of  deciding  as  to  the  age  of  the  bird.  If  it  be  soft, 
easily  bent,  and  if  it  feels  like  cartilage,  the  chicken 
is  young.  Sometimes  dealers  break  the  bone  for  the 
purpose  of  deceiving  buyers,  but  it  does  not  take  a 
great  deal  of  intelligence  to  decide  between  a  broken 
bone  and  one  that  is  easily  bent.  If  the  bone  be  hard 
and  firm,  it  is  an  indication  of  age.  For  broiling,  of 


EECIPES  175 

course,  the  chicken  should  be  young,  the  flesh  of  good 
color  and  well  nourished,  and,  as  in  the  buying  of 
beef,  one  may  rely  upon  the  judgment  of  a  good 
dealer.  The  way  in  which  chickens  are  fed  has  much 
to  do  with  the  flavor  of  the  meat. 


BIRDS 

Various  kinds  of  birds,  such  as  squab,  partridge, 
plover,  snipe,  pheasant,  etc.,  are  particularly  appro- 
priate food  for  the  sick,  partly  because  we  associate 
them  with  the  dainty  things  of  life,  but  more  on 
account  of  the  valuable  nutrient  properties  which 
they  contain.  They  are  especially  rich  in  salts  (par- 
ticularly the  phosphates),  which  are  so  much  needed 
by  a  system  exhausted  by  disease. 

Birds  which  feed  mostly  on  grains,  such  as  the 
partridge  and  the  pheasant,  will  bear  transportation, 
and  will  keep,  in  cold  weather,  a  long  time.  Birds 
with  dark  flesh,  which  live  mostly  on  animal  food, 
decay  quickly. 

A  general  rule  for  the  cooking  of  game  is  this :  that 
with  white  flesh  should  be  well  done,  that  with  dark 
should  be  rare,  and  usually  is  only  properly  cooked  when 
served  so,  as  in  the  case  of  woodcock,  duck,  and  snipe. 

When  in  Season.  Some  birds,  such  as  reed-birds, 
partridge,  and  plover,  have  a  season  which  varies 
slightly  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  according  to 
the  game  laws  of  different  States.  In  Maryland,  the 
following  birds  may  be  found  in  market  according  to 
the  time  stated : 

Squabs All  the  year. 

Partridge November  1 — December  25. 

Snipe September — December. 

Plover September — November. 


176  EECIPES 

Pheasants October — January. 

Woodcock .August — February. 

Rice- or  reed-birds September — Middle  October. 

Field-larks Summer  and  early  autumn. 

Grouse  (prairie-hen) All  the  year. 

Pigeons All  the  year. 

The  cleansing  and  preparation  of  birds  is  in  general 
carried  out  in  the  same  manner  as  with  chickens. 
When  there  is  any  variation  from  this,  it  will  be  men- 
tioned under  the  rule  for  each. 


SQUABS 

Squabs  are  young  domestic  pigeons.  The  Philadel- 
phia market  supplies  nearly  all  of  those  used  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States. 

Remove  the  feathers,  and  all  pin-feathers;  cut  off 
the  head  and  legs,  and  split  the  bird  down  the  back 
carefully  with  a  sharp  knife.  Lift  out  carefully  the 
contents  of  the  body,  which  are  contained  in  a  little 
sac  or  delicate  membrane ;  they  should  be  taken  out 
without  breaking.  Do  not  forget  the  windpipe,  crop, 
lungs,  and  kidneys.  "Wash,  and  prepare  the  squab  in 
the  same  manner  that  chicken  is  done,  except  the  dip- 
ping in  butter  and  dredging  with  flour;  this  may 
be  omitted,  as  squabs  are  generally  fat  and  do  not 
require  it.  Broil  from  twelve  to  fifteen  minutes, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  bird  and  the  intensity  of 
the  fire.  It  should  be  well  done.  Serve  on  hot  but- 
tered toast. 

PARTRIDGE 

The  partridge  is  a  white-fleshed  bird.  It  may  be 
broiled  or  roasted. 


EECIPES  177 

To  Broil.  Follow  the  same  rule  as  that  given  for 
squab,  except  dip  in  melted  butter  and  dredge  with 
flour. 

To  Roast.  Prepare  in  the  same  manner  as  for  broil- 
ing, except  dip  in  butter  and  dredge  twice.  Do  not 
forget  the  salt  and  pepper.  Then  skewer  the  body  so 
that  it  will  resemble  a  whole  bird,  and  look  as  if  it 
had  not  been  split  down  the  back.  Spread  a  teaspoon 
of  butter  on  the  breast,  and  bake  it  in  a  hot  oven  for 
twenty  to  thirty  minutes.  Partridge  done  in  this 
way  is  delicious,  for  the  butter  enriches  the  meat, 
which  is  naturally  dry.  It  should  be  served  well 
done,  not  rare,  on  hot  buttered  toast,  with  currant 
jelly. 

The  season  for  partridges  is  in  most  States  during 
the  last  part  of  the  autumn,  and  generally  the  laws  in 
regard  to  them  are  rigid.  Nevertheless,  they  can  be 
bought  from  the  middle  of  October  until  May,  or  the 
beginning  of  warm  weather.  The  partridge  is  a  bird 
that  keeps  well  bears  transportation,  and  is  sent  from 
one  part  of  the  country  to  another,  many  coming  from 
the  West  when  the  season  is  over  in  the  Eastern 
States.  It  is  a  medium-sized  bird,  with  mottled  brown 
feathers,  which  are  black  at  the  ends,  especially  those 
on  the  back,  and  mottled  brown  and  silver-gray  on 
the  breast. 

SNIPE 

Snipe  may  be  both  prepared  and  cooked  as  par- 
tridges are — that  is,  broiled  and  roasted.  The  snipe 
has  rich,  dark  meat,  and  therefore  will  not  need  to  be 
dipped  in  butter  for  either  broiling  or  roasting.  It 
is  about  the  same  size  as  a  squab,  but  as  it  is  to  be 
cooked  rare  (it  is  more  tender  and  of  nicer  flavor  so), 
ten  minutes  is  sufficient  time  for  broiling,  and  from 


178  RECIPES 

twelve  to  fifteen  minutes  for  roasting  in  a  hot  oven. 
Serve  it  with  currant  jelly  on  hot  buttered  toast. 

The  snipe  has  a  long  bill,  from  two  to  two  and  a 
half  inches  in  length.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  squab, 
with  dark,  almost  black,  wing-feathers  tipped  with 
white,  and  the  feathers  of  the  back  are  intermingled 
with  flecks  of  golden  brown.  The  under  sides  of  the 
wings  are  pearl-gray,  and  the  breast  is  white. 


PHEASANTS 

Pheasants  may  be  broiled  or  roasted.  As  the  meat 
is  dry,  they  should  be  well  rubbed  with  soft  butter 
and  dredged  with  flour.  It  is  a  good  way,  after  put- 
ting on  the  salt  and  pepper,  to  dip  the  bird  into 
melted  butter,  then  dredge  it  with  flour,  then  lay  on 
soft  butter  and  dredge  a  second  time;  or,  when  it  is 
skewered  and  ready  for  the  oven,  it  may  be  spread 
thickly  over  the  breast  with  softened  butter.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  the  very  thick  portion  of  the 
breast  be  cooked  through,  as  pheasant  should  be  well 
done,  and  from  one  half  to  three  quarters  of  an  hour 
will  be  necessary  for  this. 


WOODCOCK 

The  woodcock  is  about  the  size  of  a  partridge,  with 
mottled  dark  brown  and  gray  feathers,  except  on  the 
breast,  where  they  are  a  sort  of  light  salmon  brown.  It 
has  a  long  slender  beak,  somewhat  like  that  of  a 
snipe. 

Prepare  woodcock  like  squab,  only  do  not  cut  off 
the  head,  as  the  brain  is  considered  a  dainty  by  epi- 
cures. Remove  the  skin  from  the  head,  and  tie  or 


EECIPES  179 

skewer  it  back  against  the  body.  Use  salt  and  pep- 
per for  seasoning,  but  neither  flour  nor  butter,  as  the 
woodcock  has  dark,  rich  flesh.  Broil  from  eight  to 
ten  minutes.  Serve  rare  on  toast. 


REED-BIRDS 

Reed-birds  are  to  be  prepared  after  the  general 
rule  for  dressing  birds.  Although  they  are  some- 
times cooked  whole,  it  is  better  to  draw  them.  Split 
them  down  the  back,  remove  the  contents  of  the  body, 
and  after  washing  and  wiping  them,  string  three  or 
four  on  a  skewer,  pulling  it  through  their  sides,  so 
that  they  shall  appear  whole.  Roast  in  a  shallow  pan 
in  a  hot  oven,  from  eight  to  ten  minutes;  or,  before 
roasting,  wrap  each  one  in  a  very  thin  slice  of  fat 
pork  and  pin  it  on  with  a  skewer  (wire). 

Broiled.  Prepare  as  for  roasting,  except  peel  off 
the  skin,  taking  the  feathers  with  it.  Broil  from  two 
to  four  minutes.  Serve  on  toast. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  skin  all  small  birds. 

The  reed-bird  is  the  bobolink  of  New  England,  the 
reed-bird  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  rice-bird  of  the 
Carolinas. 


GROUSE 

The  grouse  or  prairie-hen  is  in  season  all  the  year, 
but  is  at  its  best  during  the  fall  and  winter. 

To  Prepare.  Clean,  wash,  and  wipe  it.  Lard  the 
breast,  or  fasten  to  it  with  slender  skewers  a  thin 
slice  of  salt  pork.  Grouse  has  dry  flesh,  consequently 
it  will  be  improved  by  rubbing  softened  butter  over 
it,  as  well  as  by  using  pork.  Sprinkle  on  a  little  salt, 


180  RECIPES 

dredge  it  with  flour,  and  cook  in  a  quick  oven  for 
thirty  minutes. 

Grouse  are  also  very  nice  potted.  After  they  are 
made  ready  for  cooking,  fry  a  little  fat  pork  and  some 
chopped  onion  together  in  a  large  deep  spider  for  a 
few  minutes,  then  lay  in  the  grouse,  cover  the  spider, 
and  fry  until  the  outside  of  each  bird  is  somewhat 
browned,  or  for  twenty  minutes,  slowly.  Then  put 
them  into  a  granite- ware  kettle  and  stew  until  tender, 
which  will  take  from  one  to  two  hours.  When  they 
are  done,  lift  them  out,  thicken  the  liquid  slightly 
with  flour,  and  season  it  with  salt  and  pepper  for  a 
gravy.  Serve  the  grouse  on  a  deep  platter  with  the 
gravy  poured  around,  or  simply  season  the  liquid 
and  cook  tiny  dumplings  in  it,  which  may  be  served 
around  the  birds.  Then  thicken  the  liquid  and  pour 
over.  The  amount  of  onion  to  be  fried  with  the  pork 
should  not  exceed  half  a  teaspoon  for  each  bird,  and 
of  pork  the  proportion  of  a  cubic  inch  to  a  bird  is 
enough. 

Pigeons  potted  according  to  these  directions  for 
grouse  are  excellent. 

FIELD-LARKS 

Field-larks  and  robins  may  be  prepared  and  cooked 
in  exactly  the  same  way  that  reed-birds  are  done. 
Robins  are  good  in  autumn. 


VENISON 

Venison  is  in  season  during  the  late  autumn  and 
winter.  "When  "hung"  for  a  proper  length  of  time, 
it  is  the  most  easily  digested  of  all  meats.  For  this 


EECIPES  181 

reason  it  is  a  favorite  with  epicures  who  eat  late  sup- 
pers. According  to  Dr.  Beaumont  it  is  digested  in 
one  hour  and  thirty-five  minutest 

Steaks  may  be  taken  either  from  the  loin  or  the 
round.  Broil  them  according  to  the  rule  for  beefsteak, 
and  serve  very  hot  with  a  slice  of  lemon  or  a  little 
claret  poured  over. 

Venison  will  not  please  an  epicure  unless  it  is  hot 
and  rare  when  served.  To  accomplish  this  in  a  per- 
fectly satisfactory  manner,  it  has  become  the  fashion 
in  families  to  have  the  broiling  done  on  the  table,  in 
a  chafing-dish,  each  person  attending  to  his  own  steak, 
and  cooking  it  according  to  his  particular  fancy. 


MUTTON 

A  good  piece  of  meat  freed  from  refuse, — that  is, 
indigestible  portions  such  as  bone,  etc., — if  neatly  pre- 
pared and  properly  cooked,  is  practically  entirely  di- 
gested. If  carelessly  handled  and  cooked  so  that  its 
juices  are  evaporated,  and  its  natural  flavors  unde- 
veloped or  destroyed,  there  will  be  more  or  less  waste 
in  the  process  of  digestion. 

Mutton  requires  more  care  in  cooking  than  beef, 
or,  in  other  words,  it  is  more  easily  spoiled  in  that 
process;  but  when  done  with  due  consideration,  it  is 
a  most  acceptable  meat.  A  thick,  carefully  broiled, 
hot,  juicy  mutton  chop  just  from  the  coals  is  a  very 
delicious  morsel.  The  same  piece  with  the  adjec- 
tives reversed, — that  is,  done  without  thought,  per- 
haps raw  in  the  middle,  charred  on  the  outside,  and 
cold, — is  far  from  being  acceptable  to  even  a  healthy 
person. 

Just  inside  of  the  outer  skin  of  the  sheep  there  is 

i  From  actual  experiment. 
13 


182  RECIPES 

a  thick,  tough  membrane  enveloping  the  whole  ani- 
mal; the  peculiar  flavor  called  "woolly,"  which  makes 
mutton  disagreeable  to  many,  is  given  to  the  meat 
largely  by  this  covering.  It  is  supposed  that  the  oil 
from  the  wool  strikes  through.  An  important  point 
in  the  preparation  of  the  meat  for  cooking  is  the  re- 
moval of  this  skin,  for  otherwise  the  unpleasant  taste 
will  be  very  strong,  and  the  chop  or  roast  conse- 
quently far  from  as  delicate  as  it  might  be. 

The  value  of  mutton  as  a  nutrient  is  practically  the 
same  as  that  of  beef,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  the 
following  table  with  that  of  beef  previously  given. 

As  material  for  muscle • 21 

As  heat-giver 14 

As  food  for  brain  and  nervous  system 2 

Water 63 

DIGESTIBILITY  OF  MUTTON 

Hours.       Minutes. 

Broiled 3 

Boiled 3 

Koasted 3  15 


MUTTON  CHOPS 

For  the  same  reason  that  is  given  in  the  rule  for 
beefsteak,  mutton  chops  should  be  thick.  When  the 
fat  is  abundant  and  little  lines  of  fat  run  through  the 
flesh,  it  is  an  indication  of  a  good  quality  of  meat. 

To  prepare  the  chops  for  broiling,  cut  away  the 
tough  outside  skin,  trim  off  a  part  of  the  fat,  but  not 
all,  and  any  portion  of  the  spinal  cord  which  may  be 
attached.  Broil  in  the  same  manner  that  steak  is 
done — that  is,  close  to  the  glowing  coals — for  about 
one  minute,  turning  often,  and  at  a  distance  from 


EECIPES  183 

them  for  the  rest  of  the  time,  which"  should  be  from 
four  to  six  minutes  for  a  chop  an  inch  thick. 

Mutton,  like  beef,  should  be  served  rare.  Season 
chops  with  salt  and  pepper,  but  no  butter,  as  the  meat 
is  rich  in  fat  and  does  not  require  it.  Tomato-sauce 
is  an  old-fashioned  accompaniment  of  a  chop,  and  may 
or  may  not  be  served  with  it.  For  breakfast  it  is  bet- 
ter omitted. 

CHOPS,  PAN-BROILED 

Chops  are  fairly  good  pan-broiled.  The  same  prin- 
ciple is  to  be  followed  as  in  cooking  over  coals — that 
is,  a  high  degree  of  heat  at  first,  to  sear  over  the  out- 
side before  the  juices  escape,  and  a  low  temperature 
afterward;  therefore  heat  the  pan  or  spider  exceed- 
ingly hot  (use  no  fat),  drop  in  the  chop,  count  ten  and 
turn,  count  again  and  turn  again  for  about  one  min- 
ute, then  draw  the  pan  to  the  side  or  back  of  the 
stove  and  finish  slowly.  A  chop  one  inch  thick  will 
be  perfectly  done  in  from  five  to  seven  minutes.  If 
the  pan  is  hot  enough  at  first,  there  will  be  no  loss  of 
juice  or  flavor.  Season  and  serve  in  the  same  manner 
as  broiled  chops. 

FRENCH  CHOPS 

Trim  a  chop  until  there  is  nothing  left  but  the 
round  muscle  at  the  thick  end,  with  a  little  fat  about 
it.  Cut  away  all  the  meat  from  the  bone,  which  will 
then  look  like  a  handle  with  a  neat  morsel  at  one 
end.  Broil. 

CHOPS  IN  PAPER 

Spread  a  piece  of  paper  evenly  and  thickly  with 
butter.  Lay  upon  it  a  nicely  trimmed  chop,  and 


184  RECIPES 

double  the  paper  with  the  edges  together.  Fold  and 
crease  these  edges  on  the  three  sides;  then  fold  and 
crease  again,  so  that  the  butter  cannot  run  out.  These 
folds  should  be  half  an  inch  wide.  It  will  be  neces- 
sary to  have  the  sheet  of  paper  (note-paper  or  thick 
brown  paper  will  do)  considerably  more  than  twice  as 
large  as  the  chop.  Broil  over  coals,  not  too  near, 
turning  often  so  that  the  temperature  shall  not  get  so 
high  as  to  ignite  the  paper.  A  chop  broiled  in  this 
way  is  basted  in  the  butter  and  its  own  juices,  and  is 
very  delicate.  Be  careful  not  to  let  the  paper  ignite, 
and  yet  do  not  have  it  so  far  from  the  coals  that  the 
meat  will  not  cook.  This  is  best  accomplished  by 
holding  the  broiler  near  the  coals  and  turning  often: 
that  is,  about  once  in  twenty  seconds.  There  is  no 
danger  that  the  paper  will  catch  fire  if  the  broiler  is 
turned  often  enough.  A  chop  three  quarters  of  an 
inch  thick  will  cook  in  jive  minutes,  one  an  inch  thick 
in  eight.  Should  the  paper  catch  fire,  it  need  not  de- 
stroy the  chop.  Take  it  out,  put  it  into  a  fresh  paper, 
and  try  again.  The  chop  should  be  served  very  hot, 
seasoned  with  salt  and  pepper. 


LAMB   CHOPS 

Lamb  chops  are  very  delicate  and  tender.  They 
may  be  known  by  the  lighter  color  of  the  flesh  as 
compared  with  mutton  chops,  and  by  the  whiteness  of 
the  fat.  Prepare  and  broil  them  in  the  same  way 
that  mutton  chops  are  broiled,  except  that  they  are 
to  be  well  done  instead  of  rare,  and  to  accomplish 
this  longer  cooking  by  about  three  minutes  will  be 
required :  for  a  chop  an  inch  thick,  from  eight  to  ten 
minutes,  instead  of  from  four  to  six  as  for  mutton. 


STEWS 

CHICKEN  STEW 

1  Cup  of  chicken  meat. 

1  Teaspoon  of  chopped  onion. 

2  Tablespoons  of  white  turnip. 
1  Saltspoon  of  curry-powder. 

£  Teaspoon  of  salt. 
A  little  white  pepper. 
1  Tablespoon  of  rice. 

Left-over  broiled  chicken  or  the  cuttings  from  a 
cold  roast  will  do  for  this  dish.  Divide  the  meat  into 
small  pieces,  excluding  all  skin,  gristle,  tendons,  and 
bone.  Boil  the  bones  and  scraps,  in  water  enough  to 
cover  them,  for  an  hour.  Then  strain  the  liquor,  skim 
off  the  fat,  and  put  into  it  the  chicken,  onion,  turnip 
(which  should  be  cut  in  small  cubes),  curry-powder, 
salt,  pepper,  and  rice.  Simmer  all  together  for  an 
hour.  Serve.  The  vegetables  and  curry  flavor  the 
meat,  and  a  most  easily  digested  and  palatable  dish 
is  the  result. 

Potatoes  may  be  substituted  for  the  rice,  and  celery- 
salt,  bay-leaves,  or  sweet  marjoram  for  the  curry.  If 
herbs  be  used,  tie  them  in  a  bag  and  drop  it  into  the 
stew,  of  course  removing  it  before  carrying  the  dish 
to  the  table. 

The  above  rule  will  make  enough  stew  for  two 
persons.  By  multiplying  each  item  in  it,  any  amount 
may  be  made. 

185 


186  RECIPES 


BEEF  STEW 

Use  for  beef  stew  either  cold  beefsteak,  the  portions 
left  from  a  roast,  or  uncooked  meat. 

1  Cup  of  beef  cut  into  small  pieces. 

1  Teaspoon  of  minced  onion. 

2  Tablespoons  of  turnip. 
2  Tablespoons  of  carrot. 
\  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

£  Cup  of  cut  potatoes. 
A  little  black  pepper. 

If  beefsteak  is  selected,  free  it  from  fat,  gristle,  and 
bone,  and  cut  it  into  small  pieces.  Fry  the  onion, 
carrot,  and  turnip  (which  should  be  cut  into  small 
cubes)  in  a  little  butter,  slowly,  until  they  are  brown. 
Add  them  to  the  meat,  cover  it  with  water,  and  sim- 
mer for  one  hour.  Then  skim  off  the  fat,  put  in  the 
potatoes  (cut  in  half -inch  cubes)  and  the  salt  and  pep- 
per. Boil  for  half  an  hour  more.  Serve  in  a  covered 
dish  with  croutons. 

The  vegetables  are  fried  partly  to  give  the  desir- 
able brown  color  to  the  stew,  and  partly  because 
their  flavor  is  finer  done  that  way.  A  beefsteak  stew 
is  a  very  savory  and  satisfactory  dish.  If  fresh,  un- 
cooked meat  is  used,  cut  it  into  small  pieces  and  fry 
it  in  a  hot  buttered  pan  for  a  few  minutes,  to  brown 
the  outside  and  thus  obtain  the  agreeable  flavor  that 
is  developed  in  all  meats  by  a  high  temperature. 
Simmer  two  and  a  half  hours  before  putting  in  the 
potatoes. 

When  the  left-over  portions  of  a  roast  are  used,  the 
meat  should  be  freed  from  all  gristle,  bone,  and  fat ; 
these  may  be  boiled  separately  for  additional  broth. 


RECIPES  187 


MUTTON  STEW 

Exactly  the  same  rule  may  be  followed  for  mutton 
stew  as  for  beef.  Do  not  forget  to  trim  the  meat 
carefully.  Use  only  clear  pieces  of  the  lean.  If  a 
roast  is  used  and  there  are  bones,  boil  them  in  water 
with  the  scraps  for  additional  broth.  Mutton  stew  is 
good  made  with  pearl-barley  instead  of  potatoes,  in  the 
proportion  of  one  teaspoon  of  grain  to  a  cup  of  meat; 
it  should  be  put  in  at  the  beginning  of  the  cooking. 
A  half  teaspoon  of  chopped  parsley  is  a  nice  addition, 
or  a  few  tablespoons  of  stewed  and  strained  tomato. 


SWEETBBEADS 

Sweetbreads  are  the  pancreatic  glands  of  the  calf. 
They  are  good  while  the  animal  lives  on  milk,  but 
change  their  nature  when  it  begins  to  eat  grass  and 
hay,  and  are  then  no  longer  useful  for  food.  The 
gland  consists  of  two  parts,  the  long,  slender  portion 
called  the  "  neck "  sweetbread,  and  the  round,  thick 
part  known  as  the  " heart"  sweetbread.  These  are 
sometimes  sold  separately,  but  they  should  be  to- 
gether. Among  epicures  sweetbreads  are  considered 
a  dainty,  and  are  certainly  a  most  acceptable  form  of 
food  for  the  sick. 

To  Prepare.  As  soon  as  sweetbreads  come  from 
market,  they  should  be  cleaned  and  parboiled.  Cut 
off  any  refuse, — such  as  pipes,  fat,  and  all  bruised 
portions, — and  wash  them  quickly  in  cold  water. 
Pour  into  a  saucepan  some  boiling  water,  salt  it,  and 
add  a  little  lemon-juice  or  vinegar  (not  more  than  a 
teaspoon  to  a  pint  of  water);  boil  the  sweetbreads 
in  this  for  fifteen  minutes  if  they  are  to  be  creamed, 
broiled,  or  baked,  or  again  cooked  in  any  way;  but 
if  they  are  to  be  served  plain  with  peas,  they  should 
remain  on  twenty-five  or  thirty  minutes.  When 
done,  drain  off  the  water  and  set  them  aside  to  cool. 
Sweetbreads  must  always  be  parboiled  as  soon  as 
possible  after  being  taken  from  the  animal,  as  they 
decay  quickly.  Sweetbreads  may  be  made  white  by 
soaking  them  in  cold  water  for  half  an  hour;  the 
flavor,  however,  is  said  to  be  injured  by  so  doing. 

188 


RECIPES  189 


CREAMED   SWEETBREADS 

Make  a  cream  sauce  with  a  cup  of  sweet  cream,  a 
tablespoon  of  flour,  and  half  a  tablespoon  of  butter. 
Then  cut  a  sweetbread  into  half-inch  cubes,  salt  it 
slightly,  and  sprinkle  on  a  little  white  pepper.  Mix 
equal  quantities  of  it  and  the  cream  sauce  together, 
put  the  mixture  into  individual  porcelain  patty-dishes 
or  scallop-dishes,  sprinkle  the  top  with  buttered 
crumbs,  and  bake  on  the  grate  in  a  hot  oven  for  ten 
minutes.  This  will  give  sufficient  time  to  finish  the 
cooking  of  the  parboiled  sweetbread  without  harden- 
ing it. 

The  sauce  may  be  made  quite  acceptably  with  milk, 
by  using  a  tablespoon  of  butter  instead  of  half  that 
quantity.  This  is  a  good  way  to  prepare  sweet- 
breads, and  one  particularly  desirable  for  the  sick. 
They  will  be  tender  and  delicate  if  care  is  taken 
not  to  overcook  them  in  either  the  boiling  or  the 
baking. 

FRICASSEED  SWEETBREADS 

Cut  a  parboiled  sweetbread  into  half-inch  cubes. 
Then  make  a  sauce  with  half  a  teaspoon  of  flour, 
a  teaspoon  of  butter,  three  fourths  of  a  cup  of  strong 
chicken  broth,  and  one  fourth  of  a  cup  of  sweet  cream. 
Heat  the  broth.  Cook  the  flour  in  the  butter,  letting 
the  two  simmer  together  until  brown,  then  add  the 
hot  broth,  a  little  at  a  time,  stirring  constantly,  and 
last  put  in  the  cream.  Season  the  sauce  with  a  bit  of 
salt,  a  little  black  pepper,  half  a  teaspoon  of  lemon- 
juice,  and  a  speck  of  curry-powder.  Roll  the  cut 
sweetbread  into  it,  simmer  for  five  minutes,  and 
serve  on  sippets,  or  on  squares  of  dry  toast  in  a  cov- 


190  RECIPES 

ered  dish.  The  chicken  broth  may  be  made  by  boil- 
ing the  bones  and  cuttings  of  a  roast,  and  milk  may 
be  substituted  for  the  cream. 


SWEETBREADS  WITH  PEAS 

A  favorite  way  of  serving  sweetbreads  is  with  fresh 
peas.  They  should  be  boiled  in  salted  water  and 
arranged  in  the  middle  of  a  platter  with  the  peas 
(cooked  and  seasoned)  around  them.  Serve  them 
with  a  cream  sauce.  Or  the  peas  may  be  piled  in  the 
middle  of  a  platter,  the  sweetbreads  arranged  as  a 
border,  and  the  sauce  poured  around  the  whole.  Sweet- 
breads larded  and  baked  may  also  be  served  in  this 
way. 


FISH 

Fish  fresh  from  the  lakes  or  sea  is  excellent  food. 
The  point  of  freshness  is  a  very  important  one,  for 
all  kinds  spoil  quickly,  and,  unless  you  can  be  quite 
sure  how  long  they  have  been  out  of  the  water,  it  is 
better  to  find  some  other  food  for  your  invalid.  Some 
shell-fish,  such  as  crabs  and  lobsters,  are  especially 
dangerous,  and  should  not  be  eaten  by  either  sick  or 
well,  unless  they  are  Mown  to  be  in  perfect  condition. 
For  the  sick  they  had  better  not  be  used  at  all. 

"  The  flesh  of  good  fresh  fish  is  firm  and  hard,  and 
will  rise  at  once  when  pressed  with  the  finger.  If 
the  eyes  be  dull  or  sunken,  the  gills  pale,  and  the 
flesh  soft  and  flabby,  the  fish  is  not  fresh."  (Mrs. 
Lincoln.) 

Fish  with  red  blood,  such  for  instance  as  salmon, 
are  highly  nutritious  but  not  easily  digested,  partly 
because  of  the  amount  of  fat  distributed  through  the 
flesh.  Herring  and  mackerel  belong  to  this  class. 
White  fish,  such  as  cod,  haddock,  turbot,  halibut,  and 
flounder,  contain  comparatively  little  fat,  and  that 
mostly  in  the  liver.  They  are  easy  of  digestion,  and 
possess  a  delicate  flavor.  When  in  season  and  just 
from  their  native  element,  these  fish  are  delicious, 
and  make  excellent  food  for  the  sick,  on  account  of 
the  ease  with  which  they  are  digested. 

To  Prepare.  If  fish  be  brought  from  market  with 
the  scales  on,  as  is  usually  the  case,  it  is  a  very  easy 

191 


192  RECIPES 

matter  to  remove  them.  A  large  sheet  of  brown 
paper,  or  a  newspaper,  and  a  knife  not  very  sharp,  are 
all  that  are  necessary.  Spread  the  paper  on  the  table, 
lay  the  fish  upon  it,  and  then  with  the  blade  of  the 
knife  held  parallel  with  the  body  of  the  fish,  or  nearly 
so,  not  at  right  angles  to  it,  push  off  the  scales. 
They  will  come  off  easily,  and  will  not  fly  unless  you 
turn  the  edge  of  the  knife  too  much.  Should  this 
happen,  the  paper  will  catch  the  scales,  and  when  the 
fish  is  finished  all  the  refuse  can  be  rolled  up  in  the 
paper  and  burnedo  After  removing  the  scales,  cut 
off  the  head,  fins,  and  tail.  Make  a  slit  on  the  under 
side,  and  take  out  the  contents  of  the  cavity,  clearing 
out  everything  that  is  not  flesh.  Then  wash  the  fish 
quickly  in  a  stream  of  cold  water,  wipe  it,  and  set  it 
in  a  cool  place  (a  refrigerator  if  you  have  it)  until  it  is 
required  for  cooking.  Do  not  lay  it  directly  on  ice, 
for  the  juices  of  the  fish  are  dissolved  by  the  water 
which  is  formed  as  the  ice  melts,  and  its  delicate 
flavor  is  thus  impaired. 


WHEN  IN   SEASON 

Cod All  the  year. 

Haddock All  the  year. 

Cusk Winter. 

Halibut All  the  year. 

Flounders      All  the  year. 

Salmon     May  to  September. 

Shad Spring. 

Bluefish June  to  October. 

Whitefish Winter. 

Swordfish  July  to  September. 

Smelts  September  to  March. 

Perch Spring  and  summer. 

Mackerel April  to  October. 

Oysters September  to  May. 

Clams All  the  year. 


EECIPES  193 


BROILED  FISH 

Small  fish,  such  as  perch,  scrod  (young  cod),  etc.,  are 
excellent  broiled.  After  the  fish  is  cleaned,  washed 
out,  and  wiped,  split  it  lengthwise  if  it  be  thick, 
sprinkle  on  salt  and  pepper,  squeeze  over  it  some 
drops  of  lemon-juice,  dip  it  in  melted  butter,  and 
broil  over  clear  coals,  quickly  at  first  and  then  very 
slowly,  allowing  ten  minutes  for  each  inch  of  thick- 
ness. Serve  with  butter  cream. 

To  Make  Butter  Cream.  Cream  some  butter  in  a  cup 
or  bowl,  season  it  with  salt,  Cayenne  pepper,  lemon- 
juice,  and  vinegar.  A  teaspoon  of  butter  is  enough 
for  an  ordinary  small  fish  such  as  a  perch,  and  to 
season  it  a  speck  of  cayenne,  a  speck  of  salt,  and  a 
teaspoon  of  vinegar  and  lemon-juice  (half  of  each), 
will  be  good  proportions.  Spread  it  on  the  fish,  and 
let  it  melt  and  run  over  it,  or  serve  it  separately  in 
a  little  ball  on  a  glass  butter-plate.  A  nice  addition 
to  the  butter  is  a  little  finely  minced  parsley,  or 
chopped  pickle,  such  as  cucumbers  or  olives,  or  the 
three  mixed,  if  they  are  at  hand. 


CREAMED  FISH 

To  make  creamed  fish,  any  white  fish  which  flakes 
easily  may  be  used.  Cusk,  cod,  and  haddock  are  es- 
pecially recommended.  Cook  the  fish  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes  by  gentle  boiling.  Then  remove  the  flesh 
carefully  from  the  bones,  letting  it  separate  into  flakes ; 
season  it  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  a  few  drops  of 
lemon-juice  sprinkled  over.  For  every  pint  of  pre- 
pared fish  make  a  rich  cream  sauce  with  four  table- 
spoons of  butter,  two  of  flour,  and  a  pint  of  milk  in 


194  RECIPES 

which  a  small  slice  of  onion  has  been  boiled.  Pour 
the  sauce  over  the  seasoned  fish,  rolling  them  together 
gently  so  that  the  flakes  may  not  be  broken,  arrange 
on  a  platter,  sprinkle  the  top  with  buttered  crumbs, 
and  bake  in  a  hot  oven  from  twenty  minutes  to  half 
an  hour.  A  speck  of  cayenne  is  a  good  addition  to 
make  to  the  sauce.  This  is  a  delicious  and  wholesome 
dish.  The  butter  is  so  thoroughly  incorporated  with 
the  flour  of  the  sauce  that  it  becomes  one  of  the  few 
very  easily  digested  forms  of  cooked  fat. 


BOILED  FISH 

Select  any  white  fish — fresh  cod  for  instance.  Pre- 
pare it  according  to  the  directions  given  for  cleaning 
fish,  put  it  into  a  wire  vegetable-basket,  drop  the 
basket  into  a  dish  of  boiling  salted  water,  and  let  it 
simmer  for  from  fifteen  minutes  to  three  quarters  of 
an  hour  according  to  the  size  of  the  fish  (a  cod  weigh- 
ing three  pounds  will  require  cooking  a  half  hour). 
Do  not  allow  it  to  boil  rapidly  at  any  time,  or  it  will 
break.  When  it  is  done  lift  it  out  of  the  basket  and 
serve  it  at  once  with  drawn  butter  made  in  the  follow- 
ing manner: 

Put  two  tablespoons  of  butter  and  one  of  flour  into 
a  saucepan ;  let  them  simmer  together  for  two  minutes 
(count  the  time) ;  then  add,  a  little  at  a  time,  a  pint 
of  boiling  water  or  of  chicken  broth,  stirring  con- 
stantly. This  will  give  a  smooth  cream-like  sauce 
which  will  be  enough  for  two  pounds  of  fish.  Season 
it  with  parsley,  grated  yolks  of  hard-boiled  eggs,  a 
few  drops  of  lemon-juice,  a  bit  each  of  cayenne  and 
mustard,  and  a  few  drops  of  onion-juice. 


CUSTAEDS,   CREAMS,   PUDDINGS,   AND 
BLANC-MANGE 

SOFT  CUSTARD 

(BOILED) 

Soft  custard  is  a  nutritious  dish  made  of  yolk  of 
egg  and  milk.  It  is  frequently  used  as  a  sauce  for 
puddings,  but  is  very  good,  eaten  by  itself,  for  one 
who  is  confined  to  light  or  liquid  diet. 

1  Pint  of  milk. 
Yolks  of  two  eggs. 

2  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 
1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

Put  the  milk  into  a  saucepan,  and  set  it  on  the  stove 
to  boil.  Beat  together  the  yolks  of  the  eggs,  the  salt, 
and  the  sugar,  in  a  bowl,  and  when  the  milk  just 
reaches  the  boiling-point,  pour  it  in  slowly,  stirring 
until  all  is  mixed.  Return  it  to  the  saucepan  without 
delay,  and  cook  for  three  minutes,  meanwhile  stirring 
it  slowly.  Carefully  endeavor  not  to  either  overcook 
or  undercook  the  custard,  for  if  it  is  not  cooked  enough, 
it  will  have  a  raw,  unpleasant, "  eggy  "  taste,  and  if  it  is 
cooked  too  much,  it  will  have  the  appearance  of  being 
curdled.  If  there  is  no  unnecessary  delay  in  pouring 
the  milk  into  the  egg  so  that  not  much  of  its  heat  is 
lost,  and  if  it  is  returned  immediately  to  the  fire, 
three  minutes'  exposure  to  the  heat  will  usually  be 
long  enough,  but  of  course  the  time  will  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  condition  of  the  fire  and  the  kind  of  pan 

195 


196  RECIPES 

used.  When  done,  strain  it  at  once  into  a  cool  dish, 
and  flavor  it  with  a  teaspoon  of  vanilla.  Soft  custard 
may  also  be  flavored  with  sherry  wine,  almond  ex- 
tract, cinnamon-bark,  caramel,  and  nutmeg.  It  should 
be  of  a  smooth  and  even  consistency,  and  as  thick  as 
rich  cream. 


BAKED  CUSTARD 

(IN  CUPS) 

1  Pint  of  milk. 

2  Eggs. 

1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

2  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 

£  Square  inch  of  cinnamon -bark. 

Put  the  cinnamon  and  milk  together  in  a  saucepan, 
and  set  on  the  stove  to  heat.  Break  the  eggs  into  a 
bowl,  add  the  salt  and  sugar,  and  beat  them  until  well 
mixed,  but  not  light.  "When  the  milk  boils,  pour  it  on 
the  beaten  egg,  stir  slowly  for  a  minute  to  dissolve 
the  sugar,  and  then  strain  it  into  custard-cups.  Place 
the  cups  in  a  deep  iron  baking-pan,  and  pour  boiling 
water  around,  until  it  reaches  almost  to  their  tops. 
Bake  in  a  hot  oven  twenty  minutes. 

The  blue  baking-cups  which  are  small  at  the  bottom 
and  widen  toward  the  top  are  good  ones  to  use.  They 
bear  the  fire  well,  and  are  pretty  enough  to  serve. 

By  baking  the  custards  in  a  dish  of  boiling  water, 
the  temperature  cannot  rise  higher  than  212°  Fahr., 
and  there  is  less  danger  of  hardening  the  albumen  in 
the  more  exposed  portions  before  the  middle  is  cooked 
enough,  than  if  water  is  not  used.  The  top  is  sacri- 
ficed—  somewhat  overcooked — for  the  sake  of  the 
pretty  brown  color  which  they  should  always  have. 
Custards,  when  done,  should  be  of  a  perfectly  smooth, 


RECIPES  197 

even,  velvety  consistence  throughout,  not  curdled  or 
wheyey. 

To  test  them  after  they  have  been  cooking  twenty 
minutes,  dip  a  pointed  knife  into  water,  and  plunge 
it  into  the  middle  of  the  custard.  If  it  comes  out 
clean,  the  custard  is  done;  if  milky,  it  is  not  cooked 
enough,  and  should  be  put  into  the  oven  for  five  min- 
utes longer.  Do  not  try  every  one  unless  the  cups  are 
of  different  sizes,  and  make  a  small,  narrow  slit,  so  that 
their  appearance  will  not  be  too  much  injured.  This 
mixture  may  also  be  baked  in  a  pudding-dish.  Baked 
custards  may  be  flavored  with  a  variety  of  substances, 
among  the  best  of  which  are  grated  nutmeg,  almond 
extract,  vanilla,  and  caramel. 

To  Make  Caramel.  Boil  together  one  cup  of  sugar 
and  one  third  of  a  cup  of  water  until  the  color  is  a 
rich  reddish  brown,  then  add  one  cup  of  water,  and 
bottle  for  use.  Two  tablespoons  of  this  syrup  will  be 
required  to  flavor  a  pint  of  custard. 


FRENCH  CUSTARD 

Make  a  custard  mixture  according  to  the  above  rule, 
omitting  the  cinnamon.  Put  into  the  bottom  of  the 
custard-cups  in  which  it  is  to  be  baked,  a  teaspoon  of 
raspberry  jam.  Then  with  a  tunnel  pour  the  custard 
in  slowly.  Bake  twenty  minutes.  The  jam,  if  firm,  will 
not  mix  with  the  custard.  It  imparts  a  nice  flavor  to 
the  whole,  and  is  an  interesting  dish  to  many,  who 
wonder  how  the  jam  can  be  kept  from  dissolving. 

RENNET  CUSTARD  OR  SLIP 

Put  into  a  glass  pudding-dish  a  pint  of  milk,  a 
tablespoon  of  sugar,  and  a  teaspoon  of  rennet.     Stir 
u 


198  RECIPES 

to  dissolve  the  sugar,  cover  it  and  place  it  on  the 
stove-hearth,  or  any  warm  place,  to  heat  sufficiently 
for  the  rennet  to  act  upon  the  casein  of  the  milk — 
that  is,  to  about  98°  Fahr.  As  soon  as  it  is  "  set,"  or 
becomes  solid,  remove  to  a  cool  place,  so  that  the  sep- 
aration of  the  casein  shall  not  go  too  far  and  whey 
appear.  When  it  is  cool,  serve  it  in  glass  dishes.  Ren- 
net custard  may  be  flavored  with  nutmeg  grated  over 
the  surface,  or  by  stirring  in  with  the  rennet  a  tea- 
spoon of  vanilla,  or  of  rose-water,  or  a  tablespoon  of 
wine.  When  brandy  is  added,  it  is  called  junket. 

Liquid  rennet  is  an  extract  of  the  inner  lining  of 
the  stomach  of  the  calf.  It  has  the  power  of  freeing 
the  albuminous  part  of  milk  from  its  solution, — in 
other  words,  of  coagulating  it.  Rennet  custard  is  not 
of  course  strictly  a  custard  j  it  is  also  called  slip,  and 
in  Cape  Cod  it  bears  the  graphic  name  of  "  Gap-and- 
swallow." 

EGG   CREAM 

2  Eggs. 

2  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 

Juice  and  grated  rind  of  half  a  lemon. 

Separate  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  from  the  whites,  and 
beat  them  with  the  sugar  in  a  bowl  until  both  are 
well  mixed.  Then  put  in  the  lemon- juice  and  rind, 
and  place  the  bowl  in  a  dish  of  boiling  water  on 
the  fire.  Stir  slowly  until  the  mixture  begins  to 
thicken  ;  then  add  the  beaten  whites  of  the  eggs  and 
stir  for  two  minutes,  or  until  the  whole  resembles 
very  ihick  cream ;  then  remove  it  from  the  fire,  pour 
into  a  small  pudding-dish,  and  set  it  away  to  cool. 
Serve  in  small  pretty  china  cups,  or  small  glass  dishes, 
for  a  mid-afternoon  lunch  or  for  tea. 


RECIPES  199 


VELVET  CREAM 

£  Box  of  gelatine. 

J  Cup  of  cold  water. 

|  Cup  of  sherry  wine. 

1  Teaspoon  of  lemon-juice. 

£  Cup  of  sugar. 

1£  Cups  of  creamy  milk,  or 

1J  Cups  of  sweet  cream. 

Soak  the  gelatine  in  the  cold  water  in  a  bowl  for 
half  an  hour ;  then  pour  in  the  wine,  and  set  the  bowl 
in  a  dish  of  boiling  water  on  the  fire.  When  the 
gelatine  is  dissolved,  put  in  the  lemon- juice  and 
sugar,  stir  for  a  minute  to  dissolve  the  sugar,  and 
then  strain  it  through  a  fine  wire  strainer  into  a  gran- 
ite or  other  metal  pan.  Set  the  pan  in  a  dish  of  ice 
and  water  to  cool.  As  soon  as  it  begins  to  thicken, 
or  is  about  the  consistency  of  molasses  on  a  warm 
day,  turn  in  the  cream  and  stir  regularly  and  con- 
stantly until  it  begins  to  thicken.  Before  it  is  quite 
as  hard  as  it  will  become,  turn  it  into  a  glass  or 
pretty  china  dish,  in  which  it  may  be  served,  and  set 
it  away  in  the  refrigerator  or  back  in  the  dish  of  ice 
and  water  until  perfectly  firm.  Serve  it  in  small  glass 
or  china  dishes,  with  sweet  cream  poured  over.  This 
cream  should  be  of  a  perfectly  smooth,  even  consis- 
tency, hence  the  name  "  velvet  cream." 


COFFEE  CREAM 

Box  of  gelatine. 
Cup  of  cold  water. 
Cup  of  strong  coffee. 


200  EECIPES 

£  Cup  of  sugar. 

1J  Cups  of  sweet  cream,  or 

14  Cups  of  creamy  milk. 

Soak  the  gelatine  in  the  cold  water  for  half  an 
hour.  Then  pour  on  the  coffee,  boiling  hot,  to  dis- 
solve it ;  add  the  sugar,  stir  until  it  is  dissolved,  and 
strain  the  liquid  into  a  granite  pan.  Set  it  in  iced 
water  to  cool ;  when  it  has  become  so,  and  is  begin- 
ning to  thicken,  or  is  about  the  consistency  of  syrup  or 
a  little  thinner,  pour  in  the  cream ;  stir  regularly  and 
evenly  for  about  ten  minutes,  or  until  it  is  thick,  but 
not  hard ;  then  turn  it  into  a  glass  dish  while  it  is 
still  slightly  soft,  and  it  will  settle  into  a  smooth,  even 
mass.  It  may  be  returned  to  the  iced  water,  or  put 
into  a  refrigerator,  to  stiffen. 

Coffee  cream  is  similar  to  velvet  cream  and  the  pro- 
cess is  exactly  the  same  for  both.  They  are  delicious 
creams,  very  nutritious,  and  to  be  recommended  for 
their  excellent  nourishing  properties  and  flavors. 

To  Make  the  Coffee.  Mix  two  tablespoons  of  ground 
fresh  Java,  or  Java  and  Mocha  coffee  mixed,  with  a 
little  cold  water  and  raw  egg  (either  white  or  yolk)  in  a 
coffee-pot.  Stir  it  to  thoroughly  mix  the  egg  and  coffee. 
Pour  in  a  cup  of  boiling  water,  and  set  it  to  boil  for 
five  minutes.  Then  move  the  pot  to  a  less  hot  part 
of  the  stove,  where  the  coffee  will  barely  simmer,  for 
ten  minutes,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 


CHOCOLATE   CREAM 

2  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 

£  Ounce  (£  square)  of  Baker's  chocolate. 

1  Pint  of  cream. 

Whites  of  four  eggs. 


RECIPES  201 

Cook  the  sugar,  chocolate,  and  cream  (sweet  cream 
or,  if  that  cannot  be  had,  rich  milk)  together  in  a 
double  boiler  until  the  chocolate  is  perfectly  dis- 
solved. It  will  require  occasional  stirring,  and  should 
be,  when  done,  entirely  free  from  specks  or  flakes  of 
chocolate.  Then  stir  in,  pouring  slowly,  the  well- 
beaten  whites  of  the  eggs  while  the  cream  is  still  on 
the  stove.  Cook  for  three  minutes,  or  until  the  albu- 
men is  coagulated,  but  not  hardened.  It  should  look 
creamy  and  smooth,  not  curdled.  Turn  into  a  pud- 
ding-dish and  cool. 


TAPIOCA   CREAM 

£  Cup  of  granulated  tapioca. 

4  Cup  of  cold  water. 

1  Pint  of  milk. 

3  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 

1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

2  Eggs. 

After  the  tapioca  is  picked  over  and  washed,  put  it 
into  a  double  boiler  with  the  cold  water,  and  let  it 
stand  until  the  water  is  absorbed.  Then  pour  in  the 
pint  of  milk,  and  cook  until  each  grain  is  transparent 
and  soft.  It  will  take  an  hour.  At  this  point,  beat 
the  eggs,  sugar,  and  salt  together  until  very  light,  and 
pour  them  slowly  into  the  hot  pudding,  at  the  same 
time  stirring  rapidly,  so  that  the  two  will  be  perfectly 
mixed.  After  the  egg  is  in,  continue  to  stir  for  about 
three  minutes,  or  long  enough  to  cook  the  egg  as  it 
is  done  in  soft  custard.  The  pudding  should  have 
the  appearance  of  cream,  as  the  name  indicates,  with 
flecks  of  tapioca  all  through  it.  Turn  it  into  a  china 
dish.  Serve  either  hot  or  cold. 


202  EECIPES 


BICE   CREAM 

2  Tablespoons  of  rice. 
2  Cups  of  milk. 

1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

2  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 
2  Eggs. 

Cleanse  the  rice  by  washing  it  several  times  in  cold 
water ;  cook  it  in  a  double  boiler  with  the  milk  until 
the  grains  will  mash.  Three  hours  will  generally 
be  required  to  do  this.  Should  the  milk  evaporate, 
restore  the  amount  lost.  When  the  rice  is  perfectly 
soft,  press  it  through  a  coarse  soup-strainer  or  col- 
ander into  a  saucepan,  return  it  to  the  fire,  and 
while  it  is  heating  beat  the  eggs,  sugar,  and  salt 
together  until  very  light.  When  the  rice  boils,  pour 
the  egg  in  rather  slowly,  stirring  lightly  with  a  spoon 
for  three  or  four  minutes,  or  until  it  coagulates  and 
the  whole  is  like  a  thick,  soft  pudding ;  then  remove 
from  the  fire,  and  pour  it  into  a  pretty  dish.  By 
omitting  the  yolks  and  using  the  whites  of  the  eggs 
only,  a  delicate  white  cream  is  obtained. 


PEACH  FOAM 

(DELICIOUS) 

Peel  and  cut  into  small  pieces  three  or  four  choice 
and  very  ripe  peaches  (White  Heaths  are  good),  so 
that  when  done  there  will  be  a  cupful.  Put  them 
into  a  bowl,  with  half  a  cup  of  powdered  sugar,  aud 
the  white  of  one  egg.  Beat  with  a  fork  for  half  an 
hour,  when  it  will  be  a  thick,  perfectly  smooth,  vel- 
vety cream,  with  a  delightful  peach  flavor,  and  may 
be  eaten  ad  libitum  by  an  invalid. 


EECIPES  203 


SNOW   PUDDING 

£  Box  of  gelatine. 
|  Cup  of  cold  water. 
1  Cup  of  boiling  water. 

1  Cup  of  sugar. 

£  Cup  of  lemon-juice. 
Whites  of  three  eggs.1 

For  the  sauce : 

Yolks  of  two  eggs. 

2  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 
\  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

1  Pint  of  milk. 

\  Teaspoon  of  vanilla. 

Divide  a  box  of  gelatine  into  fourths  by  notching  one 
of  the  upright  edges.  Cut  off  one  fourth  of  the  box 
for  a  measure,  which  can  afterward  be  used  as  a  cover. 
"When  taking  out  a  fourth,  be  sure  to  pack  the  mea- 
sure as  closely  as  it  was  packed  in  the  box.  Soak  the 
gelatine  in  the  cold  water  for  half  an  hour.  Then 
pour  on  the  boiling  water,  add  the  sugar  and  lemon- 
juice,  stir  for  a  minute,  and  strain  through  a  fine  wire 
strainer  into  a  granite  pan ;  place  the  pan  in  iced  water 
to  cool.  Meanwhile  beat  the  eggs  as  light  as  possible, 
and  as  soon  as  the  gelatine  mixture  begins  to  thicken, 
or  is  about  as  thick  as  honey,  turn  in  the  eggs,  and 
stir  slowly  and  regularly,  with  the  back  of  the  bowl  of 
the  spoon  against  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  until  the  egg 
is  mixed  completely  with  the  gelatine  and  the  whole 
nearly  stiff.  Just  before  it  becomes  firm  turn  it  into  a 
melon-mold,  and  return  it  to  the  iced  water  to  harden. 
It  should  be  perfectly  white,  literally,  like  snow. 

i  From  Mrs.  Lincoln's  "  Boston  Cook  Book." 


204  RECIPES 

With  the  materials  for  the  sauce  make  a  soft  cus- 
tard, cool  it,  and  serve  with  the  pudding  either  in  a 
pitcher,  or  poured  around  it  in  an  ice-cream  dish,  or 
other  shallow  pudding-dish. 


PRINCESS  PUDDING 

J  Box  of  gelatine. 

J  Cup  of  cold  water. 

£  Cup  of  boiling  water. 

1  Cup  of  sugar. 

£  Cup  of  white  wine  (sherry). 

Juice  of  one  lemon. 

Whites  of  three  eggs. 

For  the  sauce  : 

1  Pint  of  milk. 

Yolks  of  two  eggs. 

3  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 

1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

1  Teaspoon  of  rose-water. 

The  process  is  exactly  the  same  as  for  snow  pud- 
ding, and  it  is  served  in  the  same  manner,  with  the 
soft  custard  for  a  sauce.  Ordinary  sherry  wine  may 
be  used,  although  white  sherry  is  better. 


COBN-STARCH  PUDDING 

1£  Tablespoons  of  corn-starch. 
1  Tablespoon  of  sugar. 

1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

2  Tablespoons  of  cold  water. 
1  Pint  of  milk. 


EECIPES  205 

Put  the  milk  on  the  stove  to  heat.  Mix  in  a  sauce- 
pan the  corn-starch,  sugar,  and  salt  with  the  cold 
water,  and  when  the  milk  has  just  begun  to  boil  pour 
it  in,  slowly  at  first,  stirring  all  the  while.  The  corn- 
starch  should  become  thick  at  once,  when  it  may  be 
poured  into  a  clean  double  boiler  and  cooked  thirty 
minutes.  The  time  should  be  faithfully  kept,  as  corn- 
starch  is  an  unpalatable  and  indigestible  substance  un- 
less thoroughly  cooked.  See  to  it  that  the  water  in  the 
under  boiler  actually  boils  during  the  thirty  minutes. 
At  the  end  of  that  time  beat  one  egg  very  light,  and 
stir  it  in,  pouring  slowly,  so  that  it  may  be  mixed 
all  through  the  hot  pudding  and  puff  it  up.  Then 
cook  for  one  minute,  turn  it  into  a  china  pudding- 
dish,  or  into  individual  molds,  and  cool.  Serve  with 
cream. 

Corn-starch  pudding  should  have  a  tender  consis- 
tency and  a  sweet  and  wholesome  taste.  The  diffi- 
culty with  many  is  that  they  are  not  thoroughly 
cooked,  and  are  too  stiff  and  hard  when  cool.  When 
you  find  this  to  be  the  case,  lessen  the  amount  of 
corn-starch  used.  The  proportion  in  this  recipe  may 
always  be  relied  upon. 

Other  similar  puddings  may  be  made  by  substitut- 
ing in  the  above  recipe  arrowroot,  flour,  or  farina  for 
the  corn- starch. 


BARLEY  PUDDING 

2  Tablespoons  of  Robinson's  barley  flour. 

1  Tablespoon  of  sugar. 

1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

1  Cup  of  water  (boiling). 

£  Cup  of  rich  milk. 

Whites  of  three  eggs. 


206  EECIPES 

Mix  the  flour,  sugar,  and  salt  in  a  saucepan  with  a 
little  cold  water.  When  smooth  and  free  from  lumps 
pour  in  the  boiling  water,  slowly  stirring  meanwhile 
to  keep  it  smooth;  then  set  it  on  the  fire  to  simmer  for 
ten  minutes,  continuing  the  stirring  until  it  is  thick. 
To  prevent  burning,  draw  the  pan  to  the  side  of  the 
stove,  unless  the  fire  is  very  slow,  for  barley  is  a  grain 
which  sticks  and  burns  easily.  At  the  end  of  the  ten 
minutes  put  in  the  milk,  and  strain  all  into  a  clean 
saucepan,  through  a  coarse  strainer,  to  make  the  con- 
sistency even.  Beat  the  whites  of  the  eggs  until  light 
but  not  stiff,  and  stir,  not  beat,  them  into  the  pudding, 
making  it  thoroughly  smooth  before  returning  it  to 
the  fire.  Cook  for  five  minutes,  stirring  and  folding 
the  pudding  lightly  until  the  egg  is  coagulated.  Then 
pour  it  into  a  china  pudding-dish.  Serve  cold  with 
sweet  cream.  This  is  good  for  one  who  is  just  be- 
ginning to  eat  solid  food. 


CREAM-OF-RICE  PUDDING 

1  Quart  of  milk. 
£  Cup  of  rice. 

2  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 
1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

Put  the  milk,  rice,  sugar,  and  salt  together  in  a 
pudding-dish,  stir  until  the  sugar  is  dissolved,  then 
place  the  dish  in  a  pan  of  water,  and  bake  in  a  slow 
oven  for  three  hours,  cutting  in  the  crust  which  forms 
on  the  top  once  during  the  time.  Should  the  pudding 
become  dry,  pour  over  it  a  little  more  milk,  but  this 
will  not  happen  unless  the  fire  is  too  hot.  When 
done  it  ought  to  be  creamy  inside,  with  the  grains  of 
rice  almost  dissolved  in  the  milk.  The  long  exposure 


EECIPES  207 

to  heat  changes  both  the  sugar  and  the  starch,  and 
gives  them  an  agreeable  flavor. 


FRUIT  TAPIOCA 

Wash  half  a  cup  of  tapioca,  put  it  into  a  double 
boiler  with  a  pint  of  water,  and  cook  until  the  grains 
are  soft  and  transparent.  If  granulated  tapioca  is 
used,  one  hour  is  sufficient  time.  Then  add  to  it  half 
a  cup  of  grape  or  currant  jelly,  and  mix  until  the 
jelly  is  dissolved;  turn  it  into  a  pudding-dish.  Serve 
cold,  with  sugar  and  cream.  Any  well-flavored  fruit 
jelly  may  be  used  instead  of  the  grape  or  currant. 


TAPIOCA  JELLY 

\  Cup  of  tapioca. 

2  Cups  of  water. 

\  Cup  of  sugar. 

Juice  and  grated  rind  of  half  a  lemon. 

J  Cup  of  sherry  wine,  or 

J  Cup  of  brandy  (French). 

Pick  over  and  wash  the  tapioca.  Put  it  into  a 
double  boiler  with  the  water,  and  cook  it  for  one 
hour,  or  until  the  grains  are  transparent  and  soft. 
Then  add  to  it  the  sugar,  juice  and  grated  rind  of 
the  lemon,  the  sherry  and  the  brandy,  mixing  them 
thoroughly.  Press  all  through  a  wire  strainer  into 
a  glass  pudding-dish,  and  set  it  in  a  cool  place  to  be- 
come a  jelly.  It  should  be  served  cold,  and  with 
cream. 


208  EECIPES 


ORANGE   LAYERS 

4  Oranges. 

3  Bananas. 

1  Cup  of  sugar. 

£  Cup  of  water. 

1  Cup  of  claret  wine. 

Peel  the  oranges,  slice  them  in  thin  slices,  and  re- 
move the  seeds.  Peel  and  slice  the  bananas.  Arrange 
both  in  alternate  layers  in  a  glass  dish.  Make  a 
syrup  of  the  sugar  and  water  by  boiling  them  to- 
gether, without  stirring,  for  ten  minutes ;  then  add 
the  wine,  and  remove  at  once  from  the  fire ;  cool  it, 
and  pour  it  over  the  fruit.  In  half  an  hour  it  will  be 
ready  to  serve. 

It  will  not  do  to  keep  this  dish  long,  as  the  fruit 
shrinks  and  loses  its  freshness.  One  fourth  of  an 
inch  is  the  proper  thickness  for  the  slices  of  orange, 
and  one  sixth  or  one  eighth  for  the  bananas. 


ORANGE   BASKETS 

From  the  end  opposite  the  stem  end  of  an  orange  cut 
out  sections  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  basket  with 
a  handle. 

The  body  of  the  basket  should  be  more  than  ftaJ/the 
orange.  With  a  knife  and  spoon  cut  and  scrape  out 
all  the  pulp  from  the  inside.  Fill  the  baskets  with 
blocks  of  orange  jelly,  or  with  raspberries,  strawber- 
ries, or  other  fruits.  They  are  pleasing  to  children, 
and  are  pretty  for  luncheon  or  tea.  The  edges  may 
be  scalloped,  and  diamonds  or  rounds  cut  out  of  the 
sides,  if  one  has  time. 


EECIPES  209 


IRISH  MOSS  BLANC-MANGE 

Irish  moss,  or  carrageen,  is  a  sea  moss  which  grows 
abundantly  along  the  shores  of  Europe  and  America. 
After  gathering,  it  is  dried  and  bleached  in  the  sun, 
and  then  packed  for  market.  It  is  exceedingly  rich 
in  an  easily  digested  vegetable  jelly,  and  is  also  valu- 
able for  food  because  of  its  mineral  constituents. 
To  Prepare. 

£  Cup  of  dry  moss. 

1  Quart  of  milk. 

i  Cup  of  sugar. 

Soak  the  moss  for  half  an  hour  in  warm  water,  to 
soften  it  and  to  loosen  the  sand  which  is  dried  and 
entangled  in  it.  Wash  each  piece  separately  under  a 
stream  of  cold  water.  Its  weight  (that  of  the  water) 
will  carry  down  the  sand.  Then  put  the  moss  in  a 
pudding-bag,  and  cook  it  in  a  double  boiler  in  the 
quart  of  milk  for  one  hour.  At  the  end  of  that  time 
lift  out  the  bag,  squeeze  it  a  little,  throw  away  the 
moss,  and  put  the  bag  to  soak  in  cold  water.  Add 
the  sugar  to  the  mixture,  strain  it  into  molds,  and  set 
in  a  cool  place  to  harden.  It  will  form  a  tender  jelly- 
like  pudding,  which  has  an  agreeable  taste,  resembling 
the  odor  of  the  sea,  which  many  like.  Serve  it  with 
cream,  and  with  or  without  pink  sugar.1 

This  blanc-mange  may  also  be  made  without  sugar 
if  it  is  desirable  to  have  an  unsweetened  dessert. 


i  Pink  sugar  may  be  made  by  putting  a  few  drops  of  carmine  into  a 
cup  of  powdered  sugar,  and  sifting  it  several  times  until  the  carmine  is 
entirely  distributed  through  it. 


210  EECIPES 


FINE  BLANC-MANGE 

Make  a  pudding  according  to  the  above  rule.  Color 
it,  just  before  straining,  with  three  or  four  drops  of 
carmine,  barely  enough  to  give  a  delicate  shell  pink, 
for  if  it  is  very  dark  it  is  not  attractive. 

Carmine  for  use  in  cooking  is  made  by  mixing  one 
ounce  of  No.  40  carmine  (which  may  be  obtained  of  a 
druggist)  with  three  ounces  of  boiling  water  and  one 
ounce  of  ammonia.  It  should  be  bottled,  and  will  keep 
indefinitely.  It  is  useful  for  coloring  ice-cream,  cake, 
and  puddings. 


SALADS 

Salads  are  of  two  classes :  the  plain  salads,  consist- 
ing of  green  herbs  or  vegetables,  such  as  lettuce, 
endive,  water-cress,  cucumber,  etc.,  dressed  or  seasoned 
with  salt,  pepper,  oil  and  vinegar,  or  oil  and  lemon- 
juice;  and  the  so-called  meat  salads,  which  consist  of 
one  or  more  green  vegetables,  with  an  admixture  of 
fish,  lobster,  crab,  fowl,  or  game.  A  salad  of  which- 
ever kind  should  be  cool,  delicate,  and  prepared  by  a 
gentle  hand.  Ordinary  servants  do  not  enough  ap- 
preciate the  "niceties"  to  make  acceptable  salads. 
The  lettuce,  cress,  or  whatever  green  is  used,  should 
be  thoroughly  washed,  but  not  crushed,  broken,  or 
roughly  handled,  drained  in  a  wire  basket,  dried  in 
a  napkin,  and  then  torn  with  the  fingers,  not  cut.  Of 
course,  cucumbers,  beet-root,  olives,  etc.,  are  exceptions. 

The  dressing  for  salads,  whether  simply  oil  and  vine- 
gar, or  a  mayonnaise,  should  be  mixed  with  a  wooden 
spoon,  and  an  intelligent  mind.  As  for  the  season- 
ings, the  Spanish  maxim  which  reads  as  follows  is  a 
good  guide :  "  Be  a  miser  with  vinegar,  a  counselor 
with  salt,  and  a  spendthrift  with  oil."  Let  the  oil  be 
of  the  first  quality  of  genuine  olive-oil.  In  nearly  all 
the  large  cities  one  may  get  fine  oil  by  searching  for 
it.  Once  found,  there  is  no  longer  any  difficulty,  so 
long  as  the  brand  does  not  deteriorate. 

To  vary  and  flavor  the  salads  of  vegetables  only,  use 
the  fine  herbs  when  in  season,  for  instance  balm,  mint, 
parsley,  cress,  and  sorrel,  chopped  or  minced,  and 
scattered  through  the  salad.  Unless  the  vinegar  is 

known  to  be  pure  cider  or  wine  vinegar,  use  lemon- 

211 


212  EECIPES 


juice.  Theodore  Child  says:  "Lemon-juice  is  the 
most  delicate  and  deliciously  perfumed  acid  that  na- 
ture has  given  the  cook." 


FRENCH  DRESSING 

French  dressing  is  a  mixture  of  fine  olive-oil,  vine- 
gar or  lemon- juice,  or  both,  salt,  Cayenne  pepper,  and 
onion- juice.  The  following  proportions  will  make 
enough  for  one  head  of  lettuce : 

1  Tablespoon  of  oil. 
A  bit  of  cayenne. 
£  Saltspoon  of  salt. 
4  Drops  of  onion-juice. 
1  Teaspoon  of  lemon-juice. 
1  Teaspoon  of  vinegar. 

Mix  all  together  well.  This  dressing  may  be  used 
with  lettuce,  tomatoes,  cold  meat,  potato  salad,  and 
to  marinate  chicken,  lobster,  and  crab  when  they  are 
to  be  used  for  salads. 


MAYONNAISE  DRESSING 

£  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

2  Saltspoon  s  of  mustard. 

2  Saltspoons  of  sugar. 

£  Saltspoon  of  cayenne. 

Yolk  of  one  egg. 

\  Cup  of  olive-oil. 

2  Tablespoons  of  lemon-juice. 

1  Tablespoon  of  vinegar. 

1  Tablespoon  of  thick  sweet  cream. 


EECIPES  213 

These  proportions  may  be  multiplied  or  divided  to 
make  larger  or  smaller  quantities.  Put  the  first  five 
ingredients  together  in  a  bowl,  and  mix  them  well ; 
then  add  the  oil  one  drop  at  a  time,  stirring  con- 
stantly with  a  wooden  paddle  or  spoon  "  round  and 
round,"  not  back  and  forth.  After  dropping  and 
stirring  for  ten  minutes,  the  mixture  will  become  stiff 
and  difficult  to  turn.  At  this  point  stir  in  a  little  of 
the  vinegar  or  lemon-juice.  Then  drop  in  more  oil, 
and  stir  until  it  again  becomes  stiff.  Continue  put- 
ting in  oil  and  the  acids  until  all  are  used,  when  you 
should  have  a  thick,  smooth  cream  which,  when  taken 
up  on  the  end  of  the  spoon,  will  keep  its  shape  and 
not  "  run."  It  will  take  from  twenty  minutes  to  half 
an  hour  to  make  it.  Last  stir  in  the  cream. 

Should  the  dressing  "  break,"  or  appear  as  if  curdled, 
it  may  sometimes  be  restored  to  smoothness  by  beating 
with  a  Dover  egg-beater,  or  by  adding  more  egg  and 
stirring  for  a  while  without  adding  oil.  If  these  ex- 
pedients fail,  begin  all  over  again,  adding  the  spoiled 
dressing  to  a  new  one.  However,  a  mayonnaise 
dressing  will  not  go  wrong  except  in  the  hands  of  a 
careless  worker.  The  only  points  to  be  observed  are 
to  put  the  oil  in  slowly,  and  to  stir  constantly  and 
rapidly.  The  sweet  cream  is  a  valuable  addition,  giv- 
ing the  mayonnaise  a  delicate,  satisfying  flavor. 


LETTUCE  SALAD 

Prepare  ahead  of  lettuce  by  washing  each  leaf  sep- 
arately in  a  stream  of  water,  tearing  off  any  portion 
that  is  bruised  or  brown,  and  looking  carefully  for 
little  green  creatures  that  may  be  lodged  in  the 
creases;  they  are  not  easily  seen.  Then  drain  the 
lettuce  on  a  fresh  towel  or  napkin,  for  if  the  leaves  are 


214  RECIPES 

very  wet  the  dressing  will  not  cling  to  them.  Next 
tear  it  to  pieces  with  the  fingers,  rejecting  the  large 
part  of  the  midrib,  put  it  into  a  deep  bowl,  pour 
on  a  French  dressing,  and  toss  it  with  a  wooden  salad- 
spoon  and  fork  until  all  the  lettuce  seems  oiled. 
Serve  immediately. 

Mayonnaise  dressing  may  be  used  instead  of  the 
French  dressing  in  this  salad. 

TOMATO  SALAD 

Wash  in  cold  water  and  wipe  some  fair,  ripe  toma- 
toes. Cut  them  in  slices  one  third  of  an  inch  thick. 
Do  not  peel  them.  Arrange  some  clean  white  lettuce 
leaves  on  a  silver  or  china  platter,  with  two  large 
leaves  at  either  end,  their  stems  toward  the  middle, 
and  two  small  ones  at  the  sides.  Lay  on  them  the 
slices  of  tomato,  with  their  edges  overlapping  each 
other.  Serve  with  this  salad  French  dressing. 

CHICKEN  SALAD 

Prepare  a  nice  chicken  (one  not  too  young)  by  boil- 
ing it  until  tender.  Then  set  it  away  in  its  own 
broth  to  cool.  (It  is  a  good  plan  to  boil  the  chicken  the 
day  before  it  is  intended  for  use.)  Meanwhile  make 
a  mayonnaise  dressing.  When  the  chicken  has  be- 
come cold,  take  it  from  the  broth,  and  cut  it  as  nearly 
as  possible  into  half -inch  cubes,  rejecting  all  skin, 
tendons,  cords,  and  bones.  Season  it  with  salt  and 
pepper.  Tear  into  small  pieces  with  the  fingers  some 
tender,  well-cleaned  lettuce,  and  then  mix  equal  quan- 
tities of  chicken  and  lettuce  with  a  part  of  the  dress- 
ing ;  arrange  it  in  a  shallow  salad-bowl,  and  spread 
the  remainder  of  the  mayonnaise  over  the  top.  The 


RECIPES  215 

yolk  of  egg  hard-boiled  and  pressed  through  a  wire 
strainer  with  the  back  of  a  spoon,  so  that  it  falls  in 
little  crinkled  pieces  all  over  the  top,  makes  a  pretty 
garnish.  Celery  tops,  the  tiny  inside  leaves  of  let- 
tuce, and  parsley  may  be  used  singly  or  together  for 
a  border. 

Chicken  salad  is  usually  made  with  celery  instead 
of  lettuce,  but  the  latter  is  better  for  an  invalid, 
although  tender,  delicate  celery  may  be  used.  Serve 
a  very  small  quantity,  for  chicken  salad  is  a  con- 
centrated food,  and  should  not  be  eaten  in  large 
amounts  by  either  the  convalescent  or  the  well.  The 
chicken,  lettuce,  and  dressing  may  all  be  prepared 
beforehand,  but  on  no  account  should  they  be  mixed 
together  until  just  before  serving. 


POTATO   SALAD 

For  this  salad  fresh  boiled  potatoes,  red  sugar-beets, 
and  French  dressing  are  needed.  The  potatoes  and 
beets  should  be  cooked  in  salted  water  purposely  for 
the  salad,  and  allowed  to  become  just  cool.  Cold 
potatoes  left  over  from  the  last  meal  may  be  used,  but 
they  are  not  nice.  When  the  potatoes  are  cool,  cut 
them  into  thin  slices,  season  with  a  little  more  salt 
and  a  bit  of  white  pepper ;  cut  the  beets  also  in  thin 
slices,  and  mix  the  two  in  the  proportions  of  one 
third  beets  to  two  thirds  potatoes,  with  the  dressing, 
or  arrange  them  in  alternate  layers  in  a  salad-bowl, 
with  the  dressing  poured  over  each  layer  as  it  is  made. 

A  more  dainty  way,  and  one  which  a  person  of  cul- 
tivated taste  will  appreciate  (as  it  really  makes  a 
perceptible  difference  in  the  flavor  of  the  salad),  is  to 
mix  the  lemon-juice,  vinegar,  salt,  and  pepper  together 
without  the  oil,  and  pour  it  over  the  different  layers 


216  RECIPES 


as  they  are  laid,  and  then  add  the  oil  by  itself.  The 
acids  penetrate  and  season  the  vegetables,  and  the  oil 
is  left  on  the  outside  of  each  piece. 


POTATO  SALAD  WITH  OLIVES 

Make  a  potato  salad  according  to  the  foregoing 
rule,  except  substitute  chopped  olives  for  the  beets,  in 
the  proportion  of  one  eighth  olives  by  measure  to 
seven  eighths  potato. 

CELERY   SALAD 

"  One  of  the  finest  salads  to  be  eaten,  either  alone  or 
with  game,  especially  partridges  or  wild  duck,  is  a 
mixture  of  celery,  beet-root,  and  corn-salad.  Water- 
cresses  will  make  a  poor  substitute  when  broken  into 
small  tufts. 

"  The  beets  are  cut  into  slices  one  sixteenth  of  an 
inch  thick ;  the  celery,  which  must  be  young  and 
tender  and  thoroughly  white,  should  be  cut  into 
pieces  an  inch  long,  and  then  sliced  lengthwise  into 
two  or  three  pieces.  (N.  B. —  Select  only  the  tender 
inside  branches  of  celery.)  This  salad  will  require 
plenty  of  oil,  and  more  acid  than  a  lettuce  salad, 
because  of  the  sweetness  and  absorbent  nature  of 
the  beet-root.  The  general  seasoning,  too,  must  be 
rather  high,  because  the  flavors  of  the  celery  and  the 
beet  are  pronounced."  ("  Delicate  Feasting,"  by  Theo- 
dore Child.) 

There  are  many  kinds  of  salads,  but  they  are  all 
based  upon  the  principles  stated  in  these  rules.  Green 
herbs  or  vegetables  treated  with  French  or  mayon- 
naise dressing,  either  by  themselves  or  with  meats, 
form  the  foundations  of  all  salads. 


ICE-CREAM,  SHERBETS,  AND  ICES 

For  patients  suffering  with  fevers,  and  for  use  in 
very  warm  weather,  good  ice-cream  and  sherbet  are 
most  acceptable.  They  should,  however,  be  used  with 
great  care,  particularly  if  the  illness  be  due  to  dis- 
turbance of  digestion,  for  they  lower  the  temperature 
of  the  stomach  and  often  cause  such  disorders  as  lead 
to  severe  illness.  Even  if  this  does  not  happen,  they, 
in  order  to  be  raised  to  a  temperature  at  which  diges- 
tion will  take  place,  absorb  heat  from  the  body,  and  a 
person  reduced  by  illness  cannot  afford  to  needlessly 
part  with  any  form  of  energy. 

Sherbet  in  its  literal  sense  means  a  cool  drink.  It 
is  of  oriental  origin,  but  in  this  country  it  has  come 
to  mean  a  frozen  mixture  of  fruit,  or  fruit- juice, 
water  and  sugar.  There  is  a  distinction  made,  how- 
ever, between  water-ice  and  sherbet.  Sherbet  has,  in 
addition  to  the  fruit- juice  and  water,  either  sugar- 
syrup,  white  of  egg,  or  gelatine,  to  give  it  sufficient 
viscousness  to  entangle  and  hold  air  when  beaten  in  a 
freezer,  so  that  sherbets  (unless  colored  by  the  fruit 
used)  will  be  white  and  opaque  like  snow.  "Water-ices, 
on  the  contrary,  are  made  without  the  white  of  egg, 
syrup,  or  gelatine,  do  not  entangle  air,  and  are  trans- 
lucent and  what  might  be  called  "watery."  Both 
are  delicious  when  made  with  fresh,  ripe  fruit,  and 
both  may  be  enriched  by  the  addition  of  sweet  cream 
if  desired. 

Freezers.  Of  the  various  kinds  of  freezers  perhaps 
the  "  Improved  "White  Mountain  Freezer "  is,  everv- 

217 


218  EECIPES 

thing  considered,  as  good  as  any.  It  is  strong  and 
freezes  quickly  when  the  salt  and  ice  are  properly  pro- 
portioned. 

It  is  well  to  study  the  gearing  before  attempting 
to  use  a  freezer.  The  different  parts  should  be 
taken  apart  and  put  together  until  it  is  understood 
how  the  machine  works.  See  that  the  paddles  in 
the  can  do  not  interfere  with  each  other,  and  that 
the  crank  turns  easily.  Then  put  all  together  again, 
fasten  down  the  crank-bar  across  the  top  of  the  can, 
and  have  everything  in  readiness  before  packing  the 
freezer  with  salt  and  ice.  The  object  in  using  the  salt 
is  to  get  a  greater  degree  of  cold  than  could  be  ob- 
tained with  the  ice  alone.  The  affinity  of  salt  for 
water  is  very  great — so  great,  that  it  will  break  down 
the  structure  of  ice  in  its  eagerness  for  it.  Heat  is 
involved  in  this  process  of  melting,  and  will  be  drawn 
from  surrounding  objects,  from  the  can,  the  bucket, 
the  cream,  and  even  the  ice  itself.  The  more  rapid 
the  union  of  salt  and  ice,  the  more  heat  is  absorbed, 
consequently  the  greater  is  the  degree  of  cold  and  the 
quicker  the  mixture  to  be  frozen  will  become  solid. 

Water  is  converted  into  steam  by  a  certain  amount 
of  heat.  Ice  is  transformed  into  ivater  by  the  same 
agency,  and  in  the  case  of  the  ice-cream  freezer  heat 
is  drawn  from  whatever  comes  in  contact  with  the 
ice  that  is  warmer  than  itself.  If  the  melting  of  the 
ice  can  be  hastened  in  any  way,  the  abstraction  of 
heat  will  be  correspondingly  greater;  hence  the  use 
of  salt,  which  is  so  eager  for  water  that  it  takes  it 
even  in  the  form  of  ice.  Now  it  will  be  easily  seen 
that  if  the  ice  is  in  small  pieces,  and  there  is  the 
proper  amount  of  salt  for  each  piece,  union  between 
the  two  will  be  immediate,  the  amount  of  heat  used 
will  be  very  great,  consequently  the  degree  of  cold 
will  be  great.  Cold  is  only  a  less  degree  of  heat. 


RECIPES  219 

Ordinary  liquid  mixtures  that  contain  a  large  per- 
centage of  water  become  solid  when  reduced  to  a 
temperature  of  32°  Fahr. 

To  Pack  an  Ice-Cream  Freezer.  Break  a  quantity  of 
ice  into  small  pieces  by  pounding  it  in  an  ice-bag 
(a  bag  made  of  canvas  or  very  strong  cloth)  with  a 
wooden  mallet.  The  ice  should  be  about  as  fine  as 
small  rock-salt.  Put  into  the  bucket,  around  the  tin 
can  which  is  to  hold  the  cream,  alternate  layers  of 
the  pounded  ice  and  salt  in  the  proportions  of  two 
thirds  ice  to  one  third  salt  (a  quart  cup  may  be  used 
for  measuring).  Should  it  happen  that  you  have 
"  coarse-fine  "  salt,  put  all  the  ice  into  the  freezer  first, 
and  then  the  salt  on  top  of  it,  as  it  will  quickly  work 
down  to  the  bottom.  When  the  packing  is  complete 
unfasten  the  cross-bar  and  lift  off  the  cover  of  the 
can  carefully,  so  that  no  salt  shall  get  inside ;  then 
put  in  the  mixture  to  be  frozen,  replace  the  cover, 
and  fasten  the  bar.  Let  it  stand  till  the  mixture  is 
thoroughly  chilled,  then  turn  steadily  but  not  very 
fast  for  about  ten  minutes,  or  until  the  turning  be- 
comes difficult ;  that  is  an  indication  that  the  contents 
of  the  can  are  freezing.  Continue  turning  for  a  few 
minutes  longer,  to  give  the  cream  a  fine  and  even  con- 
sistency ;  then  take  out  the  paddle,  drain  off  the  water 
through  the  hole  in  the  side  of  the  bucket,  fill  in  all 
about  the  can  with  coarse  ice,  and  cover  it  with  a  thick 
wet  cloth  or  towel.  Let  it  stand  for  half  an  hour  to 
become  firm,  when  it  is  ready  to  serve.  If  it  is  desira- 
ble to  keep  the  ice-cream  for  a  length  of  time,  it  may 
be  done  by  packing  the  freezer  closely  with  ice  and 
salt,  and  covering  it  with  wet  cloths.  Or,  the  ice- 
cream may  be  taken  from  the  can,  packed  in  molds  of 
fanciful  shapes,  sealed  at  the  edges  with  melted  tallow, 
and  repacked  in  ice  and  salt. 


220  EECIPES 


PHILADELPHIA  ICE-CEEAM 

The  so-called  Philadelphia  ice-cream  is  pure,  sweet 
cream,  sweetened  with  sugar,  and  flavored.  For  a 
small  quantity  use  the  following: 

£  Cup  of  sugar. 

1  Teaspoon  of  vanilla. 

1  Tablespoon  of  brandy. 

1  pint  of  scalded  sweet  cream. 

Mix  and  freeze.  The  whites  of  two  eggs  beaten 
stiff  is  a  valuable  addition  to  this  cream. 


ROYAL   ICE-CREAM 

1  Tablespoon  of  flour. 
1£  Cups  of  sugar. 
1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

1  Pint  of  milk. 

2  Eggs. 

1  Pint  of  sweet  cream. 
1  Tablespoon  of  vanilla. 
£  Teaspoon  of  almond. 
^  Cup  of  sherry  wine,  or 
£  Cup  of  brandy. 

Heat  the  milk  until  it  boils ;  meanwhile  mix  the 
flour,  sugar,  and  salt  in  a  little  cold  water,  and  when 
the  milk  reaches  the  boiling-point  pour  it  in ;  stir  it 
for  a  minute  over  the  fire  in  a  saucepan,  and  then 
turn  it  into  a  double  boiler  and  cook  it  for  twenty 
minutes.  At  the  end  of  this  time  beat  the  eggs  very 
light,  and  pour  them  into  the  boiling  mixture  slowly, 


RECIPES  221 

stirring  it  rapidly;  continue  stirring,  after  all  the 
egg  is  in,  for  from  one  to  two  minutes ;  then  strain 
the  mixture  into  a  dish  and  set  it  aside  to  cool.  Last, 
add  the  cream  and  flavorings,  and  freeze.  This  makes 
a  rich  and  delicious  cream.  It  may  be  colored  with 
carmine  a  pretty  pink,  or  with  spinach  a  delicate 
green. 

ICE-CREAM  WITH  AN  IMPROVISED  FREEZER 

Make  the  Philadelphia  ice-cream  mixture,  or  half 
of  it,  dividing  each  ingredient  exactly.  Put  it  into  a 
small  tin  can  (the  Dutch  cocoa-cans  are  convenient) 
with  a  closely  fitting  cover.  Place  it  in  the  middle  of 
a  deep  dish,  and  surround  it  with  alternate  layers  of 
ice  and  salt,  in  the  same  manner  as  for  ordinary 
freezing,  and  cover  it  closely ;  then  lay  wet  cloths  on 
the  top  and  set  it  in  a  cool  place.  It  will  become  solid 
in  from  one  to  two  hours,  according  to  the  amount  of 
mixture  to  be  frozen.  It  is  well  to  cut  in  the  thick 
layer  on  the  sides  of  the  can  once  or  twice  during  the 
freezing.  If  the  cream  which  you  have  to  use  is  thick 
enough  to  whip,  do  so ;  the  result,  when  frozen,  will  be 
a  very  dainty  dish. 

This  is  a  convenient  way  of  making  a  little  ice-cream 
for  one  person. 

FROZEN  CUSTARD 

1  Pint  of  milk. 
1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 
1£  Cups  of  sugar. 
Yolks  of  three  eggs. 
1  Pint  of  milk  or  cream. 

1  Teaspoon  of  rose-water. 

2  Tablespoons  of  wine  or  brandy. 


222  RECIPES 

Make  a  soft  custard  with  the  first  four  ingredients, 
according  to  the  rule  on  page  195.  When  done,  strain 
it  into  a  granite- ware  pan  and  let  it  cool.  Then  add 
the  flavoring  and  the  remaining  pint  of  milk  or  cream, 
and  freeze. 

LEMON  SHERBET  WITH  GELATINE 

1  Tablespoon  of  gelatine. 
1  Pint  of  boiling  water. 
1  Cup  of  sugar, 
i  Cup  of  lemon-juice. 
1  Tablespoon  of  brandy. 

Soak  the  gelatine  (Plymouth  Eock  or  Nelson's)  in  a 
little  cold  water  for  half  an  hour.  Then  pour  over 
it  the  boiling  water,  stirring  until  the  gelatine  is  dis- 
solved; add  the  sugar,  lemon-juice,  and  brandy,  and 
strain  all  through  a  fine  wire  strainer.  Freeze. 

Nelson's  gelatine  and  the  Plymouth  Rock  or  phos- 
phated  gelatine  are  the  best  to  use  for  sherbets  and 
water-ices,  because  they  have  a  delicate  flavor,  and 
lack  the  strong,  fishy  taste  which  characterizes  some 
kinds.  The  phosphated  gelatine  should,  however,  never 
be  used  except  when  a  slight  acidity  will  do  no  harm. 
Avoid  it  for  all  dishes  made  with  cream  or  milk,  as 
it  will  curdle  them.  The  directions  on  the  packages 
advise  neutralizing  the  acid  with  soda;  but,  as  there 
is  no  means  of  determining  the  amount  of  acid  in  a 
given  quantity,  it  is  not  a  process  that  recommends 
itself  to  an  intelligent  person. 

Phosphated  gelatine  may,  however,  be  used  in 
sherbets  even  when  milk  or  cream  forms  a  part  of 
them,  for  when  it  is  added  to  a  slightly  acid  mixture 
which  has  a  low  temperature,  or  is  partially  frozen, 
curdling  does  not  take  place. 


RECIPES  223 


LEMON  SHERBET  WITH  SUGAR  SYRUP 

1  Pint  of  boiling  water. 
1  Cup  of  sugar. 


Cup  of  lemon- juice. 


Boil  the  water  and  sugar  together  without  stirring 
for  twenty  minutes.  You  will  thus  obtain  a  thin 
sugar  syrup,  which,  however,  has  enough  viscousness 
to  entangle  and  hold  air  when  beaten.  As  soon  as  it 
is  cool,  add  the  lemon-juice,  strain,  and  freeze  it.  This 
makes  a  snow-white  sherbet  of  very  delicate  flavor. 
Lemon  sherbet  may  also  be  made  with  water,  sugar, 
lemon-juice,  and  the  whites  of  eggs  well  beaten, 
instead  of  with  gelatine  or  syrup. 


ORANGE  SHERBET 

1  Tablespoon  of  gelatine. 
1  Cup  of  boiling  water. 
1  Cup  of  sugar. 

1  Cup  of  orange-juice. 
Juice  of  one  lemon. 

2  Tablespoons  of  brandy. 

Soak  the  gelatine  in  just  enough  cold  water  to 
moisten  it,  for  half  an  hour.  Then  pour  over  it  the 
cup  of  boiling  water,  and  put  in  the  other  ingredients 
in  the  order  in  which  they  are  written;  when  the 
sugar  is  dissolved,  strain  all  through  a  fine  wire 
strainer,  and  freeze  it. 

To  get  Orange-juice.  Peel  the  oranges,  cut  them  in 
small  pieces,  quarters  or  eighths,  put  them  into  a 
jelly-bag  or  napkin,  and  press  out  the  juice  with  the 


224  EECIPES 


hand.     By  this  means  the  oil  of  the  rind,  which  has 
a  disagreeable  flavor,  is  excluded. 


APRICOT  ICE 

1  Quart  of  apricots. 

1  Quart  of  water. 

£  Quart  of  sugar. 

3  Tablespoons  of  brandy. 

Either  fresh  or  canned  apricots  may  be  used  for 
this  ice.  If  fresh  ones  are  chosen,  wash  and  wipe 
them  carefully,  cut  them  into  small  pieces,  mash  them 
with  a  potato-masher  until  broken  and  soft,  and  add 
the  water,  sugar,  and  brandy;  then  freeze.  The 
treatment  is  the  same  if  canned  fruit  be  used.  This 
ice  may  be  made  without  the  brandy,  but  it  is  a  valu- 
able addition,  especially  for  the  sick. 

Peaches,  strawberries,  raspberries,  pineapple,  and 
in  fact  any  soft,  well-flavored  fruit  may  be  made  into 
water-ice  by  following  exactly  the  above  rule,  except, 
of  course,  substituting  the  different  kinds  of  fruits  for 
the  apricots,  and  possibly  varying  the  sugar.  If  pine- 
apple is  selected,  it  should  be  chopped  quite  fine,  and 
quickly,  so  that  the  knife  will  not  discolor  it.  Peaches 
should  be  pared,  and  strawberries  and  raspberries 
carefully  washed.  All  of  these  ices  are  delicious,  and 
most  wholesome  and  grateful  in  very  warm  weather, 
or  for  feverish  conditions  when  fruit  is  allowed.  If 
there  is  a  question  about  seeds,  as  might  be  the  case 
in  using  strawberries,  strain  the  fruit  through  a  coarse 
wire  strainer  after  it  is  mashed ;  it  is  advisable  to  do 
this  always  in  making  strawberry,  raspberry,  or  pine- 
apple ice. 


COOKED  FRUITS 

BAKED   TART  APPLES 

Select  fair,  sound,  tart  apples.  Wash  and  wipe 
them,  and  cut  out  the  cores  with  an  apple-corer,  being 
careful  to  remove  everything  that  is  not  clear  pulp. 
Sometimes  the  tough  husk  which  surrounds  the  seeds 
extends  farther  than  the  instrument  will  reach  with 
once  cutting;  this  can  be  detected  by  looking  into 
the  apple,  and  removing  with  the  point  of  the  corer 
anything  that  remains.  If  there  are  dark  blotches 
or  battered  places  on  the  outside  of  the  apple,  cut 
them  off.  Everything  of  that  kind  is  valueless  as 
food,  and  injures  the  flavor  of  that  which  is  good. 

When  they  are  prepared  place  the  apples  in  an 
earthen  baking  dish  (granite-ware  will  do),  put  a 
teaspoon  of  sugar  and  half  an  inch  of  dried  lemon- 
peel,  or  fresh  peel  cut  very  thin,  into  each  hole,  pour 
boiling  water  into  the  dish  until  it  is  an  inch  deep, 
and  bake  in  a  moderately  hot  oven ;  when  the  skins 
begin  to  shrink  and  the  apples  are  perfectly  soft  all 
the  way  through,  they  are  done;  then  take  them  from 
the  oven,  arrange  them  in  a  glass  dish,  and  pour 
around  them  the  syrupy  juice  that  is  left. 

The  time  for  baking  varies,  according  to  the  species 
of  apple,  from  half  an  hour  to  two  hours.  They  should 
be  basted  once  or  twice  during  the  time  with  the  water 
which  is  around  them.  It  will  nearly  all  evaporate 
while  they  are  baking.  If  the  apples  are  Baldwins,  or 
Greenings,  or  any  others  of  fine  flavor,  the  lemon-peel 

225 


226  EECIPES 


may  be  omitted.   Stick  cinnamon  may  be  used  instead 
of  lemon-peel  for  apples  which  are  not  quite  sour. 


BAKED   SWEET  APPLES 

Prepare  sweet  apples  according  to  the  foregoing 
rule,  except  use  a  fourth  of  a  square  inch  of  cinnamon 
instead  of  the  lemon-peel,  and  half  a  teaspoon  of  sugar 
for  each  apple.  Sweet  apples  require  two  or  three 
hours'  baking.  They  should  be  cooked  until  perfectly 
soft,  and  until  the  juice  which  oozes  out  becomes 
gelatinous.  Serve  cold  with  sweet  cream.  Cooked 
apples  are  an  excellent  addition  to  a  diet.  They  con- 
tain acids  and  salts  of  great  value. 


STEWED  APPLES 

Pare  and  quarter  three  slightly  sour  apples.  Put 
them  into  a  saucepan  with  a  cup  of  water  and  two 
tablespoons  of  sugar,  and  stew  gently  until  they  are 
soft,  but  not  broken.  Each  piece  should  be  whole, 
but  soft  and  tender.  A  tablespoon  of  lemon-juice  put 
in  just  before  they  are  taken  from  the  fire  is  a  good 
addition  to  make  if  the  apples  are  poor  in  flavor ;  or, 
lemon-peel  may  be  used,  and  also  cinnamon  and  cloves. 


APPLE   COMPOTE 

Wash  and  wipe  some  fair,  well-flavored  apples  (not 
sweet).  Core  them  with  an  apple-corer  (not  a  knife), 
being  careful  not  to  leave  in  any  of  the  hulls,  which 
sometimes  penetrate  far  into  the  fruit;  pare  them 
evenly,  so  that  they  will  be  smooth  and  of  good  shape. 
Then  boil  them  gently,  in  water  enough  to  just  reach 


RECIPES  227 

their  tops,  with  a  square  inch  or  two  of  thin  lemon- 
peel,  and  a  teaspoon  of  sugar  for  each  apple,  until 
they  are  soft,  but  not  broken,  watching  them  carefully 
toward  the  last  part  of  the  cooking,  lest  they  go  to 
pieces.  When  done  lift  them  out  into  a  glass  dish, 
reduce  the  water  by  further  boiling  until  it  is  some- 
what syrupy,  and  set  it  aside  to  cool.  Fill  the  holes 
with  apple,  grape,  or  any  bright-colored  jelly,  and 
when  the  syrup  is  cold  pour  it  over  and  around  the 
apples. 

STEWED  PRUNES 

1  Pint  of  prunes. 
1£  Pints  of  water. 
|  Cup  of  sugar. 

2  Tablespoons  of  lemon- juice. 

Soak  the  prunes  in  warm  water  for  fifteen  min- 
utes, to  soften  the  dust  and  dirt  on  the  outside.  Then 
wash  them  carefully  with  the  fingers,  rejecting  those 
that  feel  granular  (they  are  worm-eaten) ;  stew  them 
gently  in  the  sugar  and  water  in  a  covered  saucepan 
for  two  hours.  Just  before  taking  them  from  the  fire 
put  in  the  lemon-juice.  They  should  be  plump,  soft, 
and  tender  to  the  stone.  As  the  water  evaporates 
the  amount  should  be  restored,  so  that  there  will  be 
as  much  at  the  end  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  cook- 
ing. French  prunes  may  not  require  quite  so  long 
time  for  cooking  as  most  ordinary  kinds. 


CRANBERRY  SAUCE  AND  JELLY 

Pick  out  the  soft  and  decayed  ones  from  a  quantity 
of  Cape  cranberries;  measure  a  pint,  and  put  with 


228  EECIPES 

it  half  the  bulk  of  sugar,  and  one  fourth  the  bulk  of 
water.  Stew  the  berries  ten  minutes  without  stir- 
ring, counting  the  time  from  the  moment  when  they 
are  actually  bubbling.  Done  in  this  way,  the  skins 
will  be  tender,  and  the  juice  on  cooling  will  form  a 
delicate  jelly.  Or,  the  fruit  may  be  pressed  through 
a  soup-strainer  and  the  whole  made  into  jelly. 


GRAPE   SAUCE 

Take  any  small  quantity  of  grapes.  Wash  them  by 
dipping  each  bunch  several  times  in  water,  unless  you 
know  that  they  have  been  gathered  and  handled  by 
clean  hands.  Separate  the  skins  from  the  pulps  by 
squeezing  each  grape  between  the  fingers  and  thumb. 
Cook  the  pulps  about  five  minutes,  or  until  soft 
and  broken.  Cook  the  skins  for  the  same  length  of 
time  in  a  separate  saucepan,  then  press  the  pulps 
through  a  strainer  into  them,  until  there  is  nothing 
left  but  the  seeds.  Measure  the  mixture,  and  for 
each  measure,  pint  or  cup,  as  the  case  may  be,  add 
half  a  measure  of  sugar,  and  simmer  for  five  minutes. 
Many  invalids  who  cannot  eat  grapes  uncooked,  on 
account  of  the  seeds,  may  take  them  stewed  in  this 
way.  More  or  less  than  the  above  amount  of  sugar 
may  be  used,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the 
individual. 

GRAPE  JELLY 

Separate  the  pulps  from  the  skins  of  a  quantity  of 
washed  grapes.  Cook  each  separately  for  a  few  min- 
utes, and  slowly,  so  as  not  to  evaporate  the  juice. 
Press  the  pulps  through  a  soup-strainer,  mashing 
them  if  they  are  not  broken,  until  there  is  nothing 


KECIPES  229 

left  but  the  seeds ;  strain  into  this  the  juice  from  the 
skins,  mashing  and  squeezing  out  all  that  is  possible. 
Measure  the  mixture,  and  for  every  cup  add  a  cup  of 
sugar.  Put  all  into  a  granite-ware  saucepan  and  boil 
slowly  for  ten  or  twelve  minutes. 

The  time  required  for  cooking  depends  upon  the 
condition  of  the  grapes.  If  they  are  very  ripe,  and 
it  is  late  in  the  season,  ten  minutes  is  sufficient  time 
to  obtain  a  fine,  delicate  jelly;  but  if  it  is  early  in  the 
autumn,  and  the  fruit  has  not  been  as  thoroughly 
changed  by  nature  as  late  in  the  season,  twelve  or 
fifteen  minutes  will  be  required  to  obtain  the  same 
result.  Even  less  than  ten  minutes'  cooking  will 
sometimes  cause  the  pectin  of  the  fruit  to  dissolve, 
which,  on  cooling,  forms  the  jelly.  The  time  required 
will  always  be  variable,  according  to  the  condition 
of  the  fruit,  so  it  is  well  to  ascertain  by  experiment 
what  number  of  minutes  gives  the  desired  result. 

Another  and  important  point  to  notice  in  making 
fruit  jellies  is,  that  if  the  fruit  be  cooked  longer  than 
is  necessary  to  dissolve  the  jelly-forming  substance, 
that  is  the  pectin,  the  natural  flavor  of  the  fruit  is 
more  or  less  injured;  consequently,  if  grapes  which 
require  only  ten  minutes'  boiling  are  boiled  for  fif- 
teen, the  flavor  is  inferior  to  what  it  would  be  if  they 
were  exposed  for  the  lesser  time. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  a  rule  which  shall  at  all 
times  apply  to  the  making  of  fruit  jellies,  on  account 
of  the  always  variable  condition  of  the  fruit.  But 
in  general,  grapes,  cranberries,  currants,  and  similar 
fruits  require  a  short  time,  while  apples,  crab-apples, 
lemons,  and  oranges  will  take  from  one  and  a  half  to 
three  hours.  One  is  therefore  obliged  to  test  the  jelly 
at  intervals  by  taking  out  a  little  on  a  saucer  to  cool. 
If  it  becomes  firm  quickly,  the  mixture  is  cooked 
enough ;  if  not,  one  may  get  an  idea,  from  the  con- 

16 


230  RECIPES 

sistency  which  it  has,  what  further  cooking  will  be 
necessary. 

APPLE  JELLY 

"Wash  and  wipe  good  tart  apples.  Cut  them  in 
quarters  or,  better,  eighths,  but  do  not  pare  them. 
Stew  them  in  half  their  bulk  of  water, —  that  is,  if 
you  have  four  quarts  of  cut  apples,  put  in  two  quarts 
of  water, — until  the  skins  as  well  as  the  pulp  are 
perfectly  soft.  No  definite  time  can  be  given,  because 
that  depends  upon  the  kind  and  ripeness  of  the  fruit. 
When  done,  turn  them  into  a  jelly-bag  and  drain 
until  the  juice  is  all  out.  Measure  it,  and  for  each  cup 
add  a  cup  of  sugar,  one  clove,  and  one  square  inch  of 
thin  lemon-peel.  Simmer  gently  for  half  an  hour, 
then  test  it,  to  see  how  near  the  jellying-point  it  is, 
by  taking  out  a  little  into  a  cool  saucer.  With  some 
kinds  of  apples  it  will  be  done  in  that  time,  with 
others  it  will  take  an  hour  or  more  longer.  When  a 
little  becomes  firm  on  cooling,  remove  the  whole  im- 
mediately from  the  fire,  skim  it,  and  strain  it  into 
jars  or  tumblers  which  have  been  thoroughly  washed 
in  soap  and  water,  and  have  been  standing  in  boiling 
water  for  some  minutes. 

When  the  jelly  is  cool,  pour  over  the  surface  a  thin 
coating  of  melted  paraffin,  let  it  harden,  then  pour 
in  another ;  for,  as  the  first  hardens,  it  may  crack  or 
shrink  from  the  sides  and  leave  spaces  where  fer- 
ments may  enter ;  in  other  words,  the  jars  need  to  be 
made  air-tight —  not  that  the  air  does  mischief,  but  be- 
cause it  contains  the  organisms  which,  on  entering  the 
jelly,  cause  by  their  growth  the  various  fermentative 
changes  known  to  occur  in  fruits.  The  object  then 
will  be  to  exclude  all  micro-organisms. 

There  are  other  ways  of  sealing  jelly  than  by  the 


RECIPES  231 

use  of  paraffin,  as,  for  instance,  with  paper  soaked  in 
alcohol,  or  coated  with  oil ;  but  paraffin,  if  properly 
used,  is  a  sure,  easy,  and  economical  means. 

A  wad  of  sterilized  cotton  batting,  packed  into  the 
mouth  of  the  jar  or  tumbler,  like  a  stopper,  is  some- 
times employed,  but  it  is  not  as  effectual  as  the 
paraffin ;  for  that,  being  poured  in  hot,  sterilizes  the 
surface  of  the  jelly,  thus  killing  any  organisms  that 
may  have  lodged  upon  it  during  the  cooling.  Organ- 
isms cannot  go  through  batting;  but,  though  it  may 
be  properly  sterilized,  it  cannot  be  packed  over  the 
jelly  until  it  has  become  firm,  and  during  the  time 
ferments  may  have  settled  upon  it.  Paraffin  is  a  most 
satisfactory  means  of  preserving  jelly,  and  the  only 
precaution  necessary  in  using  it  is  to  put  on  two  lay- 
ers, the  second  one  two  or  three  hours  after  the  first, 
or  when  all  contraction  has  ceased. 


BREAD 

The  two  most  practicable  methods  of  making  bread 
are  with  yeast,  and  with  cream  of  tartar  and  bicar- 
bonate of  soda. 

Yeast  is  a  micro-organism — an  exceedingly  mi- 
nute form  of  plant  life — which  by  its  growth  pro- 
duces carbonic  acid  and  alcohol.  When  this  growth 
takes  place  in  a  mass  of  flour  dough,  the  carbonic 
acid  generated,  in  its  effort  to  escape,  puffs  it  up,  but, 
owing  to  the  viscous  nature  of  the  gluten,  it  is  en- 
tangled and  held  within.  Each  little  bubble  of  gas 
occupies  a  certain  space.  When  the  bread  is  baked, 
the  walls  around  these  spaces  harden  in  the  heat,  and 
thus  we  get  the  porous  loaf. 

Barley,  rye,  and  some  other  grains  would  be  very 
useful  for  bread  if  it  were  not  that  they  lack  suffi- 
cient gluten  to  entangle  enough  carbonic  acid  to 
render  bread  made  from  them  light. 

Good  bread  cannot  be  made  without  good  flour. 
There  are  two  kinds  usually  to  be  found  in  market, 
namely  bread  flour,  and  pastry  flour.  The  former  is 
prepared  in  such  a  way  that  it  contains  more  gluten 
than  the  latter.  In  making  Pastry,  or  St.  Louis  flour, 
as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  grain  is  crushed  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  starch,  being  most  easily  broken, 
becomes  finer  than  the  gluten,  and  in  the  process  of 
bolting  some  of  the  latter  is  lost.  For  pastry  and 
cake  this  kind  is  best.  Lacking  gluten,  bread  made 

232 


RECIPES  233 

from  it  is  more  tender,  whiter,  but  less  nutritious 
than  that  made  from  so-called  bread  flour. 

New  Process,  or  bread  flour  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  "  feel,"  which  is  slightly  granular  rather  than 
powdery,  by  its  yellow  color,  and  by  the  fact  that  it 
does  not  "  cake  "  when  squeezed  in  the  hand ;  while 
St.  Louis  is  white,  powdery,  and  will  "cake." 

The  best  method  to  pursue  in  buying  flour  is,  first, 
to  find  a  good  dealer,  upon  whose  advice  you  may 
rely.  Next,  take  a  sample  of  the  flour  recommended 
and,  with  a  recipe  which  you  have  proved  to  be  cor- 
rect, try  some;  if  the  first  loaf  of  bread  is  not  satis- 
factory, try  another,  and  then  another,  until  you  are 
confident  that  the  fault  lies  in  the  flour,  and  not  in 
the  method  of  making.  Finally,  having  found  a 
brand  of  flour  from  which  you  can  make  yellow-white 
instead  of  snow-white  bread,  which  has  a  nutty,  sweet 
flavor,  which  in  mixing  absorbs  much  liquid,  and 
does  not  "run"  after  you  think  you  have  got  it  stiff 
enough,  and  which  feels  puffy  and  elastic  to  the  hand 
after  molding,  keep  it ;  it  is  probably  good. 

Often  the  same  flour  is  sold  in  different  sections 
of  the  country  under  different  names,  so  that  it  is 
impossible  to  recommend  any  special  brand.  Each 
buyer  must  ascertain  for  herself  which  brands  in  her 
locality  are  best.  It  is  just  as  easy  to  have  good 
bread  as  poor.  It  only  requires  a  little  care  and  a 
little  intelligence  on  the  part  of  the  housekeeper. 

Having  found  a  brand  of  good  flour,  next  give  your 
attention  to  yeast.  In  these  days,  when  excellent 
compressed  yeasts  may  be  found  in  all  markets,  it  is 
well  to  use  them,  bearing  in  mind  that  they  are  com- 
pressed, and  that  a  very  small  quantity  contains  a 
great  many  yeast  cells,  and  will  raise  bread  as  well,  if 
not  better,  than  a  large  amount. 

Home-made  liquid  yeast  is  exceedingly  easy  to  pre- 


234  EECIPES 

pare.  It  simply  requires  a  mixture  of  water  and 
some  material  in  which  the  plant  cells  will  rapidly 
grow.  Grated  raw  potato,  cooked  by  pouring  on 
boiling  water,  flour,  and  sugar  form  an  excellent 
food  for  their  propagation.  A  recipe  for  yeast  will 
be  given  later. 

Now  we  have  come  to  the  consideration  of  what 
will  take  place  when  the  two,  flour  and  yeast,  are  made 
into  dough.  According  to  some  accounts  of  the  sub- 
ject, the  yeast  begins  to  act  first  upon  the  starch,  con- 
verting it  into  sugar  (glucose  C6H12O6).  While  this 
is  taking  place  there  is  no  apparent  change,  for  no- 
thing else  is  formed  except  the  glucose,  or  sugar. 
Then  this  sugar  is  changed  into  alcohol  and  car- 
bonic acid ;  the  latter,  owing  to  its  diffusive  nature, 
endeavors  to  escape,  but  becomes  entangled  in  the 
viscous  mass  and  swells  it  to  several  times  its  orig- 
inal bulk. 

This  has  been  the  accepted  explanation ;  it  is  now, 
however,  believed  not  to  be  correct.  It  is  thought, 
and  I  believe  demonstrated,  that  the  yeast  plant 
lives  upon  sugar  j  that  it  has  not  the  power  to  act  di- 
rectly upon  starch,  but  that  it  is  capable  of  producing 
a  substance  which  acts  upon  starch  to  convert  it 
into  sugar. 

The  production  of  the  carbonic  acid  is  the  end  of 
desirable  chemical  change,  and  when  it  has  been 
carried  to  a  sufficient  degree  to  fill  the  dough  with 
bubbles,  it  should  be  stopped. 

Kneading  bread  is  for  the  purpose  of  distributing 
the  gas  and  breaking  up  the  large  bubbles  into  small 
ones,  to  give  the  loaf  a  fine  grain.  One  will  imme- 
diately see  that  kneading  before  the  bread  is  raised 
is  a  more  or  less  useless  task.  Kneading  is  a  process 
which  should  be  done  gently,  by  handling  the  dough 
with  great  tenderness ;  for  if  it  is  pressed  hard  against 


EECIPES  235 

the  molding-board,  the  bubbles  will  be  worked  out 
through  the  surface,  and  the  loaf  consequently  less 
porous  than  if  all  the  gas  is  kept  in  it. 

The  best  temperature  for  the  raising  of  bread  (in 
other  words,  for  the  growing  of  yeast)  during  the  first 
part  of  the  process  is  from  70°  to  75°  Fahr.  It  may 
touch  80°  without  harm,  but  90°  is  the  limit.  Above 
that  acetic  fermentation  is  liable  to  occur,  and  the 
bread  becomes  sour.  When  the  bread  is  made  into 
loaves,  it  may  be  placed  in  a  very  warm  temperature, 
to  rise  quickly  if  it  is  intended  for  immediate  baking. 
Besides  killing  the  yeast,  the  object  sought  in  baking 
is  to  form  a  sheath  of  cooked  dough  all  over  the  out- 
side, for  a  skeleton  or  support  for  the  inside  mass 
while  it  is  cooking.  Baking  also  expands  the  carbonic 
acid,  and  volatilizes  the  alcohol.  The  latter  is  lost. 

A  good  temperature  in  which  to  begin  the  baking 
of  bread  is  400°  Fahr.  This  may  gradually  decrease 
to  not  lower  than  250°,  and  the  time,  for  a  good-sized 
brick  loaf,  is  one  hour.  If  it  is  a  large  loaf,  increase 
the  time  by  a  quarter  or  a  half  hour. 

"  The  expansion  of  water  or  ice  into  1700  times  its 
volume  of  steam,  is  sometimes  taken  advantage  of  in 
making  snow  bread,  water  gems,  etc.  It  plays  a  part 
in  the  lightening  of  pastry  and  crackers.  Air  at  70° 
Fahr.  expands  to  about  twice  its  volume  at  the  tem- 
perature of  a  hot  oven,  so  that  if  air  is  entangled  in 
a  mass  of  dough  it  gives  a  certain  lightness  when  the 
whole  is  baked.  This  is  the  cause  of  the  sponginess 
of  cakes  made  with  eggs.  The  viscous  albumen 
catches  the  air  and  holds  it."  * 

There  are  other  means  of  obtaining  carbonic  acid 
to  lighten  bread,  besides  by  the  growing  of  yeast. 
The  most  convenient,  perhaps  the  most  valuable, 
method  is  by  causing  cream  of  tartar  and  bicarbon- 

i  Mrs.  Richards. 


236  EECIPES 

ate  of  soda  to  unite  chemically.  (The  products  of 
the  union  are  carbonic  acid  and  Bochelle  salts.)  The 
advantage  of  using  these  over  everything  else  yet 
tried  is,  that  they  do  not  unite  when  brought  in  con- 
tact except  in  the  presence  of  water  and  a  certain 
degree  of  heat.  Rochelle  salts,  taken  in  such  minute 
quantities  as  it  occurs  in  bread  made  in  this  way,  is 
not  harmful. 

Cream  of  tartar  bread,  if  perfectly  made,  is  more 
nutritious  than  fermented  bread,  for  none  of  the  con- 
stituents of  the  flour  are  lost,  as  when  yeast  is  used.1 

The  difficulty  of  obtaining  good  cream  of  tartar  is 
very  great.  It  is  said  to  be  more  extensively  adulter- 
ated than  any  other  substance  used  for  food.  More- 
over, in  the  practice  of  bread-making  the  cream  of 
tartar  and  soda  are  generally  mixed  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two  to  one — that  is,  two  teaspoons  of  cream  of 
tartar  to  every  teaspoon  of  soda;  but  this  is  not  the 
exact  proportion  in  which  they  neutralize  each  other, 
so  that  under  ordinary  circumstances  there  is  an  ex- 
cess of  soda  in  the  bread. 

To  be  exact  they  should  always  be  combined  by 
weight,  as  is  done  in  making  baking-powders,  the  pro- 
portion being  84  parts  of  soda  to  188  of  cream  of 
tartar,  or,  reducing  to  lower  terms,  as  21  to  47 — a  little 
less  than  half  as  much  soda  as  cream  of  tartar.  For 
practical  use  in  cooking  there  are  no  scales  known  to 
the  author  for  the  purpose  of  weighing  these  mate- 
rials, so  the  proportion  will  have  to  be  approximated 
with  teaspoons,  and  a  fairly  accurate  result  for  bread- 
making  may  be  obtained  most  easily  by  measuring 
a  teaspoon  of  each  in  exactly  the  same  manner,  and 
then  taking  off  a  little  from  the  soda. 

i  A  portion  of  the  starch  and  sugar  is  consumed  to  feed  the  growing 
yeast.  It  has  been  estimated  that  about  i  of  a  barrel  of  flour  is  lost  in 
raising  bread— that  is,  that  amount  is  consumed  by  the  yeast  used. 


EECIPES  237 

With  good  materials,  care  in  measuring  them,  and 
a  hot  oven  to  set  the  bread  before  the  gas  escapes, 
cream  of  tartar  biscuits  are  both  wholesome  and 
palatable. 

LIQUID   YEAST 

(HOME-MADE  WITH  GRATED  POTATO) 

1  Medium-sized  potato. 

1  Tablespoon  of  sugar. 

1  Tablespoon  of  flour. 

1  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

1£  Pints  of  boiling  water. 

i  of  a  two-cent  cake  of  Fleischmann's  yeast. 

First  see  that  there  is  a  supply  of  boiling  water. 
Then  put  the  salt,  sugar,  and  flour  together  in  a 
mixing-bowl.  Wash  and  peel  the  potato,  and  grate 
it  quickly  into  the  bowl,  covering  it  now  and  then 
with  the  flour -to  prevent  discoloring.  As  soon  as  the 
potato  is  all  grated,  pour  in  the  boiling  water  and 
stir.  It  will  form  into  a  somewhat  thick  paste  at 
once.  Set  it  aside  to  cool.  Then  dissolve  the  yeast 
in  a  little  cold  water,  add  it,  and  set  the  mixture  to 
rise  in  a  temperature  of  70°  to  80°  Fahr. 

In  a  short  time  bubbles  will  begin  to  appear;  these 
are  carbonic  acid,  showing  that  the  alcoholic  stage  of 
the  fermentation  has  begun.  In  six  or  eight  hours 
the  whole  will  be  a  mass  of  yeast  cells,  which  have 
grown  in  the  nutrient  liquid.  It  is  then  ready  for 
use.  It  should  be  bottled  in  wide-mouthed  glass  or 
earthen  jars,  and  kept  in  a  cool  place.  It  will  remain 
good  for  two  weeks.  At  the  end  of  that  time  make  a 
fresh  supply. 

Yeast  is  an  organism — a  microscopic  form  of  plant 
life — which  grows  by  a  species  of  budding  with  great 
rapidity  when  it  finds  lodgment  in  material  suitable 


238  EECIPES 


for  its  food.  The  dissolved  compressed  yeast  is  like 
seed,  which,  when  put  into  a  fruitful  soil,  grows  so 
long  as  sustenance  lasts. 


WATER  BREAD 

1  Pint  of  boiling  water. 

1  Tablespoon  of  sugar. 

1  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

1  Tablespoon  of  butter. 

i  Cup  of  liquid  yeast,  or 

i  of  a  two-cent  cake  of  Fleischmann's  yeast. 

Enough  sifted  flour  to  make  a  stiff  dough. 

Put  the  sugar,  salt,  and  butter  with  the  boiling 
water  into  a  mixing-bowl  or  bread-pan.  Stir  until 
the  sugar  is  dissolved  and  the  water  lukewarm,  then 
add  the  yeast  (if  compressed,  it  should  be  dissolved  in 
a  little  water).  Last,  stir  in  the  flour  until  a  dough 
stiff  enough  to  mold  easily  is  made.  Mold  it  for  a 
minute  or  two  to  give  it  shape  and  to  more  thoroughly 
mix  the  ingredients,  and  then  set  it  to  rise  in  a  room 
warm  enough  to  be  comfortable  to  live  in — that  is, 
having  a  temperature  of  70°  Fahr.  It  should  remain 
in  this  temperature  for  eight  hours.  Cover  it  closely, 
that  the  top  may  not  dry. 

It  is  often  convenient  to  let  bread  rise  over  night. 
There  is  no  objection  to  this,  provided  the  bread  is 
mixed  late  in  the  evening,  and  baked  early  the  next 
morning.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  that  the 
room  in  which  it  is  left  is  warm  enough  to  insure  ris- 
ing in  the  time  given.  On  the  other  hand,  if  allowed 
to  rise  too  long,  or  at  too  high  a  temperature,  the  fer- 
mentation is  carried  so  far  that  an  acid  is  produced, 
and  the  dough  becomes  sour. 


EECIPES  239 

Eight  hours  at  70°  Fahr.  is  a  good  rule  to  keep  in 
mind.  During  the  time  of  raising  the  dough  should 
double  itself  in  bulk.  If  this  does  not  happen,  or  it 
does  not  appear  to  have  risen  at  all,  either  the  yeast 
was  not  good,  or  the  temperature  was  too  low. 

"When  the  bread  has  risen  sufficiently,  cut  it  down, 
and  knead  it  for  five  minutes  on  a  bread-board,  to 
distribute  the  gas  and  break  the  large  bubbles,  so  that 
the  bread  may  have  an  even  grain ;  then  shape  it  into 
a  loaf,  put  it  into  an  oiled  baking-pan,  and  let  it  rise 
quickly  in  a  warm  place,  until  it  again  doubles  itself. 
The  amount  of  dough  indicated  in  the  rule  will  make 
one  large  loaf,  or  a  medium-sized  loaf  and  some  bis- 
cuit. Multiply  the  rule  by  two  if  you  want  two  loaves. 
Bake  the  bread  in  an  oven  which  is  hot  at  first,  but 
gradually  decreases  in  temperature,  for  an  hour  and 
a  quarter.  If  you  have  an  oven  thermometer  use  it.1 


MILK  BEEAD 

1  Pint  of  scalded  milk. 

1  Tablespoon  of  sugar. 

1  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

i  Cup  of  liquid  yeast,  or 

1  Cake  of  Fleischmann's  yeast. 

Measure  the  milk  after  scalding,  but  otherwise  pro- 
ceed exactly  as  in  the  making  of  water  bread. 

1  Oven  thermometers  may  be  obtained  of  Joseph  Davis  &  Co.,  Fitz- 
roy  Works,  London,  8.  E.,  England.  400°  Fahr.  is  a  good  temperature 
for  the  first  fifteen  minutes.  Some  writers  give  380°,  but  the  higher 
temperature  is  better,  provided  it  can  be  gradually  decreased ;  it 
should  not  fall  below  250°  until  the  loaf  is  done. 


240  RECIPES 


STICKS 

1  Cup  of  scalded  milk. 
£  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

1  Tablespoon  of  sugar. 

2  Tablespoons  of  butter, 
i  Cake  of  yeast,  or 

£  Cup  of  liquid  yeast. 

White  of  one  egg. 

Flour  enough  to  make  a  slightly  soft  dough. 

Dissolve  the  salt  and  sugar,  and  soften  the  butter  in 
the  hot  milk,  which  must  be  measured  after  heating. 
"When  it  is  cooled  to  lukewarmness,  put  in  the  yeast 
(which,  if  compressed,  should  be  dissolved  in  a  little  cold 
water),  the  beaten  white  of  the  egg,  and  flour  enough 
to  make  a  dough  slightly  softer  than  that  for  ordinary 
bread.  Let  it  rise  overnight,  or  until  light.  Then  cut  it 
into  small  pieces,  shape  the  pieces  into  balls,  and  roll 
and  stretch  them  into  tiny  slender  sticks,  from  ten  to 
twelve  inches  long,  about  half  an  inch  thick  in  the 
middle,  and  tapering  toward  each  end.  Place  them, 
two  inches  apart,  in  shallow,  buttered  pans,  and  put 
them  in  a  warm  place  for  an  hour  to  rise ;  then  bake 
them  in  a  moderate  oven  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  or 
until  they  are  a  golden  brown.  Sticks  are  good  at  any 
time ;  they  are  especially  nice  served  with  soup,  or  for 
lunch,  with  cocoa  or  tea. 

This  dough  may  also  be  made  into  tiny  loaves  for 
tea-rolls. 

RUSK 

1  Tablespoon  of  sugar. 
\  Teaspoon  of  salt. 


EECIPES  241 

1  Cup  of  scalded  milk. 

J  Cup  of  liquid  yeast,  or 

•§•  Cake  of  compressed  yeast. 

Flour  enough  to  make  a  soft  dough. 

Mix  the  above  ingredients  together,  and  let  the 
dough  rise  overnight  in  the  usual  time  given  to 
bread.  Then  beat  one-fourth  of  a  cup  of  butter,  one- 
fourth  of  a  cup  of  sugar,  and  one  egg  together,  and 
work  the  mixture  into  the  dough,  adding  a  little  more 
flour  to  make  it  stiff  enough  to  mold.  Set  it  to  rise  a 
second  time ;  then  shape  it  into  rolls  or  tiny  loaves, 
allow  them  to  rise  again  until  quite  light,  or  for  an 
hour  in  a  warm  place,  and  bake  like  bread. 


DRIED  RUSK 

Cut  the  rusk  when  cold  into  thin  slices,  dry  them 
slowly  in  the  oven,  and  then  brown  them  a  delicate 
golden  color. 

Dried  rusk  is  exceedingly  easy  of  digestion,  and 
makes  a  delicious  lunch  with  a  glass  of  warm  milk 
or  a  cup  of  tea. 

GRAHAM  BREAD 

1  Pint  of  milk. 

2  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 
1  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

1  Cake  of  compressed  yeast. 

2  Cups  of  white  flour. 

Enough  Graham  flour  to  make  a  dough. 

Scald  some  milk,  and  from  it  measure  a  pint ;  to 
this  add  the  sugar  and  salt.  While  it  is  cooling  sift 
some  Graham  flour,  being  careful  to  exclude  the  chaff 


242  EECIPES 

or  outside  silicious  covering  of  the  grain,  but  nothing 
else.  When  the  milk  has  become  lukewarm,  put  in 
the  yeast,  which  has  previously  been  dissolved  in  a 
little  cold  water,  and  the  white  flour  (sifted),  with 
enough  of  the  Graham  to  make  a  dough  which  shall 
be  stiff,  but  yet  not  stiff  enough  to  mold.  Mix  thor- 
oughly, and  shape  it  with  a  spoon  into  a  round  mass 
in  the  dish.  After  this  follow  the  same  directions  as 
for  water  bread,  letting  it  rise  the  same  time,  and 
baking  it  in  the  same  manner. 

After  the  dough  has  risen,  although  it  is  soft,  it 
can  be  shaped  into  a  loaf  on  the  bread-board,  but  not 
molded. 

CEEAM-OF-TAETAE  BISCUIT 

First,  attend  to  the  fire ;  see  that  you  have  a  clear, 
steady  one,  such  as  will  give  a  hot  oven  by  the  time 
the  biscuits  are  ready  for  baking.  Then  sift  some 
flour,  and  measure  a  quart.  Into  it  put  two  tea- 
spoons of  cream  of  tartar,  and  one  of  soda,  the  latter 
to  be  measured  exactly  like  the  teaspoons  of  cream  of 
tartar,  and  then  a  very  little  taken  off.  This  is  a 
more  accurate  way  of  getting  a  scanted  teaspoon  than 
by  taking  some  on  the  spoon  and  guessing  at  it.  Add 
one  teaspoon  of  salt,  and  sift  all  together  four  times, 
then  with  the  fingers  rub  into  the  flour  one  spoon  of 
butter. 

At  this  point,  if  it  has  not  been  already  done,  get 
the  baking-pans,  rolling-pin,  board,  dredging-box,  and 
cutter  ready  for  use.  Then  with  a  knife  stir  into  the 
flour  enough  milk  to  make  a  soft  dough.  Do  this  as 
quickly  as  convenient,  and  without  any  delay  mold 
the  dough  just  enough  to  shape  it ;  roll  it  out,  cut  it 
into  biscuits,  and  put  them  immediately  into  the  oven, 
where  they  should  bake  for  thirty  minutes. 


EECIPES  243 

Pocket-Books.  Work  or  knead  together  the  pieces 
that  are  left  after  making  cream-of -tartar  biscuit  (or 
make  a  dough  on  purpose),  roll  it  out  very  thin,  cut 
it  into  rounds,  brush  them  over  with  milk  or  melted 
butter,  fold  once  so  as  to  make  a  half-moon  shape, 
and  you  will  have  "pocket-books." 

Twin  Biscuit.  Roll  out  some  dough  very  thin,  cut 
it  into  very  small  rounds,  and  place  one  on  top  of 
another,  with  butter  between. 

Iced  water  may  be  substituted  for  milk  in  the  above 
rule.  In  baking,  however,  the  oven  should  be  unusu- 
ally hot,  so  as  to  take  advantage  of  the  expansion  of 
the  water.  Also,  baking-powder  may  be  substituted 
for  the  cream  of  tartar  and  soda,  using  a  fourth  more 
of  the  baking-powder  than  of  the  two  together. 


SNOW-CAKES 

£  Tablespoon  of  butter. 

1  Tablespoon  of  sugar. 

Whites  of  two  eggs. 

1£  Cups  of  flour. 

1  Saltspoon  of  salt. 

1£  Teaspoons  of  baking-powder. 

1  Cup  of  milk. 

Measure  each  of  the  ingredients  carefully,  then  sift 
the  flour,  salt,  and  baking-powder  together  four  times. 
Cream  the  butter  and  sugar  with  a  little  of  the  milk, 
then  add  the  whites  of  the  eggs  well  beaten,  the  rest 
of  the  milk,  and  last  the  flour.  Bake  this  batter  in 
hot  buttered  gem-pans  from  twenty  minutes  to  half 
an  hour.  These  cakes  are  delicious  eaten  hot  for 
lunch  or  tea.  This  mixture  may  also  be  baked  in 
small,  round  earthen  cups. 


244  EECIPB8 


GRAHAM   GEMS 

1  Cup  of  milk. 
£  Teaspoon  of  salt. 
£  Cup  of  white  flour. 

1  Cup  of  Graham  flour. 

2  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 

1  Teaspoon  of  cream  of  tartar. 

£  Teaspoon  of  soda  (slightly  scanted). 

1  Tablespoon  of  melted  butter. 

Sift  and  measure  the  Graham  flour,  add  the  cream 
of  tartar,  soda,  and  white  flour,  and  sift  again.  Mix 
the  milk,  salt,  and  sugar  together,  and  stir  it  into  the 
flour ;  Last,  put  in  the  melted  butter,  beat  for  a  min- 
ute, and  then  drop  a  spoonful  in  each  division  of  a 
roll  gem-pan,  which  should  be  well  buttered,  and 
made  very  hot  on  the  top  of  the  stove.  Bake  in  a 
hot  oven  from  twenty-five  minutes  to  half  an  hour. 
Serve  hot. 

OATMEAL  MUFFINS 

2^  Cups  of  flour. 

2  Teaspoons  of  baking-powder. 

1  Teaspoon  of  salt. 

2  Tablespoons  of  sugar. 
lEgg. 

1  Cup  of  milk. 

1  Cup  of  cooked  oatmeal. 

1  Tablespoon  of  butter  melted. 

Sift  the  flour  and  baking-powder  together  twice. 
Beat  the  egg  very  light,  stir  into  it  the  salt,  sugar, 
and  milk,  then  add  the  flour,  and  last  the  oatmeal  and 


RECIPES  245 

butter;  beat  for  half  a  minute,  and  bake  immedi- 
ately in  gem-pans  or  muffin-rings  in  a  hot  oven  for 
half  an  hour. 

N.  B. — The  oatmeal  should  not  be  cooked  to  a  soft, 
thin  mush,  but  should  be  rather  dry;  so,  in  preparing 
it,  use  less  water  than  for  porridge.  These  cakes  are 
to  be  eaten  hot. 

GLUTEN  BREAD 

Gluten  flour  is  prepared  in  such  a  way  that  much 
of  the  starch  of  the  grain  is  excluded.  It  is  frequently 
required  for  persons  suffering  with  diabetes,  who 
cannot  digest  either  sugar  or  starch.  It  should  be 
made  with  flour,  water,  yeast,  and  salt  only.  Do  not 
use  milk  for  mixing,  as  it  contains  sugar. 

One  pint  of  water,  one  half  teaspoon  of  salt,  one 
fifth  of  a  cake  of  yeast,  one  tablespoon  of  butter,  and 
enough  flour  to  make  the  usual  bread  dough  will  be 
required.  Otherwise  the  process  is  exactly  the  same  as 
for  ordinary  bread. 

BAKING-POWDER 

Baking-powder  is  a  mixture  of  cream  of  tartar,  bi- 
carbonate of  soda,  and  arrowroot.  The  latter  is  used 
to  keep  the  two  chemicals  dry,  and  thus  prevent  the 
slow  union  which  would  otherwise  take  place.  Some- 
times tartaric  acid  is  used  instead  of  cream  of  tartar. 
The  following  rule  may  be  relied  upon : 

Tartaric  acid 2  oz.  by  weight. 

Bicarbonate  of  soda 3"      "        " 

Arrowroot 3  "      "        " 

Mix  and  sift  together  thoroughly.  Keep  in  a  dry 
place,  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle. 

17 


CAKE 

Cake  of  the  simpler  kinds,  especially  sponge  cake, 
is  frequently  given  to  the  sick.  G-ood  sponge  cake, 
served  with  sweet  cream  or  a  glass  of  milk,  is  an  ex- 
cellent lunch  for  an  invalid.  Some  of  the  plain  kinds 
of  butter  cakes  —  those  made  with  a  little  butter  — 
such  as  white,  feather,  and  similar  varieties,  are  ex- 
cellent food. 

Consider  for  a  moment  what  they  contain:  eggs, 
milk,  butter,  sugar,  and  flour — five  of  the  most  valua- 
ble of  all  our  food  products.  Yet  there  are  those 
who  pride  themselves  upon  not  eating  cake,  which 
idiosyncrasy  can  only  be  explained  in  one  of  two 
ways :  either  the  cake  which  they  have  had  has  not 
been  properly  made,  or  else  it  has  been  so  good 
that,  during  a  lapse  of  judgment,  they  have  eaten 
too  much. 

The  dark  fruit  cakes  should  be  avoided  by  both 
sick  and  well,  on  account  of  the  indigestible  nature 
of  the  dried  fruits  used  in  them,  and  also  because  they 
are  often  compact  and  close-grained,  not  light. 

There  is  a  custom  prevalent  in  many  kitchens  of 
using  what  is  called  "cooking"  butter — that  is,  butter 
which  is  off  taste  or  rancid  —  for  cake.  It  is  but  poor 
economy,  even  if  it  can  merit  that  name  at  all.  If 
you  have  no  other  butter  for  cake,  don't  make  any. 
Sweet  butter  and  fresh — not  "store" — eggs  are  ab- 
solutely necessary.  Also,  a  dainty  worker  to  mix  the 
ingredients  with  accuracy  and  care,  and  to  oil  the  pan 

246 


RECIPES  247 

in  which  the  cake  is  to  be  baked,  so  that  the  outside 
shall  not  taste  of  fat.  Many  an  otherwise  nice  cake 
has  been  spoiled  by  oiling  the  pan  in  which  it  was 
baked  with  dirty  or  rancid  grease.  Use  a  very  little 
sweet  butter  or  olive-oil. 


THE  PROCESS  OF  CAKE  MAKING 

All  ordinary  cakes  are  made  in  much  the  same  way 
as  to  the  order  in  which  their  ingredients  are  mixed. 
First  the  butter  and  sugar  are  creamed  together,  then 
the  yolks  of  the  eggs  are  beaten  and  added,  with  the 
milk,  to  the  butter  and  sugar;  then  the  flour,  into 
which  the  cream  of  tartar  and  soda  have  been  well 
mixed  by  sifting  them  together  several  times,  is  put 
in ;  and  last,  the  beaten  whites  of  the  eggs. 

Care  in  Baking.  For  sponge  cake  made  with  bak- 
ing-powder, or  soda  and  cream  of  tartar,  an  oven 
moderately  heated  will  be  required — that  is,  one  of 
300°  Fahr.,  or  one  which  will  slightly  brown  a  loaf  in 
twenty  minutes. 

For  sponge  cake  made  without  raising  material, 
such  as  the  old-fashioned  kind,  in  which  only  eggs, 
sugar,  and  flour  are  used,  a  slow  oven  is  necessary. 

For  butter  cakes  a  temperature  somewhere  between 
350°  and  380°  will  not  fail. 

The  baking  of  cake  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  the 
process,  on  account  of  the  constantly  variable  condi- 
tion of  ovens  in  common  iron  stoves,  and  because  it  is 
more  easily  spoiled  than  bread  and  other  foods  usually 
cooked  in  an  oven.  One  is  obliged  to  exercise  a  new 
judgment  every  time  cake  is  made.  Even  thermome- 
ters are  only  a  partial  help,  for  if  an  oven  has  a  tem- 
perature of  300°  Fahr.  at  a  certain  time,  there  is  no 
means  of  being  sure  what  the  temperature  will  be  half 


248  EECIPES 

an  hour  from  then.  However,  by  giving  attention 
and  some  practice  to  it,  one  may  gain  considerable 
skill  in  managing  fires.  Should  the  cake  be  cooking 
too  fast,  and  arranging  the  stove  dampers  does  not 
lessen  the  heat,  a  piece  of  buttered  paper  laid  over 
the  top  will  protect  it,  and  will  not  stick.  Layer,  or 
thin  cakes,  require  a  hotter  oven  than  loaves. 

Pans  for  baking  cake  should  be  lined  with  buttered 
paper  (the  buttered  side  up),  letting  it  overlap  the 
sides  for  about  an  inch  to  assist  in  lifting  out  the 
cake.  An  earthenware  bowl  and  a  wooden  spoon 
should  be  used  for  mixing. 

Get  everything  ready  before  beginning  to  mix  cake, 
the  oven  first  of  all.  Bake  as  soon  as  possible  after 
the  flour  is  in,  for  carbonic  acid  begins  to  be  formed 
as  soon  as  the  soda  and  cream  of  tartar  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  liquid,  and  some  of  it  will  escape  unless 
the  mixture  is  baked  at  once.  Do  not  stop  to  scrape 
every  bit  from  the  bowl;  that  can  be  attended  to  af- 
terward, and  a  little  patty-cake  made  of  what  is  left. 


INVALID'S   SPONGE   CAKE 

2  Cups  of  pastry  flour  measured  after  sifting. 

1  Teaspoon  of  cream  of  tartar. 

£  Teaspoon  of  soda  (slightly  scanted). 

4  Eggs. 

1£  Cups  of  powdered  sugar. 

£  Cup  of  water. 

2  Tablespoons  of  lemon- juice. 

Get  everything  ready  before  beginning  to  make 
the  cake ;  oil  the  pan,  or  oil  paper  and  line  the  pan 
with  it;  measure  the  flour,  cream  of  tartar,  and  soda, 
and  sift  them  together  four  times;  measure  the  sugar, 


RECIPES  249 

water,  and  lemon- juice,  and  separate  the  yolks  from 
the  whites  of  the  eggs.  Beat  the  whites  of  the  eggs 
with  half  the  sugar  until  they  are  very  light.  Then 
beat  the  yolks  very  light,  or  until  they  become  lemon- 
colored,  add  the  remaining  half  of  the  sugar  and  beat 
again,  and  then  a  little  of  the  water  if  it  is  difficult  to 
turn  the  egg-beater.  When  the  sugar  is  well  mixed, 
add  the  remainder  of  the  water,  the  lemon- juice,  and 
the  flour.  Beat  for  a  few  seconds,  but  not  long,  as  all 
mixtures  that  have  cream  of  tartar  and  soda  should 
be  baked  as  quickly  as  possible.  Last  of  all  fold  in 
(not  beat)  the  whites  of  the  eggs  lightly,  so  as  not  to 
break  out  the  air  which  has  been  entangled  by  the 
beating,  as  it  helps  to  make  the  cake  light. 

Bake  in  a  moderate  oven  from  forty-five  to  fifty 
minutes,  or  until  the  cake  shrinks  a  little  from  the 
pan. 

FEATHER  CAKE 

J  Cup  of  butter. 

1  Cup  of  sugar. 

2  Eggs. 

1£  Cups  of  pastry  flour. 

£  Teaspoon  of  soda  (slightly  scanted). 

1  Teaspoon  of  cream  of  tartar. 

A  little  grated  nutmeg. 

1  Teaspoon  of  vanilla. 

See  first  of  all  that  you  have  a  proper  fire.  Measure 
the  ingredients,  and  get  everything  ready  before  be- 
ginning— mixing-bowl,  pans,  etc.  Use  a  wooden  cake 
spoon,  with  slits  in  the  bowl,  for  mixing.  Line  the 
pans  with  buttered  paper.  Then  cream  the  butter, 
adding  to  it  half  the  sugar  and  half  the  milk,  the 
latter  very  slowly;  separate  the  yolks  of  the  eggs 


250  RECIPES 

from  the  whites,  and  beat  them  with  the  remaining 
sugar;  when  they  are  very  light  add  the  rest  of  the 
milk.  Beat  the  whites  until  stiff.  Now  mix  the 
creamed  butter  and  yolks  together  with  the  flavor- 
ing, then  stir  in  the  flour,  and  last  the  whites,  which 
are  to  be  cut  and  folded  in,  not  beaten.  Bake  it  in 
shallow  pans  in  a  moderate  oven  forty  minutes,  or 
about  that  time.  When  the  cake  begins  to  shrink  a 
little  from  the  sides  of  the  pan,  there  is  no  doubt  that 
it  is  cooked  enough.  This  recipe  may  be  used  for  a 
variety  of  plain  cakes. 

For  Chocolate  Cake.  Melt  and  stir  into  the  above 
mixture  two  ounces  of  Baker's  chocolate,  or  two  tea- 
spoons of  cocoa  wet  in  a  little  warm  water. 

For  Rose  Cake.  Color  the  feather  cake  mixture  with 
six  drops  of  carmine. 


LAYER  CAKE 

Oil  three  layer  cake  pans,  or  pie-plates.  Make  the 
feather  cake  mixture,  and  divide  it  into  three  por- 
tions. Bake  one  white,  color  another  pink  with  three 
or  four  drops  of  carmine,  and  the  third  brown  with 
an  ounce  of  melted  chocolate.  Bake  in  a  hot  oven 
for  fifteen  minutes.  When  cool,  join'the  layers  with 
White  Mountain  frosting,  and  frost  the  top  of  the  last 
layer.  Any  of  the  fillings  given  under  the  head  of 
"  Cake  Filling  "  may  also  be  used. 

When  chocolate  is  used  in  cake,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  grate  it  or  even  to  break  it  into  small  pieces.  It 
contains  a  large  proportion  of  fat  which  liquefies  at 
a  low  temperature,  consequently  it  is  necessary  only 
to  heat  it  slowly  to  reduce  it  to  the  liquid  state. 


RECIPES  251 


CARMINE  FOR  COLORING 

The  following  rule  for  making  liquid  carmine  for 
coloring  cake,  ice-cream,  blanc-mange,  etc.,  will  be 
found  useful: 

1  Ounce  of  No.  40  carmine. 
3  Ounces  of  boiling  water. 
1  Ounce  of  ammonia. 

Bottle  for  use.    It  will  keep  indefinitely. 


WHITE  CAKE 

1  Tablespoon  of  butter. 

1  Cup  of  sugar  (powdered). 

1£  Cups  of  pastry  flour. 

£  Teaspoon  of  soda. 

1  Teaspoon  of  cream  of  tartar. 

Whites  of  four  eggs. 

£  Teaspoon  of  almond  extract,  or 

1  Teaspoon  of  rose-water. 

Proceed,  as  with  all  cake  mixtures,  by  getting  every- 
thing ready  before  beginning  to  mix  any  of  the  in- 
gredients, not  forgetting  the  fire.  Then  cream  the 
butter  with  the  sugar,  and  add  the  milk  to  it  slowly, 
so  that  the  cream  shall  not  break.  Beat  the  whites  of 
the  eggs  very  stiff.  Then  to  the  butter,  sugar,  etc., 
add  the  flour,  with  which  the  cream  of  tartar  and  soda 
have  been  sifted  at  least  four  times,  and  the  flavoring; 
last,  fold  in  the  whites  of  the  eggs,  and  bake  in  a  round 
loaf  for  an  hour  and  a  quarter  or  an  hour  and  a  half  in 
a  slow  oven. 


252  EECIPES 


DREAM  CAKE 

Make  a  white  cake  mixture.  Bake  it  in  shallow 
layer-cake  pans,  in  a  moderate,  not  slow,  oven.  Join 
them  with  a  caramel  filling,  and  frost  the  top  with 
the  same,  or  use  White  Mountain  frosting  instead  of 
the  caramel,  flavored  with  rose-water,  and  left  either 
white,  or  colored  a  delicate  shell  pink  with  carmine. 


CAKE  FILLING  AND  FROSTING 
WHITE  MOUNTAIN  FROSTING 

Boil  together,  ivithout  stirring,  one  cup  of  granu- 
lated sugar  with  one  third  of  a  cup  of  boiling  water, 
for  eight  or  ten  minutes.  When  the  sugar  has  been 
boiling  five  minutes,  beat  the  white  of  one  egg  until 
it  is  very  light.  Then  test  the  sugar  mixture  by  let- 
ting a  little  run  off  the  side  of  a  spoon.  If  in  falling 
it  forms  a  delicate  thread,  it  is  just  at  the  point  to 
stop  the  boiling.  When  it  has  reached  this  point, 
pour  it  at  once  into  the  beaten  egg  in  a  small  stream, 
stirring  the  egg  constantly  to  keep  it  smooth.  Con- 
tinue stirring  for  two  or  three  minutes  until  it  begins 
to  thicken,  then  spread  it  either  between  layer  cakes 
for  filling,  or  use  it  for  frosting. 

CARAMEL  FILLING 

1  Cup  of  brown  sugar. 
4  Cup  of  sweet  cream. 
1  Teaspoon  of  butter. 


RECIPES  253 

Boil  all  together  until  it  threads,  stirring  it  slowly 
as  it  boils.  It  will  take  about  eight  minutes.  Use 
either  for  frosting  or  filling. 

CHOCOLATE  ICING 

£  Cup  of  sugar. 

4  Tablespoons  of  water. 

2  Eggs. 

1  Ounce  of  chocolate,  or 

1  Tablespoon  of  Dutch  cocoa. 

1  Teaspoon  of  vanilla. 

Boil  the  sugar,  water,  and  chocolate  together,  two 
minutes,  to  render  the  chocolate  smooth.  Then  add 
the  beaten  eggs.  Cook  two  minutes  more,  stirring 
slowly  and  gently.  Add  the  vanilla  just  as  it  is  taken 
from  the  fire,  and  use  at  once,  as  it  becomes  firm 
quickly.  It  is  good  either  for  icing  cakes  or  for 
filling. 

CREAM  FILLING 

Make  a  cream  sauce  with  one  cup  of  milk,  a  table- 
spoon of  butter,  and  a  tablespoon  of  flour.  Beat  one 
egg  with  half  a  cup  of  sugar,  and  stir  it  into  the  sauce 
slowly.  Cook  for  two  minutes,  or  until  the  egg  is 
done.  It  should  look  like  a  thick  smooth  cream. 
Flavor  it  with  a  piece  of  cinnamon  bark  boiled  in 
the  milk,  or  with  vanilla  or  almond.  Use  this  cream 
for  filling,  for  layer  cakes,  or  split  a  thin  sponge 
cake  in  two,  and  spread  it  between  the  halves. 

In  compiling  the  foregoing  recipes  valuable  information  was 
found  in  the  Boston  Cook  Book,  permission  to  the  use  of  which 
was  kindly  given  by  its  author,  Mrs.  D.  A.  Lincoln. 


DIET  LISTS  OE  MENUS  FOE  THE  SICK 

Diet  for  the  sick  may  be  divided  into  three  kinds: 
Liquid,  Light,  and  Convalescent's  or  Invalid's  Diet. 

Liquid  diet  consists  entirely  of  liquids,  of  which 
milk  is  the  most  valuable.  The  meat  broths  (those 
made  with  beef,  chicken,  and  mutton),  oyster  and 
clam  broth,  albumen  water,  eggs  in  the  form  of  egg- 
nog,  egg  cream,  and  mulled  wine,  and  tea  and  coffee 
are  excellent.  To  this  list  may  be  added,  as  the  pa- 
tient shows  signs  of  recovery,  soft  custards,  and  jel- 
lies made  with  wine,  lemon,  coffee,  or  orange- juice, 
which  quickly  become  liquid  when  eaten. 

A  patient  is  given  liquid  diet  during  times  of  severe 
and  dangerous  illness.  Usually  the  amount  of  food 
and  intervals  at  which  it  is  to  be  given  are  prescribed 
by  the  physician. 

The  following  table  may  be  of  assistance  to  those 
who  are  without  such  aid: 


LIQUID  DIET 

No.  1 

8  A.  M.  Hot  milk  £  of  a  cup 

10  A.  M.  Hot  coffee  with  cream  and  a  little  sugar ^  of  a  cup 

12  M.       Beef -juice 2  tablespoons 

2  p.  M.  Warm  milk £  of  a  cup 

4  P.  M.  Wine  whey 1  of  a  cup 

6  p.  M.  Hot  milk f  of  a  cup 

8  P.  M.  Hot  cocoa  f  of  a  cup 

254 


DIET  LISTS  OE  MENUS  FOR  THE  SICK       255 

No.  2 

8  A.  M.  Hot  milk  J  of  a  cup 

10  A.  M.  Chicken  broth f  of  a  cup 

12  M.       Egg-nog £  tumbler 

2  P.  M.  Milk f  of  a  cup 

4  p.  M.  Hot  tea  with  cream  and  sugar     f  of  a  cup 

6  P.  M.  Chicken  broth J  of  a  cup 

8  P.  M.  Hot  milk f  of  a  cup 

No.  3 

8  A.  M.  Hot  milk f  of  a  cup 

10  A.  M.  Beef  broth    f  of  a  cup 

12  M.       Beef -juice  .    2  tablespoons 

2  p.  M.  Milk,  either  warm  or  cold f  of  a  cup 

4  p.  M.  Oyster  broth  with  milk f  of  a  cup 

6  P.  M.  Hot  milk f  of  a  cup 

8  P.  M.  Hot  cocoa f  of  a  cup 

No.  4 

8  A.  M.  Hot  cocoa £  of  a  cup 

10  A.  M.  Hot  milk f  of  a  cup 

12  M.       Beef -juice,  warm  or  cold f  of  a  cup 

2  P.  M.  Beef  broth,  hot  f  of  a  cup 

4  P.  M.  Wine  jelly 2  tablespoons 

6  P.  M.  Hot  cocoa I  of  a  cup 

8  P.  M.  Hot  milk f  of  a  cup 

No.  5 

8  A.  M.  Hot  milk f  of  a  cup 

10  A.  M.  Coffee  with  cream  and  sugar i  of  a  cup 

12  M.       Hot  beef  broth f  of  a  cup 

2  P.  M.  Orange  jelly 3  tablespoons 

4  P.  M.  Mulled  wine f  of  a  cup 

6  P.  M.  Warm  or  cold  soft  custard .    |  of  a  cup 

8  P.  M.  Warm  cocoa f  of  a  cup 


If  nourishment  is  to  be  given  throughout  the  night, 
either  hot  or  warm  milk  or  cocoa  is  good.  They 
are  soothing  and  sometimes  induce  sleep.  Tea  and 
wine  whey  should  be  avoided  at  night,  unless,  of 


256        DIET  LISTS  OE  MENUS  FOE  THE  SICK 

course,  the  patient  needs  stimulating,  in  which  case 
use  the  wine  only,  for  tea  often  causes  wakefulness. 

The  whites  of  eggs  beaten  and  strained,  and  mixed 
with  finely  crushed  ice,  is  a  valuable  form  of  food 
for  a  typhoid  fever  patient.  Toast-water  and  cracker 
tea  are  good  in  all  feverish  conditions.  Milk  may  be 
varied  by  making  it  into  milk-punch,  with  a  very  little 
sugar  (a  scanty  teaspoon)  and  a  tablespoon  of  brandy 
or  sherry  to  each  tumbler,  or  it  may  be  made  with  a 
few  drops  of  vanilla,  instead  of  the  brandy  or  sherry. 


LIGHT  DIET 

Light  diet  consists  of  everything  included  in  liquid 
diet,  and  in  addition  fruits,  such  as  grapes  and 
oranges ;  porridge  of  granum  or  farina;  soft-cooked 
or  poached  eggs;  dry,  water,  milk,  and  cream  toast; 
the  maigre  soups,  such  as  celery  and  mock-bisque,  and 
chicken;  delicate  puddings,  coffee  and  velvet  cream, 
and  baked  custards,  with  perhaps  for  dinner  a  meat 
ball,  a  small  bit  of  beefsteak  or  roast  beef,  and  a 
baked  potato. 

Jellies  made  with  gelatine,  especially  when  flavored 
with  wine,  are  a  very  valuable  form  of  food  with  which 
to  make  the  transition  from  liquid  to  light  diet.  They 
are  palatable,  nutritious,  and,  being  in  solid  form, 
are  satisfying  to  the  minds  of  those  who  think  they 
are  not  getting  much  to  eat  when  fed  on  liquids  alone. 

The  change  from  liquid  to  light  diet  should  be 
made  gradually,  adding  one  kind  of  solid  food  at  a 
time.  Perhaps  after  the  jellies  a  bit  of  water  or  milk 
toast,  then  an  egg,  then  a  little  soup  or  pudding,  until, 
as  strength  is  gained,  the  person  is  able  to  take  any- 
thing in  the  list,  and  finally  is  able  to  eat  almost  any 
kind  of  nutritious  and  well-prepared  food. 


DIET  LISTS  OE  MENUS  FOE  THE  SICK      257 

FIRST  DAY. 

Breakfast. 
Poached  Egg  on  Toast.    Cocoa. 

Lunch. 
Milk-punch. 

Dinner. 
Raw  Oysters.    Cream-crackers.    Port  "Wine. 

Lunch. 
1  Cup  of  Hot  Beef  Broth. 

Supper. 
Milk  Toast.    Wine  Jelly.    Tea. 

SECOND  DAY. 
Breakfast. 

Soft-cooked  Egg.    Milk  Toast. 
Coffee  with  Sugar  and  Cream. 

Lunch. 

1  Cup  of  Soft  Custard. 
Dinner. 

Cream-of-celery  Soup.     Sippets. 
A  little  Barley  Pudding,  with  Cream.    Sherry  Wine. 

Lunch. 
Milk-punch. 

Supper. 
Water  Toast,  Buttered.     Wine  Jelly.    Tea. 


258        DIET  LISTS  OE  MENUS  FOE  THE  SICK 

THIRD  DAY. 

Breakfast. 
Scrambled  Egg.    Cream  Toast.    Cocoa. 

Lunch. 

1  Cup  of  Hot  Chicken  Broth. 

• 

Dinner. 

Chicken  Panada.     Bread.    Port  Wine. 
A  little  Tapioca  Cream. 

Lunch. 
An  Egg-nog. 

Supper. 

Buttered  Dry  Toast.  Baked  Sweet  Apples  and  Cream 
Tea. 

FOURTH  DAY. 

Breakfast. 

An  Orange. 

Farina  Mush,  with  Cream  and  Sugar. 
Poached  Egg  on  Toast.    Baked  Potato.    Cocoa. 

Lunch. 
1  Cup  of  Hot  Soft  Custard. 

Dinner. 

Potato  Soup.     Croutons. 

A  small  Piece  of  Beefsteak.    Creamed  Potatoes. 
Baked  Custard.    Coffee. 


DIET  LISTS  OR  MENUS  FOR  THE  SICK       259 

Lunch. 
1  Cup  of  Chicken  Broth,  with  Rice. 

Supper. 

Raw  Oysters.    Banquet  Crackers. 
Graham  Bread,  Toasted.    Wine  Jelly.    Tea. 

FIFTH  DAY. 

Breakfast. 

An  Orange. 

Coffee.  Mush  of  Wheat  Germ,  with  Cream  and  Sugar. 
Broiled  Mutton  Chop.     Toast. 

Lunch. 
I  Cup  of  MuUed  Wine. 

Dinner. 

Chicken  Soup.     Bread. 

Creamed  Sweetbreads.    Duchess  Potato. 

Snow  Pudding.    ^Cocoa. 

Lunch. 
Siphon  Soda,  with  Coffee  Syrup  and  Cream. 

A 

Supper. 

Buttered  Dry  Toast.     Orange  Jelly. 
Sponge  Cake  and  Cream.    Tea. 


S260        DIET  LISTS  OB  MENUS  FOE  THE  SICK 


CONVALESCENT'S  DIET 

Convalescent's  diet  includes  the  liquid  and  light 
diets,  and,  in  addition,  all  easily  digested  and  nutri- 
tious food.  For  meats,  game,  especially  venison  and 
birds,  beef,  mutton,  and  chicken  may  be  given,  but 
never  either  pork  or  veal.  They  are  difficult  of  di- 
gestion. Eggs  in  all  ways,  soft-cooked,  scrambled, 
poached,  and  as  omelets,  well-baked  potatoes,  creamed 
potatoes,  celery,  snow  pudding,  cream  of  rice  pudding, 
and  tapioca  cream,  jellies,  both  those  made  from  gela- 
tine and  fruits,  Graham  bread,  Graham  gems,  rusk, 
and,  in  fact,  any  well-made  bread,  and  good  cake. 

A  convalescent  may  use  for  drinks  plenty  of  good 
milk,  cocoa,  carefully  made  tea  and  coffee,  occasion- 
ally good  wine,  and  the  different  mineral  and  drink- 
ing waters.  Some  foods  to  be  avoided  are  pastry, 
dark  or  badly  made  cakes,  pork,  veal,  any  highly  sea- 
soned meat  dish  made  with  gravy,  all  kinds  of  fried 
food,  sausages,  heavy  puddings,  badly  made  bread, 
lobsters  and  crabs. 

SPRING 

No.  1 

Breakfast. 

An  Orange. 
Porridge  of  Wheat  Flakes,  with  Cream  and  Sugar. 

Omelet,  with  Broiled  Ham. 
Coffee.    Hot  Graham  Gems  and  Butter. 

Lunch. 
1  Cup  of  Hot  Beef  Broth.    A  Cream -cracker. 


DIET  LISTS  OR  MENUS  FOE  THE  SICK        261 

Dinner. 

Chicken  Soup.    Creamed  Fish. 

Mashed  Potato.        Snow  Pudding. 

White  Cake.    Tea. 

Lunch. 
I  Cup  of  Hot  Milk. 

Supper. 

Broiled  Squab  on  Toast.    Creamed  Potatoes. 

Bread  and  Butter.    Jelly. 

Cocoa. 


No.  2 

Breakfast. 

An  Orange. 

Farina  Porridge,  with  Cream   and   Sugar. 

French  Chops  (Mutton).    Baked  Potato. 

Cream  Toast  of  Graham  Bread. 

Cocoa. 

Lunch. 
1  Cup  of  Cracker  Gruel. 

Dinner. 

Mock-bisque  Soup.    Sticks. 
Roast  Beef.    French  Peas.    Mashed  Potato. 

Bread  and  Butter. 
Baked  Cup  Custard.    Coffee  or  Claret. 

Lunch. 
1  Cup  of  Hot  BouiUon. 

18 


262        DIET  LISTS  OR  MENUS  FOE  THE  SICK 
Supper. 

Scrambled  Eggs.    Creamed  Potatoes. 

Water  Toast,  with  Apple  Compote. 

Feather  Cake.    Tea. 


SUMMER 

No.  1 

Breakfast. 

Blackberries. 

Farina  Porridge,  with  Cream  and  Sugar. 

Broiled  Steak.    Baked  Potatoes. 

Dry  Toast.    Cocoa. 

Lunch. 
1  Tumbler  of  Kumiss. 

Dinner. 

Potato   Soup  made  with  New  Potatoes. 

Baked  Fish.    Mashed  Potatoes.    Peas. 

Chicken  Salad.    Lemon  Jelly. 

Tea. 

Lunch. 
Soda-water,  with  Vanilla  Syrup  and  Cream. 

Supper. 

Cold  Broiled  Chicken.    Bread  and  Butter. 

Blueberries.    White  Cake. 

Cocoa. 


DIET  LISTS  OE  MENUS  FOE  THE  SICK       263 

No.  2 
Breakfast. 

Blueberries. 

Broiled  Perch.    Baked  Potatoes. 

Hot  Snow  Cakes,  with  Butter. 

Coffee. 

Lunch. 
Milk-punch. 

Dinner. 

Broiled  French  Chop.    Duchess  Potato. 

Peas.    Tomato  Salad. 

Tapioca  Cream.    Wine  Jelly. 

Lemonade. 

Lunch. 
Egg-nog. 

Supper. 

Hot  "Water  Toast,  Buttered.    Berries. 

Omelet,  with  Parsley. 
Tea.    Soft  Custard  in  Cups. 


AUTUMN 

No.  1 

Breakfast. 

Oatmeal  Mush,  with  Cream  and  Sugar 

Broiled  Steak.    Baked  Potatoes. 

Oatmeal  Muffins,  Hot,  with  Butter. 

Coffee. 


264       DIET  LISTS  OR  MENUS  FOR  THE  SICK 

Lunch. 
1  Cup  of  Hot  Beef  Broth.    A  Banquet  Cracker. 

Dinner. 

Celery  Soup.    Sippets.    Eoast  Pheasant,  with  Jelly. 

Potato.     Stewed  Mushrooms. 

Velvet  Cream.    Cocoa. 

Lunch. 
A  thin  Sandwich  of  Bread  and  Butter.    Tea. 

Supper. 

Raw  Oysters.    Cream  Toast.    Baked  Apples. 
Rusk.    Tea. 

No.  2 

Breakfast. 

Cantaloup. 

Farina  Porridge,  with  Cream  and  Sugar. 

Broiled  Mutton  Chop.    Baked  Potatoes. 

Dry  Toast.    Coffee. 

Lunch. 
I  Cup  of  Hot  Chicken  Broth. 

Dinner. 

Oyster  Soup.    Sticks. 
Roast  Beef.    Creamed  Potatoes. 

Celery  Salad. 
Coffee  Cream.    Tea. 

Lunch. 
A  Cup  of  Hot  Oatmeal  Gruel. 


DIET  LISTS  OB  MENUS  FOE  THE  SICK       265 

Supper. 

Poached  Egg  on  Toast.     Cocoa. 
Graham  Bread  and  Butter.     Sponge  Cake. 


WINTER 

No.  1 

Breakfast. 

An  Orange. 

Oatmeal  Porridge,  with  Cream  and  Sugar.    Coffee. 
Broiled  Steak.    Baked  Potato.     Cream  Toast. 

Lunch. 
Egg-nog. 

Dinner. 

Celery  Soup.     Croutons. 

Roast  Chicken.     Creamed  Onions.    Duchess  Potato. 
Lettuce  Salad  (plain).    Velvet  Cream.    Coffee. 

Lunch. 
Cocoa  Cordial.     Sponge  Cake. 

Supper. 

Fancy  Roast  of  Oysters.    Dry  Toast. 
Chocolate,  with  Whipped  Cream.    Orange  Jelly. 

NO.  2 
Breakfast. 

An  Orange. 

Wheat  G-erm,  with  Cream  and  Sugar. 
Broiled  Partridge.     Dry  Toast.     Coffee. 


266        DIET  LISTS  OE  MENUS  FOE  THE  SICK 

Lunch. 
1  Cup  of  Hot  Chicken  Broth. 

Dinner. 

Consomme.     Bread. 
Roast  Beef.     Mashed  Potatoes. 

Tomato  Salad. 
Cream  of  Rice  Pudding.     Coffee. 

Lunch. 
I  Cup  of  Mulled  Wine. 

Supper. 

Venison  Steak,  with  Port  Wine  Sauce. 

Toast.     Sponge  Cake,  with  Sweet  Cream. 

Cocoa. 


SERVING 

If  cooking  be  a  science,  then  serving  is  an  art.  It 
perhaps  more  closely  resembles  painting  than  any 
other,  for  a  well-spread  table  should  be  a  picture,  and 
each  separate  dish  a  choice  bit  in  the  landscape.  The 
invalid's  tray  should  be  a  dainty  Dresden  water-color 
of  delicate  hues  and  harmonious  tints. 

It  is  not  easy  to  give  definite  directions  in  regard 
to  serving,  for  it  involves  so  much  of  good  taste  in  so 
many  directions,  and  depends  so  largely  upon  the  in- 
dividual and  the  circumstances.  It  requires  intelli- 
gent study,  a  cultivated  habit  of  thought,  and  the 
appreciation  of  symmetry,  and  the  harmony  of  colors; 
to  do  it  well  one  must  ever  judge  anew  and  arrange 
again,  for  no  two  meals  are  exactly  alike  in  all  their 
details. 

Of  course,  the  most  important  thing  in  serving  is 
the  thing  to  be  served.  A  badly  prepared  or  un- 
wholesome dish,  no  matter  how  beautifully  it  may  be 
presented,  is  worthless — perhaps  even  worse,  for  it 
may  prove  a  positive  source  of  evil.  An  indifferently 
done  steak,  served  on  a  silver  platter,  is  less  accepta- 
ble than  one  perfectly  cooked  on  plain  china,  or  a  bit 
of  burned  toast  on  Dresden  ware  than  a  daintily 
browned  piece  on  a  common  white  plate.  Put  the 
force,  therefore,  of  your  efforts  on  securing  that 
which  is  wholesome  in  itself,  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
the  patient,  and  perfectly  cooked;  then  serve  it  in  the 
most  attractive  manner  at  your  command. 

267 


268  SERVING 

Good  serving  is  a  necessity  for  the  sick.  It  should 
never  be  regarded  as  simply  ornamental.  When  a 
person  has  the  hunger  of  health,  colors  and  dishes  are 
not  of  great  account ;  but  when  one  is  ill,  or  exhausted 
with  fatigue,  sometimes  a  pretty  color,  a  dainty  cup,  or 
beauty  of  arrangement  makes  all  the  difference,  and 
one  is  tempted  to  eat  when  otherwise  the  food  would 
remain  untouched. 

Simplicity  should  rule  at  all  times  the  arrangement 
of  an  invalid's  tray.  Anything  like  display  is  entirely 
out  of  place.  Japanned  trays  of  oval  shape  are  the 
ones  in  general  use.  "When  one  is  fortunate  enough 
to  possess  a  silver  tray,  the  dishes  may  be  placed  di- 
rectly upon  it,  or  on  a  doily,  which  covers  the  center 
of  it.  All  other  trays  should  be  completely  covered 
with  a  dainty  snowy  napkin,  or  tray-cloth. 

After  the  napkin  has  been  neatly  spread  upon  the 
tray,  place  a  plate  in  the  middle  of  the  side  nearest  to 
you,  and  then  arrange  the  other  dishes  about  it,  with 
the  tiny  earthen  teapot  on  the  right,  and  the  sugar- 
bowl  and  cream-pitcher  of  silver  next  to  it ;  the  knife, 
fork,  and  spoons  should  be  on  the  right  and  left  of 
the  plate,  never  in  front  of  it.  The  various  dishes  to 
be  served  should  then  be  arranged  symmetrically  in 
other  parts  of  the  tray,  not  scattered  about  without 
the  appearance  of  order. 

Never  crowd  a  tray.  Calculate  beforehand  how 
many  dishes  you  will  probably  have,  and  select  a  size 
accordingly.  Serve  a  single  glass  or  a  single  cup  on 
a  small  round  or  oval  tray  with  a  doily,  never  on  a 
large  tray,  such  as  might  be  selected  for  a  meal. 

When  practicable  use  silver  dishes  for  meats,  soups, 
coffee,  hot  milk,  or  any  hot  food;  when  these  cannot 
be  had,  use  hot  china. 

Avoid  discords  in  color.  Most  women  have  an  in- 
stinctive appreciation  of  color,  and  by  giving  some 


SERVING  269 

thought  to  the  subject  of  harmonies,  and  observing 
the  methods  of  others  who  are  known  to  have  good 
taste  in  such  matters,  bad  blunders  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  a  tray  or  a  table  may  be  avoided. 

Red  with  yellow,  Hue  with  green,  and  yellow  with 
pink  are  inharmonious  combinations  of  color;  but 
yellow  with  white,  blue  with  white,  dull  orange  with 
brown,  violet,  and  pale  gold  are  exquisite  together. 

A  cup  of  chocolate  in  pale  pink  or  dull  red,  coffee 
in  buttercup  yellow,  especially  when  served  without 
cream,  and  green  tea  in  Nile  green,  appeal  to  the  eye 
as  well  as  to  the  taste,  giving  double  pleasure — grati- 
fying two  senses  instead  of  one. 

Color  plays  a  very  important  part  in  serving  food. 
It  produces  strong  effects  in  some  persons  who  are 
deeply  moved  by  harmonies  or  discords  in  it,  as 
others  are  by  harmonies  or  discords  in  music.  Color 
appeals  to  the  esthetic  side  of  some  natures  much 
more  forcibly  than  many  of  us  are  aware. 

The  story  is  told  of  a  lady,  possessed  of  unusually 
keen  color-perception,  who  had  been  living  for  many 
months  in  a  house  furnished  in  monotonous  hues, 
and  in  which  the  table  was  always  set  in  plain  white 
cloth  and  white  china.  Being  invited  to  lunch  with 
a  friend  in  the  neighborhood,  she  was  moved  to  tears 
at  the  sight  of  a  beautiful  table,  decorated  with  a 
scarlet  cloth,  flowers,  and  harmoniously  contrasting 
colored  china. 

The  effect  of  the  colors  upon  the  emotions  was  simi- 
lar to  that  which  is  sometimes  produced  by  an  ex- 
quisite strain  of  music.  Who  can  say  how  much  of 
subtle  refining  influence  may  be  exerted  by  such 
things?  Regarded  as  a  general  thing  only  in  the  light 
of  the  ornamental,  they  are  too  often  looked  upon  as 
luxuries,  and  therefore  dispensable;  but  whatever 
ministers  to  the  esthetic  side  of  the  mind  must  be 


270  SEEYING 

elevating,  and  the  influence  of  neatness,  of  beautiful 
surroundings,  of  harmonious  colors,  of  art  in  any 
form,  inevitably  produces  an  effect  upon  character. 
In  time  such  surroundings  become  necessities,  and 
when  the  individual  is  deprived  of  them  they  are 
missed,  and  he  feels  a  sense  of  dissatisfaction  with 
those  of  meaner  kind — perhaps  dissatisfaction  with  a 
poorer  or  lower  life  in  any  way — and  imperceptibly 
these  seeming  ornaments  of  existence  may  be  the 
means  which  shall  lift  many  an  one  into  a  higher  plane 
of  life,  so  that,  aside  from  their  practical  value,  all  the 
niceties  of  household  affairs  may  have  a  lasting  effect 
for  good  upon  character. 

To  be  progressive,  one  must  be  constantly  in  a 
frame  of  mind  to  learn,  and  ever  on  the  alert  for  in- 
formation. Fashions  change  in  serving  foods  as  in 
other  things.  However,  there  are  certain  fixed  prin- 
ciples which  always  remain  unchanged.  Perfect 
neatness,  orderly  and  pleasing  arrangement,  and  har- 
monious coloring  are  ever  essential. 

For  the  invalid's  tray  use  the  prettiest  china  obtain- 
able. In  a  private  house  there  are  always  some  choice 
and  precious  pieces — teacups,  quaint  silver  pitchers 
and  spoons,  pretty  plates,  and  delicate  thin  tumblers. 
These  will  be  gladly  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
sick  one,  especially  if  the  nurse  will  volunteer  to  be 
responsible  for  them. 

To  prepare  a  meal  for  an  invalid  after  planning  the 
food,  the  first  necessary  articles  are  a  tray  clean  on 
both  sides,  a  neat  napkin  to  spread  over  it,  and  ex- 
quisitely clean  dishes  done  by  a  servant  known  to  be 
neat,  or  by  one's  self.  It  not  infrequently  happens, 
especially  in  houses  in  which  the  mistress  leaves  every- 
thing to  the  servants,  and  never  goes  into  the  kitchen, 
that  dishes  are  washed  in  such  surroundings  of  dirt, 
and  wiped  with  such  unclean  towels,  as  to  be  danger- 


SERVING  271 

ous  for  any  one  to  use.  It  is  therefore  necessary  for 
a  nurse  to  understand  about  such  matters,  and  to  see 
to  it  that  her  patient's  dishes  are  above  suspicion.  In 
fact,  it  is  a  dainty  attention  on  her  part  to  care  en- 
tirely for  the  tray -dishes  of  her  charge. 

In  some  forms  of  disease  it  is  absolutely  necessary, 
in  order  to  prevent  contagion,  that  a  nurse  should  at- 
tend altogether  to  the  tray  and  dishes,  for  it  would 
almost  never  occur  that  any  member  of  a  household 
would  understand  an  effectual  method  of  sterilization. 

In  a  contagious  disease  everything  that  goes  to  the 
bedside — dishes,  knives,  forks,  spoons,  napkin,  the 
tray  itself — should  be  rendered  sterile  by  boiling  in 
water  for  half  an  hour,  or  by  treatment  with  steam 
for  a  similar  time,  before  any  one,  except  the  nurse, 
even  touches  them. 

Nothing  should  be  used  in  the  way  of  linen  or 
dishes  that  cannot  be  washed  without  spoiling ;  there- 
fore fancy  silk  doilies  and  other  similar  furnishings 
are  to  be  avoided. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  taste  of  food  before  giving 
it  to  a  patient,  take  some  into  a  separate  dish,  and  use 
a  separate  spoon  or  fork ;  or,  if  it  is  a  liquid,  take  out 
a  little  with  a  spoon  into  another  spoon,  being  care- 
ful that  the  one  used  for  tasting  does  not  at  any  time 
touch  the  liquid. 

Never  touch  the  bowls  of  spoons,  nor  the  inside 
of  plates  and  cups,  with  the  fingers,  unless  the  hands 
are  prepared  by  thorough  cleansing  for  it.  A  nurse 
who  understands  antiseptic  surgery,  and  knows  how 
easily  contagion  is  carried,  will  appreciate  the  ne- 
cessity of  these  precautions.  The  hands  should  be 
washed  after  arranging  a  bed,  using  a  handkerchief, 
arranging  the  hair — in  fact,  always  before  handling 
either  food  or  dishes. 

Food  and  drink  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain 


272  SERVING 

exposed  to  the  air  for  any  length  of  time.  Most 
kinds  of  food  are  excellent  media  for  micro-organisms 
to  flourish  in,  and  consequently  the  food,  if  it  be  such 
as  might  be  eaten  afterward,  deteriorates. 

Then,  from  an  esthetic  point  of  view,  it  is  the  height 
of  untidiness  to  allow  a  tray  to  remain  in  the  sick-room 
any  length  of  time  after  the  meal  has  been  eaten.  It 
should  be  immediately  removed  with  all  traces  of  the 
meal,  as  should  also  fruit,  glasses  for  water,  lemon- 
ade, milk,  etc.,  which  may  be  used  at  different  times 
during  the  day. 

If  the  patient  objects  and  wishes  to  have  what  is 
left  for  future  use,  assure  him  that  it  is  near  at  hand, 
and  being  kept  cool  and  clean  for  him.  By  punctu- 
ally fulfilling  promises  made  about  such  matters,  he 
will  very  quickly  learn  to  trust  a  nurse,  not  only  in 
these,  but  in  other  things. 

For  decoration  for  a  tray  nothing  should  be  used 
besides  pretty  china  and  flowers.  A  slender  glass  or 
silver  vase  with  a  blossom  or  two,  or  a  delicate  fern 
with  a  white  or  pink  flower,  are  always  suitable.  It 
is  well  to  use  ferns  and  other  fresh  green  decorations 
liberally,  especially  in  winter.  Green  is  always  grate- 
ful to  the  sight,  and  sometimes  a  single  spray  will 
give  pleasure  to  an  invalid  for  hours. 

Violets,  roses,  orchids,  and  all  flowers  that  are 
dainty  in  themselves,  are  always  in  good  taste,  but  a 
very  few  or  a  single  blossom  is  all  that  is  allowable. 
A  big  bouquet  on  a  tray  or  an  invalid's  table  is  as  out 
of  place  as  a  whole  roast  or  a  whole  pudding.  Flow- 
ers with  strong  odors  or  primary  colors  should  be 
avoided,  such,  for  instance,  as  marigolds,  fleur  de  lis, 
and  dahlias.  They  are  handsome  in  a  garden  or  a 
hall,  but  not  at  the  bedside. 

Little  attentions  in  the  way  of  ornamentation,  and 
thoughtfulness  as  to  an  invalid's  meal,  are  deeply 


SEEVING  273 

appreciated.  They  show  that  an  effort  has  been  made 
to  please,  and  to  many  sick  ones  the  feeling  that  they 
are  a  constant  care  to  those  about  them  is  a  very  op- 
pressive one.  It  should  be  the  pleasure  of  a  good 
nurse  to  dispel  such  thoughts.  It  is  the  duty  of  every 
nurse  to  do  so. 

Variety  for  those  who  are  sick  (after  they  are  out 
of  danger,  and  waiting  for  strength  to  return)  is  just 
as  necessary  as  for  those  who  are  well,  and  for  the 
same  reason — that  is,  to  furnish  the  body  with  all 
those  substances  required  for  perfect  nutrition.  Many 
think  that  because  a  person  is  ill,  or  an  invalid,  he 
must  be  denied  all  things  that  are  good,  and  fed 
upon  such  dishes  as  well  persons  generally  abhor,  like 
water  gruel,  thin  oyster  stews,  and  half -cooked  corn- 
starch  pudding. 

It  is  curious  how  such  an  idea  should  have  been 
lodged  in  the  mind,  but  it  is  probably  a  relic  of  the 
old  treatment  in  the  days  before  antiseptic  surgery 
and  the  modern  practice  of  medicine.  Now,  as  soon 
as  a  patient  is  out  of  danger,  careful  feeding  with 
a  variety  of  wholesome,  perfectly  cooked,  nutritious 
food — of  course,  wisely  administered  as  to  quantity — 
is  an  essential  part  of  the  treatment,  and  constitutes 
nearly  the  whole  cure  in  some  forms  of  disease  of  the 
nervous  system. 

The  body,  depleted  and  exhausted  by  long-con- 
tinued sickness,  is  without  resources,  and  must  draw 
from  food  (and,  of  course,  air)  all  those  substances 
needed  for  repair  and  the  restoration  of  bodily  vigor. 
To  insure  this,  different  kinds  of  food  are  required, 
for  no  single  one,  not  even  milk,  contains  everything 
needed.1  Fruits  of  various  kinds,  green  salads  and 

i  There  is,  of  course,  an  exception  in  the  case  of  the  use  of  milk  for 
young  children,  it  being  a  perfect  food  for  them  during  the  first  year 
or  year  and  a  half  of  life. 


274  SERVING 

vegetables,  fish,  beef,  and  mutton  should  be  used,  as 
well  as  milk,  eggs,  chicken,  and  toast. 

Ease  in  serving  the  sick  is  an  accomplishment  in  a 
nurse,  and  a  certain  amount  of  seeming  indifference 
is  an  advisable  quality  to  cultivate.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  take  every  possible  care  in  preparing  a  meal  for  a 
sick  person,  and  then  to  appear  not  to  notice  whether 
he  eats ;  for  sometimes  sensitive  people,  in  their  desire 
not  to  disappoint,  or  in  their  endeavors  to  please,  will 
eat  when  they  do  not  care  for  food. 

Endeavor  to  remember  individual  tastes,  and  try 
to  gratify  them;  always  do  so  when  it  is  in  your 
power,  for  these  individual  preferences  are  often  true 
instincts  of  the  individual  nature  striving  to  secure 
that  which  is  best  for  it.  If  a  man  asks  for  the 
second  joint  of  a  fowl,  don't  take  to  him  a  cut  from 
the  breast,  even  though  you  may  think  it  the  choicest 
portion. 

Food  should  be  given  at  regular  intervals.  If  a 
patient  is  very  ill,  the  rule  is  to  administer  nourish- 
ment in  small  quantities  and  often.  Sometimes  a 
patient  is  too  feeble  to  help  himself  to  food,  and  then 
he  must  be  fed  by  the  nurse.  When  such  is  the  case, 
she  should  be  extremely  careful,  no  matter  what  the 
pressure  of  other  work  may  be,  not  to  hurry  him. 
Give  him  plenty  of  time, — first,  that  the  food  may  re- 
main in  the  mouth  long  enough  to  be  mixed  with  the 
saliva,  for  saliva  is  one  of  the  digestive  juices;  and 
second,  so  that  it  may  be  thoroughly  masticated  and 
broken ;  otherwise  it  will  be  thrown  into  the  stomach 
in  large  masses,  and  may  not  digest  at  all. 

The  quantity  of  food  given  will  always  depend 
upon  the  condition  of  the  person,  and  will  conse- 
quently vary  for  each  individual.  Give  rather  too 
little  than  too  much,  with,  of  course,  the  understand- 
ing that  there  is  always  an  abundance  to  be  had.  A 


SERVING  275 

little  is  often  a  challenge,  especially  to  one  of  delicate 
appetite;  a  large  quantity  is  always  vulgar.  It  is 
much  better  to  carry  a  second  portion  to  one  who 
needs  it  than  to  offer  too  much  at  first. 

No  exact  and*  definite  directions  can  be  given  for 
the  serving  of  special  dishes,  for  a  nurse's  resources 
in  the  way  of  china,  etc.,  are  so  uncertain;  but  a  few 
hints  in  regard  to  some  principles  that,  no  matter 
what  the  circumstances  are,  never  change  may  be 
found  of  service. 

For  instance,  water,  lemonade,  milk,  milk-punch, 
and  all  other  cold  drinks  are  most  healthful  when 
cool,  not  ice-cold.  Ice-cold  water,  ice-cold  milk,  and 
all  chilled  drinks  are  always  forbidden  for  both  sick 
and  well,  except  in  fevers,  in  extremely  hot  weather, 
and  in  unusual  cases,  when  only  a  few  spoons  of 
liquid  are  taken.  Even  in  these  cases  it  is  a  question 
whether  cool  liquids  would  not  do  as  well.  We  all 
know  the  danger  of  taking  a  large  quantity  of  ice- 
cold  drink  when  overheated.  Even  death  has  fre- 
quently resulted  from  it. 

Serve  tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  bouillon,  broth,  gruel,  and 
all  hot  drinks  in  cups  which  are  hot,  not  lukewarm. 
Soup  as  a  part  of  a  meal  should  be  served  in  a  cov- 
ered silver  dish  when  practicable,  for  silver  may  be 
made  very  hot,  and  no  other  is  so  pretty.  In  lieu  of 
silver  use  a  covered  china  dish,  or  a  bouillon-cup 
made  hot  in  an  oven  beforehand.  Remember  that 
the  warmth  of  all  these  foods  is  one  of  their  valuable 
qualities. 

Beef-juice  and  beef-tea  may  be  offered  in  a  red 
wine-glass,  to  conceal  the  color,  which  is  sometimes  at 
first  unpleasant  to  those  unaccustomed  to  the  use  of 
rare  beef ;  but  the  taste  of  these  is  so  acceptable  and 
savory  that,  after  taking  a  few  spoons,  the  objec- 
tion vanishes. 


276  SEEVING 

Cups  and  tumblers  ought  not  to  be  filled  to  more 
than  within  a  half  inch  of  the  top.  The  best  argu- 
ment for  this  custom  is,  that  it  is  considered  good 
form  ;  but  there  is  a  good  reason  back  of  it,  as  is  the 
case  in  most  other  established  custoihs.  If  a  cup  be 
filled  to  the  brim  it  cannot  be  moved  without  spilling 
the  liquid  over  the  outside  5  this  occasions  wiping, 
which  it  is  especially  difficult  to  do,  and  waste  of  a 
certain  portion  of  the  contents;  then  it  is  not  easy 
to  drink  from  a  cup  so  filled. 

Fruits,  such  as  oranges,  grapes,  peaches,  and  toma- 
toes, should  be  served  cool,  but  not  cold  or  chilled. 
The  ideal  way  to  eat  fruits  is  without  artificial  cool- 
ing. A  peach  is  never  so  delicious  as  at  the  moment  it 
is  gathered  from  the  tree,  just  ripe,  and  tomatoes 
have  the  finest  flavor  eaten  directly  off  the  vines ;  but 
it  is  seldom  that  these  fruits  or  others  can  be  so  ob- 
tained, and  we,  knowing  that  fruits  do  not  keep  well 
except  in  cool  places,  are  apt  to  associate  a  certain 
degree  of  coolness  with  them.  The  objection  to  serv- 
ing fruits  very  cold  is  that,  besides  the  fact  that  they 
are  not  as  readily  digested  so,  their  delicate  flavor 
is  lost,  for  the  cold  contracts  the  sensitive  papillae  of 
the  tongue,  and  thus  the  power  of  tasting  is  tempo- 
rarily deadened. 

Oranges,  peaches,  and  plums  may  be  used  uncooked, 
as  they  are  extremely  easy  of  digestion  so,  and  also 
grapes,  unless  there  is  objection  to  the  seeds,  in 
which  case  they  should  be  cooked,  and  the  seeds 
strained  out.  Apples  and  pears  are  safer  cooked;  to- 
matoes may  be  eaten  either  way. 

Transparent  jellies  are  pretty  served  in  glass 
dishes,  and  ice-cream,  sherbets,  and  ices  in  china 
saucers,  or  ice-cream  dishes  of  pink,  or  other  deli- 
cately warm  colors.  Ice-cream,  uncolored,  in  shell 
pink,  is  much  more  attractive  than  it  is  in  cold 


SERVING  277 

mauve  or  green.  Water-ices,  which  usually  have 
color  of  their  own,  may  be  served  in  dishes  to  match  it. 
Raspberry  or  strawberry  ice  is  lovely  in  dull  rich  red; 
apricot  ice  in  yellow — that  is,  a  certain  shade  of  ecru 
which  harmonizes  with  the  color  of  the  fruit  —  and 
pineapple  and  lemon  ice  in  Dresden  ware  are  very 
pretty. 

Eggs  should  be  opened  into  a  hot,  though  not  very 
hot,  egg-glass.  It  is  the  proper  thing  to  do  so  even 
when  a  patient  is  well  enough  to  open  them  for  him- 
self, for,  although  the  supply  may  have  been  obtained 
from  the  very  best  sources,  there  is  always  the  risk 
that  some  of  the  eggs  may  be  old,  too  old  to  be  good.1 

Oysters  in  the  half-shell  are  served  simply  with  salt, 
pepper,  and  lemon-juice,  or  horse-radish.  A  quarter 
or  a  half  of  a  lemon  is  placed  on  the  oyster-plate  with 
the  oysters,  and  after  the  salt  and  pepper  are  sprinkled 
on  a  few  drops  of  lemon- juice  are  squeezed  over  each 
oyster,  or  a  bit  of  horse-radish  is  placed  on  each. 

Broiled  oysters  may  be  served  with  a  sauce  of 
melted  butter,  seasoned  with  salt,  pepper,  and  lemon- 
juice  or  vinegar. 

Toast  is  particularly  acceptable  with  nearly  all 
kinds  of  cooked  oysters,  and  fancy  shapes,  such  as 
tiny  rounds,  squares,  and  points,  are  excellent  with 
stews,  soups,  and  roasts,  instead  of  crackers. 

Dry  toast  ought  to  be  eaten  directly  off  the  toaster, 
and,  except  in  serious  illness,  butter  may  be  given 
with  it.  Orange,  gooseberry,  raspberry,  and  other 
marmalades,  currant,  apple,  and  grape  jellies,  and 
baked  sweet  apples  or  apple-sauce,  are  excellent  with 
either  dry  or  water  toast.  Cooked  apples  in  any 
form  are  delicious  with  milk  and  cream  toasts. 

i  In  England  it  is  the  custom  to  serve  eggs  in  the  shell,  and  it  is 
considered  bad  form  to  open  them,  but  in  America  the  latter  way  is 
general ;  for  an  invalid  there  is  no  question  but  that  it  is  the  most 
convenient  way  to  do. 
19 


278  SERVING 

It  is  the  fashion  just  now  to  serve  junket,  slip, 
soft  custard,  lemon  cream,  tapioca  cream,  and  similar 
delicate  desserts  in  cups  and  saucers,  not  glasses. 
The  quainter  the  pattern  of  the  china,  the  prettier 
the  effect. 

A  plan  for  a  breakfast,  to  consist  of  a  peach,  rolled 
wheat  porridge,  beefsteak,  baked  potato,  coffee,  and 
toast : 

(1)  Put   the   porridge,   which   should   have   been 
cooked  the  day  before,  on  the  fire  to  heat,  and  the 
potato  into  the  oven  to  bake. 

(2)  Set  some  water  to  boil  for  the  coffee,  and  the 
milk  to  heat  to  serve  with  it. 

(3)  Trim  the  steak,  which  should  be  a  small  piece 
an  inch  thick,  an  inch  and  a  half  wide,  and  three  or 
four  inches  long;  cut  the  bread,  and  make  a  butter- 
ball  by  rolling  a  bit  of  butter  between  two  spatters 
made  for  the  purpose.1 

(4)  Set  a  plate,  cup  and  saucer,  and  dishes  for  serv- 
ing the  food,  in  the  warming-oven  to  heat. 

(5)  Arrange  the  tray  with  a  fresh  napkin,  knife, 
fork,  spoons,  salt  and  pepper,  fine  granulated  sugar 
and  cold  cream  for  the  porridge,  and  some  lumps  of 
loaf  sugar  for  the  coffee. 

(6)  Fifteen  minutes  before  the  potato  is  done  make 
the  coffee,  and  ten  minutes  later  broil  the  steak;  in 
the  interim  pare  the  peach,  laying  it  open  from  the 
stone,  and  toast  the  bread. 

Now,  if  calculation  as  to  the  time  has  been  well 
made,  everything  will  be  ready — the  potato  baked, 
the  porridge  steaming,  the  coffee  cooked,  and  the 
steak  and  toast  waiting  in  the  oven. 

(7)  Serve  the  fruit  on  a  tiny  fruit-plate,  the  por- 

i  The  spatters  should  be  soaked  in  boiling  water  for  a  few  minutes, 
and  then  in  cold  water,  to  prevent  the  sticking  of  the  butter. 


SERVING  279 

ridge  in  a  hot  saucer,  and  the  coffee,  together.  When 
the  fruit  and  porridge  are  finished,  offer  the  potato, 
wrapped  in  a  doily  to  keep  it  warm,  the  steak  in  a 
hot  covered  silver  dish,  and  the  toast  on  an  individ- 
ual bread-plate.  Or  all  may  be  served  together  when 
for  any  reason  it  seems  best  to  do  so :  for  instance,  if 
the  tray  has  to  be  carried  a  long  distance,  or  up  many 
flights  of  stairs. 

The  above  arrangement  is  simply  beginning  with 
the  things  which  require  the  longest  time,  and  then 
taking  each  in  such  order  that  all  shall  be  finished  at 
the  same  moment. 

By  understanding  the  length  of  time  required  for 
each  dish,  there  need  be  no  hurrying,  nor  will  any- 
thing be  cooked  too  soon. 

Dinner  should  be  planned  in  the  same  way,  and 
also  supper.  Even  when  there  is  not  much  cooking  to 
be  done  the  same  idea  prevails — that  is,  to  begin  with 
whatever  requires  the  longest  time,  and  to  do  last 
those  dishes  which  spoil  by  standing ;  in  other  words, 
to  be  systematic,  (1)  because  your  meal  is  in  better 
condition  when  so  done,  and  (2)  because  it  is  easier 
for  yourself.  There  then  will  be  neither  hurry  nor 
worry,  and  work  which  ends  with  a  satisfactory 
result  is  always  a  pleasure. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN 

There  are  three  ways  in  which  a  child  may  be  sup 
plied  with  food  during  its  infancy:  by  its  mother; 
by  a  substitute  for  its  mother — a  wet  nurse ;  and  by 
artificial  feeding.  This  chapter  will  treat  only  of  the 
latter  method. 

The  child  is  fortunate  whose  mother  can  supply  it 
with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  wholesome  milk.  There 
is  nothing  more  to  be  desired  for  it  during  the  first 
ten  or  twelve  months  of  its  life.  But  often  a  mother, 
for  one  reason  or  another,  is  not  able  to  nurse  her 
child,  and  other  means  of  feeding  must  be  sought. 
In  such  cases,  among  the  wealthier  classes,  a  wet 
nurse  is  sometimes  employed ;  but  with  the  majority 
of  people  there  is  no  alternative  except  artificial  feed- 
ing. When  this  has  been  decided  upon,  the  question 
naturally  arises  as  to  what  shall  be  the  best  substi- 
tute for  the  natural  nourishment  of  the  child — moth- 
er's milk,  which  must  always  be  taken  as  the  perfect 
type  of  infants'  food.1  To  this  subject  doctors  and 
hygienists  have  given  much  attention  for  a  long  time. 

i  It  should  not  be  inferred  from  this  that  mother's  milk  is  the  best 
under  all  circumstances.  It  not  infrequently  happens  that  a  mother, 
disregarding  all  indications  to  the  contrary,  will  continue  to  nurse  her 
baby  after  it  has  become  disastrous  both  to  herself  and  the  infant  to  do 
so.  If  a  baby  remains  puny,  and  the  mother  is  exhausted  and  languid 
without  any  known  cause,  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  call  in  the  aid  of 
a  physician,  and  have  the  milk  analyzed.  Good  and  careful  feeding  is 
infinitely  better  than  nursing  a  baby  upon  impoverished  milk,  even  if 
the  quantity  seems  sufficient.  A  mother,  in  nursing  her  child,  should 
do  so  at  stated  regular  intervals.  If  it  is  injurious  for  a  grown  person 
to  eat  at  odd  times  all  day  long,  it  is  far  more  injurious  for  an  infant. 
It  will  not  hurt  a  child  to  be  occasionally  hungry,  or  even  to  cry, 

280 


THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDKEN  281 

Many  kinds  of  food  preparations  have  been  made  and 
tested.  The  result  has  been  that,  almost  without  ex- 
ception, authorities  agree  that  milk  from  healthy, 
well-fed  cows,  properly  prepared,  is  the  most  valuable 
substitute  for  human  milk  that  is  at  present  known.1 
The  following  analyses  give  the  comparison  be- 
tween cow's  milk  and  human  milk: 

Human  Milk.  Cola's  Milk. 

Nitrogenous  substances 2.35% 4.30% 

Fat 3.40% 3.80% 

Sugar 4.85%  3.70% 

Salts 20% 60% 

Water 89.20% 87.60%  2 

Cow's  milk  varies  considerably  in  nutritive  proper- 
ties, and  for  the  growing  infant  who  receives  no  other 
food  it  is  extremely  important  that  it  be  of  the  first 
quality.  It  should  be  tested  in  every  possible  way  to 
enable  one  to  form  a  correct  estimate  of  its  value, 
and  unless  unquestionably  good  should  be  rejected.3 
When  fresh  from  the  cow,  not  more  than  two  hours 
old,  and  of  superior  quality,  it  need  not  be  sterilized, 
but  should  be  put  into  perfectly  cleansed  and  sterile 
vessels,4  and  kept  in  an  ice-box,  or  refrigerator,  at  a 
temperature  of  50°  to  60°  Fahr.5 

When  obliged  to  buy  the  ordinary  milk  of  com- 
merce, select  if  possible  that  which  is  put  up  in  glass 

whereas  it  will  hurt  it  seriously  and  perhaps  induce  life-long  dyspepsia 
if  food  is  introduced  into  the  stomach  while  there  yet  remains  in  it 
that  previously  taken  in  an  undigested,  or  partly  digested,  condition. 
The  cry  which  a  young  mother  thinks  indicates  hunger,  and  hopes  to 
allay  by  feeding,  is  often  only  a  dyspeptic  pain,  which  is  increased  by 
the  very  means  she  takes  to  lessen  it. 

1  The  milk  of  goats  and  asses  is  said  to  be  more  easily  digested  than 
cow's  milk,  but  is  procurable  only  in  exceptional  cases. 

2  From  Uffelmann's  "  Hygiene  of  the  Child." 

3  See  chapter  on  Milk. 

4  Vessels  for  holding  milk  may  be  made  sterile  by  boiling  them  in 
water  for  fifteen  minutes.    Glass  is  best. 

5  A  low  temperature  retards  the  growth  of  micro-organisms. 


282  THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN 

jars.  There  are  farmers  who  do  this.  Each  jar  is 
sealed,  marked  with  the  owner's  name  and  address, 
and  the  date  of  sending.  Such  milk  does  riot  become 
contaminated  with  bad  air  in  transit,  cannot  be  tam- 
pered with  by 'middlemen,  and  must  be  free  from 
dirt,  as  it  would  show  through  the  glass ;  each  cus- 
tomer gets  exactly  a  quart,  with  all  the  cream  that 
belongs  to  it ;  moreover,  the  owner,  having  attached 
his  name,  has  thus  put  his  reputation  at  stake,  and 
is  not  likely  to  sell  inferior  milk.  When  this  is  not 
practicable,  search  for  the  best  and  cleanest  dairy,  and 
see  that  the  milk  is  delivered  as  soon  as  possible  after 
being  received  at  the  dairy.  Milk  should  not  be 
bought  from  small  stores. 

The  best  milk  comes  from  cows  that  have  good 
pasturage,  with  clean  running  water,  and  that  are  fed 
in  winter  on  dry  fodder  and  grain,  and  not  on  en- 
silage and  brewery  waste. 

According  to  the  reports  of  the  American  Public 
Health  Association,  one  fifth  of  all  the  deaths  among 
infants  may  be  traced  to  the  milk  supply,  and  there 
is  no  doubt  that  most  of  the  sickness  of  bottle-fed 
children,  during  the  summer  months,  is  directly  due 
to  the  unhealthy  condition  of  their  food. 

It  then  becomes  the  imperative  duty  of  every  mother, 
nurse,  or  other  person  who  has  the  care  of  children,  to 
learn,  if  she  does  not  already  know,  the  simpler  tests 
for  milk,  and  something  of  the  philosophy  of  the  feed- 
ing of  her  charge.1  When  such  knowledge  is  more 
general,  and  women  are  able  to  determine  intelligently 
the  quality  of  the  milk  which  is  offered  them,  then 
will  milk-dealers  be  forced  to  cease  mixing,  adulter- 
ating, and  otherwise  tampering  with  the  milk,  which, 
as  a  general  thing,  is  sold  at  the  farms  in  excellent 
condition. 

i  Test  for  reaction,  fat,  and  specific  gravity.    See  article  on  Milk. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDEEN  283 

The  first  object  is  to  secure  a  good  quality  of  milk; 
then  comes  the  consideration  of  how  it  shall  be  pre- 
pared: this  must  be  in  such  manner  as  shall  render  it 
as  nearly  like  human  milk,  in  composition  and  diges- 
tibility, as  possible. 

Comparison  of  the  tables  just  given  shows  that  cow's 
milk  contains  more  nitrogenous  matter  and  salts,  and 
less  sugar,  than  human  milk.1  By  diluting  with  water 
to  reduce  the  protein  and  salts,  and  adding  sugar  and 
a  little  cream,  the  proportions  of  these  different  sub- 
stances may  be  made  to  approximate  those  in  moth- 
er's milk.  In  both  the  sugar  is  the  same — lactose,  or 
milk-sugar ;  the  fats  are  also  much  alike  in  each ;  but 
the  albuminous  matter  of  cow's  milk  differs  somewhat 
from  that  of  human  milk,  particularly  in  the  way  in 
which  it  coagulates  in  the  presence  of  acids.  Human 
milk  forms  into  small,  light,  feathery  curds ;  cow's 
milk  into  large,  compact,  not  so  easily  digested 
masses.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  seek  the  means 
for  preventing  the  coagulation  of  milk  in  large  curds 
in  the  stomach  of  the  child — in  other  words,  to  so 
treat  cow's  milk  that  it  shall  coagulate  more  like 
human  milk.  This  may  be  done  in  two  ways : 

(1)  By  mixing  into  the  milk  some  substance  which 
shall  separate  the  particles  of  albumen  from  each 
other,  and  so  cause  it  to  form  into  smaller  masses. 

(2)  By  partial  predigestion. 

To  accomplish  the  first,  it  is  necessary  to  use  some 
diluting  substance  of  a  harmless  nature ;  if  it  be  nu- 
tritious, so  much  the  better.  For  this,  Mellin's  food, 
barley-water,  veal  broth,  lime-water,  and  gelatin  are 
recommended. 

Mellin's  food  is  a  partially  predigested  grain,  in  such 

i  The  following  mineral  substances  occur  in  both  cow's  and  woman's 
milk :  potaesa,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  iron,  phosphoric  a*id,  sulphuric 
acid,  and  chlorin. 


284  THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN 

a  condition  that  it  can  be  assimilated  by  the  infant; 
barley-water  is  valuable  for  its  potash  salts,  in  which 
cow's  milk  is  deficient,  and  which  the  growing  babe 
needs;  veal  broth  is  rich  in  lime;  and  lime-water 
neutralizes  the  acid  of  the  gastric  juice,  so  that  milk 
is  not  acted  upon  so  strongly,  and  consequently  forms 
into  a  lighter  curd. 

The  second  method  is  that  of  partial  predigestion, 
and  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  peptonizing  agents, 
among  which  Fairchild's  peptogenic  milk-powder  is 
good  (directions  for  its  use  will  be  given  later).  On 
account  of  the  expense  of  these  preparations  it  is  not 
probable  that  they  will  come  into  general  use,  except 
in  cases  of  sickness. 

It  is  therefore  evident  that  dependence  must  be 
placed  almost  entirely  upon  attenuants  to  render  the 
casein  of  cow's  milk  more  easily  digestible.  Probably 
for  this  Mellin's  food  is  as  good,  if  not  better,  than 
any  other  of  the  recommended  preparations.  It  is  not 
injurious,  is  nutritious  in  itself,  and  is  a  good  diluting 
agent,  causing  milk  to  form  into  looser  curds  than 
it  would  otherwise  do,  and  it  contains  sufficient  sugar 
to  require  no  further  addition  of  this  substance. 

Now  arises  the  question  whether  milk  shall  be 
sterilized  for  infants'  feeding.  The  weight  of  evi- 
dence seems  to  be  as  follows :  if  it  is  possible  to  see 
the  conditions  under  which  the  cows  live,  and  to  know 
that  they  are  unquestionably  good,  that  the  animals 
are  in  perfect  health,  that  the  milk  is  drawn  from 
cleansed  udders  into  cleansed  vessels  by  clean  hands, 
kept  in  a  cool  place,  and  used  fresh,  then  it  is  prob- 
ably wise  not  to  sterilize  it.  All  milk  otherwise 
obtained  should  be  made  sterile  before  using,  and 
as  soon  as  possible  after  milking.  Looking  to  the 
standard — human  milk — there  are  no  organisms  in 


THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN  285 

it.  That  alone  is  sufficient  reason  why  cow's  milk 
should  be  freed  from  them.1 

Again,  most  bottle-fed  children  do  well  during  the 
cold  weather  of  autumn  and  winter ;  in  summer  the 
mortality  is  very  great  among  them,  especially  in 
the  poorer  districts  of  large  cities.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  chances  for  life  with  children  nourished  by 
mother's  milk  are  greater  than  with  those  artificially 
fed.  Why  should  this  be  ?  There  is  no  doubt  that  it 
is  owing  to  the  presence  in  cow's  milk  of  extraneous 
substances,  the  products  of  bacterial  growth — prod- 
ucts which  are  often  absolute  poisons;  and  it  is 
highly  probable  that  cholera  infantum,  in  a  vast  ma- 
jority of  cases,  may  be  traced  to  the  action  of  such 
poisons. 

Under  favorable  conditions  of  temperature,  such  as 
prevail  in  the  warm  months  of  summer  and  early 
autumn,  micro-organisms  grow  with  almost  incom- 
prehensible rapidity  in  any  substance  which  is  suita- 
ble food  for  them.  Milk  is  such  a  substance ;  and,  as 
bacteria  multiply  with  wonderful  rapidity,  millions 
forming  in  a  few  hours  in  every  thimbleful,2  it  is 
perfectly  evident  that  they  must  produce  something. 
This  something  may  or  may  not  be  of  a  harmful  na- 
ture, depending  upon  what  species  of  organism  pro- 
duces it.  I  have  no  evidence  at  hand  to  show  what  is 
the  nature  of  the  product  of  any  one  organism  which 
finds  a  home  in  milk;  but  there  are  instances  on 
record  where  the  nature  of  the  product  of  certain  bac- 
teria is  known :  for  example,  the  diphtheria  bacillus. 
This  little  rod,  growing  upon  the  outside  of  the  ton- 

1  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  in  this  connection,  that  children  have  been 
known  to  be  made  ill  by  drinking  water  which  has  stood  for  a  length 
of  time— such  water  containing  great  numbers  of  bacteria,  but  none 
of  the  so-called  disease-producing  organisms.     The  same  water,  when 
boiled,  produced  no  ill  effects. 

2  Stated  by  Sedgwick. 


286  THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN 

sils  in  the  human  throat,  produces  a  most  virulent 
poison,  which,  taken  up  by  the  circulation,  pervades 
the  whole  body,  and  often  so  enfeebles  its  functions 
as  to  destroy  it.1 

Reasoning  from  analogy,  it  is  not  impossible  to 
suppose  that  other  organisms  may  produce  substances 
of  a  similar  character,  poisonous  in  their  effects,  and 
which,  when  taken  into  the  alimentary  canal,  may 
produce  very  grave  digestive  disorders.2 

Further,  bacteria,  by  their  multiplication,  use  some 
of  the  constituents  of  milk  for  their  food,  thus  chang- 
ing its  composition.  It  is  very  important  to  prevent 
this  growth,  or,  in  case  it  has  begun,  to  check  it  before 
it  has  rendered  the  milk  unwholesome  food.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  sterilizing  immediately  all  milk  which 
is  not  received  directly  from  the  cow.  Besides,  cows 
are  often  infected  with  tuberculosis,  foot-and-mouth 
disease,  splenic  fevor,  pneumonia,  and  other  danger- 
ous disorders.  Their  milk  may  be  a  direct  cause  of 
infection.  When  it  is  sterilized  there  is  less  danger 
from  it;  but  even  then  it  is  not,  of  course,  a  wholesome 
food,  because  of  the  poisons  which  may  be  produced 
in  the  animal  during  the  progress  of  the  disease,  and 
because  a  sick  and  weakened  cow  cannot  give  whole- 
some milk.3 

In  many  cities,  through  the  influence  of  children's 
hospitals  and  sanitariums,  the  knowledge  and  methods 

1  Welsh. 

2  Since  writing  the  above  I  have  learned  that  Prof.  Vaughan  has 
isolated  a  poisonous  matter  —  the  product  of  the  growth  of  certain 
organisms  which  multiply  readily  in  milk  — which  caused  active  vom- 
iting, purging,  collapse,  and  death  when  injected  into  the  lower  animals. 

3  In  England  and  America  many  cases  of  scarlatina,  typhoid  fever, 
and  diphtheria  have  been  traced  to  the  milk  supply.    But  there  is  no 
satisfactory  evidence  that  those  diseases  were  transmitted  from  the 
cow ;  more  probably  the  milk,  which  is  an  especially  good  nutritive  me- 
dium for  bacteria,  became  infected  after  leaving  the  cow.    In  October, 
1891,  an  epidemic  of  diphtheria  prevailed  in  Melrose,  Mass.   Thirty-three 
cases  were  reported.    On  investigation  it  was  found  that  every  case 


THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN  287 

of  sterilizing  milk  for  infants'  food  are  gradually 
spreading. 

Circular  wire  frames,  made  something  like  casters, 
and  fitted  with  eight  bottles,  each  holding  enough 
milk  for  one  feeding,  may  be  bought  for  the  purpose 
of  sterilizing  at  almost  any  pharmacy.  The  frame  is 
to  be  set  in  a  kettle  with  water  in  the  bottom,  which 
on  boiling  produces  steam,  the  heat  of  which  does 
the  sterilizing.1  This  is  an  easy  method.  Another 
good  way  is  to  sterilize  at  a  lower  temperature  for  a 
longer  time,  as  less  change  is  produced  in  the  con- 
stituents of  the  milk  by  the  lower  degree  of  heat. 
This  may  be  easily  done  by  immersing  the  bottles  in 
water  at  190°  Fahr.,  and  maintaining  that  tempera- 
ture for  an  hour.2 

Care  of  Feeding-bottles.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
in  cleansing  feeding-bottles.  When  they  can  be 

could  be  traced  to  the  milk  supply.  The  farm  from  which  it  came  was 
situated  in  an  adjoining  town,  and  the  family  of  the  dealer  had  been 
afflicted  with  diphtheria,  two  of  the  children  having  died.  The  use  of 
the  milk  was,  of  course,  promptly  stopped. 

1  A  simple  and  inexpensive  apparatus  for  sterilizing  milk  consists 
of  a  covered  tin  kettle  ten  inches  in  height  by  eight  inches  in  diam- 
eter, a  wire  basket,  which  fits  easily  into  the  kettle,  supplied  with 
supports  or  legs  projecting  one  and  a  half  inches  from  the  bottom,  one 
dozen  eight-ounce  nursing-bottles,  and  a  bundle  of  fresh  cotton  wad- 
ding.   The  whole  apparatus,  costing  about  $1.25,  is  kept  in  most  drug 
stores. 

Milk  for  twenty-four  hours'  use  is  properly  sweetened  and  diluted  with 
water  in  a  clean  pitcher,  and  as  much  of  this  as  the  child  will  take  at 
one  feeding  is  poured  into  each  bottle,  and  the  bottle  stopped  with  cot- 
ton wadding,  which  should  fit  only  moderately  tight  in  the  neck  of  the 
bottle.  The  kettle  is  filled  to  the  depth  of  one  half  to  one  inch  with  wa- 
ter, the  basket  containing  the  bottles  placed  in  it,  the  kettle  covered  and 
placed  over  a  fire  until  the  steam  comes  out  from  the  sides  of  the  top  for 
half  an  hour,  when  the  basket  containing  the  bottles  should  be  removed 
and  put  in  a  cool  place.  When  the  milk  is  to  be  used,  it  should  be  heated 
by  placing  a  bottle  in  warm  water  for  a  few  minutes.  The  cotton  is 
then  removed,  and  a  sterilized  nipple  attached.  After  the  feeding  the 
bottle  is  cleansed  and  kept  in  an  inverted  position  until  used  again 
The  above  directions  are  those  of  Dr.  Booker,  specialist  of  children's 
diseases,  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital. 

2  In  the  Walker-Gordon  Milk  Laboratory,  in  Boston,  milk  is  sterilized 
at  175°  to  180"  Fahr.  for  fifteen  minutes,  and  it  is  claimed  that  this  tern- 


288  THE  FEEDING  OF  CHTLDEEN 

washed  immediately  after  using,  it  is  easy  to  make 
them  perfectly  clean ;  but  when  this  is  impracticable 
they  should  be  put  to  soak  in  cold  water,  then  washed 
with  hot  soap-suds,  and  last  boiled  for  ten  minutes  in 
clear  water.  If  flecks  dry  on  the  inside,  put  a  tea- 
spoon of  rice,  or  coarse  salt,  into  the  bottle  with  a  lit- 
tle water,  and  shake  well  until  all  is  removed.  Never 
use  shot :  it  might  cause  lead  poisoning. 

Plain  rubber  nipples  alone  should  be  used,  never 
the  tube  attachment.  The  nipples  should  be  washed 
clean  and  dried  after  each  nursing.  Before  again 
using  the  nipple  it  should  be  put  into  boiling  water 
for  ten  minutes,  and  only  the  rim  of  it  should  be 
touched  in  handling.  The  nipple  should  never  be  put 
into  the  mouth  of  another  person  to  test  the  milk. 

Condensed  Milk.  When  a  large  percentage  of  the 
water  of  milk  is  evaporated,  and  sugar  added,  a  thick 
syrup  is  formed,  known  as  condensed  milk. 

It  is  made  extensively  in  Switzerland  and  America. 
"When  sealed  air-tight  in  cans  it  will  keep  indefinitely. 

Its  average  composition — a  mean  of  41  analyses 
by  Prof.  Leeds — is  as  follows : 

Water 30.34% 

Fat 12.10% 

Milk-sugar 16.62% 

Cane-sugar 22.26% 

Albuminoids 16.07% 

Ash 2.61% 

Total,     100.00 

perature  gives  the  best  results  for  milk  to  be  used  within  twenty-four 
hours.  If  the  milk  has  to  be  kept  a  longer  time,  a  higher  temperature 
is  necessary,  as  only  the  bacteria  and  not  the  spores  are  destroyed  by 
175°  Fahr. 

Machines  are  in  use  in  France  which  will  heat  great  quantities  of  milk 
to  about  155°  Fahr.  and  then  rapidly  cool  it.  Not  all,  but  nearly  all, 
forms  of  bacteria  likely  to  be  found  in  milk  are  destroyed  at  the  tem- 
perature of  155°,  and  the  good  flavor  of  the  milk  is  not  injured.  Such 
milk  is  known  as  Pasteurized  milk. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN  289 

Owing  to  the  additional  sugar  it  is  impossible  to 
dilute  it  so  that  the  protein  and  sugar  shall  approach 
the  standard  of  human  milk. 

Children  fed  with  it  are  plump,  but  have  soft  flesh ; 
they  are  large,  but  not  strong,  and  lack  the  power  of 
endurance  and  resistance  to  disease.  Their  teeth 
come  late,  and  they  are  very  likely  to  have  rickets.1 
This  is  enough  to  indicate  that  it  is  not  a  proper 
food  upon  which  to  feed  a  child  exclusively. 

Condensed  milk  is  valuable  in  emergencies  or  in 
traveling,  and  may  also  be  used  occasionally  when  for 
any  reason  the  milk  supply  fails.  It  has  the  advan- 
tage of  being  free  from  ferments  and  easily  kept. 

There  are  physicians  who  recommend  the  use  of 
condensed  milk,  and  no  doubt,  compared  with  the 
germ-laden,  watery  fluid  called  milk,  obtainable  in 
the  poorer  sections  of  large  cities,  it  is  infinitely  bet- 
ter. It  should  always  be  diluted  with  at  least  ten 
times  its  bulk  of  water. 

Preserved  Milk.  Preserved  milk  is  milk  which  has 
been  condensed  and  canned  without  the  addition  of 
sugar.  It  would  be  a  valuable  food  for  children 
were  it  not  that  it  is  expensive,  and  will  keep  but  a 
few  hours  after  the  can  is  opened.  By  sterilizing  it  in 
flasks  with  narrow  necks,  plugged  with  cotton,  it  may 
be  kept  as  other  milk  is  for  an  indefinite  time.  As 
soon  as  the  can  is  opened,  the  contents  should  be 
poured  into  a  glass  or  earthen  vessel,  for,  on  expos- 
ure of  the  milk  to  the  air,  chemical  action  takes  place 
with  the  tin.2 

Farinaceous  Foods.  There  are  many  farinaceous 
forms  of  food  prepared  for  the  use  of  infants  and 
children.  Probably  the  most  valuable  of  them  are 

1  See  the  works  of  Drs.  Louis  Starr,  Uffelmann,  and  Jacobi. 

2  The  amount  of  condensation  in  preserved  milk  may  be  easily  ascer- 
tained by  noting  the  amount  of  water  which  it  is  necessary  to  add  in 
order  to  make  its  specific  gravity  equal  to  that  of  ordinary  milk. 


290  THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDEEN 

those  made  according  to  the  Liebig  process.  The 
starch  of  the  grain  from  which  such  foods  are  pre- 
pared is,  in  the  process  of  manufacture,  changed  into 
soluble  dextrine,  or  sugar  (glucose),  by  the  action  of 
the  diastase  of  malt:  the  very  thing  which  an  infant 
cannot  do. 

When  we  consider  that  the  digestion  of  starch  in 
the  alimentary  canal  consists  of  this  change  into 
glucose,  and  that  it  is  effected  principally  by  the 
saliva  and  the  pancreatic  juice,  the  significance  of 
the  value  of  such  foods  will  be  seen. 

It  is  also  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  neither  of  these 
functions  (the  secretion  of  saliva  and  pancreatic  juice) 
is  developed  in  an  infant  until  it  enters  the  third 
month  of  its  life,  and  then  but  very  imperfectly. 
That  alone  shows  the  necessity  of  excluding  all  starch 
from  its  food  up  to  that  age. 

Mellin's  food  and  malted  milk  are  prepared  accord- 
ing to  the  Liebig  process.  In  them  the  starch  has 
been  converted  into  soluble  matter  by  the  action  of 
the  ferment  of  malt.  It  is  really  a  partial  prediges- 
tion.  Mellin's  food  does  not  contain  milk. 

The  following  analysis  of  Mellin's  food  is  one  made 
by  Professor  Fresenius,  of  Wiesbaden,  Germany: 

Non-nitrogenous  substances  soluble  in  water 69.38% 

Non-nitrogenous  substances  insoluble  in  water  .    ...  3.18% 

Total  carbohydrates 72.56% 

Nitrogenous  substances  soluble  in  water ...  4.69% 

Nitrogenous  substances  insoluble  in  water 5.06% 

Total  albuminoids 9.75% 

Total  salts,  mostly  phosphoric  acid,  car- 
bonic acid,  and  potassa 4.37% 

Total  moisture 13.32% 

Cane  sugar,  none.    Eeaction,  alkaline. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN  291 

Comparative  analysis  of  Mellin's  food,  prepared  for 
use,  with  that  of  woman's  milk  and  cow's  milk. 


fnnetifufnf*  Mellin's         Woman's  Cow's 

Constituents.  pood 


Fat  .........  ...............  2.36%  4.00%  3.30% 

Albuminoids  ...............  2.83%  2.50%  3.50% 

Carbohydrates  .............  6.81%  6.50%  5.00% 

Salts  and  inorganic  matter  .  .     .74%  .50%  .70% 

Water  ......................  87.26%  86.50%  87.50% 

Cellulose  ...........    .......  A  trace.  ......  ...... 

Cane-sugar  .................  None.  ......  ...... 

Starch  ....................  None.  ......  ...... 

DR.  A.  STTJTZER,  Bonn,  Germany. 


This  analysis  shows  that  Mellin's  food  bears  com- 
parison with  milk.  It  is  easily  digested,  and  as  an 
attenuant  for  milk  may  be  used  without  harm  during 
the  early  months  of  life,  but  it  should  not  be  used 
to  the  exclusion  of  milk  for  more  than  a  few  days  at 
a  time,  and  then  only  when  milk  is  not  retained  by 
the  stomach. 

Later  it  is  doubtless  a  valuable  addition  to  the  regu- 
lar daily  food  of  the  child. 

Malted  milk  is  made  from  selected  grain  and  des- 
iccated or  dried  milk.  To  prepare  it  for  the  infant 
it  needs  only  the  addition  of  water.  It  is  probably 
one  of  the  best  substitutes  for  milk,  but  should  not 
be  used  for  any  length  of  time  when  it  is  possible  to 
get  good  milk. 

The  starch  of  grains  may  be  converted  into  dex- 
trine and  glucose  by  the  action  of  heat  as  well  as  by 
the  action  of  diastase,  so  that  when  flour  is  subjected 
to  a  certain  temperature,  and  for  a  certain  time,  this 
change  is  produced. 

Nestle's  food,  Imperial  Granum,  Ridge's  food,  and 
some  others  are  made  very  carefully  from  selected 


292  THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN 

wheat  by  this  process.  Nestles  food  contains  dried 
milk. 

These  foods  are  all  valuable  when  made  into  gruel 
or  porridge,  but  should  be  used  very  sparingly  under 
the  age  of  twelve  months,  and  then  only  as  attenuants 
for  milk,  not  as  substitutes  for  it. 

Dr.  Mary  Putnam  Jacobi,  editor  of  "  Domestic  Hy- 
giene of  the  Child,"  by  Uffelmann  (a  translation),  in 
speaking  of  the  value  of  the  various  preparations  of 
infants'  food  on  the  market,  says :  "  There  is  not  the 
slightest  reason  to  prefer  them  to  milk  or  its  prepara- 
tions, except  that  the  latter  requires  more  care ;  and 
for  any  intelligent  and  affectionate  mother  this  rea- 
son is  quite  insufficient.  .  .  .  During  the  first  year 
the  baby  is  building  up  tissues  and  organs  that  are 
to  last  him  throughout  life ;  and  these  will  work  well 
or  ill  according  to  the  degree  of  perfection  and  pre- 
cision of  structure  which  they  attain  at  the  begin- 
ning. And  this  depends  to  an  immense  extent  upon 
the  suitability  of  the  food,  not  only  to  be  digested, 
but  to  be  absorbed,  and  then  to  be  assimilated  and 
organized. 

"  So  mysterious  are  the  properties  of  the  molecules 
of  albumen  and  fat,  when  once  they  have  been  thrown 
into  the  whirl  of  the  living  organism,  that  we  must 
strive  to  deviate  as  little  as  possible  from  the  exact 
forms  given  to  us  in  nature,  if  only  because  we  do 
not  know  what  remote  effects  might  result  from  the 
deviations.  If  nature  provides  the  albumen  of  milk 
and  a  living  fluid,  we  cannot  expect  the  same  results 
from  any  other  albumen,  or  from  long  dead  organic 
matter,  as  condensed  milk." 

The  farinaceous  foods  have  value,  but  they  cannot 
replace  good  milk,  which  should  be  almost  the  sole 
food  of  the  child  to  at  least  the  age  of  ten  months, 
and  the  principal  nutrient  to  the  age  of  two  years. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN  293 

When  a  baby  is  nursed,  and  its  mother  has  an 
abundance  of  milk,  it  takes  nothing  else  during  the 
first  ten  or  twelve  months  of  life.  When  a  baby  is 
artificially  fed,  this  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind. 
The  important  thing  is  to  attain  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible to  the  standard  that  nature  has  set. 

Biedert's  cream  mixture  and  the  whey  mixture  are 
valuable  for  young  infants  and  those  which  for  any 
reason  do  not  thrive  on  milk. 

Amount  for  Each  Meal.  A  child  is  nourished,  not  by 
what  it  swallows,  but  by  what  it  digests.  Giving 
too  much  or  too  concentrated  milk  is  very  unwise, 
for  the  delicate  system  cannot  manage  it,  and  too 
frequently  the  meal  becomes  a  source  of  pain  rather 
than  of  strength.  Each  individual  babe  will  re- 
quire a  little  different  treatment  in  this  respect  from 
every  other. 

In  general,  for  the  first  six  weeks  from  two  to  four 
tablespoons  at  a  feeding  may  be  given;  from  that  age 
to  six  months,  from  four  to  eight  tablespoons,  gradu- 
ally increasing  the  amount  to  twelve  tablespoons  at 
one  year. 

Dilution.  Cow's  milk  is  more  easily  digested  when 
diluted  with  water,  and  we  are  more  likely  to  dilute 
too  little  than  too  much.  The  amount  of  water  used 
should  vary  with  the  age  and  strength  of  digestion 
of  the  child.  As  a  rule  the  new-born  infant  should 
have  two  parts  water  to  one  of  milk;  at  four  months 
equal  parts  of  milk  and  water;  at  ten  months  one 
part  water  and  two  parts  milk.  When  digestion  is 
particularly  feeble,  it  may  be  necessary  to  dilute  milk 
with  six  or  eight  times  its  bulk  of  water. 

Manner  of  Giving.    It  is  best  to  give  milk  from  a 

bottle  so  constructed  that  suction  is  necessary,  for  it 

induces  the  flow  of  the  digestive  juices.      Use  the 

plain  rubber  nipple ;    those  with  tube   attachments 

20 


294  THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN 

which  extend  into  the  bottle  are  to  be  avoided,  on  ac- 
count of  the  difficulty  of  making  them  perfectly  clean 
inside.  Cultures  from  these  tubes  always  give  large 
numbers  of  bacteria,  as  do  also  those  made  from  the 
nipples,  unless  they  are  boiled. 

The  intervals  of  feeding  will  vary  somewhat  with 
the  age  of  the  child.  Once  in  two  or  two  and  a  half 
hours  during  the  day  for  the  first  six  months,  and 
every  three  hours  from  the  sixth  to  the  twelfth  month, 
is  the  general  rule. 

The  temperature  of  the  meal  should  be  100°  Fahr. 

A  babe  needs  less  variety  in  its  food  than  older 
children,  and  they  in  turn  require  less  than  grown 
persons ;  but  both  must  have  a  certain  proportion  of 
the  five  essential  food  principles. 

There  is  an  impression  in  the  minds  of  many  that 
children  should  not  have  fat.  This  has  perhaps 
sprung  from  the  fact  that  mother's  milk  has  a  watery, 
thin  appearance.  It  seems  not  rich;  nevertheless  it 
has  a  due  proportion  of  fat,  and  it  is  extremely  im- 
portant that  this  be  maintained  when  cow's  milk  is 
diluted,  for  this  cream  is  the  best  addition. 

Fat  is  needed  not  only  for  the  growth  of  brain  and 
nerves,  which  is  very  rapid  in  children,  but  also  for 
the  perfect  formation  of  other  tissues. 

The  following  table  is  that  given  by  Dr.  Louis 
Starr  as  a  guide  for  feeding : 


GENERAL  RULES  FOR  FEEDING. 

.  Intervals  of       Average  Am' t    Average  Am' t 

-Age-  Feeding.  each  Meal.  in  24  hours. 

First  week 2  hours      2  tablespoons  1J  pints 

Second  to  sixth  week 2£  hours     3-4  tablespoons  1}  -  2  pints 

Sixth  week  to  sixth  month.     3  hours      6-8  tablespoons  2j  - 3  pints 

At  six  months 3  hours    12  tablespoons  4j  pints 

At  ten  months 3  hours    16  tablespoons  5  pints 


THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN  295 

For  the  First  Week ;  One  Feeding 

1  Tablespoon  of  whey.1  f  Tablespoon  of  cream. 

1  Tablespoon  of  water.  £  Teaspoon  of  sugar. 

Or  Biedert's  cream  mixture : 

1  Tablespoon  of  cream.  3  Tablespoons  of  water. 

£  Teaspoon  of  milk-sugar. 

Or, 

1  Tablespoon  of  milk.  3  Tablespoons  of  water. 

1  Teaspoon  of  milk-sugar. 

If  it  is  desirable  to  make  at  once  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  Biedert's  cream  mixture  for  several  feedings, 
the  above  rule  multiplied  by  eight  will  furnish  enough 
for  eight  bottles,  and  is  as  follows :  one  cup  of  cream, 
three  cups  of  boiling  water,  and  one  tablespoon  of 
milk-sugar.  Mix  all  together;  put  the  mixture  in 
equal  portions  into  eight  feeding-bottles,  and  plug 
each  with  cotton.  Either  sterilize  it  or  put  it  imme- 
diately on  ice  to  keep. 

After  the  First  Week,  and  Until  the  Sixth  Week 

Use  either  the  cream  mixture,  the  whey  mixture,  or 
the  following : 

2  Tablespoons  of  cow's  milk. 
4  Tablespoons  of  water. 

1  Teaspoon  of  Mellin's  food, 
i  Teaspoon  of  milk-sugar. 

i  To  prepare  whey :  1  pint  of  milk  mixed  with  1  teaspoon  of  liquid 
rennet.  Set  in  a  warm  place  until  the  nurd  is  formed ;  then  break  the 
curd  and  put  it  into  a  cloth  or  a  wire  strainer  to  drain. 


296  THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN 

From  the  Sixth  Week  to  the  Sixth  Month 

"Water  and  milk  in  equal  quantities,  with  a  little 
cream  and  milk-sugar,  and  some  attenuant,  such  as 
Mellin's  food  or  barley  jelly.1 

2  Tablespoons  of  cow's  milk. 
2  Tablespoons  of  water. 
1  Tablespoon  of  cream.2 
1  Teaspoon  of  Mellin's  food. 
f  Teaspoon  of  sugar. 

The  above  proportion  to  be  maintained,  but  the 
amount  to  be  varied  according  to  the  age  of  the  babe. 

If  at  any  time  this  disagrees,  use  instead  Biedert's 
cream  mixture  or  the  whey  mixture.  When  both  of 
these  fail  it  may  be  necessary  to  peptonize  the  food. 

To  peptonize  milk  : 

No.  1 

2  Tablespoons  of  milk. 

2  Tablespoons  of  water. 

1  Tablespoon  of  cream. 

1  Small  measure  of  peptogenic  milk  powder. 

Put  all  into  a  clean  porcelain-lined  saucepan  and 
heat  it,  stirring  slowly  until  the  mixture  boils :  this 
should  not  require  more  than  ten  minutes. 

No.  2 

A  special  preparation  for  sick  or  feeble  infants,  or 
those  suffering  from  indigestion. 

1  To  make  barley  jelly :    Boil  two  tablespoons  of  pearl  barley  in  a 
pint  of  water  for  two  hours.    Strain.    It  will  form  a  tender  jelly. 

2  The  condensed  cream  of  the  Highland  Co.  may  be  used  when  other 
cream  cannot  be  obtained. 


THE   FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN  297 

2  Tablespoons  of  milk. 

2  Tablespoons  of  water. 

1  Tablespoon  of  cream. 

1  Small  measure  of  peptogenic  milk  powder. 

Put  all  into  a  bottle,  shake  it  well,  place  it  in  a 
bath  or  kettle  of  hot  water  of  a  temperature  of  115° 
Fahr.  (so  hot  that  the  hand  cannot  be  borne  in  it 
long  without  discomfort),  and  keep  it  at  that  tem- 
perature for  exactly  thirty  minutes ;  then  pour  it  into 
a  saucepan,  and  heat  quickly  to  the  boiling  point. 
By  this  method  a  very  thorough  predigestion  takes 
place.  The  process  should  be  stopped  before  the  bit- 
ter taste  is  developed. 

From  the  Sixth  to  the  Tenth  Month 

Increase  the  proportion  of  milk  and  of  Mellin's  food, 
or  other  attenuant  used.1 

4  Tablespoons  of  cow's  milk. 
3  Tablespoons  of  water. 
1£  Teaspoons  of  cream. 
1  Tablespoon  of  Mellin's  food. 
£  Teaspoon  of  milk-sugar. 

Boil  the  water,  then  add  the  milk,  Mellin's  food, 
cream,  and  sugar,  or  put  all  together  in  a  feeding-bot- 
tle, place  in  a  kettle  of  water  heated  to  190°  Fahr., 
and  keep  it  at  that  temperature  for  one  hour.2  This 
amount  is  only  a  general  rule,  and  may,  of  course, 
be  varied  according  to  the  age  and  individual  need  of 
the  child.  The  proportion  of  the  ingredients  should, 
however,  not  be  changed. 

1  Malted  milk,  Nestle"'s  food,  Ridge's  food,  Imperial  Granum,  or  bar- 
ley-flour, may  be  used  as  attenuants. 

2  Enough  for  the  whole  day  may  be  made  by  multiplying  the  rule  by 
eight,  dividing  the  quantity  into  eight  bottles,  and  sterilizing  all  at 
once.    Keep  in  a  cool  place  until  needed. 


298  THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDEEN 

From  the  Tenth  to  the  Twelfth  Month 

6  Tablespoons  of  cow's  milk. 

3  Tablespoons  of  water. 

1£  Tablespoons  of  cream. 

1  or  2  Tablespoons  of  Mellin's  food. 

1  Teaspoon  of  milk-sugar.1 

Mettin's  Food  with  Condensed  Milk.  Although,  as 
has  been  previously  stated,  condensed  milk  is  not  a 
proper  food  for  children,  there  are  times  when  it  may 
be  necessary  to  use  it:  for  instance,  in  traveling,  or 
when  the  daily  supply  of  milk  for  any  reason  fails. 

The  usual  mixture  of  condensed  milk  given  to  ba- 
bies is  one  part  of  milk  to  twelve  parts  of  water,  the 
analysis2  of  which  shows  the  fat  and  casein  to  be  in 
too  small  proportions.  If  more  condensed  milk  be 
added,  the  sugar  will  be  increased  too  much;  but  by 
increasing  the  water,  and  using  Mellin's  food  and 
cream,  a  very  good  mixture  may  be  obtained.  The 
following  is  recommended : 

1  Teaspoon  condensed  milk. 
1  Tablespoon  of  Mellin's  food. 
8  Tablespoons  of  water  (1  cup). 
1  Teaspoon  of  cream. 

Boil  the  water,  then  add  the  condensed  milk,  Mel- 
lin's food,  and  cream  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
mentioned,  stirring  until  all  is  dissolved. 

1  Milk-sugar  may  be  obtained  without  difficulty,  and  always,  at  a 
pharmacy.    It  is  better  for  infants  than  cane-sugar,  because  it  is 
a  little  easier  of  digestion. 

2  Water  92.60% 

Fat 1.00% 

Casein 84% 

Sugar 5.40% 

Ash 16% 

DR.  MKIGS. 


THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDEEN  299 

Nothing  should  be  used  during  the  first  twelve 
months  except  liquid  food,  and  that  must  not  be  of 
too  great  density. 

Avoid  any  food  which  contains  cellulose,  or  starch 
as  such.1  Cellulose  is  but  imperfectly  if  at  all  digested 
by  grown  persons;  and  starch,  not  being  a  natural 
kind  of  nourishment  for  an  infant,  is  extremely  liable 
to  ferment  and  cause  serious  digestive  disturbances. 

It  should  be  remembered  that,  although  the  chief 
function  of  a  babe  is  to  eat,  sleep,  and  grow,  its 
stomach  cannot  work  all  the  time,  and,  consequently, 
the  wise  plan  is  to  feed  it  only  at  regular  intervals. 

The  best  proof  that  a  child  is  doing  well  is  increase 
of  weight,  a  healthy  appearance,  and  lack  of  fretful- 
ness.  Sometimes,  when  restless,  it  is  only  a  drink  of 
water  that  it  needs,  as  children  suffer  much  from  thirst 
in  warm  weather. 

From  the  Twelfth  to  the  Eighteenth  Month 

Continue  with  milk,  undiluted  with  water,  as  the 
principal  food.  Use  with  it  Mellin's  food  as  before, 
Nestle's  food,  Ridge's  food,  Imperial  Granum,  oat- 
meal porridge  strained,  soft  custard,  soft-cooked  eggs, 
cocoa2  cooked  in  water,  with  milk  added  or  cooked  in 
milk,  and  cracker-crumbs  boiled  in  water,  with  milk 
added. 

After  Eighteen  Months 

The  same  diet  as  for  the  previous  six  months,  with 
the  addition  of  scraped  or  pounded  chicken,  mutton, 
or  beef;  mashed  baked  potatoes  with  beef -juice  poured 

i  Although  Mellin's  food  is  made  from  grain,  the  starch  in  it  has 
been  changed  in  the  process  of  manufacture  into  easily  assimilated 
dextrine  and  sugar. 

*  The  ordinary  powdered  cocoa,  which  has  been  deprived  of  oil. 
Dutch  brands  are  good. 


300  THE  FEEDING  OF  CHILDREN 

over;  toasted  bread  or  toasted  crackers  rolled  into 
crumbs,  and  soaked  in  milk  or  broth;  junket,  and 
plain,  simple  puddings,  such  as  cream-of-rice,  tapioca, 
and  arrowroot. 

A  diet  similar  to  this  should  be  the  chief  food  to 
the  seventh  year.  It  may  be  varied  by  farina,  wheat- 
germ,  and  other  grain  mushes,  dried  rusk  and  milk, 
or  Zwieback1  and  milk,  sponge  cake  with  cream  or 
milk,  snow-pudding,  and  other  wholesome  and  deli- 
cate desserts,  and  cooked  fruits. 

Foods  to  be  Carefully  Avoided.  Veal,  pork  in  any 
form  except  bacon,2  highly  seasoned  stews,  curries, 
canned  meats  or  dried  meats  in  any  form,  baked 
beans,  fruit  cake,  also  all  cakes  or  gingerbread  made 
with  so-called  "  cooking-butter"  or  with  common  lard, 
raw  fruits,  lobsters  and  crabs,  new  potatoes,  berries, 
and  cabbage. 

i  Zwieback  is  a  slightly  sweetened  and  dried  bread,  which  may  be 
bought  at  any  grocer's.  It  is  like  dried  rusk. 

2  Bacon  is  very  easy  of  digestion,  and  is  a  valuable  form  of  fat  for 
children  four  or  five  years  old.  Given  with  bread  or  potatoes,  it  will 
often  be  eaten  when  butter  is  refused. 


DISTRICT  NURSING 

In  England  and  in  some  parts  of  America  district 
nursing,  or  nursing  among  the  very  poor  of  certain 
sections  of  a  city,  is  an  established  part  of  a  nurse's 
work.  Her  duties  are  to  go  from  house  to  house 
among  the  sick,  to  administer  medicine  and  food, 
and  to  make  the  surroundings  of  her  patient  com- 
fortable. 

There  is  no  way  in  which  one  may  reach  the  hearts 
and  sympathies  of  the  poor  so  quickly  as  by  helping 
them  to,  or  showing  them  how  to  do  for  themselves, 
those  things  which  they  think  they  need. 

Their  first  consideration  is  for  the  immediate  ne- 
cessities of  life  —  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  Their 
days  are  spent  in  a  struggle  with  the  world  for  these  — 
too  often  an  unequal  struggle,  in  which  the  world 
conquers.  A  nurse,  or  any  other  person  who  can  gain 
admission  to  their  homes  and  sympathies,  may  help 
them  in  many  ways  as  no  other  can.  Great  good 
may  be  done  by  teaching  them  economical  and  simple 
methods  of  preparing  their  food,  which  as  a  general 
thing  is  cooked  both  badly  and  wastefully. 

A  nurse  doing  district  nursing,  besides  adminis- 
tering medicine  and  making  her  patient  generally 
comfortable,  will  inevitably  and  naturally  turn  to 
the  preparation  of  some  form  of  nourishment  for 
him.  If  she  can  make  it  acceptably  with  the  mate- 
rials and  cooking  utensils  at  hand,  or  is  able  to  ask 
for  that  which  is  within  the  means  of  the  family,  or 

301 


302  DISTEICT  NURSING 

to  direct  the  buying  of  it,  she  will  add  greatly  to  the 
comfort  of  the  household. 

The  object  of  this  chapter  is  not,  however,  to  deal 
with  cooking  for  the  sick.  That  will  be  left  entirely 
to  the  judgment  of  the  nurse,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  studied  the  subject  as  a  part  of  her  training. 
But  it  has  occurred  to  the  author  that  a  nurse  doing 
district  nursing  would  often  find  the  opportunity  to 
help  the  families  of  her  patients,  and  that  often  such 
help  would  need  to  be  given  in  order  to  prevent  actual 
suffering.  Especially  would  this  be  true  if  it  were 
the  mother  of  a  family  who  was  ill,  and  there  was  no 
one  to  prepare  food  for  the  father  and  children,  who 
must  be  fed.  Usually  there  is  a  child,  either  boy  or 
girl,  who  is  old  enough  to  learn  if  there  is  some  one 
to  teach. 

The  following  pages  have  been  written  for  the  pur- 
pose of  suggesting,  to  such  nurses  as  are  disposed  to 
do  good  in  this  way,  some  easily  made  and  economical 
dishes  which  are  really  both  palatable  and  nutritious. 
A  few  directions  about  building  a  fire,  washing  dishes, 
sweeping,  etc.,  will  be  given,  and  then  some  bills  of 
fare  with  recipes  adapted  for  the  use  of  people  of 
small  means,  and  taken  for  the  most  part  from  the 
Lomb  Prize  Essay  by  Mary  H.  Abel,  entitled  "  Prac- 
tical, Sanitary,  and  Economic  Cooking,"  and  published 
by  the  American  Public  Health  Association,  1890. 

Permission  to  use  these  recipes  has  been  graciously 
granted  by  Mrs.  Abel,  and  the  American  Public 
Health  Association,  through  Mr.  Lomb. 

To  Make  a  Fire.  First,  clear  the  stove  of  ashes  and 
cinders,  then  put  in  wood-shavings,  or  twisted  news- 
paper; over  this  foundation  lay  small  pieces  of  wood, 
crossed,  so  as  to  leave  air-spaces  for  draft,  then  larger 
pieces  of  wood,  and  lastly  two  or  three  fire-shovels 
of  coal.  Light  the  kindling  from  the  bottom  of  the 


DISTEICT  NUESING  303 

grate,  and  let  it  burn  for  a  while  before  putting  on 
more  coal;  remember  that  it  is  the  heat  from  the 
burning  wood  which  ignites  the  coal,  and  if  it  does 
not  burn  it  is  because  there  is  not  wood  enough  to 
produce  sufficient  heat  to  start  the  union  between  the 
combustible  part  of  the  coal — carbon  chiefly — and 
the  oxygen  of  the  air.  Add  coal  a  little  at  a  time, 
thus  keeping  a  fresh  fire. 

After  the  fire  is  well  started  regulate  the  dampers 
often,  to  economize  as  much  as  possible  the  consump- 
tion of  coal.  Keep  them  partially  or  wholly  closed, 
unless  a  hot  fire  is  needed  for  some  purpose.  The 
cinders  left  from  an  old  fire  should  be  sifted  and  re- 
burned.  Many  dollars'  worth  of  coal  may  be  saved 
in  a  year  by  giving  attention  to  the  drafts  of  a  stove. 

To  Wash  Dishes.  Mixing-bowls,  double  boilers,  and 
all  dishes  which  for  any  reason  have  food  clinging  to 
them,  should  be  put  to  soak  in  cold  water  as  soon  as 
used.  If  this  has  not  been  done,  attend  to  it  before 
making  other  arrangements  for  washing  the  dishes. 
See  then  that  the  dish-pan  or  tub,  dish-cloths,  and 
sink  are  perfectly  clean ;  if  not,  make  them  so  with 
hot  water  and  soap.  Wash  the  dishes  in  hot  soapy 
water,  not  hot  water  alone,  even  if  they  are  not 
greasy,  and  rinse  them  in  a  pan  of  clear  hot  water. 
Take  glassware,  silver,  and  china  first,  then  steel 
knives  and  forks,  granite-ware,  kettles,  tins,  etc. 
When  the  dishes  are  finished,  wash  thoroughly  and 
dry,  or  put  to  dry,  both  the  wiping-towels  and  the 
dish-cloths;  unless  they  are  white,  clean,  and  sweet 
when  done,  boil  them  in  clear  soapy  water  until  they 
become  so,  changing  it  frequently  if  it  looks  dark. 

Sweeping  and  Dusting.  Sweep  slowly  and  carefully, 
holding  the  broom  close  to  the  floor,  so  that  the  dust 
shall  not  be  thrown  into  the  air.  Burn  the  dirt;  never 
allow  it  to  be  thrown  into  a  box  or  into  the  coal-hod. 


304  DISTRICT  NURSING 

Dusting  should  be  done  with  a  damp  cloth,  wiping 
up  the  dust,  not  brushing  it  into  the  air,  from  which 
it  will  settle  upon  some  other  object.  When  you  have 
finished,  wash  the  duster  and  hang  it  to  dry.  Never 
use  a  feather  duster.  With  it  one  simply  brushes  the 
dust  from  one  place  only  to  have  it  settle  in  another. 


BILLS  OF  FARE 

Mrs.  Abel  says,  in  her  chapter  headed  "  Bills  of 
Fare  ":  "  The  following  bills  of  fare  are  made  out  for 
a  family  of  six  persons,  consisting  of  a  workingman, 
two  women,  and  three  children  between  the  ages  of 
six  and  fifteen. 

"The  amount  of  food,  and  the  proportion  in  which 
the  great  food  principles  are  represented,  approximate 
to  that  which  is  demanded  by  standard  dietaries  for 
such  a  family.  .  .  . 

"  To  keep  us  in  health  and  in  working  order,  we 
ought  to  have  a  certain  amount  of  what  is  best  fur- 
nished by  meat,  eggs,  milk,  and  other  animal  products, 
and  we  must  also  have  fats,  as  well  as  what  is  given 
us  in  grains  and  vegetables."  The  following  bills  of 
fare  are  made  up  with  this  object  in  view : 

For  a  family  of  six;  average  price,  seventy-eight 
cents  per  day,  or  thirteen  cents  per  person. 

SATURDAY,  MAY 

Breakfast.  Dinner.  Supper. 

Soda-biscuit.  Bread  Soup.        Browned  Flour  Soup 

Sugar-syrup.  Beef -neck  Stew.        with  Fried  Bread. 

Coffee.  Noodles.  Toast  and  Cheese. 

Cream-of-rice  Pud- 
ding. 

The  recipe  for  Soda-biscuit  will  be  found  on  page  242. 

Bread  Soup.    Ingredients,  dry  bread  broken  in  small 

bits,  water,  salt,  pepper,  onion,  and  a  little  fat.    Soak 


DISTEICT  NUESING  305 

the  bread  in  the  water  for  a  few  minutes.  Fry  the 
onion,  sliced,  in  the  fat,  and  add  it  to  the  soup,  with 
the  salt  and  pepper. 

Or,  use  milk  instead  of  water,  and  toasted  or  fried 
bread.  Boil  slowly  for  five  minutes  to  perfectly  soften 
the  bread. 

Beef-neck  stew,  page  186. 

Noodles.  Ingredients,  three  eggs,  three  tablespoons 
of  milk  or  water,  one  teaspoon  of  salt,  and  flour. 

Make  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  flour,  put  in  the 
other  ingredients,  and  work  to  a  stiff  dough,  then  cut 
it  into  four  strips.  Kuead  each  till  fine  grained,  roll 
out  as  thin  as  possible,  and  lay  the  sheet  aside  to  dry. 
When  all  are  rolled,  begin  with  the  first,  cut  it  into 
four  equal  pieces,  lay  the  pieces  together,  one  on  top 
of  another,  and  shave  off  very  fine,  as  you  would 
cabbage  ;  pick  the  shavings  apart  with  floured  hands 
and  let  them  dry  a  little. 

To  use.  Boil  the  strips  a  few  at  a  time  in  salted 
water,  taking  them  out  with  a  skimmer,  and  keeping 
them  warm.  Strew  over  them  bread  crumbs  fried  in 
butter,  or  use  like  macaroni. 

These  noodles  will  keep  indefinitely  when  dried 
hard.  Therefore,  when  eggs  are  cheap,  they  may  be 
made  and  laid  up  for  the  winter.  The  water  in  which 
they  are  boiled  is  the  basis  of  noodle  soup.  It  needs 
only  the  addition  of  a  little  butter,  a  teaspoon  of 
chopped  parsley,  and  a  few  of  the  cooked  noodles. 

Cream-of-rice  Pudding,  page  206. 
Browned  Flour  Soup. 

2  Tablespoons  of  butter  or  fat. 
£  Cup  of  flour. 
2  Pints  of  water. 
1  Pint  of  milk. 
1  Teaspoon  of  salt. 


306  DISTRICT  NURSING 

Cook  the  flour  brown,  in  the  fat  over  a  slow  fire,  or 
in  an  oven.  Add  slowly  the  water  and  other  ingre- 
dients. Serve  with  fried  bread. 

Toast  and  Cheese.  Toast  some  slices  of  white  or 
Graham  bread,  arrange  them  in  a  platter,  and  pour 
over  sufficient  salted  water  to  soften  them.  Grate  over 
enough  old  cheese  to  cover  the  toast.  Set  it  in  the 
oven  to  melt,  and  place  the  slices  together  as  sand- 
wiches. This  is  the  simplest  form  of  "  Welsh  Rarebit." 

SUNDAY,  MAY 

Breakfast.                     Dinner.  Supper. 

Milk  Toast.                  Beef  Stew.  Noodle  Soup. 

Coffee.               Creamed  Potatoes.  Broiled  Herring. 

Dried  Apple  Pie.  Bread. 

Bread  and  Cheese.  Tea. 
Corn  Coffee. 

Milk  Toast,  page  130.  Beef  Stew,  page  186.  Creamed 
Potatoes,  page  166. 

Dried  Apple  Pie.  Make  a  crust  in  the  following 
manner :  One  quart  of  flour,  one  teaspoon  of  salt,  one 
tablespoon  of  butter  or  lard,  or  butter  and  suet,  one 
scant  pint  of  sweet  milk,  or  water,  with  one  teaspoon 
of  soda  and  two  of  cream  of  tartar,  or  three  teaspoons 
of  baking  powder. 

Sift  the  flour,  salt,  cream  of  tartar,  and  soda  to- 
gether twice,  put  it  into  a  chopping- tray,  and  chop 
in  the  shortening,  which  should  be  cold  and  hard,  till 
all  is  fine  and  well  mixed.  Now  add  the  milk  a  little 
at  a  time,  still  mixing  with  the  chopping-knife.  Turn 
the  dough  on  to  a  molding-board,  and  roll  it  out 
quickly.  "When  half  an  inch  thick,  bake  in  a  sheet  or 
cut  it  into  rounds,  and  bake  in  layer  cake  tins. 

When  done,  split  it  in  two,  and  spread  each  half 
with  dried  apples,  stewed  with  a  little  lemon-peel 


DISTRICT  NURSING  307 

and  sugar.  Lay  the  two  pieces  together,  and  eat 
while  warm. 

Any  other  fruit  may  be  used  in  the  same  way,  and 
if  a  richer  crust  is  wanted,  two  tablespoons  of  fat  in- 
stead of  one  may  be  used. 

Corn  Coffee.  Roast  common  field  corn  as  brown  as 
possible  without  burning.  Grind  coarsely,  and  steep 
like  coffee.  Add  milk  and  sugar,  and  you  will  find  it 
a  delicious  drink. 

Noodle  Soup,  page  305. 

MONDAY,  MAY 

Breakfast.  Dinner.  Supper. 

Oatmeal    Mush,  with  Pea  Soup.  Bread  Pancakes. 

Milk  and  Sugar.  Mutton  Stew.  Fried  Bacon. 

Bread.  Boiled  Potatoes.  Tea. 

Coffee.  Bread. 

Oatmeal  Mush,  page  91. 

Pea  Soup.  Ingredients,  one  pound  of  peas,  one  onion, 
two  tablespoons  of  beef  fat,  salt  and  pepper.  Ad- 
ditions to  be  made  according  to  taste.  One  fourth  of 
a  pound  of  pork,  or  a  ham-bone,  a  pinch  of  red  pepper, 
or,  an  hour  before  serving,  different  vegetables,  as 
carrots  and  turnips,  chopped  and  fried. 

Soak  the  peas  over  night  in  two  quarts  of  water. 
In  the  morning  pour  it  off,  put  on  fresh  water,  and 
cook  with  the  onion  and  fat  until  very  soft.  Then 
mash  or  press  the  peas  through  a  colander  or  soup- 
strainer  to  remove  the  skins,  and  add  enough  water 
to  make  two  quarts  of  somewhat  thick  soup.  Season. 

Mutton  Stew,  page  187. 

Bread  Pancakes.  Make  in  the  following  manner : 
One  quart  of  milk,  three  eggs,  one  tablespoon  of  butter, 
one  teaspoon  of  salt.  Add  to  this  one  cup  of  flour, 
and  two  cups  of  bread  crumbs  that  have  been  soaked 


308  DISTEICT   NURSING 

soft  in  milk  or  water  and  mashed  smooth.  The  batter 
should  be  rather  thick.  Bake  in  small  cakes,  adding 
more  flour  if  they  stick. 


TUESDAY,  MAY 


Breakfast. 
Oatmeal  Mush  and 
Milk. 
Buttered  Toast. 
Coffee. 

Dinner, 
Fried  Fish,  with 
Mint  Sauce. 
Fried  Potatoes. 
Bread. 

Supper. 
Fried  Farina  Pad- 
ding. 
Broiled  Salt  Pork. 
Bread.     Tea. 

Mint  Sauce.  Two  tablespoons  of  chopped  green  mint, 
one  tablespoon  of  sugar,  one  half  cup  of  vinegar.  Mix 
and  let  stand  an  hour  or  two. 

Fried  Farina  Pudding.  One  pint  of  water,  one  pint 
of  milk,  one  teaspoon  of  salt,  one  half  pint  of  farina, 
two  eggs.  Mix  the  flour  and  eggs  smooth  with  a  part 
of  the  milk.  Heat  the  remainder  to  boiling,  and  stir 
in  the  egg  and  flour.  Continue  stirring  until  it  thick- 
ens, then  cook  for  fifteen  minutes  in  a  double  boiler. 
When  cold,  cut  it  in  slices  and  fry  them  brown  on  a 
griddle. 

SATURDAY,  SEPTEMBER 

Breakfast.  Dinner.  Supper. 

Soda-biscuit.  Pea  Soup.  Corn  Mush  and 

Baked  Potatoes,  with  Irish  Stew.  Molasses. 

Drawn  Butter  Sauce.  Bread.  Bread  and  Grated 

Cocoa.  Cheese.    Tea. 

Drawn  Butter  Sauce.  Make  according  to  the  rule 
for  White  Sauce  (page  130),  except  use  water  instead 
of  milk,  and  part  beef  fat  instead  of  all  butter. 

Irish  Stew  (page  186). 


DISTRICT  NURSING  309 

SUNDAY,  SEPTEMBER, 

Breakfast.  Dinner.  Supper. 

Oatmeal  and  Milk.    Broiled  Beef  Liver.  Lentil  Soup,  with 
Bread  and  Butter.        Boiled  Potatoes  Fried  Bread. 

Cocoa.  and  Carrots,  with      Smoked  Herring. 

Fried  Onions.  Bread. 

Bread  and  Cheese.       Barley  Porridge. 

Boiled  Potatoes,  and  Carrots  with  Fried  Onions.  Slice 
hot  boiled  potatoes  and  boiled  carrots  together.  Sea- 
son them  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  pour  over  them 
hot  fried  onions. 

Lentil  Soup.     Made  like  Pea  Soup,  page  307. 

Fried  Bread.  Cut  bread  into  small  cubes  and  fry  it 
in  hot  fat  until  light  brown. 

Barley  Porridge.  Made  with  pearl  barley  soaked 
over  night  in  water,  and  then  cooked  for  two  hours, 
or  until  it  is  soft.  During  the  last  hour  add  milk 
instead  of  water.  Flavor  with  salt  and  butter. 

MONDAY,  SEPTEMBER 

Breakfast.  Dinner.  Supper. 

Buckwheat  Cakes.          Giblet  Soup.  Codfish  Balls. 
Fried  Bacon.        Baked  Potatoes,  with  Cheese. 

Coffee.  Drawn  Butter  Sauce.  Bread. 

Bread.  Tea. 

Giblet  Soup.  Giblet  soup  is  made  from  the  heart, 
liver,  and  neck  of  chicken  and  other  fowls,  which  in 
city  markets  are  sold  separately  and  very  cheap. 
Clean  them  very  carefully,  wash  in  cold  water,  cut  into 
small  pieces,  and  boil  for  two  hours  with  onions  and 
herbs.  Then  add  a  little  butter,  thickening,  salt,  and 
pepper. 

Codfish  Balls  (Salt  Cod).    Codfish  is  one  of  the  cheap 

foods  that  seems  to  be  thoroughly  appreciated  among 
21 


310  DISTRICT  NURSING 

us,  and  good  ways  of  cooking  it  are  generally  under- 
stood. It  must  be  freshened  by  laying  it  in  water 
over  night.  When  soaked,  put  it  into  cold  water,  and 
bring  gradually  to  the  boiling  point;  then  set  the 
kettle  back  where  it  will  keep  hot  for  half  an  hour; 
at  the  end  of  that  time  separate  it  into  fine  shreds, 
add  an  equal  amount  of  fresh  mashed  potato,  make 
into  balls,  and  fry  on  a  griddle. 

TUESDAY,  SEPTEMBER 

Breakfast.                      Dinner.  Supper. 

Fried  Bacon.          Boiled  Corned  Beef,  Pea  Soup. 

Boiled  Potatoes.                   with  Yeast  Biscuit  and 

Bread.              Horse-radish  Sauce.  Butter. 

Coffee.                 Stewed  Cabbage.  Stewed  Fruit. 

Bread. 
Barley  Porridge. 

Boiled  Corned  Beef.  Boil  the  beef  for  three  hours, 
very  slowly  at  first,  changing  the  water  once  if  it  is 
very  salt. 

Horse  -radish.  Sauce.  Add  grated  horse-radish  to 
drawn  butter  sauce.  Simmer  a  few  minutes. 

Barley  Porridge,  page  309. 

SATURDAY,  JANUARY 

Breakfast.  Dinner.  Supper. 

Fried  Bacon.        Browned  Flour  Soup.       Baked  Beans. 
Corn  Bread.  Stewed  Mutton.  Bread. 

Coffee.  Mashed  Potatoes.  Apple  Dumplings,  with 

Bread.  Pudding  Sauce.  Tea. 

Corn  Bread.  (1)  Plain.  One  cup  of  sweet  milk,  one 
cup  of  sour  or  buttermilk,  or  both  of  sour  milk,  one  tea- 
spoon of  salt,  one  teaspoon  of  soda,  one  tablespoon  of 
butter  or  suet  or  lard,  three  cups  of  Indian  meal,  and 


DISTEICT  NUKSING  311 

one  cup  of  wheat  flour,  or  all  of  Indian  meal.    Mix, 
pour  into  a  tin,  and  bake  forty  minutes. 

(2)  Richer.     The  same,  with  an  egg  and  one  half 
cup  of  sugar  added. 

(3)  Very  nice.  No.  1,  with  the  addition  of  three  eggs, 
one  half  cup  of  sugar,  and  one  third  of  a  cup  of  butter, 
one  cup  of  meal  being  omitted. 

Browned  Flour  Soup,  page  305. 

Apple  Dumplings,  with  Pudding  Sauce.  The  Dump- 
lings. Make  a  crust  like  that  used  in  dried  apple  pie. 
Cut  it  in  squares ;  place  sliced  apples  in  the  middle, 
and  gather  up  or  pinch  the  corners.  Bake  or  steam. 

Sauce.  One  pint  of  water  made  into  a  smooth 
paste  with  a  heaping  tablespoon  of  flour.  Cook  ten 
minutes.  Strain  if  necessary,  sweeten  to  taste,  and 
pour  it  over  one  tablespoon  of  butter,  and  the  juice 
of  a  lemon,  or  other  flavoring.  If  lemon  is  not  used, 
add  one  tablespoon  of  vinegar.  This  can  be  made 
richer  by  using  more  butter  and  sugar.  Stir  them  to 
a  cream  with  the  flavoring,  and  then  add  the  paste. 

SUNDAY,  JANUARY 

Breakfast.                    Dinner.  Supper. 
Fried  Codfish.         Sheep's-head  Stew,      Potato  and  Onion 

Bread  and  Butter.      with  Soda-biscuit  Salad. 

Coffee.                      Dumplings.  Broiled  Salt  Pork. 
Baked  Potatoes.  Bread. 
Bread  and  Grated  Corn  Mush,  with  Pud- 
Cheese.  Cocoa.  ding  Sauce. 

Sheep's-head  Stew  (see  Mutton  Stew,  page  187). 

Potato  and  Onion  Salad.  Slice  some  potatoes  (fresh 
boiled  and  slightly  warm  are  best).  Sprinkle  them 
with  minced  onion,  salt,  and  pepper.  Dress  with  a 
little  melted  butter  and  vinegar. 

Pudding  Sauce,  the  same  as  that  for  Apple  Dumplings. 


312  DISTRICT  .NURSING 

MONDAY,  JANUARY 

Breakfast.  Dinner.  Supper. 

Fried  Mush  and         Soup  from  Boiled   Boiled  Potatoes,  with 
Molasses.  Beef,  with  Macaroni.       Butter  Gravy. 

Bread.  Boiled  Beef  Flank,    Dried  Apple  Roly- 

Coffee.  with  Mustard  Sauce.        poly  Pudding. 

Bean  Pure'e.  Bread.          Bread.   Tea. 

Mustard  Sauce.  Make  some  drawn  butter  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner : 

A  heaping  tablespoon  of  butter,  or  beef  fat,  is  put 
into  a  saucepan.  When  it  boils,  one  heaping  table- 
spoon of  flour  is  added,  and  stirred  as  it  cooks.  To 
this  add  gradually  one  pint  of  water,  one  teaspoon  of 
salt,  and  one  fourth  of  a  teaspoon  of  pepper.  If  you 
wish  to  unite  economy  and  good  flavor,  use  one  half 
teaspoon  of  beef  fat  in  making  the  sauce,  and  add 
one  half  teaspoon  of  butter  cut  in  small  pieces  just 
before  serving.  Add  a  little  mustard,  and  you  have 
mustard  sauce. 

Bean  Puree.    Make  like  Pea  Soup,  page  307. 

Dried  Apple  Roly-poly  Pudding.  Make  the  soda-bis- 
cuit dough  which  is  used  in  dried  apple  pie.  Roll  it 
out  into  a  thin  sheet,  and  spread  with  stewed  and 
flavored  dried  apples.  Roll  it  into  a  round  or  loaf, 
and  bake  in  a  pan  containing  a  little  water. 

TUESDAY,  JANUARY 

Breakfast.                     Dinner.  Supper. 

Fried  Potatoes.         Browned  Farina  Bean  Soup. 

Bread.                Soup,  with  Toast.  Milk  Toast. 

Coffee.             Stewed  Mutton,  with  Tea. 

Yeast  Dumplings. 

Browned  Farina  Soup.  Make  like  Browned  Flour 
Soup,  except  use  farina. 


LITEEATUEE  313 

For  other  similar  bills  of  fare  and  recipes,  see  the 
Lomb  Prize  Essay,  entitled  "  Practical,  Sanitary,  and 
Economic  Cooking,"  which  is  published  and  sold  at 
a  low  price  by  the  American  Public  Health  Associa- 
tion, and  may  be  bought  at  any  book-store.  It  is 
most  heartily  recommended  to  nurses  who  do  dis- 
trict nursing  as  a  book  which  will  be  found  useful 
among  the  poor  and  those  possessed  of  moderate 
means. 

LITERATURE 

In  preparing  the  preceding  pages  the  following 
authorities  have  been  consulted.  Their  works  will 
be  found  useful  for  reference  on  subjects  connected 
with  the  chemistry  of  food,  bacteriology,  nutrition, 
health,  practical  cooking,  and  allied  topics. 

"  The  Chemistry  of  Cookery."    W.  MATTIEU  WILLIAMS.    1885. 
"Food  Materials  and  their  Adulterations."    ELLEN  H.  EICH- 
ARDS.     1886. 

"The  Chemistry  of  Cooking  and  Cleaning."    ELLEN  H.  EICH- 

AEDS.      1882. 

Various  Articles  on  Food  in  ft  The  Century  Magazine."  W.  O. 
ATWATER.  1887-88. 

"Elementary  Manual  of  Chemistry."  ELIOT  AND  STORER. 
Compiled  by  W.  EIPLEY  NICHOLS.  1880. 

"A  Manual  of  Practical  Hygiene."  EDMUND  A.  PARKES. 
Edited  by  FRAN£OIS  DE  CHAUMONT.  1887. 

'A  Simple  Treatise  on  Heat."  W.  MATTIEU  WILLIAMS.  1880. 

'Food  for  the  Invalid."    J.  MILNER  FOTHERGILL.    1880. 

'  Food  and  Feeding."    SIR  HENRY  THOMSON.    1880. 

'  The  Boston  Cook  Book."    D.  A.  LINCOLN.     1884. 

'New  England  Breakfast  Breads."  LUCIA  GRAY  SWETT.  1890. 

'  Miss  Parloa's  New  Cook  Book."    MARIA  PARLOA.     1880. 

1  Diet  for  the  Sick."    MARY  E.  HENDERSON.    1885. 

'Food  in  Health  and  Disease."    I.  BURNEY  YEO. 

'  Delicate  Feasting."    THEODORE  CHILD.    1890. 

'  The  Story  of  the  Bacteria."    T.  MITCHELL  PRUDDEN.    1890. 
"Dust  audits  Dangers."    T.  MITCHELL  PRUDDEN.    1890. 


314  CHAETS 

"Bacteria  and  their  Products."  GERMAN  SIMS  WOODHEAD. 
1892. 

"  The  Methods  of  Bacteriological  Investigation."  FERDINAND 
HEUPPE,  M.  D.  1886. 

"Microbes,  Ferments,  and  Molds."    E.  L.  TROUESSART.    1886. 

"  Principles  of  Bacteriology."  ALEXANDER  C.  ABBOTT,  M.  D. 
1892. 

"  The  Human  Body."    H.  NEWELL  MARTIN.    1890. 

"A  Text-book  of  Human  Physiology."  AUSTIN  FLINT,  M.  D., 
LL.  D.  1888. 

"Domestic  Hygiene  of  the  Child."    JULIUS  UFFELMANN, M.  D. 

(A  Translation.)   Edited  by  MARY  PUTNAM  JACOBI,  M.  D.  1891. 

"A  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  Infancy  and  Childhood." 
J.  LEWIS  SMITH,  M.  D.  1886. 

Article  in  the  "Medical  News"  on  "Diseases  of  Children  In- 
cident to  Summer."  VICTOR  C.  VAUGHAN.  June  9,  1888. 

"  Practical,  Sanitary,  and  Economic  Cooking."  MARY  H. 
ABEL.  1890.  (The  Lomb  Prize  Essay.) 

"  The  Town  Dweller."    DR.  FOTHERGILL. 

"A  Guide  to  Sanitary  House  Inspection."  W.  PAUL  GER- 
HARD. 1890. 

"Papers  of  the  American  Public  Health  Association."    1892. 

"Foods."    EDWARD  SMITH.     1883. 


CHARTS 

Charts  of  the  composition  of  various  foods  may  be 
made  like  the  following,  for  use  in  a  cooking  school. 
They  are  valuable  and  convenient  for  reference. 

CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  AN  EGG 

Shell 

Carbonate  of  lime. 

Yolk. 

Nitrogenous  matter 16.00,% 

Fat 30.70% 

Salts 1.30% 

Water 52.00% 

White. 

Nitrogenous  matter 20.40% 

Salts 1.60% 

Water 78.00% 


CHARTS  315 

COMPOSITION  OF  COW'S  MILK 

Water 87.4% 

Fat    4.0% 

Sugar  and  soluble  salts 5.0% 

Nitrogenous  matter  and  insoluble  salts 3.6% 

DR.  MILLEK. 

COMPOSITION  OF  COCOA 

Cocoa  butter 48.00% 

Nitrogenous  matter,  albumen,  etc 21.00% 

Theobromine  4.00% 

Starch  and  traces  of  sugar 11.00% 

Cellulose  3.00% 

Coloring  matter  and  aromatic  essences Traces 

Mineral  matter 3.00% 

Water 10.00% 

PATEN. 

COMPOSITION  OF  BREAD 

Nitrogenous  matter 8.10% 

Carbohydrates,  starch,  sugar,  etc 51.00% 

Fatty  matter 1.60% 

Mineral  matter 2.30% 

Water 37.00% 

Cellulose 0.00% 


COMPOSITION  OF  POTATO 

Water    75.00% 

Starch 18.80% 

Nitrogenous  matter 2.00% 

Sugar 3.00% 

Fat 0.20% 

Salts,  principally  potash 1.00% 


APPARATUS 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  necessary  furniture, 
utensils,  china,  and  miscellaneous  articles  for  furnish- 
ing a  cooking  school : 


316 


APPARATUS 


CHINA  FOR  SERVING 


3  Glass  cream  pitchers. 
6  Small  china  cream  pitchers. 
6  Coffee-cups  and  saucers. 
6  Tea-cups  and  saucers. 
3  Cocoa-cups  and  saucers. 

2  Bouillon-cups  and  saucers. 

3  Egg-cups. 

3  Egg-glasses. 

6  Tall,  slender  glasses  for  milk- 
punch,  e*gg-nog,  etc. 

1  Small  red  goblet  for  serving 
beef-juice. 

6  Tumblers. 

1  Spoon-holder. 

3  Glass  sugar  bowls. 

2  Soup  bowls. 
2  Satad  bowls. 

2  Finger  bowls. 

3  Small  teapots. 
1  Cocoa-pot. 

1  Tete-a-tete  set. 


1  Oatmeal  set. 

1  Cracker  jar. 

6  Dinner  plates. 

6  Tea  plates. 

6  Individual  bread  plates. 

6  Individual  Butter  plates. 

6  Glass  sauce  dishes. 

6  Bone  dishes. 

1  Vinegar  cruet. 

2  Individual  salt-cellars. 

2  Individual  pepper-bottles. 

3  Small  oval  platters. 

3  Medium-size  oval  platters. 
3  Silver  or  planished  tin  covers, 

for     platters    or    vegetable 

dishes. 

6  Silver  knives. 
6  Silver  forks. 
6  Silver  spoons. 
1  Pair  of  silver  sugar-tongs. 
1  Champagne  tap. 


COMMON  KITCHEN  CHINA 


3  Large  pitchers. 

3  Small  pitchers. 

6  Half -pint  cups. 

6  Saucers. 

12  Custard  cups. 

6  Individual  scallop  dishes. 

3  Mixing  bowls. 


6  Quart  bowls. 

6  Pint  bowls. 

3  Large  vegetable  dishes. 

3  Small  vegetable  dishes. 

3  Pudding  dishes. 

1  Large  jelly-mold. 

6  Small  jelly-molds. 


GRANITE-WARE 


2  Six-quart  covered  kettles. 

1  Six-pint  double  boiler. 

2  Three-pint  double  boilers. 
1  Quart  double  boiler. 

1  Coffee-pot. 


3  Stew-pans. 
6  Saucepans. 
2  Omelet-pans. 
2  Hand-basins. 


APPARATUS 


317 


IRON  AND  TIN  WARE 


1  Tin  tea-kettle. 

6  Half -pint  measure  cups  in 

thirds. 
6  Half -pint  measure  cups  in 

fourths. 

2  Tin  jelly-molds. 

1  Large-mouthed  tunnel. 

3  Small  tunnels. 
1  Colander. 

1  Taper  soup-strainer. 

3  Coarse  wire  strainers. 
3  Fine  wire  strainers. 

2  Tea-strainers. 
1  Flour  sieve. 

1  Dredging  box. 
1  Egg-poacher. 
1  Grater. 

1  Whip-churn. 

2  Dover  egg-beaters. 

1  Lemon-squeezer,        " 
1  Meat-press. 

1  Potato-masher. 

2  Large  wire  broilers. 
2  Small  wire  broilers. 
1  Oyster-broiler. 

1  Wire  cake-rest. 

2  Large  tin  pans. 


3  Frying-pans. 

2  Iron  baking-pans  for  bread. 

2  Sponge-cake  pans. 

1  Iron  gem  pan. 

2  Muffin  tins. 

1  Chafing-dish. 

3  Lacquered  trays. 

3  Small  trays. 

12  Japanned  boxes  of  different 

sizes,  for  flour,  etc. 
6  Tea-caddies. 
1  Biscuit-cutter. 

4  Cutting-knives. 

3  Vegetable  knives. 

1  Chopping-knife. 

1  Meat-cleaver. 

6  Forks. 

1  Set  of  steel  skewers. 

1  Corkscrew. 

1  Can-opener. 

1  Ice-pick. 

1  Sugar-scoop. 

1  Basting-spoon. 

6  Mixing-spoons. 
12  Tablespoons. 
12  Teaspoons. 


WOODEN  WARE 


1  Coffee-mill. 

1  Ice-cream  freezer. 

1  Salt-box. 

1  Spice-box. 

1  Dish-tub. 

1  Large  oval  chopping-tray. 

2  Meat-boards. 
1  Bread-board. 


1  Molding- board. 

1  Rolling-pin. 

2  Butter-spatters  for  butter- 
balls. 

2  Cake-spoons. 
2  Salt-spoons. 
2  Vegetable  brushes. 
2  Scrubbing  brushes. 


318  APPARATUS 

LINEN 

Table-cloths.  Mops. 

Napkins.  Ice-bag. 

Hand-towels.  Jelly-bags. 

Tea-towels.  Cleaning-cloths. 
Dish-cloths. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

1  Chemists'  thermometer.  1  Quevenne's  lactometer. 

1  Oven  thermometer.  1  Hamper  for  soiled  linen. 

1  Arnold  sterilizer.  6  Quart  Mason  jars. 

1  Feser's  lactoscope.  6  Pint  Mason  jars. 


FURNITURE 

1  Cooking  stove,  with  ap-  2  Tables. 

purtenances.  1  Refrigerator. 

1  Coal-hod.  1  China-closet. 

1  Coal-shovel.  1  Open  dresser. 

1  Galvanized  iron  covered  6  Chairg. 

waste-pail.  1  Broom. 

1  Galvanized  iron  sink.  1  Dust-pan. 

2  Towel-racks.  1  Dust-brush. 


INDEX 


Absorption,  68. 

Adaptation  of  food  to  particular  needs, 
69 

Air,  'l4,  15,  18,  20,  38-44,  54,  56,  64. 

Albumen,  17,  25.  27,  52,  59,  61,  76, 146, 
152,  168,  169,  283,  292. 

Albuminoids,  17,  25,  62. 

Ale,  119. 

Apparatus  for  furnishing  a  cooking- 
school,  315. 

Apple  dumplings,  311. 

Apple  (dried)  pie,  306. 

Apple  soup,  144. 

Apples,  130 ;  baked,  225,  226 ;  stewed, 
226. 

Apple-tea,  106. 

Arrowroot,  32,  34,  85. 

Atmospheric  pressure,  38. 

Bacon,  300. 

Bacteria,  23,  49,  99,  285. 

Bacterial  poisons  in  milk,  285,  286. 

Bacteriology,  5,  313. 

Baking-powder,  236,  245. 

Barley  jelly,  296. 

Barley  porridge,  309. 

Barley  pudding,  205. 

Barley  water,  101,  284. 

Beef,  169,  170,  310. 

Beef-juice,  75. 

Bottled,  76. 

Broiled,  76. 

Beefsteak,  27,  170,  17L 
Beef-tapioca  soup,  140. 
Beef-tea,  75,  116. 

Bottled,  77. 

With  hydrochloric  acid,  77. 
Beer,  119. 

Biedert's  Cream  Mixture,  293,  295. 
Bile,  51,  61. 
Bills  of  fare,  304. 
Birds,  175. 

Field-larks,  180. 

Grouse,  179. 

Partridge,  176. 

Pheasants,  178. 

Reed-birds,  179. 

Squabs,  176. 

Snipe,  177. 

Woodcock,  178. 
Biscuits,  cream-of-tartar,  242. 
Biscuits,  twin,  243. 
Blanc-mange,  209,  210. 
Boiled  corned  beef,  310. 
Boiled  potatoes  and  carrots,  with  fried 

onions,  309. 


Bouillon,  143. 
Brandy-milk,  98. 
Bread,  34,  76,  232. 

Composition  of,  315. 

Cream-of-tartar  biscuit,  242. 

Gluten,  245. 

Graham,  241. 

Graham  gems,  244. 

Milk,  239. 

Oatmeal  muffins,  244. 

Rusk,  240,  241. 

Snow-cakes,  243. 

Sticks,  240. 

Water,  238. 
Bread  pancakes,  307. 
Bread  soup,  304. 
Broths,  27,  75. 

Beef,  78. 

Beefsteak,  79. 

Chicken,  80. 

Clam,  82. 

Mutton,  81. 

Oyster,  82. 

Scotch,  80. 

Serving  of,  275. 
Browned  farina  soup,  312. 
Browned  flour  soup,  305. 
Butter-cream,  193. 
Buttered  water  toast,  129. 

Cake,  246. 

Care  in  baking,  247. 

Chocolate,  250. 

Dream,  252. 

Feather,  249. 

Invalid's  sponge,  248. 

Layer,  250. 

Process  of  making,  247. 

Rose,  250. 

White,  251. 
Cake  filling  and  frosting,  252. 

Caramel,  252. 

Chocolate,  253. 

Cream,  253. 

White  mountain,  252. 
Calf's-foot  jelly,  28. 
Caramel,  37,  38,  115. 

To  make,  197. 
Carbohydrates,  18,  19,  31,  62,  63,  64,  65, 

58,  71. 

Carbon,  12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 29, 36, 37, 171. 
Carbonic  acid,  10,  11,  14,  15,  21,  40,  42, 

54,  107,  234,  235. 
Carmine  for  coloring,  210. 
Carrageen,  209. 
Cellulose,  299. 


319 


320 


INDEX 


Charts,  314. 

Chemical  changes,  10,  11, 15. 
Chemistry  of  foods,  313. 
Chicken,  broiled,  174. 
Chicken  jelly,  126. 
Chicken  panada,  141. 
Chicken  soup,  135. 
Chicken-tapioca  soup,  139. 
China  for  serving,  316. 
Chocolate,  108,  110,  200. 

Serving  of,  269. 

To  make,  109. 
Clam  broth,  82. 
Cocoa,  108,  299,  315. 
Cocoa  cordial,  119. 
Cocoa-nibs,  109. 
Cocoa-shells,  109. 
Codfish  balls,  309. 
Coffee,  9,  22,  23,  114,  307. 

Composition  of,  116. 

Serving  of,  269,  275. 

To  make,  117,  118. 
Coffee  jelly,  124. 
Coffee-syrup,  104. 

Composition  of  the  body,  16,  17, 18,  24. 
Condensed  milk,  288,  298. 
Consomme^  142. 
Contagious  diseases,  care  of  dishes  in, 

271. 

Convalescent's  diet,  260. 
Corn  bread,  310. 
Corn  coffee,  307. 
Cream,  30,  63,  104. 
Cream,  condensed,  296. 
Cream-of-celery  soup,  137. 
Cream-of-rice  soup,  138. 
Cream  of  tartar,  10,  236. 
Cream-of-tartar  biscuit,  242. 
Creams,  127, 195. 

Chocolate,  200. 

Coffee,  199. 

Egg,  198. 

Peach  foam,  202. 

Rice,  202. 

Tapioca,  201. 

Velvet,  199. 
Cream  sauce,  149. 
Cream  toast,  130. 
Croutons,  132,  135. 
Custards,  195. 

Soft,  195,  278. 

Baked,  196. 

French,  197. 

Rennet,  197. 

Dextrine,  33,  63, 128,  163,  290. 

Diastase,  34,  50. 

Diet,  72. 

Diet  lists  or  menus  for  the  sick,  254. 

Digestibility  of  foods,  9. 

Digestion,  9, 49,  66,  110,  116. 

Digestive  fluids,  50,  51. 

District  nursing,  301. 

Drawn  butter,  194. 

Drawn  butter  sauce,  308. 


Dried  apple  pie,  306. 
Drinks,  95. 

Egg-nog,  95. 
Eggs,  25,  26,  52,  152,  314. 
Composition,  152. 
Omelets,  156. 
Creamy,  157. 
Foamy,  158. 
Orange,  160. 
Spanish,  160. 
To  serve,  277. 
With  chicken,  159. 
With  ham,  No.  1,  158. 
With  ham,  No.  2,  159. 
With  jelly,  159. 
With  parsley,  160. 
With  tomatoes,  159. 
Poached,  155. 
Scrambled,  No.  1,  156. 
Scrambled,  No.  2, 156. 
Soft-cooked,  154. 
Egg  toast,  131. 
Elements,  12,  13,  14,  16,  17,  18,  19,  56, 

57,  59. 

Ether,  boiling-point  of,  30 
Extractives,  24,  25,  26,  28,  59. 

Farina,  87,  91,  92. 

Farinaceous  foods,  289,  291,  292. 

Fats,  17,  18, 19,  28,  29,  30,  31,  58,  60-65, 

68,  71,  169,  292,  294. 
Feeding  of  children,  280. 
Analysis  of  Mellin's  food  prepared 

for  use,  291. 

Care  of  feeding-bottles,  287. 
Condensed  milk,  288. 
Farinaceous  foods,  289. 
Food. 

Amount  at  each  meal,  293. 
Dilution,  293. 
First  week,  295. 
From  the  first  to  the  sixth  week, 

295. 
From  the  sixth  week  to  the  sixth 

month,  296. 
From    the    sixth   month    to   the 

tenth,  297. 
From  the   tenth  to   the  twelfth 

month,  298. 
From  the  twelfth  to  the  eighteenth 

month,  299. 

Food  after  eighteen  months,  299. 
Foods  to  be  carefully  avoided,  300. 
Field-larks,  180. 
Fire,  14,  302. 
Fish,  5,  191. 
Boiled,  194. 
Broiled,  193. 
Creamed,  193. 
To  prepare,  191. 
When  in  season,  192. 
Flavors,  9,  59,  79. 
Flaxseed  tea,  105. 
Food,  9,  14,  18,  25,  49,  53. 


INDEX 


321 


French  toast,  181. 
Fried  bread,  309. 
Fried  farina  pudding,  308. 
Fruits,  224,  71,  208,  226,  229. 

Apple  compote,  226. 

Apple  jelly,  230. 

Apples,  baked,  225,  226. 

Apples,  stewed,  226. 

Cranberry  jelly  and  sauce,  227. 

Grape  jelly  and  sauce,  228. 

Prunes,  stewed,  227. 

Serving  of,  276. 
Fuel  and  kindlings,  16. 

Gastric  juice,  50. 

Gelatin,  28,  53,  59,  76, 120, 122, 168,  169. 
Gelatine,  120,  121,  222. 
Gelatinoids,  17,  25,  28. 
General  rules  for  the  feeding  of  chil- 
dren, 294. 
Giblet  soup,  309. 
Glucose,  35,  37,  52,  63. 
Graham  bread,  241. 
Graham  gems,  244. 
Granite-ware,  316. 
Grape  jelly,  228. 
Grape  juice,  105. 
Grouse,  179,  180. 
Gruels,  83. 

Arrowroot,  84. 

Barley,  84. 

Cracker,  87. 

Farina,  87. 

Flour,  86. 

Imperial  Granum,  88. 

Indian  meal,  89. 

Oatmeal,  85,  86. 

Racahout  des  Arabes,  88. 

Serving  of,  83,  275. 
Glycerin,  30. 
Glycogen,  63,  64,  65. 

Hamburg  steak,  No.  1  (scraped  beef), 

172. 

Hamburg  steak,  No.  2,  173. 
Heat,  2,  10, 13, 14, 15,  20,  56,  54,  61, 169, 

218. 

Hemoglobin,  17,  59. 
Horse-radish  sauce,  310. 
Human  milk,  281. 

Hydrochloric  acid,  10, 11,  28,  52,  77,  78. 
Hydrogen,  12,  13,  16, 18,  19,  24,  29. 

Ice-cream,  217. 

Frozen  custard,  221. 

Philadelphia,  220. 

Royal,  220. 

With  an  improvised  freezer,  221. 
Ice-cream  freezers,  217. 
Ices,  217. 

Apricot,  224. 
Ideal  diet,  68. 
Imperial  Granum,  291,  297. 
Inorganic  matter  of  the  body  and  of 

food,  18,  65,  66. 


Jellies,  120. 
From  fruits : 

Apple,  230. 

Cranberry,  227. 

Grape,  228. 

Serving  of,  276. 

To  preserve,  230. 
From  gelatine,  120. 

Chicken,  126. 

Coffee,  124. 

French,  125. 

Lemon,  123. 

Orange,  123. 

Puncheon,  126. 

Wine,  No.  1,  122. 

Wine,  No.  2,  122. 

Restorative,  125. 
Junket,  198,  278. 

Kitchen  china,  316. 
Kumiss,  106,  107. 

Lactometer,  46. 

Lactoscope,  46. 

Lactose,  18,  37. 

Lamb  chops,  184. 

Lead,  12. 

Lemonade,  97,  275. 

Lemon  jelly,  123. 

Lentil  soup,  309. 

Lettuce  salad,  213. 

Light  diet,  256. 

Lime-water  (experiment  with),  21. 

Linen,  318. 

Liquid  diet,  254. 

Literature,  313. 

Liver,  63. 

Lobsters,  300. 

Lomb  prize  essay,  302. 

Malted  milk,  290,  291. 

Meats,  5,  168. 

Mellin's  food,  283,  284,  290,  297,  298,  299. 

Menus  for  the  sick,  254. 

Micro-organisms,  1,  2,  22,  23, 40,  46, 47, 

49,  98,  230,  281,  284,  285. 
Milk,  30,  44-49,  57,  273. 

Composition  of  cow's,  45,  281,  315. 

Condensed,  298. 

Malted,  290. 

Pasteurized,  288. 

Preserved,  289. 

Serving  of,  275. 

Sterilization  of,  47,   48,  49,  99,  100, 
281,  284,  287. 

Supplies,  49,  281,  282. 
Milk  and  seltzer,  100. 
Milk  and  soda-water,  101. 
Milk  lemonade,  97. 
Milk-punch,  95,  275. 
Milk  toast,  130. 
Milk-sugar,  298. 
Mineral  matter  in  milk,  283. 
Mineral  salts,  18,  57,  65,  66, 71,  111,  162, 

175,  226. 


322 


INDEX 


Mint  sauce,  308. 
Mock-bisque  soup,  135. 
Mulled  wine,  118. 
Mush  and  porridge,  90. 

Cracked  wheat,  93. 

Farina,  92. 

Granula,  93. 

Hominy,  94. 

Imperial  Granum,  93. 

Indian  meal,  94. 

Oatmeal,  91. 

Wheat  germ,  92. 
Mustard  sauce,  312. 
Mutton,  181,  182. 

Nestles  food,  291,  297. 
Nitrogen,  12,  13,  14,  16,  17,  24,  42,  59. 
Nitrogenous  compounds,  53,  58,  62. 
Noodles,  305. 
Noodle  soup,  305. 
Nutrition,  53,  57,  313. 
Absorption,  68. 
Adaptation  of  foods  to  particular 

needs,  69. 
Definition,  54. 
Ideal  diet,  68. 
Imperfect,  70. 
Inorganic    matters    and   vegetable 

acids,  65. 
Summary  of  the  digestibility  of  foods, 

68. 
Value  of  protein,  fats,  carbohydrates, 

and  extractives,  58-65. 
Ways  in  which   food  supplies  the 
wants  of  the  body,  56. 

Oatmeal,  80,  85,  86,  90,  91. 
Oatmeal  muffins,  244. 
Oil,  10,  30. 

Cod-liver,  63. 

Fixed  and  volatile,  28. 

Olive,  30,  31,  211. 
Omelets,  156. 
Orange  jelly,  123. 
Oxygen,  12,  13,  14, 15,  16,  17,  18,  29,  40, 

42,  59,  64. 
Oysters,  145. 

Broiled,  149. 

Broth,  150. 

Chafing-dish,  151. 

Composition,  145. 

Creamed,  148. 

Fancy  roast,  150. 

Pan-broiled,  150. 

Raw,  147. 

Boasted  in  the  shell,  147. 

Serving,  277. 

Soup,  134. 

Stew,  148. 

Tea  No.  1,  82. 

Tea  No.  2,  82. 

Panada,  79,  141. 
Pancreatic  juice,  51,  61,  290. 
Paraffin,  230. 


Partridges,  176. 

Pasteurized  milk,  288. 

Peach  foam,  202. 

Peas,  190. 

Pea  soup,  307. 

Peptogenic  milk  powder,  284. 

Peptonized  milk,  296. 

Pheasants,  178. 

Phosphated  gelatine,  121. 

Physical  changes,  10,  11, 12. 

Pigeons,  180. 

Pink  blanc-mange,  210. 

Pink  sugar,  209. 

Poisons  in  milk  (bacterial),  22,  285,  286. 

Porridge,  90,  91. 

Porter,  119. 

Potato  and  onion  salad,  311. 

Potatoes,  32,  34,  70, 161. 

Baked,  165. 

Boiled,  163. 

Composition,  161. 

Creamed,  166. 

Duchess,  166. 

Mashed,  164. 

Roasted,  165. 
Potato  soup,  136. 
Preserved  milk,  289. 
Protein,  17,  18, 19,  24,  25,  52,  53, 56,  58, 

59,  60,  62,  64,  68,  71. 
Puddings,  195. 

Baked  custards,  196. 

Barley,  205. 

Chocolate  cream,  200. 

Coffee  cream,  199. 

Corn-starch,  204. 

Cream-of-rice,  206. 

Egg  cream,  198. 

French  custard,  197. 

Fruit  tapioca,  207. 

Irish  moss  blanc-mange,  209. 

Orange  baskets,  208. 

Orange  layers,  208. 

Orange  omelet,  160. 

Peach  foam,  202. 

Pink  blanc-mange,  210. 

Princess,  204. 

Rennet  custard,  197. 

Rice  cream,  202. 

Slip,  197. 

Soft  custard,  195. 

Snow  pudding,  203. 

Tapioca  cream,  201. 

Tapioca  jelly,  207. 

Velvet  cream,  199. 
Puncheon  jelly,  126. 

Racahout  des  Arabes,  88,  89. 

Reed-birds,  179. 

Rennet,  198. 

Restorative  jelly,  125. 

Rice,  76,  79,  81. 

Rice-water,  102. 

Ridse's  food,  291,  297. 

Roly-poly  pudding,  312. 

Rules  for  the  feeding  of  children,  294. 


INDEX 


323 


Salads,  10,  71,  211. 

Celery,  216. 

Chicken,  214. 

Lettuce,  213. 

Potato,  215. 

"       with  olives,  216. 
Salad  Dressing,  211. 

French,  212. 

Mayonnaise,  212. 
Saliva,  50,  290,  51. 
Salt  (sodium  chlorid),  11, 18,  66. 
Scotch  broth,  80. 
Scraped  beef,  172. 
Serving,  267. 
Sherbets,  217,  277. 

Lemon,  222. 

Orange,  223. 
Sherry  and  egg,  98. 
Sippets,  132. 
Snipe,  177. 
Soda-water,  101. 
Sodium  chlorid,  11, 18. 
Soups,  4,  27,  134. 

Apple,  144. 

Beef-tapioca,  140. 

Bouillon,  143. 

Bread,  304. 

Browned  farina,  312. 
"        flour,  305. 

Chicken,  135. 

Chicken  panada,  141. 

Chicken-tapioca,  139. 

Consomme1,  142. 

Cream-of-celery,  137. 

Cream-of-rice,  138. 

Giblet,  309. 

Lentil,  309. 

Mock-bisque,  135. 

Noodle,  305. 

Oyster,  134. 

Pea,  307. 

Potato,  136. 

Queen  Victoria's  favorite,  139. 
Spores,  23,  24,  48,  99. 
Squabs,  176. 
Starch,  31,  33,  34,  35,  62,  63,  65,  68,  51, 

18,  58,  83,  85,  128,  161. 

Digestion  of,  51,  52,  84,  290. 

Composition,  32,  58. 

Tests  for,  32. 
Steak  (beef),  27,  70, 171. 

A  la  Maltre  d'Hdtel,  173. 

Hamburg.  No.  1  (scraped  beef),  172. 
"  "    2,  173. 

Tenderloin,  173. 
Steam,  12,  20,  29. 
Sterilization, 

of  Milk,  47,  48,  98,  99,  100,  287,  284. 

of  Vessels  for  holding  milk,  281. 

of  Water,  19,  23,  24. 
Stews,  185. 

Chicken,  185. 

Beef,  186. 

Mutton,  187. 
Strawberries,  102, 103, 105,  121,  224. 


Sucrose,  36,  52. 

Sugar,  18,  32,  35,  36,  37,  38,  62,  58,  63 

65,  68,  283. 

Sweeping  and  dusting,  303. 
Sweetbreads,  188. 

Creamed,  189. 

Fricasseed,  189. 

With  peas,  190. 
Syrups,  Apple,  103. 

Apricot,  103. 

Chocolate,  104. 

Coffee,  104. 

Currant,  103. 

Orange,  103. 

Peach,  103. 

Raspberry,  103. 

Strawberry,  102. 

Vanilla,  104. 

Tapioca,  34,  76,  79,  81,  201,  207. 
Tea,  22,  110,  269. 

Composition,  111. 

Kinds,  112,  113. 

Serving  of,  275. 

To  prepare,  113,  114. » 

Value  as  food,  110,  23. 
Tenderloin  (steak),  173. 
Thermometers  (oven),  239. 
Toast,  128. 

Cream,  130. 

Croutons,  132. 

French,  131. 

Milk,  130. 

Sippets,  132. 

Vermicelli,  133. 

Water  (buttered),  129. 
Toast  and  cheese,  306. 
Tomatoes,  135. 

Vanilla  syrup,  104. 
Veal  broth,  284. 
Venison,  70,  180. 
Ventilation,  42. 
Volatile  oils,  28. 

Washing  of  dishes,  303. 

Waste,  19,  67. 

Waste-pails,  5. 

Water,  11, 12,  17,  18,  19,  20,  21,  22,  23, 

54,  65,  218. 
Water-ice,  217,  224. 
Wheat-flour,  232. 
Whey,  295. 

Wine,  96. 

With  rennet,  96. 
White-sauce,  130. 
Wine  jelly.   No.  1,  122. 
Wine  jelly.   No.  2, 122. 
Wine,  mulled,  118. 
Wine  whey,  96. 
Woodcock,  178. 
Wooden  ware,  317. 

Yeast,  232,  233. 
Liquid,  237. 

Zwieback,  300. 


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