Full text of "The handbook of kinematography, the history, theory, and practice of motion photography and projection"

THE HANDBOOK OF
KINEMATOGRAPHY.

[ENTERED AT STATIONERS HALL]

THE HANDBOOK OF

[CINEMATOGRAPHY.

THE HISTORY, THEORY,

AND PRACTICE OF MOTION

PHOTOGRAPHY AND PRO-

- JECTION.

COLIN N. BENNETT, F.C.S.

AND COLLABORATORS.

IQII.

Published by

THE KINEMATOGRAPH WEEKLY.

Tottenham Street,

LONDON.

PUBLISHERS' FOREWORD.

In 1905 we converted THE MAGIC LANTERN JOURNAL, for thirteen
years successfully conducted by Mr. J. Hay Taylor, into THE OPTICAL
LANTERN AND CINEMATOGRAPH JOURNAL. For two years this monthly
publication met the exigencies of the growing trade, and on May iCrfh,
1907, we launched a sixteen page weekly entitled THE KINEMATOGRAPH
AND LANTERN WEEKLY. This has grown until at the present time it
has become a bulky periodical of about one hundred pages at each issue.

Notwithstanding these enormous strides, which have developed in
ratio to the wonderfully increasing popularity of Motion Pictures, there
has not yet been produced a standard handbook containing information
on every department of kinematography , that could be utilised by those
desiring to enter the profession, or could be referred to with confidence by
those anxious to perfect their knowledge in the science. That the time is
ripe for such a work is proved by the numerous technical, legal and varied
questions which we have answered from time to time in our pages, and by
the very many applications we have received for such a book.

The varied knowledge -photography , electricity, stage managership,
legal and local necessities and what not however, make the production
of such a work no easy task. After much consideration, we arranged for
Mr. Colin N. Bennett, F.C.S., an expert in photography and kinema-
tography, and a well-known writer on scientific matters to collaborate with
experts in the legal, business, and other cognate branches of the subject,
and to produce an exhaustive book worthy of what has now become a gigantic
industry.

PUBLISHERS' FOREWORD.

Naturally, certain sections which are subsidiary to the actual practice
of kinematography , have had to be somewhat curtailed, but those worthy
of more space than we can command here, will be issued as separate publi-
cations. Already two are in the press, " Playing to Pictures," by
W. Tyacke George, and " How to Manage a Picture Show," by A. E.
Taylor.

No book on kinematography can be called exhaustive new ideas
and inventions seem hourly to add improvements to the subject but in
these pages will be found carefully compiled data and useful information,
much of it the result of original investigation, while the bulk of the infor-
mation comprised in Part I. is to be obtained from no other written
source, and we trust the labour expended upon the production of the present
volume may justify us in issuing it.

We anticipate that this first edition will soon become exhausted,
so that a revised edition may become necessary. To help ws to make
this second edition nearer perfection, we shall be gratified if any reader
discovers an error, either of commission or omission, in the present work,
if he will acquaint us with particulars

E. T. HERON AND Co

AN ACKNOWLEDGMENT.

First and foremost, my acknowledgments and thanks
are due to MR. E. T. HERON, the existence of this volume
being a result of his initiative, created from a genuine and
ceaseless endeavour to improve the conditions and prospects
of the kinematograph industry, Mr. Heron has. taken an
untiring interest in the present HANDBOOK OF KINEMA-
TOGRAPHY from its inception onwards, and the author is
indebted to him for countless facts and helpful suggestions
contained within its pages. Acknowledgments are further
due, and are herewith tendered to MR. HENRY MORRELL,
of His Majesty's Theatre, Hay market, W., for the chapter
contributed by him on " Acting before the Kinemato-
graph," as also to MR. A. E. TAYLOR for the chapter
" Playing to Pictures," to the Legal Expert of the KINE-
MATOGRAPH WEEKLY for the important chapter on " The
Law and the Kinematograph," to MR. THEODORE BROWN
for the original drawings, and lastly, to the numerous firms
in the trade including MESSRS. R. R. BEARD, R. AND J.
BECK, LTD., F. J. BROCKLISS, W. BUTCHER AND SONS,
LTD., EMIL BUSCH, J. H. DALLMEYER, LTD., THE GAU-
MONT Co., LTD., L. KAMM AND Co., KINETO, LTD.,
INFALLIBLE METER EXPOSURE Co., PATHE FRERES,

LTD., VOIGHTLANDER AND Co., THE WALTURDAW Co.,

LTD., WATKINS AND Co., WILLIAMSON KINEMATOGRAPH
Co., LTD., WRENCH AND Co., CARL ZEISS, LTD., etc.

COLIN N. BENNETT,

Author's Historical Preface.

The history of the kinematograph is long, complex, and infinitely
stodgy. It is long because it reaches back from now till at least
the year 65 B.C., at which date Lucretius, in his work " De Rerum
Natura," made certain pertinent remarks relative to persistence of
vision the rock upon which the whole theory of motion photography
is built. It is complex by reason of the way in which evolution
of the kinematograph proper has in its latter days been crossed and
re-crossed by inventions and patents partly, yet not fully, relevant
to the moving photograph machine. It is stodgy as cheap plum duff
is stodgy, with many an interesting spot here and there, but oceans
of plainness between.

Let us leave the full history of the subject for those who like it.
It would fill the whole of our book were we to let it do so. As a matter
of fact it has filled the whole of a very excellent historical work " Hop-
wood's Living Pictures," published 1899 and though the volume
in question is long since hopelessly out-of-date from the practical
point of view, its retrospect of kinematograph invention prior to
1897 is none the less sound and interesting to the man of antiquarian
tendencies.

The endeavour of this preface is solely to set forth in condensed
form a few of the most salient facts connected with the infancy and
growth of motion pictures.

Let us begin with Ptolemy. Lucretius has already had his turn.
Ptolemy was a Greek philosopher who wrote a book, or rather a series
of books, on optics, about the year A.D. 130. In one of these he not
only took note of the fact of " persistence of vision," which is the
scientific way of setting down the truth that the sensation of light
coming from an object remains in the brain for the tenth to the twen-
tieth part of a second after the object's actual disappearance, but
Ptolemy also described a simple piece of apparatus in the form of a
revolving disc with spots on it wherewith this phenomenon might be
demonstrated. Like many other valuable principles, Ptolemy's was
duly conserved and handed down from age to age and from sage to
sage, never being entirely forgotten, never being made the slightest
use of till the year 1825, which saw the birth of that modest yet
amazing optical toy, the Thaumatrope.

What is the Thaumatrope ? Perhaps the name is not familiar ;
at any rate, the instrument is almost certain to be. It is neither
more nor less than the well known oblong piece of card with a picture

PREF ACE.

on either side and a piece of string run through it in such a way as
to facilitate its being turned rapidly round and round on its axis.
When this is done the two pictures are seen to unite by the agency
of the same persistence of vision commented upon by Lucretius and
first exampled by Ptolemy. The present price of the Thaumatrope
ranges from a halfpenny downwards. Marvellous is it to read in
Hopwood's book " Living Pictures, 1899," that in the year of its
inception there was something in the nature of a controversy between
two eminent scientists as to which of them was the true inventor.
Dr. Paris claimed it and even went further and placed it on the market
at the price of seven and sixpence, but there seems to be the strong
probability that the Thaumatrope is really due to the brain of Dr.
Fitton, his contemporary. Be that as it may, our halfpenny spinning
card remains the solitary practical ' moving picture machine ' from
thence onward till the year 1832. Work upon the subject of optical
synthesis was done in the meantime, notably by Doctors Roget and
Faraday, but only in the latter year was the Thaumatrope finally
supplanted in popular estimation.

The lucky rival came into the world under somewhat strange
circumstances, being invented at one and the same time by two
distinct and quite independent scientists, Stampfer and Plateau.
Dr. Plateau called the contrivance by the name of ' Phenakistoscope/
and by this simple and expressive cognomen it has thenceforward
been known to the world. Since the Phenakistoscope marks something
like a recognisable step towards our goal, it is worthy of a short des-
cription. Briefly, it consisted of a circular card around which were
painted a series of figures or other devices illustrating to the best of
the artist's ability the several phases of a given movement. The card
was arranged to rotate upon a central shaft, and was backed by a
second larger card, also rotating upon the same centre and at the same
rate as the one bearing upon it the painted figures. Around the
area of the larger card were cut equidistant slits corresponding in
number with the figures on the smaller disc. Such is the somewhat
complicated description of the Phenakistoscope, but its manner of
working is at least correspondingly simple. On revolving the con-
trivance in front of a mirror with the eye placed behind the slotted
area of the larger disc, the reflected figures were seen as though in
motion. Since the present sketch is purely historical, there will be
no pause here to explain the why and wherefore of the optical illusion.
Such will become clear in the course of the description of the modern
kinematograph projector as found later on in the body of this book.

Once again after 1832 we have to record a lengthy interval
without any very notable advance in the synthesis of the motion
picture, an interval broken at last by the introduction of the Zoetrope,
or wheel of life.

The Zoetrope belongs to the year 1860. It was in effect a cylin-
drical form of the Phenakistoscope with, however, this striking dif-
ference, that instead of a mirror image being viewed, the apparently

PREF ACE.

animated figures themselves were watched through slits placed around
the edge of the canister in which they revolved. And still, though
by now the problem of obtaining the illusion of motion in a diagram
or drawn device may be said to have been solved, it would be almost
as difficult as ever to recognise in the solution a single point of resem-
blance to the action of a modern kinematograph. "

This resemblance first became distinct in a little invention due
to Mr. Beale the Choreutoscope. But by now, history is moving
apace. We have arrived at the year 1884. In the Choreutoscope we
have, barring the flexible photographic film, practically every essential
of the modern maltese cross machine, and this notwithstanding that
the whole contrivance was designed to fit into the stage of an ordinary
magic lantern. The Choreutoscope consisted of a wooden slide
fitted with a ratchet arrangement in which ran a notched frame
bearing a glass panel painted with designs representing the several
phases or supposed phases of a simple movement. The turning
of the ratchet handle imparted to the slide intermittent movement
through the notches on its periphery, while each shift was covered
during projection by the automatic rising and falling of a small drop
shutter.

On placing the little instrument on the stage of the optical lantern
and turning the handle, there was therefrom projected on the screen
an effect somewhat similar to that previously obtained by direct
vision of the original image in the Zoetrope or by the observation of
the mirror image of a succession of movement phases cast by the
Phenakistoscope. But still we are dealing with the creation of ap-
parent animation in drawn or painted designs, whereas the essence
of the kinematograph is that it goes to nature as revealed by means
of photography for its movement analyses.

And now in order to understand the trend of events, it must be
recorded that during the latter years, from the early seventies on-
wards, while one batch of inventors had been hard at work trying to
perfect the synthesis of imaginary movement phases, such as might
be culled from drawings or time-exposed photographs of models,
another class of inventors had been engaged upon what must be
looked upon as the totally different subject of true movement
analysis. The earlier attempts in this latter direction were made
through the means of photography upon glass plates, and the records
of movement were obtained not as a series of single pictures but as a
superposed jumble of black and white guide streaks, which might tell
those in the know a great deal, but would certainly tell the average
man in the street nothing whatever.

It was a great advance something of a minor revolution in the
nature of things when in 1872 Muybridge, an American, rigged up
a series of separate cameras so arranged that the shutters were released
one by one upon the passage in front of them of a trotting horse.
The result of the departure was a number of photographs of consecu-
tive true movement phases which, when combined in the Phena-

PREFACE.

kistoscope or Zoetrope, gave something approaching a complete ren-
dering of actual motion. Thus was the first elementary success in
motion photography attained. Very soon, however, the use of a
series of cameras for general work was found to be impracticable
for a number of reasons, and the Muybridge system accordingly came
to be supplanted by the Marey system, wherein one lens only was
made use of. The Marey Photographic Gun of 1876 is a case in point.
It was shaped something after the style of a monster revolver and took
twelve quickly successive images of a moving object, recording them
upon a circular sensitive surface. Later, in 1888, appeared the first
printed work upon the then newly discovered sheet celluloid as a
vehicle for carrying photographic emulsions, and the year afterwards,
1889, saw the filing by Messrs. W. Friese Greene and M. Evans of the
specification of their machine for taking and projecting moving
photographs the admitted father of all true kinematographs.

The Friese Greene kinematograph camera and projector utilised
photographically coated strip celluloid just' as do those of the present
day. It was fitted with a shutter, also with an intermittent move-
ment actuated by a spring cam, and the results obtained with it were
both creditable and practical. From this point onwards, the principle
of kinematography must be looked upon as solved.

The history of the subject now becomes more one of improvements
than of new ideas. For this reason, as also for the sake of brevity,
only two other machines will be touched upon in the present histori-
cal preface. One of them is the kinematograph of Donisthorpe and
Crofts, patented August 1889, and worthy of special mention as being
the earliest representative of the loopless camera.

The last camera of all to be mentioned here among the antiques
is the ' Lumiere Cinematographic/ introduced in 1895. This was a
pin or claw camera and projector. So accurate and reliable did its
performance prove that very soon it found its way to a London music
hall as a star attraction, and thereupon was inaugurated the living
picture craze, a craze which seems as far from dying down as ever it
did perhaps farther, as instance the following, written by Mr. Cecil
M. Hep worth in the year 1897:

" That the kinematograph has contributed much to the
" gaiety of nations can hardly be denied, but that it will con-
" tinue to do so to anything like the same extent for much
" longer is most improbable."

The above is an excellent instance of the futility of prophecy in
the kinematograph world. But of the * Lumiere Cinematographe ' ?
How has that particular machine fared in the melting pot of time ?
Well, how should it fare ? It has gone, of course, like all its contem-
poraries.

But a few months since, the writer had occasion to invest in a
kinematograph camera of the very latest type. It was an excellent
and an expensive instrument, so new in design that the very patent

PREFACE.

specification on which it was built was hardly emerged from the govern-
ment printing press. And on opening the front panel and looking
at the newly patented works, they were found to be in all essentials iden-
tical with those of the defunct Lumiere machine.

Thus, briefly/ we have the history of the kinematograph a
history of development and improvement which has ultimately re-
sulted in a scientific entertainment, the like of which has never been
enjoyed and witnessed by the people of the whole world, the possi-
bilities of which we can barely imagine, which gives employment to
thousands and enjoyment to millions daily, and which amuses, edu-
cates, and brings into closer relationship the inhabitants of every
quarter of the globe.

SOME OF THE FIRST SUBJECTS

EVER PHOTOGRAPHED FOR

LIVING PICTURES;

ONE OF THE PIONEERS MR. W. FRIESE GREENE.

PART I.

Kinematography.

CHAPTER I.
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINCIPLE.

Kinematographic photography is best led up to by a brief survey
of the principles of photographic picture making in general. Indeed,
between it and ordinary snap-shot work there is but one small differ-
ence, that whereas the latter takes a single instantaneous photograph
at a time and has done with it, the former takes a succession of them
at such quick intervals, one after the other, that each second suffices
for the making of roughly sixteen complete photographic records.

For the purpose of subsequent projection upon a screen by means
of a moving picture projector, it has, moreover, been found necessary
that the kinematograph camera should make its multiple records
upon a long roll of emulsion-coated celluloid ribbon, while the hand
camera makes its single one upon either a glass plate (the technical
term for an oblong piece of photographically coated glass) or else
upon a comparatively short length of wide celluloid sheet of a like
shape. Thus we early arrive at the conclusion that the only vital
difference between the moving picture recording machine and the
ordinary snap-shot camera is in the quantity and speed with which
the views are taken.

Let us then first turn to the consideration of the principle of
cameras in general.

FIG. i.

Fig. i represents a diagrammatic view of the arrangement of an
ordinary hand camera. A, A, A are the sides of the familiar box in
which the photographic plate is enclosed. This box is made light

HANDBOOK OF K I NE MA TOGRAPH Y.

tight except for the hole occupied by the lens B, through the glass of
which light may be admitteoVupon the surface of the prepared plate
C, or may be shut off by the interposition of a shutter S at the will
of the photographer. Normally, this shutter is in its light stopping
position as represented. Only when the photograph is to be taken
is a spring set in motion by which the shutter is switched out of the
way of the lens for the small part of a second, during which time light
is consequently allowed to stream in through B upon the sensitive
surface at C. Such is a brief sketch of the working of a hand camera.

Let us next turn to the consideration of the nature of the sensi-
tive coating upon the plate C, the function of which is to become
affected or, as it is called ' exposed ' by the light action. Briefly,
C is a piece of sheet glass which has been coated in the dark with gela-
tine containing in it the chemical known as silver bromide. This
sensitive coating or ' emulsion/ has before exposure to daylight a
pale milky yellow appearance, and the same is not altered even by
exposing the plate to daylight for a minute or more at a time. Even
a very short exposure has, however, the effect of bringing about in
the emulsion a sort of secret change, which, although not discernible
in itself, becomes evident enough on treating the plate with a special
chemical solution known as a ' developer.' Suppose a photographic
plate to have been taken out of its light tight box in which it is sup-
plied by the makers and to have been put into the camera in darkness
(or by a special red ' dark room light/ so called because a deep shade
of this colour is without the action about to be ascribed to daylight) ;
suppose the camera has been thus ' loaded/ and that it is now taken
out into the open and the shutter S allowed to flick for a moment out
of the way of the lens so that light may stream for a brief instant upon
the plate. Now we will take the camera back to the same ' dark
room/ withdraw the ' exposed ' plate and place it in a dish filled with
' developer/ What will happen ?

Very soon we shall notice a strange change come over the milky
whiteness of the ' emulsion/ It will turn darker and darker in degree
as the lens has cast more or less light upon it. If we go on long enough,
and supposing the exposure has been sufficient, we shall end by getting
the plate quite black in parts.

This blackness is caused by the developer having ' reduced '
the silver bromide to a deposit of finely divided metallic silver, which
remains held to the glass in its matrix of gelatine.

Suppose that our developed plate is in fact what it should be
a satisfactory photographic negative, we shall also notice that the
blackness produced upon it by the developer is not of equal degree
all over its face. Some parts may even still be of the old milky white
hue. We now rinse off the developing solution and apply another one
known as the ' fixer/ Here the remaining whiteness entirely leaves
the gelatine. The negative is from this moment complete, except for
the need of a good washing under the tap to free it of chemicals.
Suppose we take it out into daylight, to which it has by this time

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

ceased to be in any way responsive, it will be found that where the
milkiness remained to the last before fixing, there will be nothing
left afterwards but colourless gelatine. Over other parts o'f the glass
surface will be a cloud of varying opacity, consisting of the metallic
silver deposited by development, and the finely divided state of which
causes it to appear without any metallic lustre, and merely as a grey-
black dull veil upon the plate.

But we shall notice something more also, provided the camera
lens was in focus. It will be seen that the silver deposit has formed
itself into a sort of replica in black and white of the scene toward
which the lens was pointed at the moment when the shutter was
' released.' Why is that ?

This brings us to the consideration of the one remaining impor-
tant part of the single picture camera the lens. The lens is the
camera's eye and as such performs for it much the same function as
our own eyes do in our heads. Long ago it was discovered that a
piece of glass ground to a sphere, or portion of a sphere, would throw
some sort of a reflection or ' image ' of real objects before it. Doubt
less the first of these images to be formed in practice was the sun's
disc. The spot of light formed by the mischievous boy's burning
glass is in reality nothing more nor less than a well shaped * focussed f
image of the sun thrown upon a suitably combustible substance
with the avowed intention of utilising the heat rays concentrated
together with the light rays for the purpose of bringing about a con-
flagration. But though the sun is the easiest object to get a visible
image of by means of a lens, since it is so bright that such can be seen
and focussed in full daylight, yet all other objects throw images
in precisely the same way if the light reflected from their surfaces is
similarly "brought to a focus." Moreover, these images are made
visible at once by the simple process of screening off extraneous light,
which would otherwise obscure the comparatively dim evidence of
their formation.

Hence we arrive at the general arrangement of the hand camera
as shown in fig. i.

The surface of the plate actually gets thrown upon it at the moment
of exposure a real picture or ' image ' of the actual objects in front of
the camera. Since some of these outside objects are naturally darker
than others, it will follow that subsequent development of the plate
will bring about a silver deposit of variable density according to
whether the amount of light action has been great or little at any
particular point. So do we produce the ' negative,' or black and white
record upon glass, of the object photographed, upon which record .the
whole basis of practical photography rests, and from which ' negative "
the ' positive ' or regular photograph is obtained by a process known
as ' printing,' of which more in Chapter 8.

That the image thrown by a lens upon the sensitive surface is
in fact a real one is very easily proved by removing the back of the
camera and substituting in place of the sensitive plate a piece of finely

4 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

ground glass. If, then, the shutter be opened so as not to impede
the light, a picture of all objects before the camera -will be seen upon
the ground glass in the form of a coloured and inverted image. The
inversion of the picture is got over in practice by the extremely simple
expedient of righting the negative when using. There is no simple
way, however, of obtaining a record of the colours thrown by the
lens. For present purposes, therefore, these must be neglected.

A brief semi-technical description of the action of a lens appears
in the appendix to this part.

We have now mentioned the three fundamental parts of a still
picture camera, namely, the sensitive plate, the light tight box sur-
rounding it, and the lens. Let us hope that from the consideration
of these, we have also grasped something at least of the underlying
principle of photography as such. It remains for us to go a step
further and examine the one additional contrivance by which what
would otherwise be a still picture camera is turned into a moving picture
recorder. This contrivance may take various forms, all of them in-
tended to accomplish the same purpose the moving onward, jerk
by jerk, behind the lens, of a band of photographically coated celluloid
so that this same coated band may play the part of a rapidly replaced
succession of ' plates/ for the quick recording of negative after nega-
tive at the rate of approximately sixteen pictures per second.

The contrivance which imparts to the film band its above men-
tioned jerky movement, and which is possessed only by kinemato-
graph cameras, thereby differentiating them from those of the single
' still picture ' variety, is known as the ' escapement/ or intermittent
mechanism.

A PICTURE SHOW PROPRIETOR IN THE FAR EAST.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

CHAPTER II.
THE (CINEMATOGRAPH CAMERA.

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Perforafedfflm stock

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Granted we have contained in our kinematograph camera a suf-
ficient length of the ribbon like film to be photographed upon, there
are two main problems to be faced in the manner of applying the
required intermittent motion to it. First, we must provide the motion
with a satisfactory grip upon the film stock. Then there will be the
matter of arranging the mechanism of the camera so as to pull down the
film an amount corresponding with the height of one picture sixteen
times a second for so long as it is in operation. The way of making film
stock capable of being easily gripped is by ' perforating/ or punching
small holes in its edges at intervals.

Unperforated film stock
looks like a plain milky
white coated length of cellu-
loid ribbon, whereas when
perforated, the apertures
are plainly seen running
along its edges as in fig. 2.
Once these perforations
have been made, it is easy FlG - 2 -

to see that the task of getting a grip upon the film for its intermittent
movement is immensely simplified. Neither is it difficult for the
mind to conceive that such is probably accomplished by a species of
hooking action.

The form of hook actually employed in the intermittent move-
ment or escapement of kinematograph cameras is called by the various
names of * pin ' or ' claw/ They both really mean the same thing,
except, perhaps, to the straw-splitting mind. The following diagram
is intended at one and the same time to give the reader a fair idea
of the internal arrangement of a motion picture camera and to explain
simply the hook, pin, or claw action upon which in some form the
mechanism almost always depends.

Fig. 3 shows an excellent and simple type of present day motion
picture camera with the film threaded as it would be during use.
This film will be seen to emerge through a light trap in the outer
bottom corner of the upper film box. From thence it passes between
an upper ' sprocket ' (a ' sprocket ' or sprocket wheel being a wheel
cut with a double row of blunt spurs or teeth to fit into the
film's perforations) and an ' idler/ B. The function of the idler is
merely to keep the film fed against the top sprocket, which moves at

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR AP H V.

FEED,

FILM BOX

TAKE UP,
FILM BOX

FIG. 3 .

a constant rate on turn-
ing the camera handle
(not shown in the" dia-
gram), and so causes the
sensitive stock to move
from the upper film box.
A moment's thought
will show that if this
were the only moving,
part in the camera, the
result of it would be
merely to wind the whole
of the sensitive film out
of the film box into the
body of the instrument
without accomplishing

FIG. 4.

anything else. As a matter of fact, nothing of the sort happens.
And that brings us to the consideration of the escapement itself.

This will be found figured just below the gate
runners F. G is a double bar made of finely tem-
pered steel (see fig. 4). It is pivotted eccentrically
upon the revolving skeleton drum H (fig. 3), also
shown larger in fig. 4. This skeleton drum, is like
the sprocket wheel, caused to turn at a uniform rate
by operating the camera handle. But as it revolves,
it will have the effect of turning the double hook
arms G not round and round with it but more or less
up and down in a track which is further governed
and made definite by the cam K, shown in fig. 5.
This cam has in it a groove of just the right size to
accommodate the roller-encased bar Z (fig. 4).

But to go into this last more carefully: Look at
fig. 5 once again and we will ask ourselves what is
the effect of revolving the drum H in the direction
of the arrow. It will be plain that such rotation
would have the effect of pulling the pivot R of
the arm G to the right and downwards. This
would throw the hooks on the end of G toward
the film stock, since the roller bar held in the
cam is converting G into a lever. Imagine that
the amount of sideways throw is just sufficient
to cause the hooks to become firmly engaged with the nearest
perforations before such motion is counterbalanced by the down-
ward thrust brought about by the continued rotation of H. \Ye
now have the film firmly gripped by its perforations and in a
state of being pulled rapidly downward. Such movement will be
continued until the movement of R to the left again, as it nears the
lowermost extent of its travel, causes G to swing to the right, leaving

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR AP H Y. 7

the film free. Once that phase has come about, the film's movement
naturally stops dead and remains so for approximately one half a
revolution of H, by which time the point R has come up again, and
into position for the repetition of the whole cycle.

Here then we have practically realised the required intermittent
motion required by the exigencies of kinematography. All that now
remains to be done is to take up the slack film as it is passed through
the gate C, behind the camera lens E, and shutter D. This taking
up of slack is accomplished by the second sprocket and idler LM
which are like the top ones geared to move continuously. The final
winding up of the exposed film is accomplished by leading it through
a light trap into the take-up box, where a spring attachment holds it
to a revolving bobbin.

So much for the description of one of the typical modern camera
escapements. It may fairly be said that once the above action has
been grasped, the numerous variations of the claw or pin movement
found in cameras of different makes should furnish no real difficulty
to the mechanically minded photographer. But still, there are several
points about the motion picture camera which have so far gone undes-
cribed, notably the camera shutter, the take-up mechanism, the arrange-
ment of the gate, and the gearing whereby the necessary motion is
imparted to the whole mechanism on turning the camera handle.

The ' gate ' of a motion picture camera consists fundamentally
of two parts ; the picture mask proper and a spring plate so arranged
as to press the film upon it, thus holding it firm and flat
after each period of travel. Camera gates look different in various
instruments. They may have their own ways of opening and closing
when film has to be ' threaded.' Also the pressure springs and ' run-
ners ' by which the film is kept tight against the mask may be dif-
ferently arranged and have different modes of adjustment. But all
gates are the same in principle and fulfil exactly the same purpose.
They all need most careful attention by the camera man at frequent
intervals, and all give speedy evidence of neglect by a host of
imperfections arising in the negatives taken with their help. Chief
among such defects are scratches and breakages, to say nothing of
unsteady pictures, all of which follow as the necessary result of a
dirty gate mask or runners, or of wrong adj ustment of spring tension.
In fact, without going too far, it may well be said that nine-tenths of
the difficulties encountered by the camera man in connection with
his apparatus will be mixed up with the gate. Camera gate
springs, runners, and mask are best kept clean by rubbing with the
end of a clean oblong piece of typewriting eraser, after which the
cleaned parts should be carefully wiped with a very slightly oily rag.

Let us now to the shutter and its mechanism.

The shutter of a kinematograph camera is of a gratifyingly simple
kind. It consists of a sector of a circle of light metal placed upon the
end of a shaft so geared as to cause the metal blade to revolve one whole
turn for each picture shift. The blade is timed to come in the track

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

FIG. 6.

of the lens, thus intercepting the light rays, whenever the escapement
comes into operation to shift the film downwards. At other times,
the image thrown by the lens is allowed to reach the film unobscured.

Fig. 6 gives a diagrammatic idea of the
relative position of lens and shutter as
seen from a point of view in front of
a skeleton camera : A the lens, B the

B OVt) > \ snutter ' ( a ) represents the position of

"* the sector during exposure of the film
in the gate, while (b) represents the
position of shutter at time of picture
shift. For the sake of clearness, arrows
are included showing the plane of rota-
tion of the shutter.
In practice, the shutter of a motion picture camera instead of
being made solid as represented in fig. 6, is generally composed of
two pieces which can be set to overlap one another till they
assume the same form as that already depicted,
or may be drawn apart, so as to narrow down
the cut-away portion of the metallic light obscur-
ing circle as in fig. 7, thus giving the photographer
an additional power over his instrument. How
this power is taken advantage of in practice
will be gone into later on. In looking after the
shutter of a motion picture camera, the great thing
is to see that the gearing which drives the shaft is
kept well oiled with not too thin an oil, that the
shutter blades themselves remain dead black and do
do not become bent, and that the sectors are quite firm in their bush.
A tin of some high quality photographic dead black should always
be kept handy for going over the shutter blades and front of the pic-
ture mask. The reason of the presence of the shutter in a kinemato-
graph camera is one which will be apparent to every photographer.
Were it not for its function of ' capping the lens ' during each picture
change, the movement of the film would cause the sky portion of
each negative to fog the foreground, while all bright objects of small
size would appear on the film negative with comet-like tails of fog
proceeding upwards and downwards from them.

The reason of the ' take-up ' has already been explained. It
only remains to make clear how its effect is brought about. Each
film box is provided in its interior with a revolving bobbin connected
through a light-tight bushing with a rotating plate on the outside of the
back of the box. The face of this plate is provided with studs to engage
with an independent bar connected with a friction-clutch driven by
the camera handle. All that is necessary, therefore, when using a
film box as a take-up is to pass the end of the film (previously threaded
through the gate and lower sprocket unit) through the light trap in
the box's corner, and then connect it firmly with the bobbin by means

FIG. 7.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y. 9

of a suitable spring clip. The constantly rotating bar driving through
the friction clutch in the camera's mechanism does the rest.

And now to the nature of that mechanism itself. In most cameras
of ordinary type it is to be got at by opening a door on the right hand
or opposite side of the camera to that giving access to the film and
escapement. Broadly speaking, it will be found to include a main
gear wheel mounted on a suitable frame and capable of being expe-
ditious iy connected with the moveable camera handle. This main
wheel transmits power to the five principal camera motions either
through a train of spur wheels or by a mixture of spur wheel and chain
drive. Spring bands are often employed for connecting the take-up.
Power has to be transmitted somehow to top sprocket, shutter, escape-
ment, bottom sprocket and take-up, and it is important that the camera
man should not content himself merely with mastering his machine
as revealed through the left-hand door, but should also make himself
thoroughly acquainted with the nature and function of every wheel
and piece of gearing hidden behind the right-hand one as well. This
will have to be done principally by the use of his own common sense,
since in hardly any two cameras is the arrangement for the driving
gear of the various motions exactly similar. At the same time, it
is only by mastering the meaning of each chain and spur wheel that
the photographer is in a position to guess the meaning of any sus-
picious ' grind/ which may from time to time strike upon his ear,
and to know how to put it right forthwith.

Such then is a brief dissertation on the bare bones of the moving
picture camera. There are, of course, several important parts of the
instrument which have been never so much as touched upon in the
foregoing. For instance, nothing so far has been said upon the arrange-
ments for, or methods of focussing. Then again, motion picture
cameras are fitted with various quite important, though subsidiary,
devices without which their use would be very much a matter of hit
and miss. Under such heads might be classed film recorders for
registering the number of feet of sensitive film stock consumed when
taking any given subject, view finders, and the like. But the place
of such may well come in the next and succeeding chapters. The
tripod is also a most important feature of the kinematograph photo-
grapher's kit which will be dealt with hereafter.

What we have tried to do for the present is to describe the essen-
tials of motion picture taking apparatus just sufficiently to enable
the reader to bring an intelligent mind to bear upon the more particular
descriptions of different makers' instruments which follow.

io HANDBOOK OF K J N E M ATOGR APH Y.

CHAPTER III.

THE CHOICE OF CAMERA KIT.

Before we can go to the practical side of handling motion picture
apparatus, it will be necessary to see about purchasing the apparatus
itself. Only when we decide on the particular camera, tripod, or
whatever it may be, we contemplate using, shall we be in a position
to thrash out the many minor details of manipulation which distinguish
it from other and slightly differing models on the market. Thus, to
take the motion picture camera as a start, our particular one may be
furnished with two sprockets, or it may have only one. It may possess
outside film boxes (though these are now pretty nearly obsolete), or it
may be fitted with the more modern inside ones. It may have focuss-
ing from the front or the back of the camera. In fact, a motion picture
camera is, in its way, quite an individuality. Let us pass from the
abstract to the concrete, and examine the individualities of some of
those most worthy of our attention.

FIG. 8. SECTIONAL VIEW OF LOADED CAMERA.

For the extremely moderate sum of 8 ios., Messrs. Butcher and
Sons supply their Empire Camera No. I. This is a useful little instru-
ment of the single sprocket variety, having inside film boxes of 120

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. ir

feet capacity. It is fitted with a Voigtlander Collinear lens, and will
be found an admirable little instrument for the amateur or learner,
as also for the picture theatre manager wishful to turn out his own
short length local topicals. Fig. 8 shows the Empire Camera No 2,
put out by the same firm. This is a regular professional instrument.
It has film boxes of 165 feet capacity, and a Zeiss Tessor lens working
at F6.3. Focussing is from the front and also from the back of camera.
There is a film indicator to show number of feet used on any given
subject, and altogether the camera is a thoroughly efficient one.

THE WALTURDAW

FIG. 9. A CAMERA CLOSED FOR USE.

Needless to say, where a professional type of instrument is required,
cost must always be reckoned as subservient to solidity and accuracy
of construction. A camera combining moderation of price with many
expecially valuable features is supplied by Messrs. Walturdaw, the
name of this firm being also a household word in the trade. We
append an illustration of this Walturdaw D model patent Bioscope
'Camera (fig. 9). Though this particular picture does not show the
camera's interior, it may be taken for granted by the reader all's well
within as well as without. The claw movement is of the best, bush-

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

ings being specially hardened, and the whole tested to the point of
absolute unswerving reliability. The Walturdaw camera also boasts
what the last did not, namely, a feet film indicator, so essential both
in general, and even more particularly in trick work. The two lower
bosses shown on the camera's side are respectively the handle connec-
tions for reversing and speeding down, both of which matters will
be found described further on in the chapter on trick kinematography.
The lens also possesses accurate means of focussing, while inspection
of the f ocussed image is through a tube extending from the camera gate
to the back of the instrument.

FIG. 10. ANOTHER POPULAR CAMERA.

FIG. ii.

THE CAMERA SHUTTER.

Perhaps this focussing tube arrangement will be better understood
by reference to the next illustration, that of the Kineto camera (manu-
factured under Moy and Bastie's patents). Here the tube will be seen
to be situate between the two film boxes. It may be recognised as
that portion of the instrument on which the block maker has engraved
the name ' Kineto/ Looking carefully at the camera back, one sees
a door partially open, and through which, on looking through the aper-
ture and up the length of this tunnel-shaped tube, sight of the gate

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APHY. 13

can be obtained for focussing purposes. This same illustration will
give us an excellent idea of the mode of threading up the film in a
high grade camera. The unexposed roll has been previously placed in
the topmost film box. The projecting end will then be seen to pass
between the jockey rollers and the topmost or feed sprocket of the
camera, down through the gate and back into the take-up box over
the sprockets of the take-up sprocket wheel. The whole system of
threading is, however, shown much plainer in the illustration than

FIG. 12. EXTERIOR OF PATHS CAMERA.

any verbal description could make it. The Kineto camera, besides
being provided with all the advantageous movements and attachments
common to high grade picture taking instruments in general, boasts
many features quite its own, all of them tending toward the greatest
perfection in kinematograph photography. Thus, the shutter is of
very light construction, and of very variable aperture (see illustration
n)., also the escapement, while conforming in general with the prm-

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

ciple of the claw, is exquisitely constructed upon a system reminiscent
of the old Lumiere movement, which for sheer unerring accuracy,
has never yet been surpassed either in camera or projector. The lens
fitted to the Kineto camera (failing contrary orders) is a Zeiss Tessar,
working at the extremely wide aperture of F3'.5, and supplied in a
helicoidal focussing mount, which renders the operation of focussing

FIG. 13. WORKING PARTS OF PATH CAMERA.

as also of scaling the lens when so required one of extreme ease.
The Kineto camera is therefore a most perfect instrument, but it is
not low in price ; neither is the Pathe camera, illustrated in
Figs. 12 and 13.

Fig. 12 gives a general view of the camera as seen by the man in
the street. Here we note that a strong point in its favour is its simi-

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

larity in general appearance to a rather large snap-shot camera. Where
ostentation may prove a disadvantage, as is by no means seldom the
case, the above points may tell heavily towards the kinematographer's
success. The handle, however, must always give away the moving
picture man to those even a little in the know. Fig. 13 should
set at rest all our doubts as to the Pathe camera being really

FIG 14. WRENCH REVOLVING TRIPOD HEAD WITH TILTING TABLE.

FIG. 15. A COMPLICATED TRIPOD HEAD.

of the ordinary snap-shot variety. Instead, we see its interior to be
fairly seething with machinery, all of it, be it said, of the most accurate
and beautifully finished description. Messrs. Pathe's long-lived repu-
tation for having everything of the best should alone be enough
guarantee for us in this respect. In the Pathe camera also, the claw
movement is modelled largely according to the old Lumiere model,
wherein the distinguishing feature is that the pins of the escapement
mechanism strike down and up in a rectangular path, their grip or

16 HANDBOOK OF K I NE MA TOGR A PH Y.

otherwise upon the film perforations being controlled by a second
movement which shoots them in and out automatically after the man-
ner of bolts. In common with most other high grade cameras, the
Pathe one has film boxes of large capacity, thus admitting of the
continuous photographing of incidents extending over upwards of
seven minutes at a time. So much then, for kinematograph cameras
in general and in particular. We have glanced at models ranging

FIG. 16. ANOTHER TYPE OF TRIPOD HEAD.

in price from the inside of a ten pound note complete with tripod, to
over fifty pounds. And that last remark about the tripod leads on
insensibly to consideration of this absolutely indispensable part of
the motion picture man's equipment.

Tripods for motion picture work differ from those used in still
view photography chiefly on two points, one being their weight four-
teen to sixteen pounds is very moderate for a kinematograph tripod
and the other the presence of mechanical turning movements in
the tripod head. Figs. 14 and 15 illustrate two forms of mechanical
tripod heads, the first from those excellent makers of apparatus,
Wrench and Son, and the other from Pathe Freres. The simpler one,
possessing only one handle, is what is known as a ' panoram ' head.
In this case, the table top surface upon which the camera is bolted,
can be made to revolve slowly round and round in either direction,
by virtue of turning the actuating handle to or from the operator.

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APH Y. 17

The more complicated tripod head possesses beyond this panoram
action, a second camera tilting device, also worked by a handle-turning
attachment, and sometimes referred to as a ' maxim ' movement,
from the similarity between it and the elevating mechanism of the
Maxim gun. The Maxim attachment is very convenient at all times,

FIG. 1 8.

CAMERA HEAD, SHOWING HANDLES
CLOSED.

THE WALTURDAW

TRIPOD

FIG. 1 7.
TRIPOD WITH HEAD ATTACHED.

and especially where it is desired to obtain a wide panorama of objects
above or beneath the camera level. In fact, without it, such slanting
panoramic attempts are sure to show a tipping of the horizon at
some point or other in the resulting picture. Illustration 16 gives
another close view of the combined revolving and tilting head as fitted
to one of Messrs. Butcher's motion picture tripods.

iS HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y,

On page 17, we see the same applied to the Walturdaw
tripod. This tripod, it should be added, has the special advantages
of lightness (it is not more than fourteen pounds weight all told),
portability, and a most reasonable price. It is, moreover, fitted with
handles which fold up after use, instead of having to be removed,
the latter course often leading to the omission from the working ki,t
of one or other of the tripod handles at a time when it is most required.
The writer speaks feelingly on the point, having before now been
seriously handicapped through just this catastrophe brought about
by a simple failure of memory.

In the matter of the view finder, most field operators will agree
that something of the kind should be attached or attachable to the
motion picture camera, for use when photographing topicals, fast
moving objects, and under conditions of general hurry and excite-
ment. Otherwise, there is great liability for there to be needless waste
of film stock by starting the handle too early, and continuing turning
after the point- is reached when the photographic record ceases to be
useful. At the same time, by no means all operators are agreed as
to the best form of finder to employ. Some make use of a simple
hollow rectangular tube or frame affixed to the camera body in such
a position that, by looking through it, a more or less correct idea
of the picture field is obtained by simple direct vision, unaided by any
form of optical lens system whatever. Probably, the far better course
for the budding camera operator will be to make his choice of a view
finder from one or two well-known and recognised models. Either let
it be a finder of the kind consisting of a rectangular conclave lens,
behind which is fixed a central sighting bead, after the manner of a
military gun sight, or let it be a finder of the box form type, in which
a front convex lens throws a real image of the scene to be taken upon
a ground glass screen at the rear of the finder box. View finders of
both types are stocked by all makers of and dealers in motion picture
cameras.

And now a word as to the motion picture taking lens. It has
been said already, kinematograph cameras are usually supplied ready
fitted with a suitable lens, but, though this is true, several makers
require the purchaser to make his choice from amongst two or three
alternative ones specified on their lists. For this reason, we append
illustrations of some of those instruments best known and best suited
to the work in hand. And here let us say that for ordinary purposes,
the focus of a kinematograph lens should be anything between twa
inches and three and a half inches, the shorter focus being generally
most useful for topical filming in restricted situations, and the longer
for scenic and artistic work, where there is plenty of elbow room at
the camera man's command.

Illustration 19 is of a Zeiss Tessar lens. This lens works at F3.5,
at which extra wide aperture, it gives critically sharp definition over

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR A PH Y.

SOME OF THE BEST CAMERA LENSES.

FIG. IQ. ZEISS TESSAR LENS.

FIG. 20. E-JUSCH GLAUKAR LENS.

FIG. 21. DALLMEYER F/i-g LENS. FK;. 22. VOIGTLANDER HELIAR LENS.

FIG. 23. BECK NEOSTIGMAR AND ISOSTIGMAR LENSES.

20 - HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APH Y.

the whole area of the kinematograph film picture. More than this we
need not say of it, for its suitability for the work in question is a matter
ot universal acceptance.

Illustration 20 shows another lens still newer in design, and wider
of aperture (that is to say, more rapid) than the Tessar. This is the
Busch Glaukar at F3.i. Although quite a newcomer into the kine-
matograph field, the Glaukar is well spoken of, whilst its great rapidity,
coupled with the name of the firm producing it the Emil Busch Optical
Company should assure for it a triumphal future. In the succeeding
lens, however, the matter of rapidity is still further brought in evidence.
Indeed, in the No. 2 Dallmeyer Kinematograph Lens, we have speed
at what is for the present its absolute high water mark as regards
motion picture making. The illustration (21), gives an idea of this
lens, which, however, is necessarily a somewhat massive instrument,
the result of its prodigious aperture.

For working under the most adverse conditions of lighting, this
lens is quite pre-eminent, and we are particularly glad to say so, and
in so doing give the palm for combined speed and excellence to an
English firm, with a half century of solid British standing behind it.
At the same time, the Dallmeyer No. 2 is a special lens for special pur-
poses. For normal working conditions, its rapidity is quite uncalled
for, so that it will be well for us to bear in mind the same firm also
supply other excellent lenses for the picture man who may not be in
pursuit of an ultra-speedy and consequently weighty, delicate and
rather expensive objective.

To finish up the matter of lenses, we figure two other well known
types, namely the Heliar of Messrs. Voigtlander and Sohn, and the
Isostigmar of Messrs. Beck. (Illustrations 22 and 23.)

The former of these two lenses has a great popularity both in
England and on the Continent as a medium rapid kinematograph lens,
rendering pictures of absolutely irreproachable definition and good
apparent depth of focus. Its aperture is F4-5. This is also the aper-
ture of the Isostigmar, but here the claim to recognition is somewhat
different, inasmuch as the latter lens is notable as being the commercial
expression of a completely new idea in optical formulae. Perhaps,
however, to the purchaser, another and even more pressing point of
excellence in the Isostigmar may be found in its extreme moderation
of price. We will only add that it is in all ways every bit as good
as any other lens here mentioned.

The present would seem to be the place to touch briefly upon the
subject of film perforating machines. As has already been explained,
the action of the kinematograph escapement upon the film depends
upon its first having been perforated with a series of extremely accurately
spaced and sized holes near either edge of the film stock. The making
of these holes or perforations will be readily appreciated as a task in-
volving the most precise of mechanical contrivances, since upon abso-
lute freedom from error depends the ultimate steadiness of the projected
moving picture, as seen by the public on the theatre screen. Moreover,

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y. 21

extremely delicate and accurate machinery cannot, of its nature,
be cheap to buy. Below we figure the Williamson perforator known
technically as a ' step by step ' machine, the older rotary pattern
perforators being now quite obsolete. For further particulars of the
step by step principle, as applied to kinematograph machinery, see
the chapter on film printers and positive printing.

FIG. 24. WILLIAMSON FILM PERFORATOR.

The Williamson perforator is a beautiful little machine, compara-
tively inexpensive and highly efficient. It can be driven by hand or
motor power, and perforates two films at a time, face to face. Since
film stock is perforated unexposed, at which time it is highly light-
sensitive, those with some experience of photographic matters will
at once realise the necessity of perforating under strict ' dark room

FIG 25. EMPIRE FILM PERFORATOR.

conditions.' Others will probably buy their first few rolls of film stock
ready perforated, leaving the business of doing this at home till the time
when they will be a trifle more expert in the handling of the sensitive
film rolls. Another perforator of excellent accuracy and great moder-
ation of price is the Empire perforator of Messrs. Butcher (Fig. 25).

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y.

It sells at 30, a lot of money perhaps, but a mere bagatelle com-
pared to the price of some perforators. The Empire is a splendid
little instrument. Those who are determined to ' hang the expense/
may be interested in the accompanying illustration of the Debrie
perforator. The firm of Debrie, it may be said, has its headquarters
in Paris, and has for years led the way in the matter of sumptious
motion picture apparatus of all descriptions.

FIG. 26. DEBRIE FILM PERFORATOR.

FIG. 27. KINETO FILM PERFORATOR.

We complete the list of perforators we can recommend whole
heartedly with an illustration of the Kineto machine. As in all matters

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 23

connected with the name of the firm, there is nothing of the
cheap and nasty about it. On the other hand, it combines elegance
with ' doing the work/ and this in the most complete way possible*
Our next illustration (Fig. 28) is of a little film perforation gauge
made by the firm of Debrie. It will be seen to consist of a number of

FIG. 28. DEBRIE PERFORATION GAUGE.

accurately cut metal teeth so spaced that by applying them to the per-
foration holes of a correctly perforated film, complete and perfect
registration will result. Another excellent way of testing perforations
without any special appliance whatever, is to double a length of the
film 'over itself at a point midway between two perforation holes,

FIG. 29. A POPULAR FILM MEASURER.

and lay the doubled up film under pressure between slabs of plate glass.
Observation as to the alteration of register between opposing sprocket
holes will soon show whether the film perforator is or is not at fault.

HANDBOOK OF K INE M A TOGR APH Y.

Where there is reason to suspect that rolls of film stock may be
of short length and perhaps also where there may be no definite
reason for believing it common sense would indicate the advisability
of installing some check on film lengths, if such can be conveniently
done at small outlay. Such an effective check is forthcoming in the
little machine known as a film measurer, of which an example (that
of Messrs. Butcher) is shown, Fig. 29. Unlike the perforator, the film
measurer is a machine of comparatively low price. In the case of
shortage of length of film consignments, it will save its cost in no time.
It is also of service for checking the length of completed kinematograph
positive films intended for projection. Moreover, the particular
model here figured may, if desired, be on occasion pressed into general
service as an excellent film winder or rewinder.

There is but one item more that need be touched upon in this
chapter before bringing it to a close. It is not, strictly speaking, a
piece of kinematograph machinery either, for it is just as applicable
and almost as useful to the still view photographer. It is the pocket
exposure meter, without which no conscientious picture man can ever
consider himself fully equipped for his work.

Exposure meters are of various patterns, but most of them work
on the same fundamental principal ; that of (A) testing the value of
the light by means of a timed exposure of a strip of light sensitive paper,
the test time being that in which the exposed sensitive strip occupies
in turning the colour of a given painted patch upon the meter's face ;
and (B) the ascertaining of the correct exposure by means of printed
scales upon the meter, read in conjunction with the figure denoting
the time taken by the test strip to darken, the aperture of the lens
stop, and the rapidity of the film stock employed in the camera.

The two mv/st used exposure meters are those known respectively
as the Watkins, and the Wynne meter. Watkins meters run from
2s. 6d. upwards, Wynne meters from 6s. 6d. Both are, at a casual
glance much like ordinary watches to look at, in fact, when had in
sterling silver cases, they make very sensible and sightly additions to
the blank end of a double swivel watch chain. They are figured below.

FIG. 30. EXPOSURE METERS.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y.

CHAPTER IV.

IN THE FIELD.

SCENIC WORK.

Suppose ourselves ordered to take a series of exposures on some
well known home beauty spot. We will try to set forth something
of the system of going to work.

First we ascertain the length of film we shall require, and en-
deavour to obtain possession of stock as fresh as possible. It must
be perforated.

Having got hold of the requisite perforated negative film and
collected as many spare film boxes as required to hold it, load up and
see that this is accomplished the right way. To load a film box,
first open it empty in daylight and dust it well inside, after which
examine the velvet lining of the light trap. Make sure this velvet
is firmly stuck down and not lopping about lose inside the box, as the
writer has known it to be before now. Also see to it that the lips of
the trap are clean and free from grit. This may be done by carefully
passing a slip of cambric between them on the point of a thin-bladed
paper knife. Draw the cambric backward and forward till the slit
is cleaned. Presuming the box is sound and light tight, it is now
ready for loading in the dark room.

The arrangement of this dark room will not be gone into deeply
here ; it is to be treated of in a separate chapter. Suffice it to say
for the present that when loading film boxes, the room has to be
illuminated only by a lamp capable of shedding a pure dull red light,
and a by no means strong one at that.

Unfasten the top from the film tin, lift out the paper or foil
enclosed roll of stock and remove all wrappings. Now run the fingers
of the right hand round the cellu-
loid rim of the roll gently till the
end of it is found. The roll is
now laid loosely over the bobbin
of the film box, but not fastened
to it by means of the spring clip
used when threading a take-up
box. The correct way of the
loaded-in roll is such that the film
unwinds from it parallel to the
bottom of the box, as in fig. 8.
Loaded in such a way, the tag
of film sticking through the out- Fic " 3It

let (through which, of course, the end must be passed) will have its
emulsion side uppermost. Should the celluloid side be uppermost,

26 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR AP H V.

it is proof the film roll has been inserted wrong way round. When
the film is loaded, and before taking the film box from the dark room,
don't forget to put on the door and turn the catch securely.

As to the advice just given, to use a sufficient number of film
boxes to contain all the stock for the trip, it will be understood this
only applies to flying trips made in the home country, and where the
amount of film used is not to be more than one or two thousand feet
at most. Under such circumstances, it is a great saving of time and
temper to do as suggested, and thus get rid of the annoyance attendant
upon having to unload and re-load film in hotel bedrooms, etc.

Now to collect our kit before getting out and about. This should
consist of the following: camera (with handle), view finder, film
boxes, and take-up box, spring bobbins for clipping the film ends
in the take-up (the same number of these will be required as there are
charged film boxes), tripod with the necessary handle or handles
for controlling the automatic gear. Probably, a stiff carrying case
will also be included wherein to keep the camera when not in use,
while another small piece of apparatus will find a place in the pocket
of the really concientious and up-to-date camera man, though the
writer is well aware it is in by no means general use by the members
of the motion picture making fraternity. This last adjunct is an
exposure meter, the nature and use of which has already been ex-
plained on page 24.

Let us now get to the actual filming operations. Artistically
speaking, there are a good many more ways than one of going to work.
One man will make it an invariable rule before touching the beauty
spots of any locality to do a preliminary round of the picture post
card shops by way of obtaining inspiration for his work. A hurried
trip will then be taken to the scenes thus selected by him for
the purpose of arranging with the local cottagers and others any simple
effects of movement, such as milking, sheep-driving and the like,
which may be possible.

The weak point here would seem to be chiefly the dependence
placed upon the picture postcards in the first place. But yet, it must
be admitted, the film man would often be at a grave disadvantage
without them. Generally he comes to make his films on a strict time
limit. He is not able to ramble about at his own sweet will clay after
day till he has discovered pet scenic effects for himself. What
else can he do then but have recourse to previously existing photos
of the locality ? Let us grant all this. Yet even so, one can at least
exercise the privilege of handling a conventional view from a slightly
different standpoint to the usual one, and also, if possible, under rather
different circumstances of lighting from the stereotyped conditions
of the local view maker, and this much, in the writer's opinion, the
first rate camera man should and will do.

Now to the technique of exposing a scenic film. Let us suppose
we are standing before the subject to be recorded. It may be a water-

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 27

fall, a mountain path, or such like. The first thing to do is to take
the height and direction of the sun. If the day is cloudy or dull,
the same must be estimated as well as possible, though a really dull
day can never be expected to yield results possessing any great amount
of brilliancy and sparkle.

Having got the sun's direction, one notes whether this will be
to the front, back or side of the camera when the lens is pointing to-
wards the required view. Roughly speaking, the best position is
when the sun is behind but not quite at the back of the camera.
Such a standpoint is at least more often useful than any other. With
the sun right behind you get a flat result. With the sun quite
to the side, shadows thrown by the various objects in the view are apt
to become obtrusive, though this is not to say such an effect is always
an evil. Sometimes even for special effects, one may photograph
with the sun straight in front of the camera, provided it is high in
the heavens, and the lens glass is kept well shaded from its rays.
That remark has no connection with the making of so-called moon-
light effects, where the lens is pointed right at a cloud behind which
a low sun is shooting out its rays. Such ' moonlight ' work almost
comes under the head of trick photography, whereas the effects ob-
tained with a high sun and well-shaded lens are often highly
pleasing and artistic. They are, however, more of the nature of
advanced studies for the hardened camera man, and not the sort of
thing to learn upon. Let us lay down for a start then that we may
have the sun anywhere within a semi-circle of which the middle would
point toward the back of the camera, and provided also the objects
we want to stand out in the film record are well illuminated. This
is giving the lie direct to the suuperstition that flat back lighting is
the right thing to make for, such an idea being absolute bosh.

Having selected view and lighting, which is best done with the
aid of a box view finder, the next thing is to carry the camera kit to
the point from whence the desired effect is obtained, and fit up.
After that, focussing is accomplished either on the threaded film itself ,
should the general light be good, or on a piece of matt celluloid placed in
the gate for the purpose, where lighting conditions are poorer, or the
motion picture man's eyes not quite up to the strain of framing a
sharp image on the somewhat opaque sensitive film. (Instructions
for threading film were given in Chapter 3.) For the purpose of
focussing, and supposing a reasonably good lens is being employed,
the full aperture is utilised, while the object sharply focussed is in-
variably to be that which is of most importance in the finished film.

Now re-thread the film in the gate (supposing it has been taken
out for focussing on matt celluloid) give a last look at the film and
escapement to see all is in place, attach the camera handle and give a
half-turn with the left hand door open, watching the while to make
sure the escapement and take-up are going right. See that the door
of the take-up box is in place, then close camera door securely, and
proceed to take the light value with the aid of the exposure meter. This

28 HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGRAPH Y.

is the very best advice the writer can give, and those who follow it
from the first will not regret doing so. There never was a greater
absurdity than the idea current among some camera men that one is
not a finished photographer until one can tell the light value ' by
instinct/ No one can tell the light value by instinct. The most
they can do is to stumble upon the correct exposure for certain average
classes of conditions, which conditions will be for ever deceiving them,
and causing them to make howling mistakes right up to the end.
But they won't admit it, and so to themselves they seem to have achieved
the impossible.

' Don't run before you can crawl ' is a good motto, but in the
present connection, its application is indirect, since no sensible man
ever pretends to have got to the stage of perfection as regards judg-
ment of exposure, and those who do pretend to it are not sensible
men.

Now to set the stop and shutter aperture. Here is real scope for
a master hand.

In the first place, supposing the light is very good, we shall
probably find ourselves placed with the alternative of very small
stop or equally small shutter aperture. If we adopt the former course
and stop down tremendously it will have the effect of putting the whole
of the view into marvellously sharp focus. But don't run away with
the idea that this is always the best thing to aim for. For in-
stance, the scene may embrace a waterfall, which can't be too sharp,
and which has therefore been focussed upon in the first place so that
it will be sharp anyway, 'and there may also be a range of mountain
peaks and hills in the background. But these latter, especially if
tree-clad, might quite possibly be made much too sharp by over-stopping
down, in which event the trees upon the hillside would compete with
the waterfall for supremacy in the view, so spoiling the effect of each
part of the picture. Here is a simple matter for the camera man's
skill and good judgment. The stopping should be carried to a point
where a reasonably harmonious result shows itself on the focussed
picture, and the rest of exposure adjustment must now be made
by narrowing the shutter aperture.

A word about lens stops or diaphragms. In the form of lens
attached to kinematograph cameras, alteration of diaphragm is effected
by the movement of a ring or pin on the lens mount which causes the
' iris ' inside to open and close like the iris of a cat's eye, except that
the hole in the middle always remains circular in shape. Around
the lens barrel will be found engraved numbers which on English
lenses run somewhere as follows : 14., 5.6., 8., n., 16., 22., 32. Some-
times the numbers are slightly different to these, such as 3.8., or
11.3., for instance. Such minor differences need not be very seriously
taken into account.

What about the virtue of engraving lenses with these ' F num-
bers ' ? The answer is that every lens, no matter how great its size,
or ' focal length,' works (theoretically at least) at an identical speed

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y. 29

when set at any given aperture. Thus, if the photographer has in
his camera set a two and a half inch and a three and a half inch lens,
both of them will require the same exposure when both are set, at
f8, for instance, or fn, or any other similar ' F number.' But these
aperture numbers possess another use beyond the above. Each
aperture requires double the exposure of the last, thus : if with a
lens at f^, the camera man finds the correct exposure would be the
eightieth of a second, then the exposure would be the fortieth of a
second (approximately the actual kinematograph exposure) at f5-6,
or the twentieth of a second (which would be too slow for practical
work) at f,8. In the latter case the shutter aperture would, if possible,
have to be considerably widened in order to avoid under exposure of
the kinematograph film. And this brings us to the shutter itself.

Sixteen pictures are taken per second, during which time the
shutter is making one revolution at uniform speed for each picture.
It follows as a matter of course that with the blades full open (in
which case the metallic sector will usually be approximately a semi-
circle, the rate of change in kinematograph cameras being about one
to one), each effective exposure will be somewhere about the duration
of a thirty-second part of a second. To simplify matters, let us say
the actual exposure under such conditions is the fortieth part of a
second, then by narrowing the cut-away portion of the shutter to a
quarter circle, exposure time is reduced to one eightieth second,
while with only one eighth circle shutter aperture, there will
be only the one hundred and sixtieth part of a second allowed for
each succeeding exposure.

Nothing but excessive light can justify the narrowing of shutter
aperture to such small limits as the last. As to helping the photo-
grapher in photographing rapid motion, it does nothing of the kind.
In kinematograph work one is not concerned with the freedom from
movement blur or otherwise of each single picture. It is true, of course,
that given sufficient light and a sufficiently rapid lens coupled with an
extremely small shutter aperture wonderfully sharp pictures (sharp, that
is to say, in the sense of being free from blur caused by recorded
motion) might be obtained of such things as galloping horses, racing
motors, etc. on the film. They would not project as well even as
would a film in which the individual pictures were distinctly blurred
through using a comparatively wide shutter aperture. For, whereas
in the latter case the eye might see on the screen a somewhat confused
impression of the speeding objects, in the former the only result of
abnormal closure of the shutter blades would be to produce on the
projection screen a double, triple, or multi-outlined image. Hence
one has to realise from the start that the shutter of the motion picture
camera, like the lens, takes a lot of knowing, for whereas the principal
object in a given film should always be sharp as far as its focussing
goes, that is not to say the shutter is also to be adjusted so as to elim-
inate all movement blur from the record.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

As a working basis for the novice at the camera, it might be laid
down that generally speaking, and provided the light allows, a stop
of about f8 with a shutter opening of one third of a circle is
right for most things. If the light varies one way or the other, it
is best to make the lens diaphragm anything from 15.6 to fi6, accord-
ing as the exposure meter directs, rather than manipulate the shutter
opening. This applies to all scenes where there is a fair amount of
movement. Only when the movement to be recorded is very slow,
as for instance in panoramic views where practically the whole of the
motion is transmitted to the picture by rotation of the tripod head,
is it safe to narrow down the shutter greatly rather than lose the effect
of atmosphere and softness which would result from over-stopping
down to compensate for undue light, or for a flat and over sunny
foreground.

The above, at any rate, embodies the writer's general system.
Needless to say, there are other, and in some cases, contrary views
held by various workers.

But while on this subject, there is another point about lenses
which must not go without comment. It is the question of their
focal length.

Upon the focal length of a lens in other words, upon the amount
of distance between the optical centre of a given lens and the focussed
image of a distant object produced by it upon the kinematograph film
depends a most important qualityof the picture : the relative importance
of fore-
ground and
distance.
Figs. 32
and 33 are
intended to
make the
reason of
this clearer.
In each
case, AB re-
present s
the focus-
sed kine-
m atograph
p i cture ,
which is, of
course, al-
ways of the
same exter-
nal dimen-

FIG. 32.

FIG. 33.

sions upon

the film. CC in the two figs, are two lenses, one of which

(C, fig. 32) has a focus three times that of the other. That is to

HANDBOOK OF KINEMATOGRAPHY. 31

say, its optical centre when it is focussed upon some distant object
is three times as far from the film AB, as is the optical centre of the
lens in fig. 33. The lines CD, CE show in each case the comparative
amounts of view which will be included on the film picture by the two
lenses. It will be seen at once that the direct result of the added
focal length of the lens in fig. 32 is to cut down its ' angle of view,' so
that proportionately less of the foreground is included in the picture
thrown by it, while far away objects must, of necessity, be greatly
magnified in size so as to fill up the space vacated by their nearer
neighbours. The result is therefore as already set forth : the longer
the lens's focal length the more the distance stands out in the picture,
and the less of the foreground is included. To return to the practical
aspect of the matter. The average ' focus ' (the ordinary loose way
of referring to focal length) of a taking lens for kinematography,
is in the neighbourhood of three inches. It is not usual to go below
two and a half inches on the short side, and indeed only a few of the
cameras on the market would be able to be fitted with a shorter focus
lens than this. On the other hand, long focus lenses may run easily
up to four or five inches, while for natural history work, photograph-
ing wild animals, birds on their eggs, and some other specialised
kinds of kinematography, much longer focus lenses even than the above
have been employed with success. It is said that the well-known
kinematographer of wild life, Mr. Cherry Kearton, often makes use
of lenses of nine inches focus or thereabouts. The longest focal length
which will be found of general use by the moving picture man is some-
where in the neighbourhood of four inches, while if, as is quite possible
he has to do all his work with one lens, three inches is the ' all
round ' focus to make for. This point of the kinematograph lens's
focus is raised here by way of exemplifying yet another factor in
which the scenic photographer may be called to display his skill.

Now we will assume the moment for exposure has arrived. The'
camera is focussed, the take-up box looked to and closed tight, the camera
also closed securely and pointed to the scene to be taken, and we will
suppose the finder is in its proper place on the left-hand side of the
camera, and as nearly as possible on a level with the lens. There is
nothing now to wait for but a satisfactory state of the picture
before we let fly upon it.

It may be a waterfall we are taking the same one we were focuss-
ing a while ago in that case, it is always at work and ready for us.
Give a glance upward to make sure there are no clouds drifting to-
ward the sun, or if there are, that they will only serve to enhance
the general pleasing effect of the picture by the play of light and shade
that comes sweeping over the landscape in their train, then all being
well, we may turn straight away. Twice a second the handle has to
go round with most modern cameras. Each turn accounts for eight
kinematograph pictures, and we must see to it the rate of turning is
uniform, and that there are no ' dead points ' during the twirling of
the handle (otherwise, moments when the hand slackens off, and allows

32 HANDBOOK OF K IN E M ATOGR APH Y.

a partial drop in speed during the revolution). While we turn we keep

an eye upon the view finder to see that the scenery is all right, and

incidentally that the camera is not vibrating unduly. If it is, or if

the tripod legs or head are not screwed up tight, or if the tripod is

not widely enough spread, or if it is planted upon a bed of springy

heather, one will soon know it by jerking of the image on the

finder glass as soon as work commences. Stop turning and put matters

right before resuming. Never mind wasting

two or three feet of film if by so doing it is

possible to convert the rest of the subject

from indifferent into good work. In every

case of negative making, unless the length of

the subject taken happens to be such as to

use up the whole of the roll of stock, its

finish is marked on the threaded roll, either

by means of the film punch or by opening

the camera door and snipping a bit out of

the film perforations with a pair of pocket " FIG. 34.

scissors. See fig. 34.

Where the view to be taken is a panoramic one, known familiarly
as a ' panoram/ there will also be the handle of the tripod head to be
turned with the left hand while the camera handle is twirled with the
right. This is not so easy as it sounds, even when the required direc-
tion of camera swing makes it possible for both hands to go the
same way. For one thing, the rate at which a panoram is swung
depends generally on a much slower motion of the hand controlling the
turntable handle than the regulation twice a second which must
always be given to the camera handle. With the turntables used by
the writer, one revolution of the turntable handle to every two of the
camera handle has usually been as fast as it is wise to go for good
quality in the results. Slower rates for the turntable are a matter
of the photographer's own judgment, but when it is necessary to
swivel the camera round quickly many degrees in the course of taking
a picture, even where the tripod mechanism provides for this, such
abrupt rotation should never, under any circumstances, be allowed
to show in the completed motion picture.

Stop the camera while re-adjusting in such cases, or, if you don't
do that, then later on, when making up the negative for printing,
just cut out the part where the quick turn comes. The gap brought
about by such procedure will never irritate the audience half as much
as would the horrible brain-racking blur occasioned by including
the over quickly rotated portion of film with the rest.

But, as has been hinted, the turntable has not invariably to be
rotated the way it will go when both hands turn their respective han-
dles in the same direction. It has also on occasion to go the
other way. This means either that the camera man has to master
the art of twirling two handles with his two hands in opposite direc-

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y. 33

tions at the same time and at differing though respectively uniform
ra tes either that, or he must do what many a kinematograph photo-
grapher actually does do, and take an assistant with him to manage
the turntable according to pre-arranged word of command. The
latter is, of course, the easier way, but never forget a man is not real
master of his instrument until he can do passable work quite on his
own, and manipulate turntable and elevating device as required while
still attending to the revolution of the camera handle.

The last sort of scenic subject to be touched upon in this lengthy
chapter is even more difficult than the foregoing ones, for while it
demands all the knowledge required up to now, it requires in addition
something more the ability to manage live things men, women,
children, and animals. Moreover, to the class of pastoral film calling
for such exceptional knowledge, most of the really successful outdoor
scenic (to say nothing of topical) work belongs.

It is no light task to mind your camera, see to your turntable and
elevation, keep a smiling face for the pretty country girl in the pastoral
film, and give the necessary directions to the farmer's boy for the
stage management of the ducks and calves, all at the same time.
If it looks light work, that only shows that the ' man behind the gun '
knows his business and knows it well. He has learned that if he seems
to be working, the joy of what is being regarded by his amateur
helpers as a ' piece of fun ' will go from their faces. The smiling girl
will smile no more, but only look alarmed or else self-conscious, as
so many other country maids have appeared before now in otherwise
excellent motion picture films. So our kinematographer smiles the
while he surreptitiously flicks away a trickling drop of perspiration
from his cheek, and the handle on the right of the camera does its
twice a second, and the two other handles on the left of the turn-
table do their allotted tasks, while the farmer's boy hollows and the
live stock wallows, and the farm maiden sorrows, or laughs, as the
case may be. And all the while, the film recorder tick-ticks its tale
of ' something attempted, something done ' in terms of feet of exposed
stock.

It is over. The gate goes easy .betokening the end of the film supply,
and hence the enforced finish of the subj ect. At last the motion picture
photographer may relax his efforts. He notes particulars of subject
and exposure either in his note book against the number denoting the
take-up box or else on the ivorine writing tablet upon the box itself,
then produces a handkerchief and mops his brow, while the young
lady assures him it was ' awful fun being taken/ and the radiant
farm lad waits expectant.

" The expected " has been presented. And now the camera is
packed and we are on the homeward march. It doesn't look much.
' so simple,' as the conjurers say, and even the photographer, now it
is over and he has taken a final look at his film gate so as to make
sure it is still bright (since otherwise, it is next to certain the film

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M A TOGRAPH Y.

would after all have been scratched, and ruined) even the jaded
photographer begins to feel it wasn't so difficult after all, only a bit
of nerve strain for the moment. But it is just that expenditure of
nerve force which alone can bring success to the picture man.

AN AWKWARD SCENIC SUKJECT.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y. 35

CHAPTER V.
TOPICALS.

How to get to grips with a topical that sounds easy. Generally
speaking, when it comes to the point it is anything but so. For in-
stance, let us grant we have arranged the catching of trains and other
necessary conveyances so as to bring us up with the earliest of the
crowd round about the event to be filmed. We then begin to find for
a start that any attempt on the part of the camera man to barge his
heavy apparatus through a crowded throng of onlookers is not liable to
be popular, nor will it probably be successful

There are three possible ways out of the difficulty.

(1) Use your own powers of persuasion to cajole the people
in your way into moving out of it, or if you have enough and strong
enough assistants, set them to ' police ' a way for you.

(2) Select a pitch as high up as possible (say, on a high pavement
or in a house porch) elevate the tripod legs to their fullest extent so
that the lens looks over the heads of the bystanders, and proceed to
operate, standing on the top of the stiff camera case, which is made
specially strong for the purpose.

(3) Select an eminence right above the crowd, get to it somehow,
and operate from there with the camera pointing partially downward.

Where the importance of the occasion warrants it, method 3
is for obvious reasons the soundest way of going to work. Incident-
ally, it is the one generally in vogue at the present time for obtaining
records of state processions and such like.

For all that, and admitting its many advantages, there are still
possibilities for things going wrong. For one thing, even supposing
a place has been duly rented, it sometimes happens that the camera
man will not find himself alone in his position, and the company of
a second and unknow r n motion picture photographer under such con-
ditions, may lead to trouble which was little dreamed of. As a case
in point, there comes to the writer's memory the story of how a certain
raised platform at Paddington Station was let out to two picture
men on the occasion of the funeral of the late King Edward. Each
operator was to occupy half the platform, but at the last moment there
arose a doubt as to which of the two had the right to the better
half. It is not recorded whether on this occasion the rival men came
to blows. Certain it is, however, there was some hustling and a hasty
appeal to the railway authorities before the matter was finally settled.
And all that time, valuable moments of preparation for the filming

36 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR AP H V.

operations were being wasted. That is a case where carelessness on
someone's part was responsible. There are also occasions when diffi-
culties arise through other causes.

At a certain race meeting not so long since, a hopeful camera man
found his view blocked at the last moment by the attentions of his
rival's assistants, who kindly let off smoke rockets in the field of his
lens while the horses were running. That is a sort of thing there is
no guarding against, and the only moral here is to keep a weather
eye open for such things as may crop up, and take all possible measures
which human nature may forsee to circumvent disappointment.

Lastly, as an unexpected set-back especially likely to affect the
renter of a seemingly ideal position for filming a public ceremony,
may be mentioned a common circumstance for which no one really
is to be blamed. It follows simply and solely from the natural cussed-
ness of things, yet it is none the less damning to one's results. It
is the unlooked-for nuisance of decorations at the last moment.

The representative of a speculative film house sees a window to let
from which a perfect view is obtainable of the street down which some
pageant or procession is to come. He takes it, pays good money for it,
and congratulates himself he has done more than well for his firm.
The great day arrives. Camera man or men are despatched to their
pitch. What do they find ?

They find a gaudy flag pole newly painted in such a position as
to cut their view right down the middle, but this is not all. Across
the important part of the picture runs a line of silly baby flags. They
are too near to be focussed and made use of in the general scheme of
decoration as depicted in the kinematograph picture, and they bob up
and down in the breeze, not so obtrusively at first, perhaps, but do not
be deceived. They will not fail when the procession hoves in sight.
And they do not fail. Just at the critical moment when one holds
one's breath in the expectation of securing the film's vital point, a
long, snaky bunting streamer switches down, down, plop ! and the
whole view is temporarily obscured ; not for long, only just long
enough to spoil the film.

The foregoing is an old tale to the hardened topical man. The
neophyte will perhaps be better able to steel himself against the future
after reading it.

Sometimes, as in the case of state processions, the preliminary
wait is liable to be on the long rather than on the short side. Even
so, the very length of the interval brings in its train unexpected pit-
falls. For instance, the light value may be taken, and the lens stop
and shutter set accordingly in the same way as for scenic work, except
that when possible (which is not often) the exposures on topicals should
err rather on the long than the short side. But suppose after all this,
there is a wait of an hour or more before the actual filming can be
commenced. In towns, especially, light values alter enormously at
very short intervals with the result that one may as likely as not
be led into bad under-exposure notwithstanding all precautions taken.

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M A TOGR APH Y. 37

Let us turn to the other side of the picture where everything has
to be done in a tearing hurry. This is far the most frequent state of
things. Here the only chance of coming out well from the ordeal of
filming a difficult topical is to have every adjustment that can possibly
be made beforehand ready cut and dried by the time one's stand is
taken for work. In most cases this will mean that the shutter
has been set right, the film threaded, and the take-up adjusted
all ready before starting out on the filming expedition, but this is
not all. To be smart in topical work there is another adjustment
which should on no account be left unmade. Even for scenic studies
it is handy enough, though perhaps somewhat liable to lead to sloven-
liness except in the most expert and conscientious hands, but each and
every topical man should have it on his camera. This adjustment
is the setting of the lens scale.

Scaling a motion picture lens is really a very simple matter.
All it needs is ordinary care to make it accurate, but care must
be expended upon the operation, or it will be worse than leaving it
undone altogether. It is performed in the following way.

First set the focussing screw or flange-pointer of the lens rack
back to its farthest extent ; that is to say, focus the lens back in its
jacket as though focussing a distant object, and then continue the
motion until the jacket will go no further back. Now pull out the
lens bodily from the rack mount. This is, of course, presuming that
the instrument is of fairly modern design, where the barrel carrying
the lens is separate from the rack mount, and slips in and out of it as -do
the lenses in kinematograph projectors. Gradually insert the lens

barrel more and more back into
its mount again, at the same
time watching through the focus-
sing tube of the camera to see
when some distant object, a far-
off tree or chimney-pot, say,
becomes sharp. Make certain
the distant object is as clear as
possible, then scratch a ring on
the lens barrel at the exact point
where it commences to be
covered by its mount. Fig. 35A

FlG - 35- illustrates the act of scratching

the lens tube -thus with a sharp-pointed instrument, such as the
blade of a knife, while in Fig. 356, the lens barrel is supposed to
have been again withdrawn, showing upon it the scratch so made.
A moment's thought will now convince us that in future, each
time the lens setting is put back to its furthest point, and then the
barrel pushed in exactly to the point where the scratched line becomes
level with the edge of the mount, we shall have a position in which
very distant objects, technically spoken of as ' infinity/ will always
be sharply focussed. All that now remains to be done is, starting

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR AP H Y.

with the above adjustment, rack the lens setting forward till objects

at varying known distances (which must be first carefully measured

off) are respectively in focus. As each position of the rack mount

corresponding with focus for the various

distances is determined, we engrave on it

the position of adjustment so that it can be

again arrived at with certainty. Fig. 36

show r s a setting of the focussing flange

type with the various ' scale distances '

engraved upon the metal plate beneath

the movable focussing handle. Where a

new camera is being ordered this scaling

might be undertaken by the lens makers.

Usually it will fall to the lot of the

photographer.

FIG. 36.

For practical purposes, and provided the light is good enough
to allow of the use of a stop not larger than 15.6, it is safe for the
motion picture man to set his lens at thirty-five yards in lieu of focuss-
ing on a topical film, as this will be certain to put any ordinary subject
in focus, no matter whether the figures are being taken small or fairly
large. Where it becomes a question of working so as to obtain re-
sults at very close quarters, say figures three-quarter length, or
larger, or where a very large stop has to be used on account of bad
weather, the lens scale must be set for nearer objects accordingly,
and in this matter the photographer's own judgment is the only crite-
rion. It may be said that the accurate use of the focussing scale,
while it may sound simple, is really quite an art in its way. The
general rule given as to the medium stop and thirty-five yards setting
for all ordinary subjects will, however, be found a real boon to the
hurried and worried picture man.

By its means it is possible on numerous occasions to erect the
camera, ready threaded and scale focussed, bring the view on to the
field of the lens by means of the tripod adjustments and use of the
box finder, and begin turning right away, thus often catching a fleet-
ing effect, which would otherwise be entirely missed. The only
matter which is here liable to be more or less neglected is the light.
But lighting in topical productions is seldom of the best, either as
regards direction or exposure. Still, on this matter also, the tied-for-
time operator might carry well in his mind the rudiments of the lessons
on stop and shutter in their relation to exposure as given in the
previous chapter. As to coping with those extra bad lighting con-
ditions which seem to reserve themselves almost exclusively for such
occasions as the present, when the film cannot be duplicated, the
one and only great way of being ready for the worst is to have the
camera fitted with the most rapid lens available. And here, too,
the moving picture man has advantages far ahead of his still picture
rival.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y. 39

Considerations of depth of focus (see Appendix) bring it about
that the longer the focal length of any lens, the less wide is the largest
aperture at which it will give the required definition in all planes of
a given view. Consequently, it follows that in this matter of wide
aperture which means rapidity in working the moving picture
man has things comparatively all his own way. For instance, while
a lens working at f35 and having a focus of six inches would be useless
for most things to the still picture photographer on account of the
impossibility of focussing different planes sufficiently well together,
a lens of similar aperture that is to say, speed and of just half
the focus is quite feasable in moving picture work, and is indeed
very largely employed. But even this does not sound the limit of
lens rapidity for the kinematograph camera operator. One of the
early moving picture lenses put out by the firm of Dallmeyer had a
working aperture of f2, though its covering capacity might, perhaps,
have been improved upon, while the same firm now supply an in-
strument working as fast as fi.g. Further particulars of tip's mar-
vellous lens will be found on page 19. Suffice it to say here
that the actual rapidity of such a lens would be more than four times
that of one working at i^.

Even when a topical has been successfully secured, it must not
be imagined that the battle is over. Having exposed the film, the
next thing and often a very difficult thing, too is to get back to
the dark room and place the exposed stock in the hands of the develop-
ing staff with the utmost possible speed. This means that in topical
work one must be as careful in making arrangements for the return
journey as for the outward one.

Occasionally, for instance, after a race meeting, it has been known
that taximeter cab drivers have disconnected their taximeters and
flatly refuse to return their fares to their base except at a ruinously
large figure. In such cases it may even be best to pay up and never
wait to haggle ; all depends upon circumstances, as the cab driver
knows only too well. Then, again, return trains may be terribly late
in taking back crowds from the regions where topicals are made,
and the chances of the motion picture man coming in for more or less
bad luck during his experience of such work amount almost to a
certainty. Once again, all the advice that can be given is to set
out with your eyes open, with a just estimate of what may be the
money's worth of an extra hour or half hour gained in getting back
to the developing room, and as a last resource to carry on you an extra
coin or two for unforeseen emergencies. ' Money makes the mare go '
is an ancient proverb which none the less keeps wonderfully fresh
with the years.

And now for a last piece of advice applicable enough in all forms
of outdoor work, but particularly so in the case of the maker of topi-
cals don't forget to look after the body as well as to attend to the
picture machine. A chilled man can't focus correctly or turn a handle
evenly, leave alone keep all his wits about him for the chances

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

of the day. Neither can a hungry or worse still, a thirsty man
do justice to his work. Never start out on a cold day without a warm
coat and warm gloves. Don't set off upon a long day without food
and drink (enough, but not too much of the latter) ready to hand.
And if you get wet, change as soon as possible. That last sounds
homely, not to say grandmotherly, advice, but a long and varied life
teaches that in some respects our grandmothers knew just as much
as we do ourselves, and certainly you will come round to that opinion
if you find yourself laid up in bed through neglecting the above timely
word of warning.

THE KlNEMATOGRAPHER ON THE BATTLE FlELD.

ILLUSTRATION 37.

HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGRAPH Y.

CHAPTER VI.

THE DARK ROOM.

When a length of negative stock has been exposed, the next opera-
tion is the development of it. This takes place in a ' dark room/
which is a special workroom fitted with suitable work benches or
' winding tables/ also with the necessary chemical and washing troughs
and having as its sole illumination during development time a suit-
able number (one or more, according to circumstances) of lamps
emitting a feeble pure red light.

First as to this light arrangement. Where work is being con-
ducted on a fairly large scale, nothing can be better than to have
suspended from the ceiling, rather high up and over the winding tables
and troughs, a number of eight or sixteen candle power electric incan-
descent lamps, each of them encased in a special ruby glass cover
obtainable from the usual trade sources. Before installing the scheme
of illumination, it will be necessary to go over the workroom set apart
for development and make quite sure that every vestige of extra-
neous light, as for instance daylight, has been prevented from coming
into it during film development. Means must also be provided
for workers to enter and leave during work hours without light coming
in through the open door. This will necessitate the provision of a
dark room exit fitted with double doors, having a dark chamber be-
tween them to form a light trap. If these doors are set on springs,

and the chamber
of the light trap
be sufficiently
long to make
sure of the first
door closing be-
fore the second
can be got to
and opened, it
will be possible
for a worker to
walk in and out

FIG. 38. A TROUGH WITH DIVISIONS.

of the dark room without the least fear of daylight being let in upon
any film in course of manipulation.

The troughs necessary for the development of a length
of kinematograph film are three in number. They consist of the
developing trough proper, a washing trough fitted with syphon
arrangement for keeping the water in it constantly changed, and a
fixing trough. The usual dimensions of each of these are about thirty
inches square by three or four inches deep, varying according to the
size of frame used (see later). They are made of glazed earthenware,

42 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APR Y.

and are fitted up in a row on brickwork supports at about the height
of an ordinary table. The washing trough is the central one, while
all three should have water taps over them for purposes of filling^
and should also be provided with efficient waste pipes for emptying.
In the case of the washing tank, this waste pipe is in addition to the
syphon arrangement already referred to and which latter is used when
it is desired to keep the water changed without lowering its level in
the trough.

Further, it is absolutely necessary that the developing trough
should be provided with means for raising the temperature of its
contents in winter time, while the fixing tank may also with advantage
be fitted with a similar arrangement. A small gas ring under either
of the two, placed at such a distance from the earthenware as shall
introduce no risk of cracking it through too abrupt heating, will
answer the purpose, the flame being suitably subdued by placing over
the ring such an obvious safeguard as one of the well-known asbes-
tos mats sold for use on stoves and ranges. We also want covers for
both the developing and fixing bath. These may be made of wood,,
and fitted with handles for easy raising. The developer cover, in
particular, should fit well and closely, as on this point being observed
depends much of the life of the comparatively expensive developing
solution.

The above, with the addition of a winding table, gives a fair
sketch of the average developing unit of a small commercial concern.
Each such unit can tackle one length of negative or positive film at
a time, so that the number of them to be installed becomes a matter
of simple arithmetic to be decided by the number of hands engaged
upon the work of development. Large works will not be in want of
any hints on development contained in this book, while for the benefit
of the small man (for instance, the picture hall manager who aspires
to have his own camera and turn out an occasional local film) there
will be further remarks on developing ways and means later on in
the chapter.

For the present let us pass on to a fuller description of the wind-
ing table, which has already been lightly referred to more than once.
We wil 1 first proceed to describe the use of this winding table in con-
nection with a well known system of film development known as the
pin-frame system.

In order to develop a roll of exposed film on a ' pin frame/ it is
taken out of the take-up box and attached by means of a loop folded
in its end to one of the four innermost pins, as figured in illustration
(39). A careful look at this illustration, or better still, at the real
article, will reveal the fact that the pins are so put into the frame
as to admit of a length of film being wound around them spiral fashion,
after the manner indicated in fig. 40. This, in fact, is the actual
system made use of by the developing hand. The exact manner of
- oing to work to accomplish the winding of the film spiral fashion
en the frame will be described presently, rnt the net result is tl^at

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

once the task is accomplished, the exposed stock is in a state in
which it can be handled with comparative ease, for the otherwise
limp celluloid is kept
practically rigid, so
that it is only neces-
sary to immerse the
wound frame in any
liquid in order that the
whole surface of the
emulsion may be sim-
ultaneously and
equally wetted.

In order to wind
successfully, the dark
room hand must be
provided with a suit-
able amount of clear
' table top ' surface
upon which the frames
may be laid and, if
necessary, rotated
during the process.
These wide clear bench
spaces are the winding

FIG. 39. PIN FRAMES FOR DEVELOPING.

tables alluded to, and
they must be of suffi-
cient size and placed
at the right height above the floor to accom-
modate the pin frames employed, and also
to provide the worker with as much help
as possible in what is admittedly a difficult
and tedious operation.

The ' pin frames ' themselves are
usually made of brass, though very soon
after use the metal will be found to have
become plated over with silver from the
developing and fixing baths. A sufficient
stock of frames must be laid in to
meet all emergencies. Also, provision

for storing them when out of use has to be made, and in seeing to
this, it is well to remember the pins on them are very delicate and
easily bent, while a single bent pin discovered too late, or perhaps
not discovered at all, may throw the winding hand out, and lead to
nasty complications and a messing of the film. Either the wall or
ceiling of the dark room are the best places to hang spare frames ;
the ceiling only if it is a very high one. Full sized pin frames average
somewhat over two feet square and accommodate up to 200 feet of
film.

FIG. 40.

HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGR APR Y.

An alternative system is by means of the flat frame, an improved
form of which we figure and describe hereunder. Its advantage is
in the matter of easy winding, and its disadvantage is its large size
for a given capacity of film, as compared with the pin frame.

FIG. 41.

A novel combined developing
and diying frame. This type is
known as the ' flat frame'.' In
the improved example here fig-
ured a counter spring action
ensures the film being held on it
tightly throughout the whole pro
cess of development, fixation and
drying. The motor attachment is
further designed to rotate the
frame at a high rate of speed when
drying has to be hurried.

Action of the frame. The lowermost portion (as figured) is made firm with the central rod J. The
upper portion H slides up and down freely on the guide rods C, B, E, but the wound film (shown in dotted
lines) is kept on tension by means of the counter springs G, G, D. The pin attachment connecting the frame
with motor screws off during development, which is conducted in a grooved trough. For drying purposes
the motor rotates the frame on its axis K, N.

A short while since, we gave a description of the minimum number
of troughs comprising a developing unit. While the three described
would be enough for the purpose set forth, it unfortunately happens
that more or less often, according to circumstances, the course of
development does not run smoothly, in which case after-treatment of
the film will have to be resorted to. Consequently, there should be
at least two other troughs set by themselves, and allocated to such
after-treatment methods. Probably the two will do for three or four
developing hands to share between them. In fact they should do,
or it means that carelessness in the workroom is becoming the order
of the day unless the business is largely in topicals, in which case
anything is to be expected. The place for after-treatment baths is,
however, not the dark room, but another workroom arranged so that
it may be partially darkened or well lit at will.

Before closing the description of the developing room, it will be
necessary to say that the winding tables must be placed well away
from all chemical and other baths so as to avoid fear bf splashing the

HANDBOOK OF KI NE M A TOGRAPH Y. 45

dry film. The opposite side of the room is where they should be.
Also, at least one clock must be provided, and in order that it shall
be of use in the semi-darkness, it is necessary to have a red light
burning before its face, or preferably have the face transparent with
a red light burning behind it, and numerals painted so as to show out
dark against light, after the manner of an ordinary illuminated street
clock. This, and the provision of space for film boxes, completes
the dark room fittings as far, at any rate, as necessity is concerned.
It is not advised that any portion of this apartment should be set apart
for storage and weighing of chemicals. All that side of the develop-
ing business should be kept to a special ' chemical room/ which should
be a small one lit by ordinary day or artificial light.

We have treated the developing fittings, so far, from the ordinary
commercial point of view. Let us now say a few words upon the
experimental or ' one man ' kinematograph dark room, since this
aspect of the developing problem is sure to be of service to some, at
any rate, of the readers of the present volume.

Perhaps it is safe to suppose for a start that in the case of the
small one man show, expense and weight of fittings are both items
to be considered. Probably the dark room may not be on the ground
floor, in which case the installation in it of brickwork supported
earthen troughs would be a difficult and even dangerous proceeding.
For such, the necessary baths may be fashioned out of zinc, excepting
the fixing bath, for which sheet lead is the material to use. Naturally,
such troughs will not last one-tenth of the time the other and heavier
sort would. Still they will suffice, and that is the great point. Then
take the matter of size. This is important in experimental work.

Where pin frame development is employed there is no need for full-
sized frames, constructed for winding on whole 165 feet or 200 feet rolls,
as the case may be ; 100 feet frames are much smaller (urider twenty inches
square) . Moreover, they can be obtained made so as to take to pieces
like the blades of scissors for the convenience of picture men touring
their own developing kit in foreign countries. When using such
half-size frames upon a full length of film, it is of course necessary to
cut the exposed stock in two. This, however, need cause no notice-
able break in the continuity of the picture, provided both halves of
the length are similarly developed and afterwards carefully joined
together previous to printing. Full details of how to accomplish this
joining up will be found elsewhere.

The provision of at least one suitable photographic red light,
as also of a winding table and dark room clock which may be seen
during development is still a necessity. Previous remarks also hold
on the matter of making provision near the winding table for stack-
ing both full and empty take-up boxes, as well as a small supply of
tins of film stock sufficient for present needs. The dark room is not
the place to store unexposed film stock in bulk.

The foregoing is a fair description of paraphernalia for film develop-
ment on a small to medium scale, but before closing the chapter, we

4 6 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR AP H Y.

leel a warning must be added to the above. Some firms dealing in
kmematograph supplies include in their catalogues ' developing drums
suitable for the amateur and small worker.' Accompanying this
announcement there is generally a cut showing a revolving roller half
submerged in a semi-circular trough after the style of the tiny arrange-
ment of the sort actually employed by users of toy hand cameras for the
development of their snapshots. However satisfactory such an element-
ary description of developing drum may be in the hands of the snap-
shotter, its applicability to kinematograph film only figures as a matter
of history. No one in the know uses such an arrangement now for the
very best of reasons it is an inferior system to all others, and one
wherein certainty of working is reduced to a minimum. When we
see crude kinematograph film developing drums included in the appar-
atus catalogues of reputable firms, we can only hope they remain
listed through mere oversight, and not through any mean attempt to
spoof those not in the know out of the ranks of an admittedly compar-
atively closed profession.

A drum is used in kinematography and a very large one, too,
but it is not employed for development. It is a huge unwieldy affair
(generally speaking) fashioned in skeleton out of laths of wood, and
its purpose is to accommodate film during drying. But this item of
the film producer's apparatus will be dealt with further when its turn
comes.

42. DRYING ROOM IN THE BRITISH AND COLONIAL Co.'s ESTABLISHMENT

HANDBOOK OF K INE M A TOGR APH Y. 47

CHAPTER VII.

DEVELOPMENT.

Let us start by taking a bird's-eye view of the process upon which
we are about to embark.

The first thing to do before developing is to get the baths com-
pounded and brought to working temperature. Development proper
then starts upon a test piece or pieces of the particular length of
exposed film stock to be taken in hand. This simply means that a
few inches of the end of the exposed roll is snipped off with a pair of
scissors and plunged into the developer for a given time. Note
in connection with the above, the use of the clock in the dark room,
and consequent necessity for its installation. When the time fixed
upon in the worker's mind as that which shall be allowed for develop-
ment of this test piece has elapsed, the short film length is fished
out of the bath, rinsed in plain water, and transferred to the fixing
solution. When fixed, it is agtan rinsed, and may then be taken
out of the dark room and ex amined by full day or ordinary artificial
light. A single glance will be enough to inform a skilled developing
hand as to whether the time allowed to the test strip has been right,
or whether this must be altered when dealing with the major portion
of the subject from which it was snipped. From such information it
should be a simple matter to proceed to wind on the remainder of
the film roll and develop it correctly. Such is the technique of the dark
room, simple, yet tricky, as one's first attempts will soon serve to
show. And now to go over the ground again in detail :

DEVELOPING BATHS FOR NEGATIVE FILM.

Any bath suitable for negative development in still view work
will also serve the purposes of kinematography as far as the actual
production of a visable image upon the exposed film is concerned.
The amount of developer used in the film developing trough being
large (often sixty pints or so for a full-sized trough) it becomes
a matter of practical importance that the bath shall be so compounded
as to be able to be used over and over again at intervals of hours,
or even days, until exhausted. Consequently,' developing formulae
for motion picture work are usually those in which the keeping qualities
of the ready compounded bath are of a satisfactory nature. Kine-
matograph negative developers should, moreover, be so adjusted as
to give a fairly plucky result (one in which the pictures show well-
marked contrasts) while yet the reducing power is sufficiently great

48 HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGRAPH Y.

for dealing at a pinch with considerable under exposure. Perhaps
the best of all developers, taking everything into consideration, is the
well-known Metol Hydroquinone, compounded in single solution form :

Metol 2ozs.

Hydroquinone 2 ozs.

SodaSulphite llbs.

Soda Carbonate fib.

Pot. Metabisulphite ... ... ... ... 14, ozs.

Water 60 pints.

There is a special way of mixing the above ingredients, which
must be strictly adhered to, or it may be found difficult to get them
all into proper solution. Therefore proceed thus :

First dissolve the soda carbonate and sulphite in half-a-dozen
pints or so of warm water. Crush up the metabi sulphite small, and
make a solution of it in another pint or two of water. Add this to
the dissolved sulphite and carbonate. I^astly, stir into the whole
the metol and hydro quinone, dissolved in four or five pints of warm
water, and proceed to make up the bath to the required sixty pints.

The above bath will be found excellent for the general development
of any good, clean-working film stock, always provided exposure
of the film in the camera has not been overdone. The temperature
at which to use it is somewhere about 66 F., which temperature should
invariably be ascertained by means of a thermometer before com-
mencing development. If the worker should find the developer tends
in his hands to give too soft a type of negative, the remedy (except
where over-exposure is the cause of the trouble) is to cut down the Metol
and increase the amount of Hydroquinone proportionately in future
brews. One ounce Metol and three ounces Hydroquinone will tend
to greater contrast in the resulting negatives, while at the same time
considerably cutting down the expense of the bath. Conversely, under
exposure in the film, showing itself in the production of " soot and
whitewash" negative pictures with choked up high lights and empty
shadows, is combatted by increasing the metol content. Another
way of adjusting matters which does not necessitate meddling with the
bath for future batches of stock, is to warm it up to about 75 F.,
at which temperature it will be found to work both more quickly and
much more softly. At the same time the increased temperature
will tend to bring out any latent " chemical fog " there may be in the
emulsion, and where the film stock is not of the best, this may show
itself as a light grey cloud, affecting pictures and perforations alike,
and more or less defeating the intention of such " forced development"
by clogging the very fine shadow detail it is sought to coax out.

Over exposure of the film is dealt with by treating the developer
be it the above or almost any other formula in quite a different
manner. What we do here is to add to the bath a chemical
" restrainer," possessing particular action in the matter of influen-
cing slow and contrasty development.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 491

This chemical is Bromide of Potash. The proportion in which
to add it to the sixty pint developing bath may be anything from a
couple of drachms to as many ounces, according as a slight " clearing "
effect or a strong retarding and contrast increasing action is desired.
A very satisfactory way of developing very much over-exposed
stock is to treat it in the developing trough usually reserved for print
development, and which will be found described in the chapter on
developing positive film. Yet another and most excellent way of
tackling the difficulty of making the best of widely varying exposure
is to have two separate developing troughs in the dark room unit.
These are placed side by side, and labelled plainly in such a way as
to allow of no mistake in the dim red light. One bath contains a
developer of the sort already given, and which will give a satisfactory
result in the case of normal or slight under-exposure, while the second
trough contains a special contrast producing bath for treating over-
exposed stock :

CONTRAST PRODUCING BATH.

Glycin 8 ozs.

Sod. Sulphite 1 1 Ibs.

Pot. Carbonate 2^ Ibs.

Pot. Bromide ... ... ... ... i oz.

Water ... ... ... ... ... 60 pints.

The above is also an excellent print developing bath. 11 found
too sluggish in action for the particular brand of film stock in use,
the Bromide may be diminished. The converse also applies. Develop-
ment with Glycin, though slow, produces magnificently clear nega-
tives. For normal to slight over-exposure, use at 66F. to 7oF ; for
great over-exposure, cool down still further. The Glycin bath keeps,
better than any other, but its first cost is high.

We append a formula for an alternative quick-working negative
developer, and which has the advantage of employing the somewhat
cheaper developing agent, Eikonogen, in place of Metol, so that it
may, therefore, be preferred by some.

EIKONOGEN HYDROQUINONE DEVELOPER.

Soda Sulphite lib.

Potassium Carbonate ... ... ... ... lib.

Potassium Metabisulphite ... ... ... 1 oz.

Potassium Bromide ... ... ... ... I oz.

Hydroquinone ... ... ... ... ... 6 ozs.

Eikonogen ... ... ... ... ... 3 ozs.

Water ... ... ... ... ... ... 60 pints.

The same general directions apply to the use of the above developer
as to the Metol Hydroquinone bath. So much, then, for developing
formulae. As has been said before, any single solution bath that will
keep, and which is applicable to still view work, may be experimented
with by the motion picture worker with every chance of more or less
success. But since the inclusion of endless alternative solutions
would only serve still further to swell out the all too rapidly growing
proportions of the present volume, while anyone on the look out for

50 HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGRAPH Y.

developer variations can always find them by the score in works
on ordinary photography, we will make no attempt at ringing the
changes on developing formulae any further than we have already gone.
Fortunately, fixing baths are all much alike. Below is a com-
position for one which will serve all purposes well :

" Hypo " 201bs.

Potassium Metabisulphite ... ... ... 8ozs.

Water ... ... ... ... ... ... 60 pints.

Use quite hot water for dissolving the " hypo," as this salt
has the curious property of cooling water down very rapidly during
process of solution. The Metabisulphite should, as before, be dissolved
by itself, and added after the other chemical has melted in the water.
By the way, some readers may be interested to note, in passing, that
t4 hypo " -short for Hyposulphite of Sodium is really only a nick-
name for the chemical to which it usually refers, and is not either
in its abbreviated or longer form, a proper chemical designation at all.
" Hypo " is actually, and chemically speaking, Sodium Thiosulphate,
and the writer has never seen any satisfactory explanation of how
it came to be called by the epithet denoting a totally different substance
which is never, by any chance, used in photography.

We have our baths compounded at last, and it is presumed they
are also brought to the requisite temperature of 66 F., and that the
washing trough has been allowed to fill with plain water. All is now
in readiness for developing the test strips.

Bring the take-up box, containing its roll of exposed film stock
into the dark room, remove the cover in the red light, and pick up the
end of the film between finger and thumb without, however, removing
the roll bodily from the box. Now snip off two lengths, each of them
about six inches, and put back the cover of the film-box in place, so
that the bulk of the stock is once again protected from all chance
of fogging. Next, raise the cover of the developing bath (where two
alternative developers are in use choose the one believed to be most
suited to exposure conditions as noted in the camera man's note book)
and immerse both strips bodily, taking the time of so doing, by the
dark room clock. If the bath is fairly new, and reasonably quick acting,
and the conditions generally seem about normal, one of the test pieces
may be given ten miutnes' development, while the next has twenty.
Do not let either of them remain long during the process without
a gentle stirring of the solution to ensure fair and equal action upon
the emulsion. As each test piece comes to the end of its appointed
development time, it is rinsed in the washing trough, and transferred
to the fixer, where five minutes' immersion should be amply sufficient
to complete the necessary chemical treatment. The method of judging
whether fixation is completeis however, as follows :

Turn the film round and look at the celluloid side. If it is not
completely fixed, the emulsion will be seen from the back to retain
some, at least, of its peculiar milky appearance,, characteristic of the

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M A TOGR A PH Y.

THE APPEARANCE OF GOOD AND BAD NEGATIVES.

We have tried by means of these half-tone blocks to give a comprehensive idea
of negatives of various descriptions.

FIG. 43.

Under exposed and under
developed.

FIG. 44. FIG. 45.

Hopeless under exposure. Under exposed and over

Note film perforations fogged developed (soot and whitewash),
through forced development.

FIG. 46.

Very bad negative, underexposed

and scratched by a dirty gate to

the camera.

Fio. 47.

Over exposed, but correctly
developed. Result flat.

FIG. 48.

Correctly exposed. Soft (rather
short) development.

FIG. 49.

Exposure correct, but film
much over developed.

FIG. 50. FIG. 51.

Correct exposure. Full (rather Film fogged by daylight
-ong) development. entering film box.

52 HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APH Y.

original undeveloped film stock. Upon complete fixation all that
look goes, and the film takes to itself the usual clear appearance
of an ordinary kinematograph positive, except that in a negative film
the objects which are light in nature will appear dark, and vice versa.
Thus a good negative of a snow scene should show both foreground
and sky,nearly black, while dark tree trunks and such like would appear
white. The general and distinctive characteristics of both good and
bad negatives will, however, be plainer upon reference to the plate on
the previous page giving reproductions of typical developed test
strips.

Once the worker knows what a good negative should apear like >
it will be but a matter of moments to see whether either of his test
pieces approximates to the ideal, and if not, in what way it may be
improved. Suppose, for instance, the ten minute piece is not
quite " plucky " enough, while the high lights in the twenty minute
piece and which high lights will be rendered dark, remember are
choked, then it follows that a development time between the one
and the other is what is needed. Thusfifteen minutes would here be the
required development time for the main portion of the given subject.
Or again, both test pieces may show over-development, coupled with
a want of contrast. In that case over-exposure is the cause, and
remedy will lie in the special restrained and alternative developing
bath, if such a one is kept handy, or if not, recourse must be had to
a liberal dose of Potassium Bromide in the normal working developer.
In either of the latter cases further test strips must be developed under
the new conditions until the best way of treating the particular film
length has been arrived at.

If the twenty minute strip shows want of density, it means one
of two things ; either the bath is old and wants renewing, in which
case it will be found on examination to have gone brownish in colour,
or the negative in question has been greatly under-exposed, the treat-
ment then being to warm the bath to at least 75 F., or even higher
if the gelatine of the film will stand it (80 F. is the highest one ever
dares go to). A test piece is now allowed to remain in the warmed
solution for half to three-quarters of an hour, that time being about
the longest the emulsion will stand in a warmed quick -acting
developer without bad chemical fog. If, on withdrawal, a
satisfactory image does not show itself, the subject must be
looked upon as well nigh hopeless. A chance for it may still lie
in the after treatment known as intensification. Develop up all
you can, fix arrd wash according to the directions about to be
given in this chapter, after which turn to the chapter on after treatment
wherein intensification methods will be found. This gives an idea, at
least as to how to be guided in the treatment of the film from examina-
tion of the test strip. And now comes the question of developing the
main portion of the subject according to its revealed requirements.

In the case of pin frame development, the film has first to be
wound over the pins. This must be done in order to treat successfully

HANDBOOK OF KINE M A TOGR APR Y.

the full length subject in the limited compass of a comparatively small
developing trough. The following is a suitable method of setting
about it :

First, take from a box of them, which should always be handy
in the dark room, a couple of steel pins. Don't try to use the common
tin ones, as they bend and cause a lot of trouble. Steel ones are on
sale at any drapers. These pins should be stuck in the lapel of the
coat, where they can easily be got at. Now place a pin frame on the
winding table and again remove the door of the charged take-up box,
but this -time the contained film is bodily drawn out, still in the form
of a roll, having for its centre its internal spring hub. Take the roll
in the left hand, with the film winding away, upwards from the bottom
of it, in which position the celluloid side of the unrolled end portion
of film will be towards you when this is being drawn upward, as
in figure 52. The very top of the film end is now folded down and

FIG. 53.

FIG. 52.

backward for about an inch, and one of the pins run through the two
thicknesses, thus forming a loop as in figure 53. It is this loop which
is next slipped over one of the four innermost pins of the pin frame,
taking care that the way it is placed on and direction of winding are
such that the celluloid and not the emulsion side of the film shall lie
against the pins.

The business now before us consists in getting the film correctly
wound on the pins, in spiral form, with due regard to the proper
utilisation of each pin once, and none of them twice over, as we go
round and round. Now this winding may be set about in two ways,
either the pin frame may be suffered to remain stationary upon the
winding table, while the film roll is passed round from hand to hand, or
the film may be held more or less stationary in one hand, while the pin
frame is rotated with the other. In the latter case it will be necessary
to have a spindle of suitable length (a large nail with its head cut off
will do) driven into the table so that the central hole in the frame
will fit easily over it. If the frame is arranged so that one of its
our arms sticks out somewhat from the table top when placed over

54 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR AP H V.

the spindle, it will be an easy matter to steady its movements as
required by allowing the body to" come in the way of this pro-
jecting arm while the film is in the act of being placed over the pins.
The body is drawn slightly backward, while the disengaged hand
gives the frame a quarter turn. Then, once more the motion is
similarly checked for further winding. Such, at any rate, is a simple
mode of tackling the winding difficulty, which may otherwise come
upon the novice as somewhat formidable. In any case the thing
is to remember that what we have to do is to get the frame wound
tightly, and with the film right way about, so that the celluloid and
not the emulsion side touches the pins. We must learn to do this,
and to do it in reasonable time, and for that there is nothing like
practice with spoilt or old positive film till skill is acquired.

When the subject length has been wound off, or in the case of
two or more subjects being taken on the same length, when the film
has been wound to the point where a scissor snip or punched out hole
announces the fact of a change of picture, we proceed to complete
operations by making a second loop with our second pin, for which
purpose we cut the film at the punch mark, if necessary. This second
loop is slipped over the nearest pin, making sure that no slackness
of film is allowed in the process, and the frame is then wound and ready
for immersion in the trough.

The secret of managing the wound and wetted film from this
point is to remember that the agency of the developer and subsequent
washing and fixing baths will cause not only the emulsion, but also
the celluloid base itself to swell. Hence, even in the case of the
tightest wound film, the commencement of development is bound to
cause it to become more or less slack upon its supports, and so it must
be treated accordingly. For instance, in order to obtain equal develop-
ment and freedom from the effects of air bells accidentally adhering
to the emulsion after its immersion, it will be necessary to keep the
frame agitated more or less from the start. On the other hand, too
much of this while the gelatine coating is still in an only half saturated
and therefore sticky condition will cause the outer turns of film to sag
together, producing patches of undeveloped film here and there. The
matter is one calling for both care and practice in manipulation.

At the same time a few ideas may be given as to a method
of going to work which meets the case. In the first place, when making
up the developer see that there is enough of it in the bath to give a full
half an inch depth above the top edge of the immersed film. If this
is attended to it will be found that immediately after the first intro-
duction of the frame into the trough one can raise it slightly once or
twice, letting it fall back again with a slight bump upon the trough's
bottom, and thus detaching all large airbells effectually. Care must
be taken when doing this not to lift it to a point at which any portion
of the wound film is out of the developer. Nor after the first ten
seconds should any further treatment be given the film in the way
of such agitation for quite another minute after development starts.

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M A TOGR APH Y.

At the end of that time take hold of the frame by its central boss
and lift it bodily out of the trough once or twice, plunging it back again
each time. This action will deal with all airbells which may happen
to be remaining, and at the same time set up currents in the developer
which will stir it effectually. By repeating the up and down treatment,
say once each five minutes, a successful development should be assured.
Upon expiration of the appointed time the frame is finally lifted
out and given a similar agitation in the washing trough for a space
of about twenty seconds or so, after which it goes into the fixing trough.

Agitate the film again in this, once or twice, leaving it in altogether
for ten minutes, after which it will be thoroughly fixed. A final wash
in the washing trough, lasting over at least an hour in ordinary
cases (a quarter of the time may be made to serve for topicals) com-
pletes the cycle through which negative film should normally pass
ere it finds its way to the drying drum.

Since the object of this last washing is solely to free the wet gelatine
of the " hypo " it has absorbed out of the fixing bath, it is of the utmost
importance that the water changing arrangement should be properly
installed, and of an efficient character. In the case of work on any
considerable scale, it will be found necessary, in practice, to build
special troughs or tanks for this final washing process, so as to avoid
having to hang up work in the dark room for an hour or more at a time
after the fixation of each film length. Extra washing troughs or tanks
for this purpose will not have to be placed in the dark room at all.
Any convenient corner will suit. The syphon arrangement, already
referred to, is, however, of the greatest importance in the process of
efficient washing. Accordingly, a diagram is here given showing
in detail the system employed, and from which it is hoped the reader
fitting up negative developing plant will have no difficulty in
making his own adaptations to individual requirements.

Fig 53 shows a suitable washing
arrangement for a number of pin
frames at a time. " B " is a tank,
in which the frames can be im-
mersed and held in a sloping
position by suitable rails and
stops, as illustrated. The water
tap "A" provides the washing
water flowing into the top of the
tank, while the syphon " C " re-
moves impure and used water
from the bottom. Now were "C"
a simple syphon, one of two
things would happen when it
started (which takes place auto-
matically by the tank becoming
ful since, since the top bend of
"C" is below the level of the tank
walls). Either the syphon would
tak-> off less water than the tap
supplied (supposing it to be a
syphon of small bore) in which
case there would be a general

FIG. 54. SYPHON WASHING TROUGH.

overflow, or else if the syphon were of greater capacity than the delivery the reverse would occur, and
the tank would empty itself completely. In practice both these eventualities are avoided by having a
small air inlet at the top of the tend of the syphcn tube. This inlet is ccntrolled by a tap and is
normally left open.

56 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

Under such circumstances, the syphon acts as a simple waste
water pipe, with the exception that it is fed from the impure water
-at the bottom of the tank, thus causing efficient circulation of the
contents. When, on the contrary, it is required to clean out " B,"
as should, of course, be done periodically, this is accomplished by
closing the tap controlling the air inlet to the syphon, and turning on
" A " full. " C " now acts its part as a true syphon, and by turning
off " A " once again after the overflow has once started, the tank will
^mpty itself completely.

Should " C " show signs of becoming choked with gelatine from
the emulsion of the films washed in the tank as strangely enough
does happen occasionally, even though it is only cold water which
is used for washing the treatment is to open the air inlet and
insert a small funnel, down which boiling water is poured till the
obstruction is cleared away.

This completes all that need be said regarding the extremely
important item of washing kinematograph film, and be it set down
here, neither negative nor positve stock which has been scamped iu
this particular can possibly remain in good condition for any lengtn
of time. Even when a valuable topical negative has had to be unduly
hurried for its first printing a second and thorough washing of it should
be undertaken at the earliest opportunity, if it is likely to be of value
on a future occasion.

One word, also, on a subject intimately connected with the above
since it concerns the other great factor governing permanency in
photographic work the activity of the fixing bath. If the fixing
bath is not active, fixing cannot be thorough no matter how much it
is prolonged, and no film imperfectly fixed will ever remain per-
manently clean and free from stain. Therefore, adopt the
following rule in the matter of checking the fixing bath, and do not
depart from it.

Always give your test strip, by which you find the development
period for the film subjects, one definite time in which to complete
fixation, and let this time be exactly five minutes. Also see that the
strips get an occasional stir up in the bath, which latter should not
be below 60 F. at least. While such time suffices completely to clear
away all visible milkiness from the short test lengths of film, it may
confidently be reckoned that double the period, or ten minutes, will
be ample fixation for the regular wound lengths. The moment a
test strip shows signs of being under fixed after five minutes' immersion
throw the bath away and compound another. Thus can one be
certain of keeping on the right side of fixation.

Film drying, though seemingly simple, !s considered by the
writer worthy of a little chapter to itself, and this it will have in due
course.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y. 57

CHAPTER VIII.

POSITIVE MAKING OR PRINTING.

So far in this first section of our present work we have dealt
with the practical side of taking and developing kinematograph
negatives. In the negative the respective values of light and dark
are reversed. In order to bring these values back to what they are
in nature, it is necessary to "print" a positive from our original
negative picture. It is not difficult to follow the reason for the reversal
of tones in a kinematograph negative when we remember that the photo-
graphic image is formed of a deposit produced by the action of light
coming through the camera lens. Naturally such deposit will form
most where the light action is strongest ; in other words, the lightest
natural objects will give the darkest deposits on the developed film
Thus the reason of the freakish appearance of the negative is fully
explained. At the same time, we all know that in both the still
photograph and kinematograph film as exhibited, all this topsy-turvy do m
of tone values has been got over. Also it will be common knowledge
that a scene has to be photographed only once in order for many copies
of it to be easily obtainable.

It is to the process of " printing " that we must look for the
explanation of both these latter facts, and thus the art of " printing "
or positive making takes rank in all photographic work, whether
moving picture or otherwise, as second only in importance to the pro-
duction of the negative itself.

The " printing," or production of a positive from a photographic
negative can be very simply described. In the first place a sensitive
photographic surface has to be provided capable of being acted upon
by some suitable light to an extent enough and not too much for
convenience sake when worked under printing conditions. Once we
have such a sensitive surface of suitably toned down light recording
capacity known technically as a positive printing surface or " positive
stock " the actual modus operandi is of the easiest. All that is
necessary is to place a negative over the face of the positive emulsion
and then expose the latter to light through the former. In this
way the image upon the negative will act as a shield of variable density,
allowing more or less light to penetrate and act upon the positive
stock, according as the opacity of its various parts. Thus, suppose a
negative of a target be placed before a piece of positive stock and
light then allowed to stream upon the face of it. A target consists
in its simplest form of a white outer rim and black bull's eye, so
that in the negative these will be the other way about. That is

58 HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGRAPH Y.

to say, in it the bull's eye will be transparent and the outer rim opaque.
Consequently, when the light strikes the face of this negative, behind
which a piece of positive stock is pressed, the rays will be able to pene-
trate through the centre or bull's eye portion, while being kept from
getting through the black deposit constituting the outer rim. Now
suppose the exposed positive to be developed. Naturally, the part
which has seen light will be the only part to take a deposit of silver,
and that part will now be the area which lay behind the transparent
negative image of the bull's eye. The rest of the positive having
been shielded from light action by the deposit on the negative will
refuse to develop at all. So by process of printing we get once again
an accurate reproduction of the target as it was originally, not a nega-
tive this time but a picture showing the black centre and outer rim
white as it ought to be, in fact, a positive or " print." Further,
since by putting the negative to the foregoing use it has not been
altered of itself in the least, it follows that we shall be able to repeat
the process of making duplicate positives as long as we wish, or as
long as the supply of positive stock holds out.

That is just the process we have to embark upon in order to get
from our kinematograph negatives useable pictures, showing correct
tone values. And now to actual ways and means.

Positive stock for kinematography is sold in rolls, just as is the
similar article used for negative production. Film, whether positive
or negative, looks practically speaking identical to the eye. In
reality, positive film is of much less sensitiveness to light than the
negative stock. It also has the quality of producing great density
in the shadows with comparative ease, while at the same time preserving
clearness and purity of high lights far better than would negative stock
under like circumstances. In fact, to sum it up in a few words;
whereas negative film is suited primarily for negative making, positive
film is manufactured solely for use in printing. Both might be used
for the process for which they are not intended and both would then
work in an inferior manner.

Let us turn to the consideration of how we are going to take in
hand the actual printing of a kinematograph positive. Firstly we
shall have to contrive some arrangement by which the dry negative
film may be held close against the positive stock, while light is allowed
to stream through the successive pictures on the former, so as to
produce positives accurately spaced and equally exposed upon the
latter. Practically speaking, there is only one discovered way of
satisfactorily accomplishing this task. That is by employing an
arrangement similar in principle to the escapement of a kinematograph
camera whereby positive and negative film are pulled face to face
through a gate behind the mask of which a light burns, thus effecting
exposure. In order to make use of the positive film in this way
it is imperative that it shall be perforated as was the negative
stock.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

Such an apparatus as the above for automatically exposing
positive film behind the negative, is known by the name of a "printer."
Formerly " printers " on the market were of two kinds the con-
tinuously moving film " printer " (in which negative and positive
film were drawn slowly and continuously face to face before an
illuminated slit) and the " step by step printer." The step by step
system is the one already referred to in which a form of claw'
movement actuates the two films on an intermittent principle.
Now-a-days the latter class of instrument has, by common consent,
taken the field as the only really reliable one. It is therefore the sole
kind we shall trouble to describe in detail. The arrangement of the
various parts of a " step by step printer " are shown diagramatically
in figure 55.

Here " A " represents the roll of negative
film to be printed from while " B " is the
i A positive stock to be printed upon. Next
come sprockets over which the films pass and
which give a continuous feed of the faced films
to the gate " D," while the claw " E " pulls the
films down by means of the now familiar inter-
mittent escapement. "G" is a light source
which is in practice suitably enclosed so as not
to shine forth broadcast in the dark room where
printing is to take place, though here the
lamp is represented as open, while there is
filled between it and the gate a revolving shutter
exactly similar to and having the precise func-
tion of the shutter of a kinematograph camera,
namely, to cut off light periodically from the
light source and so prevent its striking
the film during " change." It will follow,
that after each pull of the claw " E "
as the shutter rotates out of the way of
the lamp, light will fall upon the negative
behind the gate mask. Passing through the
silver negative deposit in ratio to the
FIG. 55. density of its various parts, this light will

correspondingly affect the sensitive positive film behind and held
close against the negative. After exposure lasting a suitable
time (say the one-sixteenth or one-twentieth of a second) the con-
tinuing action of the mechanism will cause the shutter to cut
off the light again, after which the claw "B" once more operates
the double thickness of film, so bringing a new negative picture
and unexposed positive surface before the mask for exposure.

The annexed plate (Fig. 56) gives an excellent idea of an actual com-
mercial type of "printer," designed to be self-contained and suitable for
use at high speed and large output when connected up with the electric

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

FIG. 56. WILLIAMSON s MOTOR DRIVEN PRINTER.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

wiring of the establishment. A few moments spent in explaining
this particular commercial printer should put the reader well in posses-
sion of the general working details of the whole class of them.

FIG. 57.

Key to Photograph of
Williamson Printer.

Reference Table :

A
B
C
D
E

Negative Spool.
Postive Spool
Top Spocket.
Gate.
Lever controlling ruby
glass light cut-off;
Gate adjustment.
Bottom Sprocket.
Positive take up.
Negative take up.
Motor drive.
Rheostat controlling
same.
Switch.
Light Dimming Resist-
ance.
Printing Lamp (electric)

First as'to the light source. It will be seen to be an electric lamp
of the " focus " type. This is contained in a chamber which is light-
tight upon closing the side door at the middle of the printer cabinet.
Thus the rays from the printing light are prevented from coming out
into the room (which must of course, be " dark " in the photographic
sense) and producing general fog upon the roll of positive stock seen
fixed in position upon the spool holder nearest above the gate. The
actual light allowable in the kinematograph printing room is bright
orange or even a pure yellow (See Safe Lights. Chap. 5, part 3). The
topmost [spool holder holds the roll of negative which is to be
printed, and in threading the machine, it is of the greatest import-
ance to make sure the emulsion surface of the downward dangling
negative film end is towards you, whilst that of the positive stock is
away from you when the two rolls are in place So spooled, the faces of
negative and positive film stock will be together as the two pass over the
sprocket, figured immediately above the gate, and the function of which
is to maintain a constant loop of the double film to feed the escapement.

62 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

The escapement, invariably some form of the already described
pin or claw action, is in the machine at present under discussion
enclosed in the box to which the gate and mask are fixed, while the
lowermost and next to lowermost spools of all are the rewind or
take up spools for respectively negative film and exposed positive
stock.

The lower door of the printer, also shown open in the illustration,
gives access to a small electric motor, controlled by the starting switch
and rheostat, seen attached near by to the side of the light-tight
cabinet. The actual mode of working the printer should now be fairly
plain. For the sake of completeness we will, none the less, give a
brief description of the actual printing of the film length.

Having first taken careful note of the density of the negative
we are about to print, we adjust the light of the focus lamp accordingly.
This is done in two ways ; either we can push the lamp nearer to or
farther from the gate of the printer by means of an external rack motion
or we can cause the filament to burn brighter or less brightly
by altering a variable resistance fixed on the opposite side of the
cabinet to the one shown ; or we may make use of both means ol
exposure adjustment. For a normal negative, about three-quarter
power of a fifty candle power focus lamp at a distance of six inches
or so will do with the motor rate so adjusted as to print from eight
to twelve pictures a second. Soot and whitewash negatives may be
partially corrected by giving short exposures with a higher printing
rate and brightly burning lamp brought close to the gate, whereas
a low printing rate and dim light pushed well back from the face of
the gate will tend to the production of greater contrast in prints from
flat negatives.

The actual threading of the double thickness of film into the gate
is just as when threading a single film into the camera, except that it
is necessary to take a little care over making sure the claw of the
intermittent motion gets grip on the double thickness through
superposed perforation holes. Also in a. printer there is an adjustable
printing mask, which is set by means of a rack screw, just as with most
projectors. While adjusting this printing mask and up to the moment
of printing, a lever is turned, which lets down a ruby glass light inter-
ceptor between the light source and the negative film. All preliminary
adjustments can thus be made with ease and accuracy without fogging
any film the while. The masking is satisfactory where the whole of
one picture and nothing of either of the others appears in the gate
between each pull of the claw, which is to say at the " uncover "
position of the rotary light shutter.

The film threaded, all that is now necessary is to connect the ends
of positive and negative film to their respective take-up spools, after
passing them together over the bottom sprocket. The actual printing
takes place by first starting the motor to the speed determined upon,
and immediately turning the lever that controls the red glass light
interceptor, thus throwing the latter out of the way. All being well,

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

the machine will now proceed to print merrily on till the negative length
is passed completely through, and rewound upon the take-up spool.
The light interceptor is then turned back into place and the positive
stock cut off short from the roll of any remaining unexposed film,
which may still be on the upper positive spool. The printed positive
is boxed in a light-tight case and sent to the developing room.

It will be seen from the above that as far as the mechanical side
of printing goes it is simplicity itself. All that is necessary from
that point of view is to keep a sharp look out on the take up and
sprockets to make sure they are doing their work. It is in the judging
of the correct brilliancy and distance of the light source, also the proper
speed of motor needed for each negative of varying density, that the
real art of high-class printing lies. Nor is it any mean acquirement either
to be able to get the best or even something near the best out of each
negative that comes along to the printing room. Here, again, as before,
the only advice which can be given to the novice is to avail himself
ot any tips he may be able to get first hand from the actual watching
of an expert printer at work, or failing that to practice printing
test lengths of positive from various negatives each possessing definitely
different characteristics until he has worried out for himself the know-
ledge of how to gauge results beforehand.

We must not forget that
this book has set out to
cater not only for the man
desirous of going into the
kinematograph trade in a fairly
large way, but also for the
one whose ambitions are more
modest ; too modest perhaps for
him to run to the expense of
a printer such as already
illustrated. These more modest
aspirants may install a small
hand printer at comparatively
trifling cost. A hand printer is
simply a printer as described
but minus the motor driving
arrangement and also such
other expensive attachments
as can by any means be dis-
pensed with. For instance,
both the light-tight cabinet
and the rewinding spools with

their gearing can be done

r^P .. FIG. 58. A HAND PRINTER.

WltnOUt. Hie first economy Camera as arranged for printing. A shows negative film

is effected bv affivincr th<= roll feeding through slot in camera top. B box holding

. ' 1 . " L . positive stock. The positive and negative pass out

printer tO the inner Side OI (after printing) through the slot in bottom of camera

-r^^ 11 and: into box G. L, L, wall of dark room through hole

rOOin Wail, in in w hj c h light reaches film from light source. ^

64 HANDBOOK OF CINEMATOGRAPHY.

which is cut a small hole allowing of light coming to the
gate from a suitable light source outside the room. The absence
of rewinding arrangements for negative and positive film may be
compensated for by providing a large clean box into which both films
fall after leaving the gate. A hand Drinter is fitted with a handle
for operation, just as is the kinematograph camera itself. The writer
has met a man high up in the motion picture trade who boasts that
he has turned out as much as eight thousand feet of positive in a day's
working, single handed, with such a hand printing arrangement as
above described, the cost of which to buy would certainly be well under
20. At a pinch, even, it is not absolutely necessary to possess
any printer at all, provided the kinematograph photographer only has
need of a small and occasional output of positive from his negative
stock, as when 1 e does an occasional print for some local picture hall.
In this case the camera itself may be utilised for the purpose of
positive production. The annexed diagram, figure 58, shows the
method of doing this. For the purpose the camera has to be
provided with slots both top and bottom. Where it has not
got these they can be fitted at small cost without in any way hurting
the instrument for its usual work. Needless to say, these slots must
be provided with efficient sliding metal light-tight coverings which
are only removed for the purpose of printing as about to be described.
At all other times they remain firmly closed. To print a positive
in the camera the negative film is placed over any simple bobbin
support so arranged as to hold it above the top slot, as at the position
" A " in the diagram. This negative film is then threaded through
the top slot and the gate, and out of the bottom slot through a suitable
aperture in the bench supporting the camera, till it falls into the
containing box " G." Note that the negative must be threaded
with its emulsion side facing the camera back ; also that it is put over
neither of the sprockets. The positive stock to be printed upon is
enclosed in the top film box " B " from whence it is passed over the
top sprocket. It then travels through the gate, and out at the bottom
slot, face to face with the negative. Note also, that for printing, neither
the bottom camera sprocket nor the take-up box are made use of at
all. " L " is the dark room wall, in which has been cut a hole of such
a size and in such a position as to admit light from the light source
(in this case figured as incandescent gas) straight through the lens
jacket to the gate.

The Lens itself must be removed when printing.

The diagram does not show the light shutter of the camera,
which is, however, in place, fully open, and working as usual.

So arranged, the camera will be found to act as an efficient
hand printer, and be it understood the work turned out by it, make-
shift though it is, need not be distinctly inferior to that produced
by the regular electrically operated machine hitherto described. Of
course camera printing is less quick and convenient than when working

HANDBOOK OF Kl NE M A TOGRAPH Y. 65

with the proper article. Also pains must be taken to turn the handle
at an even and uniform rate for any given film if even exposure is
to be the result. As before, too great or too little density of the nega-
tive is compensated by turning the printing light up and down, or
moving it nearer to or farther from the dark room wall ; also by
alteration of printing rate. Care must be taken in operating such a
contrivance as the above, to see that the printed film and film negative
do not stick together at any time when passing through the bottom slot.
For this purpose the camera door is kept open, while a bright orange
light in the printing room enables one to see the first signs of such
sticking, should it occur, and to counteract it by stopping, turning at
once and pulling the slack film down into the receptacle " G."

Note. Camera printing is only possible from negatives taken with
the actual camera employed for the positive production, or from other
negatives possessing identical " masking." See appendix to this part.
A few definite hints as to safe and useful illumination of the
printing and print developing rooms may not be out of place here.
Positive film, being much less light sensitive than negative stock, the
printing and print developing rooms may safely be illuminated by
either pure red or orange red light. Even bright lemon yellow may
be employed, provided the yellow is spectroscopically tested and
found free from admixture with rays from the " actinic " end of the
spectrum, but in practice yellow illumination is usually risky, since
samples of commercial glass of this colour invaribly pass as well
a goodly proportion of the photographically active blue and violet
light rays. For further remarks on colour testing, and making of
spectroscopically accurate colour filters for dark room purposes, see
part III. oi this book, end of chapter on colour kinematography.

Having exposed our positive in the printer, the next thing is to
develop it.

The technique of print development is practically the same as
that of negative development, except that since the light permissable
in the print developing room is comparatively bright, it is
relatively easy to judge when the positive image is dense enough by
simply taking out the frame from the bath and looking on the face
of the wound print. Thus test strips become a needless luxury (not to
say time wasted) in positive production. This, of course, applies only
to the man with some knowledge of the work. For the novice the more
tests he can make for himself to begin with, the less good film lengths
will he spoil. We have already said in the previous chapter that the
developing bath for prints is usually compounded differently to that for
negative work. Accordingly, we append some formulae for positive
development. The first gives fair density and keeps well.

Hydroquinone ... ... ... ... ... 8ozs.

Soda Sulphite 31bs.

Soda Carbonate 31bs.

Potassium Bromide ... ... ... ... oz.

Potassium Metabisulphite 1 oz.

Water 60 pints.

66 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y.

The above bath may be made tc work more quickly and give softer
results by increasing the amount of Soda Carbonate, or it may be slowed
down and at the same time caused to give greater contrast by increasing
the proportion of Pot. Bromide.

Another print developing bath which will be found to work
more quickly and vigorously than the above, though liable not to keep
well is the following :

Hydroquinone ... ... ... ... ... 12ozs.

Soda Sulphite 31bs.

Potassium Bromide ... ... ... ... ^oz.

Caustic Soda. ... ... ... ... ... 6ozs.

Potassium Metabisulphite ... ... ... 1 oz.

Water 60 pints.

The Glycin developer recommended for treatment of over
exposed negative stock in the previous chapter is also excellent
for positive film. The remarks made in connection with the other
formulae regarding adjustment of the respective Carbonate and
Bromide contents for varying degrees of vigour in the produced
positives apply here as well.

It may further be added for the benefit of those desirous of experi-
menting in variations of the bath ingredients that the component
parts of all ordinary developers may be summed under four
heads, thus :

THE REDUCER.

This is the actual developing agent itself, of which there are legion*
Among them may be mentioned such well-known ones as :

Hydroquinone (syn. : Quinol)

Metol

Eikonogen

Glycin

Pyro

Amidol

Ortol, etc., etc.

The actual developing agent is, in fact, any chemical possessing
the property of attacking the silver bromide of the photographic
emulsion where the latter has received light action and reducing
it to metallic silver. Hence the name. In order to prevent this
" reducer " spontaneously decomposing by oxidation when made up
in solution, there is added to the bath a

PRESERVATIVE.
which may be

Soda Sulphite
Potassium Metabisulphite
Citric Acid
Dilute Nitric Acid, etc., etc.

HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGR APH Y. 67

This preservative hinders the action of the reducer upon the
film's emulsion at the same time as it prevents spontaneous
oxidation, which hindering effect is got over and the work oi the
developer upon the photographic film rendered effective by an

ACCELLERATOR.

Accelerators are

Soda Carbonate
Potassium Carbonate
Caustic Soda or Caustic Potash
Formalin, etc., etc.

In the case ot the developer Amidol (which gives very fine results
upon positive lilm though the bath will not keep) Sod. Sulphite
acts both as preservative and accelerator combined. Finally, to give
the worker control over the rate and character of developing action,
as also to avoid tendency to chemical fog production (where the film
stock is given to showing signs of it) the bath's chemical contents are
completed by the addition of a small quantity of

RESTRAINER.

This is nearly always Potassium Bromide (written short, Pot.
Brom.)

Sometimes, for special purposes, other Bromides, such as
Ammonium Bromide are employed, as for instance when sepia tones
are desired upon positive film by the development of greatly over-
exposed stock in a bath strongly restrained with the latter salt.
Potassium Citrate is also occasionally used.

With regard to the use of other developers beside those for which
suitable formulae have been given, we can only repeat what we said
in connection with negative baths. The reader may experiment if
he likes, and if so will find untold numbers of alternative formulae
for all imaginable processes in connection with photography in, for
instance, such a well-informed photographic encyclopaedia as the
British Journal Almanac, published by the proprietors of the British
Journal of Photography. For the rest we will only add that sometimes a
Metol Hydroquinone positive developer may be useful under certain
conditions. Where such is used it may be made up according to the
regular negative developer formula given previously, only for positive
film this should be of double strength and with the addition of at
least an ounce of Pot. Brom. to the working bath.

The actual development of positive film is precisely like that
of negative film with the already noted exception that completion
of the process is judged by lifting the wound frame out of the bath
and examining it before a good bright 'non-actinic light. Fully
developed but unfixed positive film should show the pictures seemingly
over dark, while sill the unexposed emulsion around the perforations
remains milky white as when first placed in the solution. If further,

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APH Y.

on holding up the wound pin frame to the light so that a portion of
the film can be looked through, the pictures are seen to stand out both
dense in the shadows and plucky in the high lights, it may be taken
that development is complete, and should be stopped forthwith. But
here, as in everything else that has to be learned, practice and nothing
else will bring mastery of the secret of correct judgment.

Development ended, the film is rinsed, fixed, and finally washed
free from " hypo," just as in the case of negative stock.

The fixing baths for negative and positive film are of the same
composition.

A SIMPLE CHEMICAL TABLE FOR KINEMATOGRAPHERS

Common Name.

Correct Chemical Name.

ill

"Carbolic Acid

Phenol

Citric Acid
Salts of Lemon

Citric Acid
Oxalic Acid

130

Picric Acid

Tri-intro-Phenol

Pyrogallic Acid

Tri-Hydroxy- Benzine

Alum . . _,
Chrome Alum

Hydrated Ammonium Aluminium Sulphate .
Hydrated Chromium Aluminium Sulphate

12
16

Ammon. Brom.

Ammonium Bromide

Carbonate of Ammonia

Ammonium Carbonate

Persulphate of Ammonia
Chloride of Calcium

Ammonium Persulphate
Calcium Chloride

65
400

Slaked Lime

Calcium Hydroxide

Blue Vitriol

Copper Sulphate

Eikonogen

Sodium Amido-Betanaphthol-Beta Mono-

Sulphate

Hydroquinone (Quinol)

Para-di-dydroxy-Benzine

Iron Chloride

Ferric Chloride

1 60

Iron Ammonia Citrate

Ferric Ammonium Citrate

Nitrate of Lead

Plumbic Nitrate

Epsom Salts

Magnesium Sulphate

100

Corrosive Sublimate

Mercuric Chloride

Vermillion

Mercuric Iodide

Bichromate of Potash

Potassium Dichromate

Bromide of Potash

Potassium Bromide

Carbonate of Potash

Potassium Carbonate

112

Citrate of Potash

Potassium Citrate

1 66

Red Prussiate of Potash

Potassium Ferricyanide

Yellow Prussiate of Potash .

Potassium Ferrocyanide

Caustic Potash

Potassium Hydrate

200

Iodide of Potash

Potassium Iodide

140

Permanganate of Potash

Potassium Permanganate

Pyrocatechin

Ortho-dyhydroxy-Benzine ....

Lunar Caustic

Silver Nitrate

227

Borax

Sodium Botate

Washing Soda

Sodium Carbonate

Salt

Sodium Chloride

Hypo

Sodium Thiosulphate

I/O

Vanadate of Soda

Sodium Vanadate

200

Bromide of Strontia

Strontium Bromide

IOO

Thiocarbamide . .

Thiocarbamide

HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGR APH Y. 69

CHAPTER IX.

TINTING, TONING AND TITLING POSITIVES.

Tinting a kinematograph positive film is in reality not a chemical
process at all, but a physical one. It is no more than dipping the film
into a bath of dye whereby the high lights of the print become
tinted to the colour o.f the dye bath. The tone of the silver deposit
remains absolutely unchanged by such treatment, only where such
deposit is light the dye absorbed by the gelatine of the film will show
through, thus giving to the whole a semi-toned appearance at the
same time as the clear parts of the film take on a more or less strong
tint of the dye colour.

We append a table of well-known tinting effects, together with
the baths and approximate strengths used in their production. It
will be understood that the brand of film and state of the gelatine
due to varying time in the developer, hardening or absence ot harden-
ing, etc. will have a great deal to say as to the amount of dye absorbed
in a given time for any given strength of tinting bath, so that only
trial on a spare inch or two of the actual film can show what time
ot immersion will give the correct result aimed at.

/ The Positive must be somewhat thin and

TI/T v 1,4. cc < ' showing no sharp cut shadows. Tint in

I quarter per cent. (1 in 400) patent blue dye
I solution.

^ .,, r , , ( Strongly printed film. Usually an interior

Candle light : and lamp light J subjec g t * ^ int to a f ull yellow rown colour

I in one per cent. Bismarck Brown.
( Tint in one per cent. Eosine solution. Subject

Firelight effect - must be s P eciall 7 photographed so as to get

1 the light properly concentrated if the effect is

to be good.

( These are heightened by tinting the film
Weird and murder scenes J faintly green in a half per cent, acid green

( bath.

. Give the film the faintest pink tint by
Early morning immersion in a one eighth per cent, bath of

"j Rose Bengal, followed by washing till colour

( is very slight.

All the above dyes are easily obtainable, as are also a number
of others, ranging through the whole gamot of colours from lemon
yellow to purple, and which may all" be employed for producing
experimental tinting effects. Whatever dye is used, and for the
production of whatever strength of tint, the rule to follow is : firstly, so
to adjust the concentration of the bath that the film may remain at least

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y.

five minutes in it without great excess of colour absorption over
what is wanted. Secondly, after the film is tinted wash it for at least
thirty seconds preferably a minute or more in plain water (which
need not be changed) before setting to dry. This will discharge some
of the colour, and that must be allowed for when tinting, but it will
also prevent streaks of varying colour intensity in the final result.
The short wash will also save the drying drum from becoming unduly
charged with various dye colours used in the film tinting.

Probably some small film producers may not wish to go in for
film tinting as far as their subjects are concerned, but may yet wish
to tint their titles as a measure of eye protection for the audience
and by way of enhancing the brilliancy of the pictures which follow
on the screen. To such it may be interesting to note that short
lengths of title film, up to say twenty feet, can be successfully tinted
by simply running the film length backwards and forwards in a small
dish containing strong dye solution, as shown in figure 59.

FIG. 59. FILM TINTING IN A SMALL WAY.

" D " 1 's the work bench, which must be clean and free from
chemical tairt. " C " is the small dish of dye, through which the
worker pushes the film backwards and forwards, face upwards. It will
be seen that in the process it lops itself alternately in loose folds at
" A " and " B " on either side ot the dish. If the film is lightly handled
and these folds not roughly pulled about, it will be found to take no
harm from the seemingly risky perlormance -to which it is thus sub-
jected. The above mode of colouring short title lengths obviates the
use of large extra baths, where these are only seldom required. The
worker's hands should be protected from dye stains by rubber gloves.

FILM TONING.

This is an entirely different procedure to tinting. Here there
is an actual chemical process, involved, inasmuch as toning does not
consist in altering the high lights of the positive, but in subjecting

HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGRAPH Y. 71

the silver deposit to the action of chemicals which permanently affect
its nature, thereby altering its colour. Thus a sepia-toned film
will show no remnant of the black deposit it originally possessed.
Every tone will here be sepia of varying density, while the high
lights will remain practically as they always were clear white.

Toning baths are used for reasons similar to those governing the
employment of tinting solutions, the chief of these being to break the
monotony of a constant black and white exhibition. Also, like tinting
methods, they must be employed intelligently if sensible results are
aimed at which shall help instead of hinder the audience in following
the motive of the picture presented. Thus a discerning film producer
would not countenance the toning of a snow scene warm russet brown,
any more than he would present the happy finale of a drama in such a
tone as blue or green.

SEPIA TONING BATH (two Solutions.)

FIRST BATH.
Film must be thoroughly washed. Immerse in

Ammonium Bromide ... ... ... ... 1 Ib.

Pot. Ferricyanide ... ... ... ... 3 Ibs.

Water 60 pints.

This bath will keep well and may be used over and over again.
Film must remain in it till the silver deposit changes to yellowish white.
Then wash for one minute in running water and transfer to

SECOND BATH.

Sodium Sulphide (pure) ... ... ... 2^ Ibs.

Water 60 pints.

Note the above chemical is quite different to the Sodium (or Soda)
Sulphite, often previously referred to.

Since the success of sepia toning by this " sulphide " process
depends entirely upon the Soda Sulphide being absolutely pure and
fresh, this chemical should be purchased direct from some good-class
chemical works which is willing to issue it with a guarantee not only
of its quality at time of manufacture, but also that the manufacturing
date is a recent one. The importance of such double guarantee is in
the fact that the chemical not only goes off with keeping, but actually
changes to another one which acts as a reducer instead of a toner
upon the bleached film.

The effect of a fresh sulphiding bath used after bleaching the film
is to turn the deposit in a few seconds to a fine rich sepia, which will
at the same time greatly add to the density and contrast ot the subject.
For this reason sulphide toning is an easy way of correcting under-
printing of the positive.

The sulphide bath must be thrown away after each day's work,
as it will not keep for long in sufficiently good condition to produce
rich, full tones. Its smell is most objectionable, somewhat like that
of a rotten egg.

72 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

TONING BATH FOR PURPLE BLACK TO RED CHALK TONES.

Copper Sulphate 4 ozs.

Potassium Citrate 3 Ibs.

Potassium Ferricyanide ... ... ... 3^ ozs.

Water 60 pints

Dissolve the various ingredients separately and mix.

This copper-toning bath is fairly cheap to make up, keeps a day
or two at least, and gives a variety of hues, from purple black to bright
chalk red (that is to say reddish brown.) Moreover, since the process
is a direct one, the alteration of colour in the film may be watched as
it proceeds. Perhaps the best tone of all is that produced after half
a minute or less of immersion of the film positive. This imparts to
the black deposit a warm purplish tinge that carries with it greatly
added density for projection.

Special Warning. The projection density of toned film is an
entirely different thing to that which film so treated presents to the eye.
For instance, with both the sulphide and the copper toning processes
the appearance of the film on viewing in the hand would never lead
one to expect the great intensification of the image which becomes
at once apparent on passing it through the projector.

Needless to say, after any process of after-treatment, kinemato-
graph film should be well washed.

BLUE TONES (with intensification of image.)

Ferric Ammonium Citrate ... ... ... 12 ozs.

Potassium Ferricyanide ... ... ... 12 ozs.

Acetic Acid 10 pints

Water SOpints

Immerse the well washed film till toned, then wash in water till
the high lights are clear and free from stain.

BLUE TONES (without intensification of image.)

BATH A.
Potassium Ferricyanide ... ... ... 3 Ibs.

Water 60 pints

Immerse film till bleached, then wash very thoroughly in running
water (two or three hours) and transfer to

BATH B.

Ferricyanide Chloride 4 Ibs.

Water 60 pints.

After five minutes in the above, withdraw the pin frame and
plunge straight into a new fixing bath of " hypo," made up plain
without metabisulphite and of strength, ten pounds to the sixty pint
trough.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

The blue colour of the film here completely develops, but may be
made stronger by immersion after short washing in a bath of one per
cent. Sulphuric Acid, which must be followed by a good final wash,

NOTE. Strong Sulphuric Acid must be added to water very slowly
and with constant stirring, keeping the eyes well back from the
mixing receptacle on account of the violence of the reaction which
follows. Wherever the worker is unaccustomed to handling strong
acids it is better to have these diluted by a fully qualified chemist.
Proportionately larger quantities of such weak acid will then have to-
be allowed in making up all formulae, according to the dilution.

For further directions on the subject ot toning positive images,
formulae for other colour toners, etc., the reader is referred to the
numerous general photographic text books.

TITLING FILM SUBJECTS.

A well-known rough and ready method of film title making is
by means of a kinematograph camera supported on a stand so that
the lens points vertically downward. Below the lens, near the ground
and parallel with it, is a plain dead black surf ace, (usually black velvet)
on which may be placed moveable white metal or cardboard letters.
A diagram ot the arrangement is given in figure 60.

Fig. 60.
Title Making Apparatus.

A, downward pointing camera, B, C, D, E,
the four legs of its supporting stand, F, the
horizontal dead black surface or "copying table,"
on which the white enamel letters are arranged
and supported while photographing. In the
present diagram G and H represent two photo-
graphic electric arcs, swung on either side of the
copying table F, and of such power as to admit
of title negatives being expeditiously made
independent of daylight conditions.

In arranging the movable lettering for title making, the greatest
care must be expended upon alignment, spacing, and general arrange-
ment of the words, if good class results are to be obtained. Even
then the effect got by the use of such rough and ready moveable
letters is never up to that achieved when trouble is taken over the
preparation of a tastefully decorated black and white title, produced
rroin either a photographic or hand-made negative from the original
of an artist properly trained to the work. Such examples of delicate
and tastetul design titling, are often to be met with commercially,
notably in the case of AB films, and the worst which can be said against
them is that the fine line work deals cruelly with inferior focussing

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

or definition of the projector lens. Where a title is designed on card
by the black and white artist it has only to be laid upon the titling tabl e
aixd photographed, just as would have been a type arrangement.
Special title printers for use when film making in large quantity
are also on the market.

One of the most modern of these is in reality a combination of
printer and ordinary still view projection lantern. The original title
laid out in white letters on a black velvet ground is first photographed
upon a glass plate, by means of a downward pointing still view camera.
The black letter photographic title transparency so obtained is then
centred before the condenser of a projection lantern contained within
the printer cabinet. By means of a suitable objective lens, also within
the cabinet and situate between the title transparency and the
printer gate, a sharp image of the title wording is thrown upon the
threaded positive kinernatograph stock. Such a form of photo-
graphic printing is technically known as " reduction titling," as in
contradistinction to "contact" where the usual
kinematograph negative is employed before the
positive stock in the printer. With " reduction
titling " it will be seen that only the single thick-
ness of imprinted positive stock is threaded in
the gate, the place of the negative film being

Fig. 6 1. Ordinary Title Printer.

Diagram of printer A, Light source ; B, Condenser concentrating
light on C, Transparency title ; D, Objective lens focussing reduced
size image of wording from title plate C upon the positive stock G in
the printer gate E ; H, printer mechanism ; F.F.F., sides of light
tight cabinet.

taken by the projected image of the title borne upon the transparency
in the focus of the interior projection unit. The system gives white or
black letter titles, according as to the original lettering photographed.
Perhaps this is the place to take note of the reason why titles
are usually done in white instead of black lettering. If black letters

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y. 75

were used upon a dead white ground the flood of light on the kinemato-
graph screen when the title came to be projected would blind the eyes
to the duller picture representations which followed. Hence, wherever
black letters are made use of, care is taken to tint the surrounding
film deeply enough to take off the glare. With white lettering, however,
provided the lines are kept somewhat thin, there is not enough of the
screen illuminated to tax the eyes unduly, while at the same time
the letters stand out doubly clear and readable on account of the
surrounding blackness of the sheet.

In exposing and developing title lengths great care must be
exercised so as to ensure good contrast in both negatives and
positives. Under or over exposure must not be tolerated, and if
artificial light be employed from a constant source, at a constant dis-
tance, nothing but the most supreme ineptitude on the part of the
title maker can possibly bring about such a mistake as wrong exposure
after once the correct time has been ascertained. For the making of
clear black and white titles, moreover, it is imperative that thickly coated
film stock be employed. This is one of the rare cases where positive
stock and the positive developing bath may usefully be pressed into the
service of negative making as well as for the actual title printing.

TITLING IN A HURRY.

The following process is suitable where only a few copies of a
given title are required at once. In this case spread white paper
on the copying table and arrange black lettering upon it to form
t'he required words. Photograph direct upon positive film, but have
it threaded into the camera wrong way round ; that is celluloid side to
the lens. The result of developing a film length so exposed will be the
production of a correct white letter title reading right way round and
produced at one operation. But since the first film has given us a
positive right away, there will be no negative available for producing
title prints.

TITLING FOR THE OCCASIONAL WORKER.

As before, we give brief instructions for the small man. Get
a local letterpress printer to print the title required neatly in the
ordinary black letters upon white card. Pin this card up, and photo-
graph upon positive stock threaded in the camera wrong way round .
The result will be a correct white letter title at the one operation
just as in the last case. But the method of getting the original printed
in ordinary letterpress type obviates the use of a regular titling arrange-
ment, such as figure 61. Where only the one title is required with any
given wording, the cost of production is cut down fifty per cent,
through doing without the exposure of an intermediate negative length.

Whether white or black letter titles are produced, they should be
well tinted in a suitable tinting bath, save only such title designs
as have been artistically executed with very fine white line lettering.
These are best left plain.

76 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

CHAPTER X.

THE AFTER TREATMENT OF NEGATIVES AND POSITIVES.

Let it be explained at the start that much of the after treatment
about to be discussed in the present chapter is not by the nature of
things either necessary or even applicable to perfect negatives, prints,
or conditions of production. After treatment is, in fact, for the most
part nothing more than cobbling up inferior goods so as to make them
passable for the market. An exception must be made in the case of
the special after treatment adapted to the purpose of hastening the
production of topicals.

After treatment of the cobbling variety is called for in the following
circumstances : either the film is too thin or too dense. To
be accurate, each of these classes should be sub-divided ; thus
of thin films there may be

(a) Thin films which are also flat (wanting in such tone differen-
tiation as might reasonably be expected after due allowance for
general want of density). Such specimens are the result of under-
development, coupled with more or less over exposure.

(b) Thin films in which shadow detail is more or less lacking,
or only very faintly visible. These are the result of scanty
exposure, coupled with under-development.

The two classes of over-dense films are

(d) The well-known strong soot and whitewash effect, which
always goes with bad under-exposure and forced development.

Before dealing with failures belonging to the other three classes
let us say at the start that class D is always pretty hopeless.
Sometimes a soot and whitewash negative or print can be bettered by
careful reduction in a bath of five or six per cent. Ammonium
Persulphate until the over-dense parts of the deposit have been pulled
down sufficiently, when further action is stopped by plunging without
rinsing into ten per cent. Soda Sulphite solution. The treatment is
however erratic and generally disappointing. When applied to the
positive it is apt to spoil its tone, and when applied to the negative
it usually spoils that too. On the whole, therefore, it is as well, except
in exceptional cases of the kill or cure variety, to regard bad soot and
whitewash negatives as past praying for. The other three states of
negative imperfection are, however, often quite remediable.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 77

For instance, take the case of films belonging to class A. The
treatment here is immersion in Howard Farmer's reducer (for formula
see later in the chapter) till the thinnest shadows become, apparently,
clear gelatine. Of course, it will have been understood that the term
" thin film " as used a little while ago, applies to the appearance
of the silver deposit of the image and not to any mechanical measure-
ment of the thickness of the celluloid base. Well then, when the thin-
nest parts of the deposit on this originally thin film have been reduced
by the reducer to almost vanishing point the film is well washed.
Next, the wound frame bearing it is immersed in one of the two
intensifiers of which the formulae are also about to be given. Either
intensifying bath will serve, though the mecuric iodide one usually
gives far more strikingly satisfactory results. The treatment sketched
out will be found to have the effect of making the heavier deposits
of an A type film rather more dense than before.while at the same time
taking the flatness out of the lighter portions representing shadows.
The Copper Bromide intensifying bath to be found in chapter 3, part
III., is excellent for treatment of films belonging to this (a) class.

B CLASS FILM FAILURES. This is the class which shows striking
improvement by after treatment. Where the failure is the simple
result of under development or under development coupled with not
too great under exposure, the mercuric iodide intensifier will work
something approaching a miracle. This may well be taken note of
by any film house engaged in topical production, and which may not
already be aware of the effect of such intensification. Often and
often the iodide bath will be found the means of turning poor almost
unprintable topical negatives into respectable ones. Positives may
also be intensified in the same way, though this course is not recom-
mended where not absolutely necessary, since purity of tone and trans-
parency are sure to be more or less impaired by such after treatment
of positive films.

C CLASS FILMS are treated simply and solely in the Howard Farmer
reducer. The process of reduction must be watched carefully and
stopped when gone far enough by transferring the frame carrying
the film from the reducing bath to the washing trough.

HOWARD FERMER'S REDUCER.

Water 60 pints

"Hypo" 81bs.

Potassium Ferricyanide 4toi6ozs.

Directions : Dissolve the " hypo " in a few pints of warm water,
make up the bath to volume, adjust temperature as near as possible to
70F, and last of all stir in the Pot. Ferricyanide (syn. Red Prussiate of
Potash) dissolved in a pint or so of water. Then at once plunge in
the film to be reduced. The bath keeps very badly, losing all its re-
ducing power within an hour or so of making up. It is at its best for
only about ten minutes. The more Pot. Ferricyanide is added the
quicker will the reducer work. In cases where it is only required

78 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

to remove a slight veil from positive or negative film, use a bath
containing only 2 ozs. of Red Prussiate instead of the larger amount
set down. After the bath slows down it may be revived once or
twice, by addition of Red Prussiate, but in any case must soon be
thrown away and a new one compounded.

MERCURIC IODIDE INTENSIFIER.

Soda Sulphite 81bs.

Mercuric Iodide 6 ozs.

Water 60 pints

DIRECTIONS : To make the bath, first dissolve the Soda Sulphite
in 20 pints of warm water, cool, and stir in the bright vermilion
coloured Mercuric Iodide Powder till all has gone to form a colourless
solution. lastly make up the bath to 60 pints by the addition of a
further 40 pints of water. This intensifier will keep fairly well in the
dark, but goes off quickly in daylight, depositing the mercury as
a black powder at the bottom of the trough.

A way of making it up quickly and without the possible delay
entailed in procuring the rather out-of-the-way salt Mercuric Iodide
is the following :

FIRST SOLUTION.

Dissolve three and a quarter ounces of Mercuric Chloride in four
or five pi^.ts of hot water, and pour in immediately (with stirring)
a solution composed of four ounces of Potassium Iodide, dissolved
in a pint of warm water. The effect of making the above mixture
will be to throw out a copious precipitate or deposit of the vermilion
coloured Mercuric Iodide, which, after well stirring, and subsequent
standing for a little while in the quiet, will fall down as a sediment
at the bottom of the receptacle. When this happens the clear liquid
above is gently tipped off and thrown away. Finally, the red mushy
precipitate remaining is stirred into soda sulphite solution precisely as
with the dry mercuric iodide in the preceding formula. The quantity
of the red salt formed by working to the proportions just given is also
as near as possible the six ounces previously stipulated, so that there
is no need to dry and weigh it before dissolving. To make the effects of
this bath permanent, the intensified film should be washed ten minutes
after removal, then plunged for ten minutes into strong developer,
and again well washed. Never place film in a fixing bath after any
form of after treatment, unless this is definitely recommended.

CHROMIUM INTENSIFIER.

Unlike the baths given up to now this intensifier works in two
stages. Accordingly two troughs are necessary to hold the solutions
that compose it.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y. 79

BATH I.

Bichromate of Potash ... ... ... ... lib.

Strong Hydrochloric Acid 6ozs.

Water 60 pints

Crush the bichromate, dissolve in five pints of hot water, make
up total contents of the bath by addition of cold water to the sixty
pints, and finally stir in the Hydrochloric Acid. Well mix.

BATH II.

Any ordinary strong developer. Double strength Metol Hydro-
quinone without bromide answers well.

METHOD OF USING CHRONIUM INTENSIFIED First immerse film
in Bath I. till the black silver deposit has turned to a dull lightish
brown. Wash in washing trough till the yellow bichromate stain
is totally removed from the clear parts of the film (this may take two
or three hours) and lastly plunge into Bath II., till blackening of the
image has taken place.

Comparing the characteristics of the two intensifiers above given
the following may be noted :

MERCURIC IODIDE INTENSIFIER.

The outstanding feature of this is that it intensifies the lightest
deposits strongly, as well as the darker ones. Thus it is especially
suitable for the improvement of film in which under-exposure goes with
under-development, as in the case of many topicals. Also the bath
allows of intensification being directly watched during continuance
of the process.

The Mercuric Iodide bath is rather expensive to make up, and
though it may keep fairly well this is not always the case.

CHROMIUM INTENSIFIER.

This intensifier is exceptionally cheap to compound, and Bath
I. keeps for a long time in a stoneware trough. Bath II., being
practically speaking an ordinary developer, is usually on hand without
the necessity for making it specially.

The Chromium Intensifier differs in characteristics from the
Iodide Bath chiefly in that while it intensifies medium and strong
densities still more strongly it is apt to neglect the very lightest
deposits. It should, therefore, be of especial service in correcting
flatness of image due to over-exposure and under-development
though the writer cannot say he has always found this so in practice.
Certainly it is not so good for topicals, etc. Intensification takes
place in two stages with the chromium intensifier, going to bring about
one set increase of density each time the film is treated successively

8o HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y.

with Baths I and II. Moreover, since the result is not capable of being
judged by inspection before the end of the whole double process,
the amount of intensification with the chromium method cannot be
said to be as completely under control as when employing mercuric
iodide.

Where one treatment with the chromium intensifier does not
prove sufficient, the process may be gone through a second, or even
a third time for greater density. No long washing is necessary between
removal of a film from the fixing bath and commencing chromium
intensification.

SPECIAL AFTER TREATMENT FQR TIME SAVING.

The above is called for almost solely when dealing with topical
work. The problem here is generally that of cutting down the washing
and drying times as far as possible consistently with safety to the film.
This may be done to a large extent by use of the two following baths :

" HYPO " ELIMINATING BATH.

Peroxide of Hydrogen ipint

Water 60 pints

Film is taken straight from the fixing tank, rinsed for one
minute with constant agitation in the washing trough, then transferred
for two minutes to a trough containing the above solution, which has
the power of destroying and rendering harmless to the film the
remainder of the " hypo," with which it is impregnated. During the
time treatment with the peroxide is going on see to it that the water
of the washing trough is completely changed. At the expiration of
the two minutes a further couple of minutes' washing in running
water is given (washing in the trough with syphon going and water
supply on to the lull.) We may now safely transfer to a bath, compos-
ed as follows :

HARDENING BATH.

Formalin 3 pints

Water ... ... ... 60 pints

After ten minutes' immersion in the formalin trough, kinemato-
graph film becomes sufficiently tough to be dried by moderate heat
without injury to the emulsion. A device for such forced drying will
be found in the next chapter.

With regard to the keeping properties of the two last baths,
the peroxide one may be used several times before it is exhausted,
while the formalin will serve for weeks or perhaps even months on
end, depending on the freedom or otherwise from chemical impregnation
of the film immersed in it.

NOTE. Wherever time is not of paramount importance kinemato-
graph film, both negative and positive, should be allowed to dry
spontaneously and without hardening. Hardened and heat dried
film always has a more horny and less pliable and satisfactory
surface than the normally produced article.

For further note on intensification, see appendix to this part.

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M A TOGR APH Y. 81

CHAPTER XL

DRYING.

Drying is the final operation in the routine part of film production
and, perhaps, from every point of view, it is as well.

In its simplest and best form, the drying of kinematograph film,
whether negative or positive, is accomplished by winding it upon a
wooden skeleton drum, and leaving it to do the rest for itself. Where
only small quantities of film are in question it will be found
sufficient for our purpose to make use of a correspondingly small
drying drum such as may easily be constructed by an}^ journeyman
carpenter, or even one who is not a carpenter at all. Moreover,

an occasional turn of such a drum
by hand will be all that is necessary
to cause the water to dry off
the film equally. Figure 62 gives
the idea of an efficient small-sized
drum, such as comes in handy for
the spontaneous drying of film lengths
up to 200 feet or so. The ends,
FlG 62 composed of thick wooden circular

plates three feet in diameter, are

firmly threaded on a stout metal axle, A A, composed of thick
iron pipe. Between these ends of the drum thin, springy, wooden
slats or lathes B, B, B, etc., are nailed or screwed. The lathes are
the supports on which film is wound for drying, and care must be taken
that they are springy enough to allow of a considerable amount of
film shrinkage during this process, which shrinkage is the counter-
part of the film expansion that occurs on wetting, as already noted in
the chapter on negative development. A suitable support
upon which the drum may be rotated completes the whole simple
arrangement. All that is necessary when using such an elementary
piece of apparatus is to take care that the film is wound on to the cross
lathes in a regular and fairly close spiral, that it is not stretched over
tight, and that the beginning and end of the wound length come
sufficiently far from the drum ends to allow of the natural springiness
of the slats coming into play upon every portion of the
drying film. The two film ends are fastened . by means of
drawing pins. An occasional turn of the drum by means of the
hand after winding, say once every two or three hours, will help in
getting rid of collected water drops, and is all that is required to cause
nature to do the rest of the drying process. Fig. 63 shows a handy
little attachment for use with such a small-sized drying drum, and

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

FIG. 63.

which admits of the accommodation of longer lengths of film by

allowing for contraction right to the drum ends themselves.

As will be seen, the attachment consists of nothing but a short elastic

loop, " A " having a small wooden block " C " swung

at one end of it to which block the film, may be

pinned, while a second drawing pin " B " at the other

end of the elastic loop allows of its being attached to

either end of the drum, and in any desired position

along its rim. Obviously the virtue of such an

arrangement is that the elastic provides the necessary

compensation for whatever film contraction takes place,

thus obviating any bursting of the half dry film end

from its moorings, which would certainly sound the

knell of part or all the film length.

Let us now pass to the drying drum as usually constructed
on a fairly large scale. Here the only great departure from the arrange-
ment shown in figure 62 is in the matter of the film supporting lathes.
Instead of being made springy to allow of film contraction, the necessary
compensation is here obtained by means more consistent with the
unavoidable extra solidity of the whole construction. A way of
obtaining perfect stability of the drum's structure while still
allowing for film shrinkage is by means of the system of hinged film
supports as depicted in figure 64. The small diagram (A) shows the
actual method of hingeing the slats,
while the larger one (B) represents
them in operation upon part of
the surface of a drying drum. In
B, A represents the film as wound
upon the hinged slats C, C, C, C, and
before drying has commenced. It
will be seen that the hinges are
partly open. As a matter of fact,
provided the height and shape
of the film supporting lathes has
been rightly adjusted, the closing of
the hinged slats from their fully open
position should be automatic as
the film dries. Generally, however, it is advisable to start the hinges
as shown in figure 64 B, after winding on the film to be dried. Once
this is done the contraction of the celluloid will flatten down the
lathes more and more up to the point where drying is complete. In
practice it would not be necessary or advisable to hinge all the-slats
on a drying drum of this variety. One hinged one, and then two or
three firmly supported ones is a better proportion. Also where film
drying is being carried on upon a large scale common sense will suggest
that it is more economical in the end to pay the salary of a competent
drying room attendant who will be on hand all the while and keep
constant or frequent supervision over the tension of the film upon

FIG. 64.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR AP H Y. 83

the drum, rather than chance the spoiling of large batches of lilm by
breakage when no one is about to set matters right.

Returning once again to the general design of the drum in fig. 62,
it will be easy to see that for film drying on a large scale, constant
rotation, by means of a pulley wheel attached to the spindle "A,"
presents no element of difficulty if power is available for the purpose.
Also some experienced workers hasten drying by turning the hollow
centre shall into a species of bunsen burner, which alteration can be
simply done if the necessary mixture of gas and air be conducted
in and holes bored in the length of the pipe within the wheel to serve
as bunsen jets. The drum in this case would revolve free, while the

FIG. 65.

axle would be fixed. At the same time the process of drying film
with the aid of a wheel having internal flame, though rapid, is risky.
It is better to stick to a well-warmed and well ventilated drying room
with plenty of gentle heating, by means of hot water pipes, and let
this suffice lor all ordinary purposes. For topical work only is
faster drying imperative or even desirable. Then we had best have
recourse to some form of enclosed drying wheel, such as is figured
in figure 65. The arrangement here sketched will be found susceptible
of being constructed as a small partitioned off compartment in the
regular drying room, or it may be substantially built to any size

HANDBOOK OF K INE MA TOGRAPH Y.

necessary to cope with the firm's output. Moreover, there is really
no limit to the heat which may thus be fed to the film, for which reason
only formalin or quinone hardened film (see appendix for the latter)
should ever be subjected to such a forced drying system. In any case
see to it that a trustworthy thermometer is so embedded in the wall
of the drying compartment that the temperature of the inside may
be seen from outside at a glance, and do not let this temperature rise
above 90 or 95 F., as no wet film, even though hardened, could be
expected to stand higher temperatures. The above heat, combined
with brisk rotation, should be enough to accomplish the drying of
film in not more than three quarters of an hour. For the sake of
simplicity in drawing the arrangement for drying by heat is represented
as a cupboard. " A " is the drying drum, suitably pivoted, and which
may be rotated by power communicated through the belt pulley " C,"
situated outside the drying compartment. Following out the cupboard
idea, " B " represents the door shown open, but which is capable
of being closed so accurately as to all intents and purposes to be air
tight. " D " is a row of bunsen burners, enclosed in a metal casing,
and the function of which is to heat up the under surface of the hot,
plate " G," comprising the under side of the air inlet " E." Hot air
will accordingly pass up from here through the grating under the drying
drum, and over the surface of the wound and rotating film, till it
finds its way out by the upper air outlet " F."

Such an arrangement is simply installed, and will be found
thoroughly efficient for drying topicals. Where expense is no object
a system of hot water pipes immediately surrounding the drying drum,
and radiating heat from water at a known temperature, may be
substituted for the gas heated hot plate, and either method may be
relied upon to give satisfactory results from the topical point of view
with hardened film.

FIG. 66. ONE OF THK PRINTING ROOMS AT THE HEPWORTH WORKS.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y. 85

CHAPTER XII.

TRICK KINEMATOGRAPHY.

Hitherto we have confined ourselves to the consideration of
ways of photographing actually proceeding actions. With trick
kineuiatography, however, an entirely new element is introduced into
the work of the picture maker, for by its means it is not only possible
but often easy to turn out film subjects representing actions and
situations which never could have arisen in real life.

Let us try to enumerate some of the various devices made use
of in obtaining trick effects.

MIRACULOUS APPEARANCES AND DISAPPEARANCES.

These are amongst the easiest of trick effects to produce. Indeed
they are supposed to have had their inception through a pure accident
which came about in the following way :

A well-known kinematographer (quite in the early days of the
industry) had taken a film exhibiting the departure of a train from
a railway station. One of the last people to enter it before it steamed
off was a certain young man known to the photographer. This
passenger hurried up, newspaper in hand,and made a run for a near by
compartment just as the whistle of the engine was going.

Now it so happened that some months later the maker of the film
happened to see an old copy put on in a touring kinematograph
show. Naturally he looked out for his friend to come on the film
and make the wild dash for the carriage during which he had been
photographed, and in due time the young fellow with the newspaper
appeared, ran half way to the compartment door at which he should
have entered, and of a sudden he was no more. He had vanished.
Of course, the reason was easy to divine. The positive film had got
worn and had broken at the point where the incident should have
culminated, the result being that a foot or more of it had been cut
away by a none too careful film mender. But the sudden disappear-
ance of the traveller was destined to be the starting point of many
another deliberately produced effect of the same kind.

The motion picture producer hurried home and set himself
straight off upon the production of a ghost film, in which the whole
effect was obtained by cutting out portions representing the moment
of appearance and disappearance of each white clad sepulchral figure,
the result being that these ghosts came and vanished on the screen
in the same sudden and unaccountable manner. Such, at any rate,

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

is the story of the manner of the inception of appearance and
disappearance effects as told to the writer by one whose word he
has no cause whatever to doubt.

According to modern methods, where it is desired to
bring about a miraculous disappearance one goes to work much in
the same way. There is, however, no need to waste film in cutting
when photographing such trick effects, since the same result is better
obtained by the simple device of stopping the camera handle during
the ghostly entrances and exits.

Let us take a case in point and examine how such a magical
appearance or disappearance can be made use of, and how its accom-
plishment is set about in practice. Take the well-known Pathe film
" The Enchanted Glasses." A part of it represents a young woman

Fig. 67. A simple trick effect. The gentleman clinging to the lamp post is acting as though
intoxicated. Still further to heighten this effect, the camera man, while taking the motion picture, rocks
the tripod top by means of a suitable screw action with which it is provided. The result is to give a picture
which sways on the screen as projected. This effect can be obtained with an ordinary ' maxim ' tripod
head by screwing on the camera at right angles to its usual position.

flourishing a piece of cloth in front of a dark curtain. Suddenly, as
she twirls the cloth about, another girl appears behind it as though
from nowhere.

To photograph such an effect the camera handle is stopped
abruptly when the cloth is in the act of being waved about
in front of nothingness. While now the camera is out of action
the girl who is to " appear " steps into position for her " appearance."
The waving of the cloth is recommenced, the camera handle is once
more smartly started, and the resulting film negative will show two
adjacent pitcures, in the first of which the magically produced young
lady is not visible, while in the next she is. On putting through the
projector the positive printed from such a negative the effect will show
the seeming production of a girl from nowhere. For a marvellous
disappearance the above course of events is merely reversed.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR AP H Y.

MAGICAL METAMORPHOSES.

As an instance of this sort of trick work may be cited the film
(t Lord. Feathertop." Here a beautiful young lady is in the act of
being married to a very fine young fellow, when the latter changes
in a flash to a giant-sized dutch doll. The effect is really the com-
bination of one of the already described " disappearance " effects
with an " appearance." The young fellow taking the part of the
bridegroom steps out of the picture, and the monster dutch doll is
placed in position during the one interval in which the camera turning
has been stopped.

FATAL AND COMIC ACCIDENTS.
Although neither of these usually figure before the public as trick

Fig. 68. The dancing midget. This effect depends simply upon an observer's comparative
inability to perceive distance except by relation to intermediate objects. The camera D is set to photo-
graph the table A, which stands before the partition G. In this partition is cut an aperture C, behind which
and at a suitably great distance, is the living model E. The background F is of the same tint as G, so that
the want of continuity is not easily apparent. When carefully planned out, the effect may be as though
a figure much smaller than life-size was situate at B. The lens of the camera must be greatly stopped
down.

effects they would both be out of the question save for the technique
of the magical metamorphosis given above. The fatal accident occurs
more and more often in modern dramatic films. Perhaps it is a
distracted young girl who determines to throw herself out of a top
floor window, and does so. At least the audience sees her climb
to the window ledge, give a last convulsive shudder, and pitch
forward and down past storey after storey, until the body flashes out
of view at the bottom edge of the picture mask. Or, again, it may be a
comic accident, such as the submerging of a couple of tramps by a
cartload of shingle, which submersion would hardly have been good
for the actors taking the parts in question had they really remained
to bear the brunt of the accident. Sometimes even a steam roller is
requisitioned to go right over a man in a comedy film, in which case he
invariably gets up again and resumes normal activity in a surprisingly

HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGR APH Y.

short time. vSmall wonder if the audience marvel how it's done. The
above instances and all of a similar sort are worked on the principle
already alluded to, a metamorphosis being effected in each case
between the living subject and a more or less life-like dummy.

Thus the suicide girl is only a flesh and blood creation up to the
moment when she gives her last convulsive shudder on the window
ledge. From that instant she retires from the stage (the camera
handle being conveniently stilled to allow of her doing so.) When
it restarts its record making revolutions it is a dummy which goes
pitching down to its death somewhere beneath the picture mask.

The comedy man who lies down in the track of the steam-roller
takes good care not to remain there so long as he seems to do. It
is a dummy which is gone over and duly flattened, while a second

Fig. 69. This shows how a giant baby may be taken by reflection from a real one. The original
subject A is reflected in the concave mirror M, and it is this reflection which is photographed. The pre-
sence of the mirror need not be apparent in the result. N shows an undulating mirror by means of which
a still further distorted rendering of the baby would be given ; this time with big head and tiny legs,
as depicted in E.

convenient pause in taking, allows of the effigy being hastily removed
for the real man to resume his place in the track of the steam-roller
as it once more passes on its way.

GHOST EFFECTS.

Here is another class of effect which, though usually realised
by the audience as of the trick variety, has, nonetheless, its place
in many an otherwise " straight " dramatic film. Although ghost
films of a sort may be produced by no more elaborate method than
that of the trick appearance and disappearance, explained at the com-
mencement of the chapter, yet the modern mode of going
to work is very different and much more elaborate. For instance,
we may see the signalman sitting in his cabin contemplating the result
of a mistake he knows himself to have made in the setting of the

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APH Y. 89

points. In the semi-darkness and silence there flash upon his mind
thoughts of the train wreck and consequent loss of life he believes
to be inevitable. Suddenly as he sits horror-bound the thoughts
take tangible form before the audience. Thin white hands appear
from the darkest corner of the signal cabin and growing momentarily
in substance seem to reach out and demand vengeance for the wretched
man's fatal mistake. Little by little the ghosts of the killed passengers
take shape till they come clamouring one after another nearer and
yet nearer to the object of their hatred. And all the while the
signalman sits glaring wildly at the phantoms in a frenzy of dread.
How is it done ? There are no tame ghosts, even in the most up-to-
date film producing studios.

The secret of it lies in two things. One of them is a special
dead black floor covering and heavy black velvet background, which
are always kept handy wherever ghost production is a feature. The
other secret lies in the correct use of the feet film indicator to be
found affixed at the side of every good class kinematograph camera
of recent design. Background and indicator are worked together
in the following way. Firstly the subject who has to be
ghost haunted goes through his part before an ordinary back-
ground and is duly photographed, the only odd thing about it being
that though when the critical moment arrives he makes every indication
of having seen whatever spooks are to be in evidence, he really sees
none whatever, because they are not there to see. No matter. When
he has to be scared, he makes sure his hair curls and his face gets
contorted with horror enough for the occasion. Meanwhile an assistant
standing by the camera man is diligently reading the camera feet indic-
ator. His business is to register accurately the number of feet exposed
both just before and just after the supposed spook invasion. When
this "straight" part of the scene is concluded, the exposed film is
wound back again from the take up to the top film box, by means
of a special device fitted to cameras used for this work, and indeed to
all instruments of the " reversing " order. Now for the black back-
ground and the spirit manifestations. Once again we wind forward
our film, without exposure, up to the point where the feet indicator
tells us the ghost seer is about to be tormented by supernatural mani-
festations. This time, however, we have the manifestations ready
in the shape of suitable actors, draped in white, and posed before the
special velvet curtain, with full instructions as to their actions, etc.

Now to turn the camera handle once more, while the assistant
gradually opens the lens iris from its smallest to a suitable working
aperture. The result will be to impress upon the already once exposed
roll of film a second record of the white draped figures, which record
grows in intensity as the stop aperture gets larger in the camera
lens. When the film indicator indicates the point at which the
ghosts must disappear, the diaphragm is first turned down to its
smallest and the camera handle then stopped. Result : filmy white

90 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

spooks, which grow in body, fade once more, and disappear. As such,
at any rate will the audience see them when the print from the .
negative comes to be put on the screen.

In working effects of this kind one should see to it that
the part of the "straight" background against which the spirit
manifestations have to be made is suitably dark in tone. Also such
effects to be worth seeing must be very carefully rehearsed and
arranged. For timing them the film indicator checked off by a smart
assistant, is the one and only reliable guide.

REVERSING EFFECTS.

Although the more blatant reversing effects are now to a great
extent out of date, trick work of this kind is still sometimes seen.

In essence the reversed effect is the result of turning the camera
upside down at the time of taking. When this is done it will be found
the positive subjects may still be threaded through the pro-
jector so as to give an image right way up as usual. Only now the action
of the subject on projection will proceed in the contrary direction to
that ordained by Nature. For instance, suppose in the subject
photographed with reversed camera a tea tray, full of china, has been
allowed to fall and the china smashed. The projected incident will
show the start of the film with the broken tea service lying upon
the ground. Suddenly the pieces will be seen to spring together, the
whole will be met by the tea tray, which will trundle up from what-
ever may have been its final resting place, the ware will set itself
magically upon the tray, and the latter, now fully loaded, will spring
up into the outstretched hands of the one who was destined to be
carrying it at the time of the accident. The end of the film would, in
fact, depict the beginning of the scene.

In practice, this extraordinary reversed movement has been
applied to a host of weird situations. One of Pathe's earlier films :
" Quick, I'm on fire ! " was almost wholly dependent upon reversal
for its drawing quality. It was a film of the " chase " variety illus-
trating a man who had been set on fire in the seat of his trousers
running madly on and on in the effort to put the fire out. Every
now and then he would spring up to a house top or slide up a sloping
board at the speed of an express train, or roll hard up hill, always
followed by the usual yelling crowd which imitated his strange
gymnastics. In the end he is seen to emerge from a river by a reversed
high dive, coming out of course still alight.

Recent cameras, intended more especially for trick work, are fitted,
m addition to the ordinary take up, with re-wind or take up arrange-
ments to the top spool box, which second set can be put in or out
of operation as required, and alternatively to the ordinary one. Such
cameras have also a special driving shaft, which turns the inter-
mittent motion the reverse way without having to reverse the turning

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APHY. 91

direction of the handle. With such a system no inversion of the
taking camera is necessary. The above, together with the addition
of a film indicator, renders the instrument useful as well for ghost
effects and many other purposes away from the usual run of everyday
work. Part of the " Enchanted Glasses " film, already alluded to,
where the wine pours upwards from the glasses and back into the
decanter is a good instance of effective yet not obvious reversal.

AERIAL EFFECTS.
The above class of

AIRSHIPS, BALLOONS.

trick effects seem to be worked rather
extensively at present. Probably the aviation craze is at the root
of it, though the same system which reveals to the watcher of the

Fig. 70. This illustration gives the method of obtaining airship effects by means of trick kinema
tography, as explained in the text. The toy airship is suspended by fine thread from a suitable overhead
travelling trolley, while the background, representing sky, can be wound up or down by the assistant,
as depicted. The other background support (shown in back view) is fitted with a rocking device for use
when photographing earthquakes, rough seas, and such like effects in trick work.

kinematograph sheet the " heights of the air " may also serve equally
well to set forth a more or less garbled version ot the supposed depths
of the ocean. To be specific, let us confine our remarks here to the
type of effect where the picture projected before us shows a glimpse of
a balloon or airship moving upwards through the clouds, till suddenly
it explodes and falls headlong earthward. As we watch we see the
rolling vapour before and behind the balloon basket. Probably the
cloud effect will not be entirely convincing, yet the very ability to
depict a balloon soaring up and up through any sort of clouds strikes
wonder into our hearts until we know how the photographer set about
it.

As a matter of fact the above class of thing is done with the
help of models combined with the more or less skilful use of what is
known as an ascending and descending background. For the latter

92 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y.

two round rollers are arranged on a suitable frame, and canvas
stretched between them and so that it can be wound from one to the
other after the manner of a cmld's myriorama. Suppose one of the
rollers situate at such a height as to be well above the picture while
the lower roller is equally below the bottom of the picture. Our
whole picture then depicts " sky." If we paint clouds upon the canvas
we have only to wind slowly upon the lower roller to give the idea
of ascending to anything in the way of a model aeroplane hung before
the " sky," while a sharp turn of .the higher roller will impart to the
model the idea of dropping, since the clouds will appear suddenly to
run upwards.

As to the model balloon itself, it is a tiny affair cut out of
suitably painted paper, or if it is to appear on a larger scale it may
be an ordinary toy one. When photographing the balloon ascent
all we need to do is to get one assistant to introduce the model before
the camera lens on the end of a bit of fine silk, as though it were travelling
along in space, while other assistants make the clouds descend slowly
and regularly. Mist effects are imparted by the usual thickness or
thicknesses of gauze allowed to drop down between the model and
camera. An aerial explosion is easily worked with the help of a suitably
contrived smoke puff, following which the cloud rollers are reversed,
while a delapidated balloon " double " is rapidly lowered down through
the picture and out of sight.

A great number of such kinds of subjects are worked by means
of models and panorama backgrounds of this sort, while in other cases
larger panoramic backgrounds, either ascending, descending, or moving
from side to side are employed with living subjects to impart to the
latter the illusion of unnaturally quick or eccentric movement.

Tom Thumb in his seven league boots is an instance in which a
laterally moving background was effectively combined by two
separate printings (see later) with the subject of a boy performing the
action of running seemingly in mid-air. The well known, not to say
classic film, " A trip to the Moon," also made use of the descending
background, though here still another principle was involved, which
latter should be dealt with by itself.

THE DOWNWARD POINTING CAMERA.

For a diagrammatic arrangement of such a camera reference should
be made to the chapter on title production. The principle there set
forth of pointing the camera vertically downward is one which can
be easily applied to trick work on a large scale. Where necessary
the camera can be placed up in the roof of a lofty studio so that people
can be taken full size while lying down, etc. Obviously with such an
arrangement the camera lens will have the same relative position to
the prostrate model as would the lens of a normally supported picture
camera to an upright model. It will therefore be possible to obtain
many seemingly baffling travesties of the action of gravity by means
of the downward pointing motion picture camera arrangement.

HANDBOOK OF K INE MA TOGRAPH Y.

As has already been hinted " A Trip to the Moon " remains
probably the most classic of all films which go to exemplify how the
vertically pointed lens may be used in trick work.

In this film an elderly gentleman was depicted as climbing up
into the night sky, past the stars, and right on to the moon's disc
itself. The moon then opened its mouth (if memory serves) and
swallowed the traveller.

It was all contrived by means of a descending background worked
in this case flat on the studio floor, while the taking camera was perched
up above, looking downward. The man who had to make the journey
to the moon in reality crawled slowly along the star painted canvas
as the latter was wound from roller to roller. Finally the moon's
disc was wound into position to occupy the centre ol the kinematograph
picture in process of being taken. Thereupon the gentleman taking
the " trip " crawled through the slit of the moon's mouth which had
been made practicable for the purpose.

A far different and yet equally amazing effect of the downward
pointing camera is the self -forming title which used to be so much in
evidence a few years ago. In reality it was formed by the gradual
displacement of the letters of the title during the time they were
being photographed by means of the downward pointing motion
picture camera. For the purpose threads are attached to opposite
ends of suitable
block letters be-
fore laying them
out to spell the
word or words
desired. Fig. 71.
The motion pic-
ture titling cam-
era is then
started, when the
letters are moved
out of the field
with a slow zig-
zag motion, im-

\ >
FIG. 71.

parted by assistants actuating these invisible cords. The letters
may be moved in various ways, all at once or one at a time,
just as the taste of the one arranging the trick title may incline. Two
points, however, are noteworthy in this description. The first is that
in the accompanying diagram showing suitable positions for attaching
threads to movable letters these threads are shown as black upon a
white ground, for the sake of clearness to the reader. In reality, of
course, they would be the same colour as the ground, black for white
letter titling or white for black letter work.

The further point to be noted, since it is an essential part of
the process, is that when working on the foregoing system, the actual
title must be photographed with reversed movement, the modus

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

operandi of which has already been explained in this chapter. Clearly
this is necessary, since the effect we want on the screen is that of
a title miraculously built up, and not one in the act of being torn apart,
as is the case in actuality.

The particularly puzzling and odd step by step effect exhibited
by films of the " Affair of Hearts " order, in which purely mechanical
arrangement and rearrangement of geometrical areas of black and
white follow up each other in a sort of kaleidoscopic sequence, are
also produced by means of the vertical camera, combined with infinite
pains on the part of the artist operator. By the same means also
automatic writing, drawing, etc., of all sorts is produced, the camera
being stopped after each picture or two for a few more short strokes
to be added or taken away.

Fig. 72. A curious reversing effect. A wet photographic transparency plate A on which is a
picture, title, or portrait, is stood in a special support C, and photographed with reversed action by means
of the kinematograph camera D. Meanwhile the spirit lamp B causes the wet gelatine of the photographic
emulsion to melt, so ruining the plate. (See second diagram to note this effect.) The effect on the screen
when showing the kinematograph film so taken will be that of a picture, portrait, etc., which gradually
forms itself out of nothingness.

NOTE, Wherever a camera is to be used for trick work it is
important to ascertain the exact point nearest to the lowermost phase
of each handle turn at which the shutter is at cover position over
the lens, since only when turning is stopped exactly at a " cover "
point does one avoid the last picture of the series being hopelessly
over exposed. Find the " cover point " nearest the lowest position
of the handle, mark this position boldly on the camera body, and see
to it thereafter that when pausing in trick effect production the handle
is brought smartly to the marked point and there stopped dead.
Doing this properly will take a little getting into, but the acquirement
is well worth the trouble. When turning is resumed this should also
be done as smartly as the camera mechanism will stand without
undue jar.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 95

SMOKE PUFFS.

The use of these and similar methods of distracting the attention
of the audience at the moment of introducing a trick effect into a
film takes much the same place in kinematography as " blacking out "
does on the stage. As we know, in " blacking out " the stage
lights are turned suddenly down, while a line of brilliant red blinders
is flashed in the eyes of the audience in order to distract its atten-
tion from some hasty scene re-arrangement in progress behind, and
which is not considered to occupy enough time to justify a regular
interval being made for it.

Just so with the kinematograph film. Something is to be done
and done mysteriously. So instead of merely stopping the camera
and re-starting when the rearrangement has been made, the transition
may be rendered even more mysterious by a suitable smoke puff
thrown out before the lens at the critical moment.

Smoke puffs are of many origins, from the regular smoke rocket
to the steam jet or spilt bag of flour. Either will serve for its special
use, and which of them is most suitable to any particular subject
is a matter best left to the experimental genius of the stage manager.

That smoke and dust thrown into the atmosphere at suitable times
and places are true friends of the picture man cannot be denied. With
comic work in particular they are in constant use, generally in order
to perform the same kindly function as in real trick work the throw-
ing over a faked incident of the glamour and mystery of detail,
which makes it go down as genuine.

GEARING DOWN THE CAMERA.

Previously we have given advice in the case of all ordinary
kinematograph photography to take the pictures at the one constant
rate of 16 per second. There is, however, an exception to this in
certain trick subjects. Then it may become advisable or necessary
to stop down the lens suitably and photograph at a much slower
speed than the normal. The film " Something wrong with the time,"
shows a clock, the hands of which suddenly begin to race round madly
while those people within its influence have their movements enor-
mously augmented in rapidity. Undoubtedly much of this film was
photographed very slowly, while the ordinary rate of action was
maintained by the models taken.

Occasionally one sees a "chase" photographed in this same geared
down way. The camera, instead of going full tilt, is worked only
at a fraction of its usual pace with the result that chasers appear
literally to gallop this way and that over the picture. An ordinary
street scene photographed at half speed will show everything going
along at double its usual pace, while should the Camera handle be
turned much too fast, the relative pace of natural objects will be
correspondingly slowed.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APHY.

DOUBLE PRINTING.

This is the only other phase of trick photography which will
be touched upon here. Nor will much be said concerning it, not
because it is not a very important branch of trick work, but because
it is in itself so complicated as to be more easily approached by the
man of experience than by the one newly interested in film production.
Still it is possible to sketch out the general method adopted in double
printing and this will now be done so far as may be.

A double printed film is one in which two separate and distinct
negatives are used over the production of the single final positive. Kach
negative illustrates a different subject, and each subject is so arranged
that it may be printed over the image formed by the other, without
effecting an unsuitably jumbled up result. Double printing is being
used more and more in modern trick work, but a single instance of
its application should serve to show both the principle and broad
method of employing it.

FIG. 73.

Let us take for our case in point the production of a " vision "
film, in which someone is depicted in a trance or sleep, while the
thoughts in his or her brain are shown enacted as varying scenes
on, say, a wall of the room behind. A method of producing the
above effect by double printing is illustrated with reference to
diagram 73. Here (A) shows the "straight" part of the subject,
consisting of " A " a bed on which lies the sleeper, " B " a fairly light
dado running around the lower half of the wall behind, and " C " a
black or very dark tone on the upper portion of the wall. Such is the
subject as it is arranged for photographing, and the " straight "
negative produced from it will illustrate just that and no more. Now
turn to(B). Here we have a very different state of things. In the
first place before going on to photograph the " vision " negative
which (B) illustrates the ordinary camera mask is replaced by one
having in it only a small aperture " B," so cut as to photograph a
scene lying on a portion of the film which would correspond with
" C" in picture (A). Having provided such a mask for the camera,
we now proceed to stage our vision scene and photograph it with the
small mask in place, so that the resultant negative will give the whole
of the picture area " D " as blank, with only the " vision " picture

HANDBOOK OF KINEMATOGRAPHY.

at the part " E," where the mask has been cut away. The printing
of the " straight " negative and the " vision " or trick negative
together superposed over the positive film will now give us a positive
picture, in which a sleeper is seen in bed, while various dream pictures
flash across the wall above, as may be determined by the different
subjects acted when making the trick or second printing film. When-
ever a " vision " scene is required to fade, the trick or second negative
is replaced by a length of transparent perforated celluloid (cleaned
film base). Then when another " vision " has to flash on to the wall
the celluloid is joined up with another trick length of (B) negative.

Working on the foregoing system it will be seen that instead of
a single negative two thicknesses of negative film have to be carried
forward by the claw of the printer along with the positive stock in

Fig. 74. A very pretty trick effect. Mamma gives the children a magic box. On opening it
a little figuie is found to be alive inside. The secret lies in the bottom of the box, which is either a plane
or slightly convex mirror. The fairy in the box in reality is an ordinary person so placed in regard to
the reflecting mirror and camera lens as to satisfy the well-known optical law that the angle of incidence
shalllequal the angle of reflection of the mirrored image. The illustration makes this plain.

course of printing, the " straight " negative being always threaded
nearest to the positive stock. There is another way in which double
printing may be effected. It has the merit of giving sharper outlines
to the " vision " portion of the print, though certain complications
also follow upon working by this alternative method. Such an
alternative way of going to work is to dispense with the small cut
camera mask in making (B) and substitute for it a wide white
frontage to the stage " E," on which is enacted the " dream " scene
to be photographed. The resulting (B) negative will now have an
opaque instead of transparent " D " portion. Such a negative
will be used to print in upon the positive stock at a different
printing from that which prints (A). In other words the negative (A)
will be printed as usual for single printing. The once printed positive
will then be wound back and reprinted with (B) negative in place in

98 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M A TOGR APR Y.

front of it. Where the impression of the " vision " has to disappear,
it will be necessary to use lengths of plain opaque blank spacing
between the (B) subjects, instead of cleaned celluloid as in the
former instance. This second system is only of use where the " C "
portion of the " straight" scene is white or very light.

The number of effects possible by means of double printing is
so great that a list of them would occupy much space, as well as being
hardly sufficiently explanatory to be of service. Careful examination
of those more modern trick subjects, which cannot be duly explained
by the simpler methods, will, however, generally give the key to the
form of double printing involved in their production.

MASKS. RETOUCHING.

Though hardly connected of necessity with trick work, this is
thought to be the place to say a word or two about the above.

As has just been explained, picture masks for special purposes
may be cut for the camera of different' aperture to the usual one.
Sometimes even with " straight " negatives and single printing an
enhanced effect can be got by varying the mask aperture more or less
from the usual and admittedly monotonous horizontal cushioned
oblong. For instance, a scene may portray what is being viewed
through a round window. In such a case a circular cut camera mask
will photograph the subject with a round dark border on the print,
which will often be extremely effective. A lady looking in a looking-
glass may see her reflection portrayed as a picture cut the exact shape
of the hand mirror. Other similar ways of utilising this possibility
of varying the shape of the camera mask should easily come to the mind
of the reader. Many modern cameras are fitted with simple means
of taking out and replacing the ordinary mask with ones cut to
openings of special proportions.

Retouching kinematcgraph film is not a matter calling for anything
like the amount of remark which is properly lavished upon similar
treatment in the case of still view negatives. Practically speaking,
the multiplicity of tiny negatives to be dealt with in mcdern motion
picture work renders anything like careful individual work upon each
out of the question. One thing can, however, be done to a kinernato-
graph negative before printing. What is more, it should be done
and done carefully. The film length should be gone over, and any
large transparent spots technically known as "pin holes," filled -in
with a touch of paint, applied with an ordinary small paint brush.
Light red is a good coloured pigment to use for the purpose, or a special
photographic preparation sold under the name of " Photofake" is
excellent.

Needless to say, only such pin holes as occur in dense portions
of the negatives should be thus touched out. Those occurring in
places where the silver deposit is thin would only be rendered more
conspicuous by filling in, and had consequently best be left alone.

HANDBOOK OF K INE M A TOGR APH Y. gg

CHAPTER XIII.
REHEARSED EFFECTS. STORY PICTURES.

Story pictures form the preponderating class of present-day
kinematograph releases. They may be roughly classified as follows

Comedy Serio-comedy. Adventure. Farce.

Tragedy. Drama. Detective. Human Interest.

Of all plots the human interest and farcical kinds are probably
most sure of a good reception by any audience, while farce is almost
certainly the easiest of all to put together and produce in something
approaching a satisfactory manner. The typical farcical kinemato-
graph plot is, in fact, nothing more than a glorification and amplifica-
tion of the well-known music hall knock-about turn. Both rely
for their drawing power on that subtle appeal to the primitive emotion
of the masses, known as " biff humour." In other words they make
their bid for success through the exhibition of unlimited horse play.
But strange as it may seem even horse play has its psychological
side which must be attended to, or it will fall flat.

Thus it is well known and accepted by all psychologists that the
humour of a ridiculous situation lies chiefly in its mockery of the
accepted and respectable. For instance, suppose we are to depict
that oft-filmed man staggering along with a ladder over his shoulder,
knocking into various people as he goes, it would not be half so funny
for him to knock into a labourer trudging to work as if he drove
the ladder into the stomach of a well dressed city man, thereby causing
the latter to fall into a pile of road refuse or other suitable and handy
means of causing his respectable clothing to be held up to mockery.

So much for the motive power underlying screaming comedy.
Summed up in few words it is mockery and horse play judiciously
combined. See to it that someone is always getting into bad trouble
from start to finish of the film, and let it be trouble of a sort to render
dignity undignified and set the laugh against human frailty, either
mental or moral, so long as the joke is not of the kind to come home
to 'roost with the audience who are to witness th>i tilm.

Films of this class are often heightened in intensity and rendered
correspondingly more effective by judicious trick effects of a sort
which, not being obvious, will not appeal as unreal to the observer.
Thus, a man may be running from his mother-in-law, when he slips
and falls down a precipice. We see his body actually come hurtling
down to what would in the ordinary way be certain death. But no !
In some manner he manages to cheat destiny, and gets up after the fall
with nothing worse than a bruised face and bad limp. Of course

ioo HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

the fall is contrived by a trick already fully explained along
with numerous others in the preceding chapter. At the same time such
unsuspected trick effects undoubtedly add to the breathless interest
of the "chase" variety of farce film.

Next to the farce in order of easiness of portrayal probably comes
the adventure and detective classes of motion picture story film.
The reason of their simplicity is to be looked for in the highly coloured
incidents portrayed. Moreover, the bulk of modern motion picture
detective films are of the Nick Carter and Sexton Blake variety. Nor
should we forget, when setting this forth, that both the above heroes
belong to the realms of gutter literature, and not to those of high-
class legitimate fiction at all. Small wonder, then, if there is but
little subtlety called for in the interpretation ot plots stamped with
the hall mark of Messrs. Blake and Carter. Still, even here it is
essential to success that the conscientious portrayal of the smaller
details should not be lost sight of. The thrills of either detective or
adventure stories lose nothing of their power for being reasonably
plausibly worked up.

Let us pass from the consideration of the above class of thing
to say a few words about certain kinds of kinematograph story
calling for exhibition of higher talents in those concerned with their
production. Such types of kinematograph plot are the light humorous,
the more serious dramatic, and human interest varieties. Of them
the easiest one to manoeuvre to a measure of success is probably the
human interest tale, only it must be really well acted, with no slips
and no unrehearsed ridiculous situations to spoil it. Human interest
being entirely savage like the appeal of ''biff humour" we must
not attempt to look for it outside of the emotions. But whereas
humour may be regarded as the making of a brutal exhibition of
so me person or estate with which we have no sympathy, human interest
is the ringing of the changes upon emotions and situations in real life
near to the audience itself. Nor in the " strong " human story need
we hesitate to lift the veil from the most private and sacred of
human hopes, griefs, and attachments. It may be somewhat of a grisly
business, this digging up of mouldering bones wherewith to decorate
the projection screen. Still, it pays. -i

Love constitutes a great human interest, of course. Money has
an appeal as strong or sometimes even stronger. Then there is death,
horrid enough one might think, yet capable like the rest of being turned
for the occasion into an unwilling pay box attendant. The ill-
treatment of the old by the young who they have raised up, or the
cruelty of a hard-hearted landlord to his tenant, to say nothing of
themes involving cruelty to pet animals, all go to swell the human
side of a motion picture film. In fact, to the man with his eyes open
there is no common cause of distress which cannot be successfully
played upon for the purposes of the more lachrimose type ot kinemato-
graph film.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 101

Sometimes a film subject will rise far above the usual dead level
which we have tried to depict above. When this is the case careful
investigation will usually show the idea to have been taken from a
moie or less well known work of classical fiction. But classical or
not, film plots have to be pretty well handled if they are to stand out
from their fellows as worth seeing by the critical man. And here it
might be well to say a few general words about sundry conditions
which should be looked to in the photographing of rehearsed effects.

First as to incident lengths. The aim in all story tilm production
is to make the pictures explain as much as possible, without the
necessity for sub-titles (or explanatory sentences interspersed between
the picture subjects.) A film helped out by a great number of sub-titles
thereby shows itself, amongst other things, as capable of improvement
either in plot or stage management. This is not to say that a sub-title
may never be admitted. That would be going too far altogether
toward the other extreme. Where titles or sub-titles are photographed
they should be of a length oi not less than six feet if a few words only
are included. If many words or sentences are necessary upon a sub-
title, as, for instance, in the portrayal of a hand written letter, or in
giving a sketch of the story leading up to some historical presenta-
tion, the film length may well be from ten to twelve feet, or just so
long as it would take an ordinary reader to go through the whole of
the written matter twice slowly.

The pictured incidents themselves should never be of a length less
than ten feet, or they will flash off and on the screen in an abominably
jumpy way. Needless to say this remark does not apply to tableau
effects. Twenty feet is a fair length for a good story incident,
though this may be increased to forty or even sixty feet if circumstances
seem to warrant. With long films, individual incidents may even be
spun out more than this, but then there is always a danger of same-
ness spoiling the snap and go of the production. vSuch an excep-
tional picture incident as the telling of a ghost story might however
go on just so long as the narrator's pantomimic genius enabled him to
hold the audience. As to rate of turning, it should always be the same
sixteen pictures a second for every subject, whether grave or gay. So
many modern projectors are motor driven that an even taking rate
becomes daily more and more of a necessity.

Perhaps it may be the lot of the reader who makes his first attempt
at story film production to have to work with actors and actresses
not accustomed to playing their parts in the focus of a kinematograph
camera. In such a case there is likely to be some difficulty arising
through the fact of the artists' inability to gauge accurately the limits
of the stage as seen by the camera lens. With a set studio gauge
the complication may not be a serious one, but when acting outdoor
episodes where the action is confined to a small and important space
in the foreground, one cannot be too careful in ensuring that no
important bit of business takes place " off " when it should have been
' on." The way to accomplish what is necessary is by means

102 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APR Y.

of small flags or tapes, planted or laid in V shape, from camera
lens outward as illustrated in diagram 75. The tape lines must be
just invisible on either edge of the picture mask. Chalk marks may
also be made and used for a like purpose. All the actors and
actresses have then to do is to be sure that they make their entrances
from outside to inside the chalked or taped area, that their action
is gone through strictly within the same area, and that no exit shall be
deemed complete till after the outer side of the tape lines has been
crossed. This will ensure acting strictly within the limits of the picture.

Probably where anything of the nature of a regular set kinemato-
graph stage is attempted for the first time this will take the form of
an outdoor one. In such a case the scenery is best painted on supported
canvas, exactly after the manner of mounting and painting ordinary

FIG. 75.

stage " flats, " except that for motion picture photography we work
up the original in black and white instead of colour. Flatted oil
colour is the thing to use ; also the " fit up," must be so made as to
be easily removable from place to place and aspect to aspect, according
to time of day, weather, and general circumstances, not excluding
the possibility of sudden squalls of rain and wind.

Co vered-in studios pro vided with expansive glass roof s for daylight
work, to say nothing of mercury vapour light installations for
photography in dull weather and at night, are hardly among the
first flights of commercial kinematographic enterprise for which
it is hoped this part of the book may do something to fit the
prospective motion picture photographer, so it will be necessary to say
no more concerning indoor work than that since here neither wind
nor rain has to be guarded against, flatted oil scene painting may
be, with advantage, superseded by distemper work, the latter then
having everything to be said for it on the score both of speed of
production, low cost, and quick drying qualities.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 103

At the same time it might also be noted that, in order to compare
in any way with the real thing, artificially produced scenery has to
be of the very highest order, and since such a condition is never easy
to fulfil in practice it must accordingly follow that, where Nature
can by any reasonable means be made to serve, scene painting should
be rigorously avoided.

For instance, we may be called upon to depict a love passage
between the hero and heroine. If possible such a passage should
be represented as enacted out of doors in the garden of the girl's
father's country mansion, not in the drawing room which would
then necessitate studio and painted scenery. Of course, it is not
possible to do without such studio work entirely. Still, one should
try as far as one can to get away from it, and indeed one only has
to study carefully the latest and best film productions to realise
more and more the trend among high-class houses to keep away
from the " boxed in chamber with scenic ornaments " of olden time.

One word of advice to plot producers. It does not properly
come within the limits of the present chapter, but the writer
thinks it so important he cannot bring himself to exclude it. Don't
let the leads " take the footlights " for every effect or incident on
which the film's strength is going to depend. Why ever the motion
picture stage manager doesn't put his foot down on the present prevail-
ing and wholly pernicious practice it would be hard to surmise. Lurch-
ing into the exact centre of the picture at three-quarter length point for
every telling situation is not really the way to make that situation
more telling. In fact it is the reverse. The centre of a picture is
admitted by art critics to be its weakest and not its strongest portion.
It is half way between the middle and the extreme side that the real
strength of composition lies. But there is another reason why "taking
the footlights " is not going to be of any use to the picture actress.
It shows up her face too fiercely in the resulting print, with the con-
sequence that if she really be pretty half her attraction tor the audience
will be lost through her features being too completely seen and taken
stock of early in the film picture, while if she be not quite so pretty .

A hint on how to photograph beauty becomingly. We have just,
touched on a very common way in which its effect can be and i?
lessened in many moving pictures. The best method of doing justice
or maybe a trifle more than justice to a pretty and capable female
model is to photograph when feasible with the sun out and high in
front of the camera. That way the features will be thrown into a- very
delightful silhouette, while if the sun is a trifle more to one side
Rembrandt effect is the equally satisfying result. Only in trying
the above beauty formula see to it that the camera shutter and gate
are thoroughly dead black or there will be trouble from internal
reflections.

A final word about the taking of rehearsed effects. Insist that
these be gone over time and again and made absolutely perfect before
there is any attempt whatsoever at photographing them. Even then,

104

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

Heaven knows, enough things can go wrong and ruin films at the
critical moment. The snorting charger may gib when it should be
racing the Scotch Express. The murder in the lonely wood may
be ruined by the casual appearance on the scene at the crucial moment
of a mildly interested tramp. The writer has even witnessed a terrible
accident the rolling of a young girl down a precipice which was
rendered so ludicrous by unforeseen circumstances that it could only
have done as a roaring comic of the continental type. That repre-
sents a negligible part of the tricks Nature may play you, so don't
add to them by allowing any on the part of the artists.

FIG, 76. M. PROSZINSKI AND HIS AUTOMATIC CAMERA.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 105

Appendix to Part I.

FUNCTIONS OF LENSES.

Lenses are in reality no more than pieces of glass which, instead of being
flat, possess curved surfaces. Now it is clear that such curves may be of two
kinds. They may go out, as in Fig. 77, where the lens would be said to be double
convex, or they may go in as in Fig. 78, where the lens is of the double concave
variety. A third class of lens extensively used in photography is the meniscus,
Fig. 79, in which one of the curves goes in (concave), and the other goes

A c

FIG. 77.

out (convex). If we refer again to Figs. 77 and 78, we shall notice that the action

of the two types of lens is entirely different toward light falling upon them.

In each case, CA, DB, represent parallel light rays falling on the glass. In

the one case (that of the convex lens), the effect of the len's curvature

upon the rays is to bend them toward a common ' focus ' point at E

(Fig. 77). In Fig. 78, the

same rays, CA, DB, are ^^^

represented as passing ]E -^^^ A

through the concave lens ^^(////L C

AB. But here, although " **

a bending occurs, it has
the effect of turning the
light rays away from, in-
stead of towards one
another as at E, F. Since
an actual or positive focus
point is the only position
behind a lens at which a real image of natural objects is formed, and since only
lenses of more or less convexity possess this, it follows that all working photo-
graphic lens combinations are of the convex variety.

The ordinary magnifying glass is of this kind, which accounts for its
ability to cast behind it an image of an object placed in front. The
same attribute is also shared by any lens in which the sum total of the
curvature leaves a balance on the bulge-out side. Thus, in Fig. 79,
the meniscus lens, although possessing distinct concavity on the right
hand side (as drawn), has even more pronounced convexity on the
left hand. It would therefore act on the whole as a slightly convex
lens. The same rule applies to lenses made up of more than one glass or FIG. 79.

106 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

' element/ In considering such, then, we may for present purposes include
all lenses possessing a balance on the convex side as in the same category with
the double convex variety figured in Figs. 77, 80 and 81.

And now to turn to Fig. 80. This seeks to make plainer the reason why the
ability of a convex lens to concentrate light rays to a point confers upon it also

an ability to cast an image
A of objects upon which it
may have been focussed.
In this diagram the arrow

_ .^ __ ^ AB must be taken as the

Jt^J --'*''M~ ~* "" "*- -~"*~ object that is being photo-

,,''' f ^^ vjjj --"**"*'"* ^ graphed. Imagine two

-* -.t^asaL-* """*-. points, A and B respec-

tively at opposite ends of
the arrow. The argu-
B ments which can account

FIG. 80. f r the production of an

image of these two points

applies equally to the formation of an image of every other point on the surface
of the arrow or, in fact, of any other object photographed.

Now to reason the formation of the images of A and B. Light, as is well
known, travels a straight course unless the rays are artificially turned by some
substance such as the glass of the lens itself. Also, since any object can be seen
from any point of view provided there is nothing between it and the observer,
and provided also the intervening distance does not place too great a tax upon
the observer's eyesight, it follows that light rays must be reflected from all
illuminated objects in all directions. Hence, we may take it for a start, that
light rays are being given off in all directions from the points A, B of the arrow
AB in Fig. 80.

We interpose the lens FG anywhere within view of the points in question
when pencils (portions) of light, FAG, FBG, given off from A and B, will strike
upon the diameter of the interposed lens, FG. Also, these will strike the glass
travelling in straight lines from A and B. Moreover, the central ray of each
light pencil will follow a straight undeviated course (due to the fact theft the
central point of a spherical curve is theoretically a plane surface), the outer rays
of such respective pencil tending more and more to meet this middle one at a
point known as the focus point, which varies in position according to the
remoteness of the object focussed, but we will suppose to be in the plane DC,
for the object A.B. We are assuming our curved glass FG to be behaving
as a ' perfect ' lens free from errors of spherical aberration which often
arise in practice to mar the performance of the cheap commercial article.
Following this out, it will happen that whereas BF, BG will come to a focus at
(say) D, (a distance decided by the focal length or extent of convexity of the
lens), the rays AF, AG will come to a point at C in the same plane. Like-
wise, all intermediate rays will, by the like reasoning, be brought to a focus,
at their proper intermediate distances. Hence, an image of AB will be formed
at DC. Such then is the skeleton of the reasoning underlying the formation of
the optical image used for the purpose of impressing a plate with its photographic
negative record.

Notice incidentally how the inversion of the image comes about as the neces-
sary consequence of the above. With the object photographed the head of
the arrow A is upward. In its image, and as the result of the crossing of the rays
in the lens, the head C is pointing downward.

While we are on the subject of lens action, it may be as well to include one
more diagram, Fig. 81. This has a very practical bearing upon photographic
technique. It illustrates what the text books on optics speak of as the law of
conjugate foci. Looked at from the utilitarian standpoint, it shows the reason
why a photographic lens has to be racked inward or outward according as we
are taking distant or near objects.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

107

The diagram illustrates two point objects, A and B, which it may be wished
to bring to a focus. It will presumably have been grasped by the reader that
this focal point, or position where the image is concentrated (as DC, Fig. 80),
is the one at which the photographer endeavours as nearly as possible to adjust

FIG. 81.

his sensitive photographic surface. Reverting to Fig. 8 1 , it will be seen that the
points A and B do not focus at the same distance behind the lens, since whereas
the more distant one A, comes to its focus at E, the nearer point, B, does not
reach a focus till F, much farther from the lens' back surface.

This is, in itself a rough expression of the law of conjugate foci ; that the
nearer the object to the lens, the farther behind will be the focal plane of its
image. Obviously, the photographer is placed by this inflexible rule of optics
in something of an awkward predicament, for it is equally impossible for him
either to insist on the objects of nature grouping themselves to order in one
plane (distance) before the camera, or to make the vertically-supported plate or
film receive truly focussed images of objects in different planes at one and the
same time.

In practice, a compromise is effected by the process known as ' stopping
down the lens/ This consists of placing a ' diaphragm ' or ' stop ' of opaque
metal in front of the lens glass, the same stop having cut in it a small hole of a
size only to allow a comparatively small pencil or rays to come through. While
the above expedient greatly slows the action of the lens, and while at the same
time it affords no help whatever in arriving at the optically impossible condition
of obtaining simultaneous true focus of many planes at a time, it none the less
makes the lens's departure from such a condition less noticeable to a degree
depending upon the extent to which ' stopping down ' has been effected.

Stopping the lens is therefore very largely adopted in practical work both in
the field and studio, and in that connection is more fully treated of in Chapter 4.
For the present, it will be sufficient to append Fig. 82 by way of illustrating the
theory underlying the action of a diaphragm as used for the above purpose of
producing apparent ' depth of focus.'

In Fig. 82, the object A is represented as being brought by the lens BC to
a focus in the plane GH, at which plane, needless to say, the sensitive surface
should be placed to receive the image formed. Suppose instead, that by virtue
of a greater necessity accurately to focus some still nearer object, the photo-

FIG. 82.

graphic plate or film has had to be moved back to the plane KL. Then, without
the interposition of a stop, the image of the object A would be hopelessly blurred,
each point of the original having expanded into a wide circular patch of light as
KL. This is the condition of things indicated by the broken lines. The black

io8

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

cone sets forth the improvement introduced by the interposition before the
lens of the diaphragm DE, containing in it the small aperture F, through which
alone the actual utilised light cone passes. As before, we see that the true focus
point remains at GH. Shifting the sensitive surface back to KL, however,
now only introduces the much lesser blurring effect formed by the comparatively
slight diffusion of the light rays from point formation as at MN.

The above optical notes do not pretend to do more than touch the fringe
of a very wide and intricate subject, one, moreover, which is in its advanced stages
right outside the scope of a work on practical kinematography. The reader
who may wish to go further into the theory of photographic and other lenses
is for this purpose, and as a first step, recommended to the perusal of such a well-
known elementary optical handbook as Glazebrook's " Light."

NOTE ON FILM STOCK.

Needless to say, the best way of handling ribbon of all sorts in small compass
is by rolling it up. It is in the form of a roll that the necessary long strips of
photographically-coated celluloid, known as ' film stock,' are sent out by the
manufacturers. For use, these rolls are loaded into suitable containers within
the camera, from thence to be fed into the escapement as required. The usual
lengths of commercial rolls of film stock are 165 feet (Continental) or 200 feet
(American and English) lengths. The width of such stock is approximately
one and eleven-thirtyseconds inches.

FILM MASKINGS.

The "masking" or registration of a film is a technical term expressing the rela-
tion of the perforations to the pictures. Thus a film may have its masking such
that the top edge of a perforation coincides with the top edge of each film picture
as in A fig. 83. Or the masking may be of a kind where the centre of the top-
most perforation of each picture space is nearly a quarter of the picture length
down from the top of the picture as in figure B. The masking may, moreover,
be anywhere between these two extremes, according as the camera mat is
adjusted.

i i

A B

FIG. 83. DIFFERENT MASKINGS OF FILM.

It is in order to compensate to some extent for variations of masking in
the negatives that the printer is provided with an adjustable gate. At the same
time it should be clearly understood that adjusting the printer gate will nc t make

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 109

up for variations of masking in the cameras, wherewith two different negatives
have been made in so far as the question of joining prints from these negatives
together is concerned. In other words, where prints from two negatives of
different masking are joined to form one positive film, the point of junction
will always necessitate double adjustment of the projector gate whenever the
composite film length is put through.

Consequently it is very important where film subjects are being produced
to see that only cameras with similarly registered gate masks are employed
upon the production of the negatives used. In this way alone can it be ensured
that the one adjustment of the projector mask on starting the film will do for
the whole run.

Where positives are to be made in the camera, the absence of an adjustable
gate makes it imperative that all negatives printed from it shall have been taken
either through the camera itself or at least by the aid of one with identical
registration.

PERFORATING.

The private man, or the one starting filming on his own, should attend care-
fully to the following points. Have all motion picture cameras on the premises
as far as possible identical of construction, having the same movement with pins
or claws of one calibre, and see that all picture masks are set in the same relation
to the sprocket holes. Have your perforators made to the exact gauge of the
camera sprockets, with punches as nicely proportioned as possible to the claws
of cameras and printers. This will materially improve the steadiness, and
therefore the quality, of the film subjects you issue. Your positive stock should,
however, have its perforations large enough to fit easily over the sprockets of
commercial projectors.

QUINONE INTENSIFICATION OF NEGATIVES AND POSITIVES.

Quite recently (December, 1910) Messrs. A. & L. Lumiere, the well-known
manufacturers of kinematograph negative and positive stock, have published the
details of a new form of combined intensifying, toning and hardening bath,
which may very possibly turn out to be of great use in the treatment of topical
negatives and positives.

The formula for the bath is as follows :

Quinone ... ... ... ... ... ... 6ozs.

Potassium Bromide 2 Ibs.

Water ... ... 60 pints.

Note. The Quinone referred to above is otherwise known as Benzo-quinone.
It is not the same as Quinol (which is another and synonymous term for Hydro-
quinone.)

On placing film in the above bath it gradually changes in colour to a dark,
reddish brown, also gaining in intensity. Further changes of colour and density
may be produced by after treatment, according to the following table. In
each case the after treatment is to take place upon the Quinone toned image.

PLACE IN TEN PER CENT. AMMONIA.

Image tones dark brown and becomes still further intensified. After
drying, the colour goes back somewhat to the original Quinone tone, but the
further gain in intensity remains.

TREATMENT IN CARBONATE OP SODA SOLUTION.
Tones image pure dark brown, with great intensification.

no HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR AP H V .

PLACING FILM IN " HYPO."

Reduces the image, making it very transparent, but still of the reddish
brown colour, to which the Quinone toned it.

TREATMENT IN SODA SULPHITE SOLUTION.

Tones image greenish brown, without affecting the depth. In any case
it will be found that the film, after Quinone treatment, is hardened, just as it
would have been by immersion in a formalin bath. Thus the topical worker
has placed in his hands a quick and simple means of simultaneously toning ,
hardening,and modifying the depth of image of a quickly printed and consequent!}-
faulty length of positive film which there may be no time to duplicate.

CAMERAS USING NON-PERFORATE FILM,

Although cameras using perforate film constitute the only type of present-day
commercial instrument (so far, at any rate, as sales are concerned) it has always
been recognised by those interested in kinematography, that were it possible
to impart a steady intermittent movement to imperf orate film, great advantages
might accrue in the matter of motion picture taking and printing.

For one thing imperforate negative and positive film would certainly expand
and contract more evenly and uniformly during development and subsequent
drying than does the present perforate stock. Also whatever alteration occurred
to the film, through strains in course of treatment, would not effect itsperiora-
tions if these need not be made in it till after all other operations of production
had been completed.

The subject is one for the earnest attention of film producers interested in
the subject of steady projection.

As to attempts practically to fathom the matter of using unperforated
film, the reader is referred to Hopwood's " Living Pictures," page 128, where
he will see such an arrangement figured (fig. 142.) A suggestion for projecting
imperforate positive film also occurs in Hepworth's " A B C of Kinematography "
(published 1900) though the practical advantage of extending the above idea
to projectors might, or might not, prove so great as was there anticipated.

END OF PART I.

PART II.

HANDBOOK OF KI NE M A TOGRAPH Y. 113

PART II.

Projection

CHAPTER I.
THE ELEMENTS OF PROJECTING.

The problem that confronts us in kinematograph projection is,
apart from consideration of the escapement of the machine, practically
no different from the one encountered in working an ordinary optical
lantern. In fact, the kinematograph projector is merely the com-
bination of the elements of an optical lantern with the escapement
necessary for actuating the moving film. The intermittent motion,
in so far as it applies to cameras for moving picture work, has already
been gone into, and this broad principle remains little if at all altered
in its application to projection instruments. We will therefore now
introduce the projector firstly as an optical unit for the transmission
and concentration of light rays through the kinematograph film
and on to the projection screen. Discussion on projector escapements
will follow.

The main spring of the projector's optical system is to be dis-
covered in the lantern body. This is simply a roomy fireproof case,
generally of asbestos lined iron, designed for the reception of the light
source. Limelight or the electric arc usually provide the actual
illumination within this lantern body, the light rays falling upon the
' condenser/ situate as shown B, Fig. 84, which consists of a com-
bination of more or less crude lenses mounted in a metal cell, and so
arranged as to bring the light from the light source A to a partial
focus on the projector gate C.

In this gate the film moves, just as in the gate of a kinematograph
camera, the light passing through it and being further collected by

n 4 HANDBOOK OF KINE M A TOGRAPH Y.

the objective lens D, which performs the function of forming the
transmitted rays into the image on the screen.

FIG. 84. THE PROJECTOR AND ITS OPTICAL SYSTEM.

The condensing lens usually employed in pro-
jecting moving pictures has a diameter of 4 to 4^- inches,
and is either a triple condenser or one of the Herschel
type, this latter being a combination of two lenses,
the back one, or that nearest the light source, meniscus,
and the front one nearest the gate, a double convex
(Fig. 85). The objective lens is nearly always of the
Petzval portrait type, consisting of a single cemented
front combination and an uncemented back com-
bination formed of two thin lenses separated by an air gap. When
cleaning these Petzval lenses, rules to remember are to place the
uncemented elements in their right order nearest to the gate of the pro-
jector, not to omit the metal ring which determines the width of the air
gap in the back combination, and last, but not least, to load in all lens
elements with their greatest convexity towards the projection screen.
This will ensure a correct performance for pretty well all objective
lenses commonly met with on a projector.

FIG. 85.

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APH Y. 115

One thing will probably strike those who glance a second time at
Fig. 84, and who may be accustomed to operating the ordinary still
view lantern. That is the great distance of the condenser from the film
in the gate. The reason for it is the comparatively small size of the
kinematograph picture with the consequent necessity for concen-
tration of light from the condenser into a small beam in order to
waste as little of it as possible. Beyond this, there is really no
fundamental difference between the optical arrangement of a still
view and a moving picture projector.

Concerning the manner in which the condenser brings the light rays
from the illuminant to a partial focus on the gate, as also the optical
effect of the objective to form the image on the screen, this should
be fairly plain to those who have read the remarks on elementary
optics in the appendix to the first part of this book. The condenser
lenses are crude and uncorrected, but they perform their function by
bringing the bulk of the incident light to a partial focus on the positive
film picture. From the point when this more or less parallelised light
beam emerges on to the back glass of the objective the condenser's use
is over. The objective proceeds to build up the image on the screen
according to the laws of refraction of light. The law of conjugate foci
will explain the formation in this instance of a large and distant image
by means of a short focus lens. When photographing a natural object
with the camera the lens is used to concentrate distant rays to a focus
upon the negative film, which is then comparatively close. Large
external objects, under these conditions, and following the law of
conjugate foci, give a small compact image. In projection work
we simply have the case in which distance and consequent comparative
size of object and image are reversed. Reference to our conjugate
foci diagram will make the matter easier to understand. (Appendix
Part I.)

Further, as in photography, so in projection, the focus of the
objective lens decides the size of image we can obtain. Thus, a two
inch objective will give a clearly focussed image of twice the diameter
of the one thrown by a four inch objective at the same distance. This,
too, will be found absolutely analogous and explained by the diagrams
and remarks on focus of lenses in our first part. But in projection
it will be necessary when deciding upon the actual size of the picture
to be thrown on the screen to bear in mind a law of light known as
the ' law of inverse squares.' This law does not come obviously
before one's notice in practical form in kinematograph photography.
In projection, however, it is very important, since it is our one means
of working out the comparative illumination of screens of various sizes
for a given illuminant of known power.

The law of inverse squares may be stated as follows : ' The inten-
sity of light proceeding from a small source is inversely as the square
of its distance from that source.' Thus, to state the matter in practical
form, the effect of doubling the diameter of the projected image thrown
by a given lens with unvarying light source will be to make the illu-

n6 HANDBOOK OF KINE M A TOGRAPH Y.

mination of any given portion of the picture, not one half, but one quarter
of the former brightness. Enlarging the projected image three times
(either by shifting the screen farther away from the projector or using
an objective lens of equal aperture but one. third the former focal
length) will cause the brilliance of the picture to diminish nine times,
and so on.

Bearing this rule in mind, it will be easy for the kinematograph
operator to determine at any time whether the light at his disposal
will or will not allow of any given enlargement of the projected image.
Later on in the book will be found precise tables tending to give
more definite help along the same lines.

Having now outlined the general optical arrangement of the
projector, and before passing on to deal with any particular points
wherein its escapement may differ from that usually associated with
the kinematograph camera, it may be as well to touch briefly upon
other parts connected with the movement of the celluloid film through
the machine. Such parts will be the feed and take-up spools, the
spool arms and spool boxes, feed and take-up sprockets, and the rotary
light shutter. Referring to Diagram 84, X, Y are upper and lower
film boxes holding respectively the film and take-up spools ; L, M are
upper and lower or feed and take-up sprockets, and E is an end-on
view of the rotary light shutter, which should not be confused with
the sliding light cut-off fitted in practice directly in front of the
condenser, and which latter being an article of practical utility rather
than a fundamental item of projection will be neglected for the moment.

The film feeding and taking up mechanism consists firstly of a
spool arm fixed to the top of the machine, and carrying a rotating
and easily removable metallic spool or reel upon which the film to be
exhibited is wound before showing. This rotating spool is enclosed
in a fireproof box, having a suitable slit in it fitted with some fire
extinguishing device, usually a system of rollers, through which the
easily inflammable film is led to the top or feed sprocket. It is the
rotation of this sprocket, actuated by means of gear wheels, that drags
the film off the top spool and feeds it uninterruptedly into a loop on
the top of the gate. From this moment the downward motion of
the film becomes intermittent, being actuated thenceforward by the
escapement, till the film is picked up again uninterruptedly on the
bottom sprocket of the kinematograph, from which it is fed to the
second, or take-up spool on the lower spool arm of the projector.

This take-up spool, like the feed spool, is a metal reel enclosed in
a fireproof hox with snuffer device to prevent fire passing through
the entrance slit in the event of the combustible film firing in the
gate. Unlike the upper spool, however, the take-up has to be driven
forward by means of chain or worm drive from the gearing of the
projector mechanism acting on a friction clutch bearing against the
take-up reel. In this manner all slack is successfully picked up by
the bottom spool as soon as it is formed, while yet the ribbon film is
never at any time subjected to sufficient tension to snap or damage it.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y. 117

Now comes the turn of the rotary light shutter. What happens
upon the screen when a ' moving ' picture is exhibited is that a still
picture is flashed before our eyes for something less than a twentieth part
of a second. The revolving light shutter then cuts it off by rotating
into the path of the light beam from the lens. The screen becomes
momentarily completely darkened while the escapement moves another
picture positive into the place of the first in the gate. Upon the
shutter flicking once more out of the track of the light beam this
second picture flashes before our eyes in place of the first for a similar
brief interval of under the twentieth of a second. These are the actual
facts when moving pictures are projected.

Yet even with the first crude projectors this was not the effect
communicated to the brain through the retinal nerves of the eye,
while with most modern instruments there is left upon our con-
sciousness neither the sensation of jerky movement, nor any sense of
momentary transition from light to darkness. In fact, it comes to
this, that while kinematograph photography is a plain sailing sort of
thing, projection and the success of it depends upon an illusion of the
brain brought about through some universal weakness of our visual
capacity, whereby we may trick ourselves into seeming to see what
is not there. We flick still pictures illustrating the successive move-
ment phases of an object before our eyes, alternating these brief
impressions with fractional moments of complete darkness, and as
the result, what we seem to be watching is an evenly illuminated
reproduction of the movement of nature. This illusion is brought
about at will by the intervention of the celluloid positive film as
actuated by the kinematograph projector. Clearly, the why and
wherefore of it calls for some attempt at explanation.

Accordingly, our next chapter will be devoted not only to remarks
on projector mechanisms, but also to some consideration of the nature
of the particular and fundamental optical illusion of kinematography
which they call into being.

n8 HANDBOOK OP K I N E M A TOG R A P H Y .

CHAPTER II.

PERSISTENCE OF VISION. THE ESCAPEMENT.

The essential phenomenon underlying all kinematographic
projection is known in optics as persistence of vision. At the begin-
ning of Part I. short mention was made of certain experiments of
Ptolemy, the Greek philosopher, which bore on th ; subject. Beyond
such passing notice, little has up to now been said by us of the relation
of ' persistence ' to kinematography, chiefly because the question
assumes no practical significance during the making of negative and
positive film subjects. The moment, however, we come to projecting
a moving picture, persistence of vision takes its place as the main
consideration controlling the performance. Accordingly, before we
go further into the practical side of projector mechanisms, it will
be necessary to examine this new theoretical consideration somewhat
more carefully.

The phenomenon is most simply demonstrated in the well-known
fire circle effect produced by a waving torch or burning brand. Every-
one is aware that after a certain rate of speed has been gained, the
whirling flame seems to the eye to spread out into a complete ring,
or to form itself in seemingly perfect loops and spirals, according to
the way such a burning torch is being brandished. In other words,
the rate of motion of the flame has become so great as to bring about
an optical illusion. We seem to see it lingering in a particular spot
after it has really passed well away upon its swinging course. The
effect of the bright image lingers in the retina of the eye after the
actuality has disappeared; the verity has gone, but its echo exists
in the retinal nerves for a short while only, yet long enough to befog
the brain into imagining it has perceived complete fiery shapes where
they have never really existed.

Precisely the same thing holds good with moving pictures. The
photographer takes picture after picture on a band of celluloid. The
operator throws successive brilliant images of these little pictures
upon the screen, constantly shifting a new picture into the place of
the last, in a series of rapid and regular jerks. And the audience
watching the effect are willingly deceived by the phenomenon of
' persistence/ The dark intervals when the lens is at cover fail to
impress the brain by reason of their shortness. So, instead of an
endless series of isolated snapshots being apparently thrown on the
screen, there seems only the one persisting picture persisting except
for the minor differences of movement phase between the successive
images of moving objects impressed upon the celluloid length. So
much for the purely theoretical aspect of the thing. Now to consider

HANDBOOK OF KINE M A TOGR APH Y. 119

those points in which the construction of a good projector should differ
fundamentally from that of a kinematograph camera so that the
phenomenon of persistence, admittedly of no account in camera work,
may be given full play on the lantern screen.

Clearly we shall be helping the persistence illusion best by putting
as little tax upon it as possible. There is nothing in this world that
does not gain by being worked lightly and with consideration. More-
over, persistence of vision is at its height immediately after the with-
drawal from the scene of the bright object causing it, in this case the
projected kinematograph image. It then takes a dying-down course,
occupying a total duration of from the tenth to the twentieth part of
a second, by the end of which time the illusion has, practically speaking,
come to an end. The moment when the rotary light shutter of
the projector comes into play, after showing one kinematograph
picture and before the next, persistence is at work, so that to
tax the same phenomenon as little as possible the rate of picture
change must be quick. In other words, the opaque portion of the
rotary shutter must occupy only a small sector of a circle.

With the kinematograph camera, it will be remembered, rate of
change is conveniently set at about one to one, that is to say, the cover
period during movement of the film is of about the same duration
as the period while it remains at rest for exposure. Even then,
as often as not, it is found convenient still further to close the
exposing aperture of the shutter. This may well make the effective
duration of change, as compared to exposure, nearly as two to one.
In designing a projector, on the other hand, three quarters exposing
interval to one quarter cover period is considered a very low rate of
change, while six, or even eight times the period of exposure to that of
cover is reached in various projectors now on the market.

Practically speaking, it has not, so far, been found possible to
make the rate of change in a modern projector greater than eight to
one, for the reason that the intermittent travel of the film would
become so rapid, and the grip upon it so sudden as unduly to augment
the danger of breakage in the gate. Even
so short a cover period as eight to one has,
however, been found in practice to leave
the phenomenon of the gradual dying down
in intensity of persistence of vision suffi-
ciently in evidence for a distinct flicker to
be noticeable while projecting a kinemato-
graph positive on the screen.

Several devices were invented in the
early days to overcome this well-known
defect. One of the first of these devices,
invented and figured by Mr. Cecil M. Hep- FIG. 86.

worth in his little book, " The A B C of
Kinematography/' and here reproduced (Fig. 86), took the form of
a partially perforated cover shutter. The perforated grid A, formed

120

HANDBOOK OF KINE M A TOGR APH Y.

the cover sector of the shutter. Such a device, by lightening the
screen somewhat during the dark period, certainly did relieve flicker,
but it had the compensating disadvantage of bringing about
'ghost' or blurring of white outlines against dark backgrounds
due to the moving film not being completely masked while being
actuated by the escapement. A more recent and still very generally
accepted way of minimising flicker has been, not by experimenting
with the regular light intercepting shutter blade, but by balancing
it with a ' non-flick ' fishtail of violet celluloid or gelatine attached to
the shutter shaft so as to cross the light beam at the moment when
the regular cover sector reaches the middle of its off position. Of
course, such addition of a violet non-flick blade cuts down the
total period of lighting of the image on the screen. But here comes
in an interesting point. The second minor light flicker thus delib-
erately introduced has the effect of greatly lessening the apparent
fierceness of alternation between light and darkness on the projection
screen. A moment's thought will explain the reason of it. What we
do in reality by the addition of the non-flick blade to the shutter is
to call in the phenomenon of persistence a second time to help its own
self out by levelling our perception of light on the screen throughout
the picture projecting cycle. Fig. 87 illustrates the rotary shutter
fitted with non-flick blade.

FIG. 87.

FIG. 88.

In some projectors, this same system has been carried to the length
of fitting a shutter having in it three cut-away and three metallic
portions. Here the light passage is deliberately interrupted twice
between each necessary covering period for picture change, and
in practice the resulting frequency of alternation between light and
darkness proves itself so much too fast for the human eye to record that
no apparent damping down effect is observable in the persistence phe-
nomenon, and consequently flicker is very perfectly eliminated (Fig. 88) .
A third way of bringing about absolute freedom from flicker in kine-
matograph projectors is by making the covering sector of the light
shutter twice as wide as usual, and revolving it at twice the
ordinary speed. The loss of light is nearly the same as when working

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR A P H Y. 121

with an ordinary shutter fitted with compensating non-flick blade,
but the effect on the screen is better,

Coming now to the consideration of the intermittent mechanism,
we find for one thing that the kinematograph projector differs from
the camera in its movement in so far as, while in cameras absolute
steadiness is the first essential, and quick rate of change not a consider-
able item, in projection matters are just the other way about. Thus,
where the projector has a movement of the pin type, the pins will be
set to act with the greatest possible abruptness and celerity, even at
the expense of moderate extra strain on the perforations of the film.
But in kinematograph projectors we find two
other well marked types of movement in use
beside the pin or claw escapement, notably
the maltese cross and the dog or beater
movement. Of the two, the cross is a modi- . ,
fied pin movement depending for its action \\
on a system of check wheels similar to the
well-known Geneva escapement of a watch.
The maltese cross is, in fact, practically
nothing more than this Geneva escapement FrG 8 9

adapted to kinematograph purposes, Fig.Sg gives an idea of the principle.

B is here a continuously revolving disc having a curved portion
cut out of its periphery, while A is the cross itself fixed to the shaft
of a four picture sprocket, and cut so that the in-curved faces of the
cross fit tightly, yet without pressure, upon the rim of the disc B.
In the position indicated in the diagram it will be seen the cross, and
thus the four picture sprocket with which it is connected, is not only
at rest but actually locked against the rim of the continuously revolv-
ing disc. This state of things will continue until the cut-away portion
of the latter comes underneath the cross. When this happens, the
lock is released, making the cross free to move a portion of a turn.
At the same time, the pin C, revolving with the disc B, catches in the
slot at the left hand top corner of the cross. A must now move
in the direction of the arrow for a quarter turn before the pin C is
released from the slot, and by the time this movement is over the
disc B will have so far continued its rotation as to bring the locking
portion of its rim back under the cross. It will thus be seen that,
practically speaking, the cross is locked both when at rest and during
the period of rotation. Consequently it follows, when the parts are
accurately made and fitted, the movement is as perfect as any escape-
ment actuating a single pair of pins can be. Formerly the Maltese
cross suffered from the two great disadvantages of noisy action and
want of durability. Both these drawbacks have latterly been over-
come by arranging the escapement to work in an oil bath. The
addition of a hardened steel roller mounted so as to revolve freely
upon the pinion C still further eliminates the clatter which would
otherwise result from the striking of C upon the inner sides of the
radial slots of the star wheel at the moment of engagement.

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HANDBOOK OF K I NE MA TOGR APH Y.

A further advantage of the Maltese cross is that the four picture
intermittent sprocket which the cross actuates, and whereby the down-
ward shift of the film is made at the moment of change, may be placed
very close beneath the film gate of the projector. Thus minor shrink-
ages in the positive stock due to strain during development, heat
in the gate during projection, and such like causes do not tend to
make the projected image shift up and down to the same extent as
would be the case if any considerable length of film intervened between
the gate and the movement device, as in the case of the dog or beater
pattern projector about to be described.

At the same time, and although the dog type of movement has
for long been recognised as not quite so steady as a good example of
the pin or Maltese cross type, this also is in great demand, especially
in the lower priced forms of projector, and where machines are intended
primarily for hard and rough usage. Where a kinematograph is
going to be used long and often, tended by a none too careful operator,
and condemned to live its life touring abroad or in some compara-
tively small town where repairing and renewing of worn out parts cannot
be conveniently undertaken on the spot, then the dog projector is, and
will probably long remain, the one and only thoroughly reliable model.

In principle, the dog strikes out a
type of movement on its own, known as '/^

continuous in contradistinction to the
intermittent movement of a Maltese cross.
This means that in the dog type of escape-
ment, though the film travels in jerks its
actuating mechanism does nothing of the
kind. Nor is there any locking of parts
at the various phases of the movement
cycle, nor does any part of the mechanism
come abruptly to rest and as quickly resume
a high rate of speed. Naturally, therefore,
the dog is incomparably simpler than any
other movement at any time introduced
for kinematograph requirements. Fig. 90
shows it in diagram.

A is the film seen emerging from the film gate. D is the lower or
take-up sprocket wheel revolving continuously in the direction of the
arrow. Over this sprocket wheel the film passes, following a course
in the track of the dog roller C, revolving in contrary direction upon the
disc B. A few moments' study of this diagram will convince us as to the
actual state of affairs when such a movement is in operation. The
film will be constantly wound up or tightened by the take-up, this one
action proceeding continuously and at an even rate. Meanwhile, the
eccentric dog roller will strike the face of the film intermittently, draw-
ing or beating down through the gate a certain length at each stroke
and this at a rapid rate. In practice, the length so beaten down is
adjusted to the height of a kinematograph picture, so that each blow

FIG. 90.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 123

of the dog makes one picture shift. Further, the rate of turning of
the lower sprocket D is so adjusted that a like space of film is just
wound up by the time the beater descends for its next blow. Thus
we have arrived at a state of things where our intermittent picture
shifting is accomplished through the means of mechanism continuously
revolving in the one direction. Nothing could be simpler that this
solution to the problem of actuating the kinematograph film in the
projector gate, and nothing could be more reliable up to a certain point.
But though the dog form of movement wears well, and major troubles
in working seldom occur, the effect at its best is undoubtedly inferior
to that of the Maltese cross also at its best. Nor is the reason far to
seek. For one thing, the Maltese cross locks the film between each
shift, but the dog movement depends entirely for its steadiness on
the friction of the gate springs tending to prevent after-slip in the
film, the latter arrangement being obviously the less accurate of the
two. Consequently, the residual movement of the film, which it
makes by its own impetus in the dog machine in the absence of such
definite locking action between picture shifts, becomes an item of
uncertainty in the performance of the dog projector. Crinkles in
the celluloid will affect the steadiness of the projected picture to a
far greater extent than when the Maltese cross escapement is in use.
Even minor differences in thickness of various portions of the film
base will be recorded as slight up and down swaying irregularities of
the projected moving picture. Rate of turning, and jerkiness due to
hand turning will likewise all affect picture steadiness in this case
through the film's shift being partly dependent in its extent upon the
momentum of the dog acting upon its inertia. The necessary com-
paratively long interval of space between the dog and the bottom of
the gate has already been pointed out as a further source of
unsteadiness in projection.

All the same, speaking practically, the dog projector proves itself
in use to be much better than the above considerations taken together
would tend to make it seem. Where a rough and ready knock-about
machine is required it still holds its own both for economy of first
cost and of running expenses.

Beside the foregoing types of escapement for actuating the
intermittently moving celluloid positive film, there are several which
should not go without some mention, though at present, as far as the
writer is aware, they are being put to no very practical use in the
moving picture world. The intermittent grip movement, in which
two wheels are set, one on either side of the film below the gate, and
having parts of their circumference cut away so that their rims only
come together and grip the film (thus drawing it down) through a
small portion of their revolution, is a case in point. Undoubtedly,
though this particular arrangement came to no practical use, it em-
bodies a principle which may yet show itself to good purpose in kine-
matography. The split screw type of movement was also undoubtedly
a sound one, though unfortunately at the time it saw the light, prices

I2 4 HANDBOOK OF KINE M A TOGR A PH Y.

of projectors ruled so low as to cause it to be abandoned, largely through
the expense of construction. Still, the Lumiere pin movement,
and especially the adaptation of it now to be found in the Kineto
type projector, shows a certain affinity with the split screw idea.

Perhaps the worst thing that can be said of the old fashioned
kinematograph > projector movements is that they were not designed
sufficiently with the view to easy repair, adjustment, and renewal
of worn parts. Some modern makes of bioscope also show the same
defects, and very glaringly, too. Thus, the best advice that can be
given to the would-be buyer of a new projector is to make sure not
only of its performance in the present, but also as to there being
reasonable facilities incorporated in its construction for taking up and
making good future wear on the escapement parts. As to the latter
point, careful examination of a machine or two will soon show the
buyer with a turn for mechanics what chances there may or may not
be for remedying the inevitable effects of constant use. Bushings
and spindles, for instance, should not only be hardened, but removable
for renewal. The same applies to dog rollers, Maltese cross parts,
and even to the continuously moving sprockets, especially in the case
of dog machines where the steadiness of projection is quite
as dependent upon the gate springs and the take-up sprocket
as upon the dog itself.

In cases where the projected image thrown by a dog machine
develops a sudden and unearthly kick, it is generally a sign that
the gate springs or runners are at fault. Examination of them will
almost certainly reveal extensive wear, together with more or less
uneven spring tension. Set this right, and the kicking trouble will
probably cease. Where, however, the trouble with a dog machine
takes the form of an upward or downward roll of the picture on the
screen, it may be looked upon as certain either that the gear wheel
teeth are faulty (gear wheels have to be particularly accurately cut
for use on dog projectors) or else the take-up sprocket has had a blow
and thus been thrown out of truth. A loose and rattling dog roller
may also prove the cause of unsteadiness.

A rythmatic up and down motion with a cross projector means
usually wrong spacing between the pins on the four picture intermittent
sprocket, or of the radial slots of the cross while kicking effects are
almost always the outcome of wear on the edges of the cross itself.
We assume the films to be properly perforated to start with. So much
for projectors, considered as a whole. The next chapter will deal
more particularly with certain well-known makes at present on the
English market, and it is to be hoped, therefore, that the perusal of
it may prove of value, as well as merely of interest.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

125

CHAPTER III.

PROJECTORS AND ACCESSORIES.

The cheapest projector that we know of which is designed to take
full-sized kinematograph film, and is not a toy, is the Empire Home
Kinematograph, model oo (fig 91). This is a dog machine, fairly solidly

FIG. 91. BUTCHER'S EMPIRE HOME KINEMATOGRAPH.

constructed and capable of giving a very good account of itself at home
or in the schoolroom. The lantern body is of a size to accommodate
a high power limelight jet with comfort, while the projector is fitted
with swing-over movement, by means of which an ordinary lantern
lens in rack mount can be brought before the condenser for showing
still slides, announcements, and titles. The ' Empire Home model
oo ' is, in fact, a small and lightly made edition of the accepted and
approved dog pattern projector, so well known and widely used for
many years past. Its price is 5 153.

126 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

Those desiring a machine of the Maltese Cross type for home'use
or experimental purposes, can find their wants satisfied in the Erne-
mann Home Kinematograph. Like the Empire machine it is, broadly
speaking, a model of larger star wheel projectors. The Ernemann
Home machine is, moreover, fitted with a three-bladed light shutter,
by means of which flicker is practically done away with, while the
escapement is particularly solid and accurate for so small a projector.
Altogether, it is quite marvellous value at the price of eight guineas,
which is all the makers ask for it.

\ - ;
FIG. 92. THE ERNEMANN HOME KJNEMATOGRAPH.

For those in search of a professional machine, however,1 4 either of
the dog, cross or claw movement description, it had better be said at
once there are none such (at any rate, as regards projectors with a
maker's name behind them) to be had under a twenty pound note.
Having stated that much, we will turn to a consideration of a few of
the standard models of the present day. Generally speaking, prices
for the complete projector, with take-up, spool boxes, lantern house,
base and stand, range from rather under 30 to something over 40.

Illustration 93 is of Beard's Theatre Model projector. It is a
professional type dog machine of first-class workmanship and construc-
tion, put out by the makers of the world-famous Beard's oxygen
regulator. The Theatre Model Projector is no newcomer, but a re-
vised and improved version of the Patent Perfect Projector which has
won laurels for itself in years past. Among other important features,

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APHY. 127

it has a special film masking adjustment consisting of a jockey roller
between the dog and the bottom sprocket. This jockey is controlled
by a lever (shown as the lowermost one in the illustration) by means

FIG. 93. BEARD'S PATENT PERFECT PROJECTOR.

of which masking can be performed quickly and accurately without
in any way interfering with the centring of the illuminant in its relation
to the objective. The device is picked out for special mention as
typical of the many advantages of the above machine.

With our next illustration (94) we come upon yet another different
type of mechanism. In short, in the Kineto Model B Projector,
we have what is practically the claw escapement of the motion picture
camera adapted to throwing moving pictures on the screen. The
Kineto Model B, as illustrated, is fitted with a rotary shutter of the
well-known type in which a single cover blade is compensated by a
violet non-flick fish tail. Yet the absence of flicker is phenomenal,
the reason for such being found in the enormously high rate of change
incorporated in this particular projector. By means of its quadruple
claw, the film is shifted in the gate in but a comparatively small fraction
of the time occupied by the complete escapement cycle, so that even
without a non-flick balancing blade the period of light to darkness on
the screen is very great. For this reason, the Kineto projector, divested
of its non-flick addition, should possess a strong appeal to the exhibitor

128

HANDBOOK OF Kl NE M A TOGRAPH Y.

using limelight. The claw escapement is almost silent in operation, while
as for steadiness, it is only necessary to remind the possible purchaser
once again that the pin or claw is the form of escapement universally

FIG. 94. KINETO MODEL B PROJECTOR.

chosen for present day kinematograph cameras for this very reason.
The general get-up of the Kineto projector is imposing, as may readily
be seen from the photograph printed above.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

129

Perhaps of all silent maLhiiies, however, the palm should be
given to Ihe TYLER- ERNEMANN (shown in illustration 95). The Tylei-
Ernemann also goes by the name of the ' All Steel ' projector, a title
which should sufficiently indicate its durability and hard wearing

FIG. 95. THE TYLER-ERNEMANN PROJECTOR.

qualities. Perhaps some readers may remember that a fire occurred
not so long ago at the premises of one of the Cecil Court companies,
several of the All Steel Ernemanns, however, coming out practically

130

HANDBOOK OF KINEMATOGRAPHY.

FIG. 97. THE MALTESE CROSS EMPIRE PROJECTOR.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APHY. 131

scatheless from the conflagration, due to the high melting point of
the materials from which they were made. Another notable point
about this same projector is the large size of the Maltese Cross (shown
in illustration q6). The same machine also boasts an im-
proved three-bladed flickerless shutter, instantaneously removable
condenser glasses, and, in fact, every improvement to be expected or
wished for in a motion picture lantern of the highest repute. And with
that we have placed ourselves in a somewhat awkward position, for
the very next figure (illustration 97) shows a projector not one atom
less worthy of unstinted praise. It is the MALTESE CROSS EMPIRE
No. 12 of Messrs. Butcher. Let us be content to say of this machine
that it is all it should be, comparing favorably with others and holding
its own by virtue of general excellence.

The picture which comes next among our illustrations (fig. 98)
will be pretty well self-explanatory to a whole army of kinematograph

FIG. 98. GENERAL VIEW OF THE CHRONO PROJECTOR.

enthusiasts, to say nothing of experienced operators who can'scarcely
have seen actice service without an introduction to the original of
the photo the GAUMONT CHRONO. No one wants to hear much about
the Chrono's essential details now-a-days, for the simple reason that
they were familiar to lovers of the best in the art of projection when

132

HANDBOOK OF K INE M A TOGR APH Y.

other high -class present day machines were still unthought of. It
was the Gaumont Chrono which first adopted the flickerless shutter
(or so we believe). Certainly it was the firm responsible for the Chrono
which first paved the way for the now victorious campaign of quality
before cheapness in moving picture projectors. No one who purchases
a Chrono expects anything but the best, and we have never heard of
any such a one being disappointed.

FIG. 99. THE GAUMONT MALTESE CROSS CHRONO, SHOWING ARRANGEMENT
OF GATE AND LIGHT SHUTTER.

THE GAUMONT MALTESE CROSS CHRONO has, besides its
wonderful reputation, many unique features to recommend it.
Moreover, these exclusive features are not mere ' talking
points,' or ' selling points/ but actual solid advantages to the
buyer and user. For one thing, the cross is so fashioned that the
least slackness occurring as the result of wear may be taken up with

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

133

the minimum waste of time and trouble by the simple adjustment of
two screws. This is, of course, in addition to the cross being bodily
removable for replacement, should occasion for this eventually arise.
Then again, the new double speed light shutter, as fitted in the Chrono,
is so arranged that it travels up and down with the racking
of the gate, a matter of great importance in high-class machines, where
mask adjustment is effected by means of gate racking, in contra-
distinction to the employment of a lever-actuated jockey roller.
Other good points and special features of the Gaumont machine will
be apparent from reference to the illustration block as appended.
But no one wishing to hear of this projector's merits need ever trouble
over worrying them out from mere printed illustrations and letter-
press description. There is not a man of any standing in the kinemato-
graph trade but knows and has handled Gaumont machines, and can
tell the novice all about them.

DJUSTABLE CLUTCH FOR
TAKE UP CHAIN.

FIG. 100. THE WRENCH PROJECTION APPARATUS.

MESSRS. WRENCH have ever been modest in their claims as to
the merits of their apparatus. The reason is simple, and lies in the

134

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

fact that Wrench projectors have made for themselves so firm a repu-
tation with the motion picture exhibiting public as to need no super-
lative epithets of the makers wherewith to label themselves before they
go out on the market. We look at the illustration (fig. 100), and ask
ourselves if it is not the most convincing thing possible, as setting forth
the sterling worth and first-class workmanship of the Wrench Maltese
Cross Projector. Note the neat masking lever giving the whole picture
adjustment, the hardened steel bearings to all important working parts,
the solid steel gate runners, the excellently designed oil bath, the many
other advantages plain to see, and it will be agreed the firm of Wrench
can afford to go soft in singing their own praises in the assurance that
the trade at large will not be slow in supplying the deficiency.

FIG. 101. RUFFELL'S SIMPLE, BUT EFFICIENT PROJECTOR.

We pass on to the consideration of yet another projector,
namely, RUFFELL'S BIOSCOPE. It is a machine worthy of a firm whose

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y. 135

name has shone as a light in the kinematograph trade for many a long
year in fact, since the very early days indeed. For that matter,
the author had enjoyed more than one display of Ruff ell's Pictures
before ever he had touched a kinematograph machine in his life.
Well, then, Ruffell's Bioscope is just what one would expect under
such circumstances. It is a machine of wisdom, of experience, and of
a hardy and enduring value. No brilliant yet uncertain experiment
awaits the purchaser of a ' Ruffell/ He puts his money on a certainty
and may make up his mind to the possession of a machine with a long
career of usefulness before it. What more than this need we say ?
Fig. 101 gives a good idea of this valuable projector.

THE BROCKLISS MOTIOGRAPH. is the machine with the famed
double cone shutter. Really this shutter needs a word or two to itself,
since had the Motiograph no other striking point about it, the double
cone arrangement for intercepting the light beam during picture change
would alone constitute the projector as forming a class of its own.
Unfortunately, the Motiograph double shutter is of a form particularly
difficult to figure in print. It consists of an arrangement of two pairs
of shutter blades, each pair being of 16 degrees and 32 degrees diameter,
the whole bent up into a cone shape, and one cone revolving within
the other very much after the style of the beaters of a mechanical egg
whisk. The complete arrangement is so placed that when the metallic
sectors of each cone are nearest to the projector gate, they serve to
intercept the light, while when they are at their farthest point of travel,
they miss the lighf beam entirely. Add to this that the two cones
revolve in opposite directions, so imparting to the blades a kind of
scissors action when opening and closing before the gate, and one has
an admittedly vague idea of the absolute novelty of this system of
light interception, as compared with that of all other projectors.
The Motiograph has, however, beyond its double cone light shutter,
a whole host of special and important features, for the mere mention
of many of which we have not space at our command. For instance,
there is the matter of the phosphor bronze bearings, with their fine
adjustments for take up of wear in any part of the machine. Also the
film is fed to the gate through a system of spring rollers which prevent
side shake in the projected screen picture. Perhaps, though, we cannot
do better than use what space remains to us for the purpose of
impressing upon the reader the enormous saving of illumination
effected by the Motiograph's shutter arrangement. From thirty to
forty per cent of light, which would be lost with other machines, is
conserved and used in this projector. For lime shows, therefore,
the Motiograph should possess an appeal all its own, while the advan-
tage in light saving is well worth considering by showmen employing
electricity also. The Motiograph is an American-made instrument,
and as such perhaps rather more delicately that is to say, not quite
so solidly constructed as most English showmen are accustomed to.
There are many points about this apparatus which must commend
themselves to the skilled operator who takes pride in his projection.

HANDBOOK OF K INE M A TOGRAPH Y.

FlG. 102. MOTIOGRAPH.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

137

With the KAMM MALTESE CROSS PROJECTOR (illustration 103.),
welcome up against that very latest type of picture shutter mentioned

nniHiiiiOlllllirilfllilliliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinniiiinTi

FIG. 103. KAMM'S MALTESE CROSS PROJECTOR.

iii the preceding chapter, namely, the double speed light shutter
We have already commented upon the marvellous effect of this high
speed shutter gearing in the elimination of the last trace of flicker

138 HANDBOOK OF K I N EM A TOGRAPH Y.

from the screen, so that here it will be enough to remark that the
possession of such a double speed shutter places the Kamm M.C.
machine in a class by itself. Other features of the same projector
well worthy of note are the oil bath, automatic light cut-off, devised
on a specially simple and reliable plan, the heavy fireproof gate, etc.
Another claw system projector is that next figured (fig. 104). This
time the mechanism bears the name of that great film house, Messrs.
Pathe. All the same, it is worth while noting the Pathe Lumiere
Projector is not offered on the market as a tyro's or handle-turner's

FIG. 104. PATHE LUMIERE.

machine. It is intended to be used only by fully experienced operators
and only so must it be expected to develop those marvellous qualities
of steadiness and precision which gained for it and for kinematography
in general the first recognition of the theatrical arid entertainment
world. For this Lumiere machine in its earliest type was the father
of all publicly-exhibited money getting moving picture machines.
The regular Pathe projector of the present day is that next shown
(fig. 105) known as the ' Pathe No. 2.' It is a specimen of bioscope
mechanism of the French type, somewhat lighter in build
than we on this side of the Channel are accustomed to. How-
ever, the Pathe No. 2 can now be obtained in England in a form of
somewhat heavier build and with its parts rather differently arranged,
in which guise it takes to itself the name of the ' Pathe Imperial/

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

139

In this and the No. 2 the essential mechanism is the same, to wit,
a Maltese Cross running in enclosed oil bath. Such has been found
to bring about the happy combination of great steadiness (due to the

FIG. 105. PATHE IMPERIAL PROJECTOR.

cross) combined with very good wearing qualities (the result of the
constant and thorough lubrication afforded by the running of the work-
ing parts in oil). Pathe machines of this type are very silent in action.

140

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

There is an increasing desire on the part of every Englishman to
recognise merit in the effort to produce British productions for the
benefit of the community. It is also so in the kinematograph trade ;
whether it be film subjects or machines, there is an effort to obtain the
all-British production. A successful achievement in this direction is
Tyler's British Projector, which has recently been put on the market
and has been well christened " Indomitable."

FIG. 106. TYLER'S INDOMITABLE PROJECTOR.

Let us say at once that it does not require a second glance to
convince one that Tyler's have struck out for the best, and have at-
tained it. In the build and in the design of the machine there is
abundant evidence of the highest mechanical skill and of a determina-

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APH Y. 141

tion at all costs to produce something that shall be solid and thorough
in every essential. In these days, when projectors have to stand the
daily strain of ten to twelve hours' work, when keen and critical
audiences observe at once a badly projected and unsteady picture,
and seek their recreation and amusement at halls projecting the best
picture, we cannot help feeling that Tyler's will find their efforts to
produce a really first-class " All-British " machine, will meet with a
gratifying and immediate reward at the hands of the trade.

Among some of the many novel features which must appeal
to users are, the heat-proof lantern body, with doors opening on both
sides the full extent of the frame ; the stirrup holder for the con-
denser ; the facility for exchanging from kinematograph to still picture
lens ; the Maltese Cross movement in its oil bath ; the get-at-ableness
of the gate ; the ease with which each part can be adjusted ; the solid
bearings and shafts ; the automatic light cut-off ; the sheet steel
fireproof boxes ; the original take-up and rewind gear ; the solidity
of the projector stand ; the numerous dustproof oil caps, and the
general finish and appearance of the whole outfit.

FIG. 106, THE "ZAR" PROJECTOR

Needless to say, many firms are still striving to improve'and
beat past achievements. Whether any of these efforts "will
meet with success, it is not for us to hint in a machine
review like the present, but the thought of all-steel projectors natur-

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HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

ally leads us on to the " ZAR " of Cinema-Halles, Ltd. The Zar machine
combines many distinct advantages. The makers claim for it that it
combines in itself ' all the best and brightest ideas in projectors to be
found both in England and on the Continent/ What we can inform
our readers with certainty is, firstly, that it is in every sense of the
word a first-class instrument. Passing on to particularise on its merits,
we may just spare time to mention its adjustable and removable Maltese
cross action, adjustable gate skates, and instantly removable con-
densers. It is also fitted with a patent flickerless light shutter, an
excellent automatic take-up, and a whole heap of other excellent fea-
tures too numerous to mention here. The price, while not pretending
to be low, is moreover very reasonable for an instrument of the sort
described. See fig. 106.

FIG. 107. THE "URBANORA" PROJECTOR.

The URBANORA PROJECTOR is only one of the irreproachable pieces
of kinematograph apparatus put out by that standard English firm,
the Urban Trading Company. Everyone has heard of the Urban
Trading Company, and it is just as great a truism to remark that
everyone knows beforehand that if the Urbanora Projector hails from
this firm, it is itself a standard of efficiency in projection. The illus-
tration (fig. 107) given herewith, shows in a measure, the smart, elegant
and workmanlike design of this projector. A glance will show that

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

143

the parts are arranged with special attention to the operator's needs.
Thus, the lantern house is splendidly accessible for cleaning purposes,
as also the projector movement itself. Of course, the Maltese Cross
is of the finest, arranged to be adjustable and balanced to a nicety.
Equally the supporting base and stand are at once rigid and reasonably
light of construction. Everything, in fact, is as it should be with this
particularly perfect projector. We have only to add that the Urban
Trading Company is a safe firm to go to for high-class goods of every
description in connection with the motion picture business. The Urban
cameras (for taking moving pictures) are, for instance, known and
appreciated all over the world, and only an unfortunate hitch, which
we deeply regret, prevented their getting their due at our hands in the
review of picture making machinery in Part I. of this volume.

FIG. 108. THE WARWICK PROJECTOR.

WARWICK bioscopes are simply designed machines with little
complication of parts, and they possess, as may be divined from this
last statement, a consequent enviable measure of durability which

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HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

'far exceeds that of many a projector of more complex model. Were
we operating in any inaccessible part of the globe, such, for instance,
as a desert or a country village, we would not hesitate to plump for
such a simple machine as the Warwick, in preference to most of the
highly expensive and intricate M.C. patterns which now so largely
hold the field for cinema and music hall work. The Warwick bioscope
is shown in fig. 108.

FIG. 109. NEW CENTURY KALEE PROJECTOR.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

145

THE NEW CENTURY KALEE PROJECTOR stands out in the accom-
panying figure (109) like the Rock of Gibraltar. It is solid, business-
like, and has with it a sort of general air of being invulnerable, which
should go far of itself to reassure the intending purchasers of one
of these excellent machines. We like the general design, with its firm,
amply supported base and clean cut proportions, and what is more,
we are sure the motion picture proprietor and operator will like it too.
It will be seen, the Kalee projector is of the neat self-contained inside
light shutter type, while the Maltese Cross is of generous proportions,
by which means wear is minimised and steadiness maintained. Ample
gate masking, diagonal cut gears, arid a generally sound and scientific
design and construction complete a projector which the parent firm
may well be proud of.

FIG. no. THE " IRON DUKE" STILL VIEW LANTERN.

The " IRON DUKE " is the appropriate name given to the extremely
serviceable still view lantern next figured. The lantern is especially
designed for installation in the operating box to relieve the projector
of its generally somewhat doubtfully performed function of projecting
title and illustrated song slides. That such work should by right be
relegated to a distinct lantern is a matter insisted on elsewhere in this
volume, and that the one who cares to follow such advice could jdo

HANDBOOK OF K INE MA TOGRAPH Y.

no better than by the installation of an ' Iron Duke ' it is impossible
to conceive. Not only is this admirable all-metal lantern provided
with its own self-contained tilting table, also telescopic three draw
front to accommodate lenses of suitable focal length for any picture
hall, but it is, in addition to the above, so arranged that it can be
utilised as a first-rate ' stage arc ' for throwing the well-known spot

FIG. in, EMPIRE ARIEL No. 2 ARC LAMP.

light upon variety turns, now so frequently to be seen at the better
class picture halls. A suitable miniature arc for use in the Iron Duke
lantern is the 'Empire Ariel No. 2' (illustration in). The price of
the Ariel complete with resistance frame is exceptionally low.

And thus passing from projectors themselves to their attachments,
we will yet make pause before what may at first sight look like another
maker's machine, though as a matter of fact it is the already mentioned,
Pathe No. 2, this time fitted complete with spool boxes and what is
the present object of our attentions the Mallet patent attachment
for automatically sealing the film box apertures in case of film fires.
This process is accomplished by two tightly stretched strands of highly
inflammable material held directly over the threaded film in its
direction of travel out of the upper spool box and into the lower one.
These highly inflammable strands hold open substantial sealing shutters
hinged over the spool box apertures. Should the film fire in the gate,

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

and should the fire pass upward or downward toward the film boxes,
the flame would be bound to ignite the safety strands, with the instan
taneous result that the shutters would be released and fall.

FIG. 112. PATHE No. 2, WITH MALLET ATTACHMENT.

FIG, 113.
PATHE CONDENSER HOLDER.

FIG. 114.
BUTCHER'S PRIMUS CONDENSER.

148 HAND BOOK 'OF K I NE M ATOGR APHY.

Next (fig. 113), we have a very clearly drawn illustration of a Pathe
condenser holder. A glance will serve to show how such a holder
with glasses ready set in it, can be taken up in the hand by means of
the top handle, and dropped into place in the front of the lamp house
almost as soon as a crack in the existing condenser glass is seen. Con-
denser cracking is, however, to some extent at least, avoidable if due
care is taken to provide for the ventilation of the glasses in their cells.
Such a well-ventilated cell is shown in fig. 114, illustrating the Primus
condenser of Messrs. Butcher. It also has the merit of being as reason-
able in price as 1 it is efficient in action.

The Kineto extra heavy condenser (fig. 115) is an example
of another highly efficient system of mounting condenser glasses accu-
rately and expeditiously by the employment of a suitably solid trio

FIG. 115. KINETO'S EXTRA HEAVY CONDENSER.

of tubed rings, which interlock by means of quick-acting bayonet
catches. Bayonet catches also hold this extra heavy condenser in
the lamp house body, thus allowing of its removal for renewal of a
cracked lens in almost no time.

BUSCH PROJECTION LENSES are of three types. First come the
ordinary kinematograph lenses put out by this firm. These are listed
at a uniform price of 28s. for any focus from two and an eighth to
seven and a quarter inches. They are good sound lenses, and the only
marvel is that the public still go on paying a guinea or more a time for
worthless nameless rubbish in the way of kine lenses, when instruments
by a reputable maker are to be had at this moderate figure. Next we
come to the Busch Double Illumination projection lenses. Here a new
principle is involved, in addition to the general high quality, we get in the
cheape'r series just alluded to. In these Double Illumination Lenses
there is a large gain of effective light on the projection screen, a point
which renders them well worthy the especial attention of limelight
exhibitors. Still, the price remains extremely moderate, though
all the time the quality is of the highest for instruments of the class
indicated. But we pass on to the final grade in the Busch scale of
excellence. Here price becomes altogether a secondary matter, but
our Busch kinematograph lens belongs to this highest plane of excellence,
and is indeed a wonderful instrument. Named the ' Glaukar Projection

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGRAPHY.

149

Lens/ it is, in fact, an instrument of a type so perfect as to be not
merely fit for optical projection of the highest class, but also equally
suitable for the actual taking of the pictures themselves, and everyone

FIG. 116. THE BUSCH GLAUKAR PROJECTION LENS.

knows that to take a kinematograph picture nothing but the most
perfect of optical combinations will serve. In the Glaukar projection
lens, then, we have an instrument which may fairly claim to be abso-
lutely and literally perfect. Other makers may equal it. Candidly,
we could name at least one English firm of repute which turns out
lenses equally as good. But when a thing is perfect, as is this Busch
Glaukar, it cannot be surpassed, and there is no getting over it. The
block above hardly does justice to its importance and value.

FIG. 117. COURTLANDER'S CINASTIGMAT PROJECTION LENS.

THE CINASTIGMAT manufactured by H. Courtlander is a pro-
jection lens specially designed with a view to helping the showman
out of the rut of fuzzy indistinct pictures into the clear light of a

150

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

good, crisply illuminated projection screen. As such, this lens well
merits the attention of those in search of a good thing which is also
a product of the old country. Candidly, we wish the Cinastigmat
every success, just as we do everything which we judge to be necessary
to the abiding welfare of the motion picture industry. If only an

THE WALTURDAW LENS BATTERY

N? 2 (NEW SYSTEM)

FIG. 118. A CASKET OF PROJECTION LENSES.

earthquake would pitch the whole of the existing inferior kinematograph
lenses into the limbo of oblivion, and thus force showmen to replace
them with Cinastigmats, a fortnight afterwards there would be no class
of people more thankful for the catastrophe than the showmen
themselves.

The Walturdaw projection lens battery (fig. 118) will probably prove
of service to operators travelling their own apparatus from place to
place, and who are constantly being confronted with different con-
ditions of throw when showing pictures. Here the many foci obtain-
able with such a lens battery will be very welcome.

BRITISH MADE

FIG. 119. DALLMEYER PROJECTION LENS.

There can be no question that the man who values clear screen
pictures, and who has the interest of the profession at heart, to say

HANDBOOK OF KINE M4 TOGRAPH Y. 151

nothing of appreciating largely enhanced returns for small additional
outlay, will insist on his projector being fitted with a lens by one of
the well-known lens makers, such as Busch or Dallmeyer. The
illustration (fig. 119, page 150) is of a Dallmeyer Kinematograph Pro-
jection Lens, which may be had in any focus desired from two inch to
six inch. Only those who have worked with high-class projection
lenses can realise the difference they make to the clearness of the
picture, as also their effect in making possible greater economy of
current consumption for a given brilliancy of throw.

FIG. 1 20. BEARD'S LIGHT CUT-OFF.

FIG. 121. KINETO LIGHT CUT-OFF.

Figures 120 and 121 show respectively a Beard and a Kineto light
cut-off. These cut-offs are of the hand operated type, being therefore
auxiliary to the automatic light cut-off fitted to most modern pro-
jectors. Hand cut-offs are fitted on the lantern cone, or directly
before the slide carrier. In this way they act as curtain cut-offs when
projecting title and announcement slides. Both the makes of cut-off
figured are practically identical in action.

152

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

When speaking of- dissolving effects with the electric bi-unial
lantern in the chapter on song slides, we made mention of an iris
-diaphragm to be fitted before the lenses. Such a one is to be found

FIG. 122. THE IRIS DIAPHRAGM.

in the ' Cat's Eye ' of The Tyler Apparatus Company. We give
an illustration in order to make its working clearer, (fig. 122).

Among the firms who from long practical experience, have devel-
oped their apparatus to the requirements of the trade, may be men-

FIG. 123. THE HEPWORTH REWINDER

tioned the Hepworth Manufacturing Company, one of the oldest
firms in the trade. They issue what is called the " Heptoic " Bioscope,
a good, substantial, steady machine, with every appliance essential
to perfect projection. This firm make a feature of complete equip-

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APHY. 153

ments at an all-round figure a very useful fact for those who are
starting in the profession. They have some unique electric appliances,
including the Hepworth Patent Arc Lamp, which, although simple
in construction, is effective in its working. Another very excellent
adjunct to the operating box is the Hepworth Rewinder, which folds
into small compass, and by adding a small sprocket wheel measurement
attachment, lengths of film can be duly checked a matter which pays
the cost of the apparatus time and again.

And now we take a jump from the beginnings to, as it were, the
very extreme end of projection matters. Hitherto we have been con-
sidering how to equip the operating box for the starting of a successful
show. But what when films have been shown time after time ? It
is with heartfelt regret that we have to record the deplorable state
of the film selections in certain services which are neither first nor

FIG. 124. SEABORNE POWER DRIVEN FILM CLEANING MACHINE.

even tenth run, but where the film is literally shaggy with age, titles
gone, endings abrupt, and last, but worst of all, the remainder in a
deplorable state of filth and oiliness. The writer has seen film services
so far gone in this respect that a run of a few thousand feet only was
sufficient to clog the roller of a dog projector almost to the point of
sticking. Needless to say, when such film comes into our hands,
most of us will have the natural thought " Oh, if only we could clean
it before showing." Well, as a matter of fact, this can very easily
be done by means of such a film cleaning machine as the Seaborne
(fig. 124). In this film cleaner, the work is swiftly and automatically
performed in two definite stages. First the dirty film is well covered
with a suitable cleansing fluid (be it said a very cheap one), next the

154

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

wet film is dried by the train of leather brushes figured in the photo
block, by which means dirt and grease are rapidly and thoroughly
wiped out, both hillocks and ruts and visible scratches are also wiped
out as though they never were. Including the cost of motor drive

FIG. 125. THE DEBRIE NAMING AND BRUSHING MACHINE.

FIG. 126. FILM LETTERED BY THE NAMING MACHINE.

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APH Y. 155

of the Seaborne cleaning machine, the outlay on film cleaning works
out at approximately 4 Jd. per thousand feet, so that even were picture
theatres to instal it as an adjunct, the present they would be making
the renting houses by cleaning the worst of the film before showing
would not be excessive, while for the renting houses themselves film
cleaning may now be said to have become an imperative demand.
The cost of the Seaborne is not high. That of the Debrie Film Cleaner
is considerably more, but then, as has already been explained, the firm
of Debrie (English agents, Messrs. Brockliss) makes no bid for cheapness
considering only quality in the goods it sends upon the market. A
glance will serve to show that the principle utilised for cleaning
and wiping the film band in the Debrie and Seaborne machines
is very similar. Another ingenious Debrie machine which we
mention here for the sake of convenience is the ' Naming and
Brushing Machine/ shown (illustration 125). To the operator,
the chief interest of this little contrivance will lie in the fact that it
is by means of it (or some other similar arrangement) that the maker's
name is put on the edge of the positive film he shows. As a matter
of fact, the work is accomplished by means of an enclosed incandescent
electric light shining through a rotary stencil plate over which the as
yet unexposed positive film stock passes after brushing free from dust
by the little brush wheels shown in the illustration. Fig. 126 shows how
such named film would develop were it placed in the developing bath
without intermediate printing behind the usual kinematograph
negative by means of a ' printer/ as described in the chapter on Print-
ing (Part I.) By the way, those in search of an inexpensive hand printer
may be interested in the concluding illustration (fig. 127). The Wal-
turdaw printer can be had for 18.

To enumerate every projector, arc lamp, resistance, and the
hundreds of other adjuncts to the modern operating box now on the
market would necessitate a book three or four times the size of the
present, we have therefore endeavoured to present a representative
selection and have pointed out the characteristics and leading features
of each item. Makers of apparatus have seen the value of producing
exhaustive and detailed catalogues and lists, fully illustrated and
descriptive of their goods. To those about to purchase, therefore,
who desire a further knowledge of the respective "points" of the
appliances we commend the price lists and also the fact that makers
are only too ready to give demonstrations and advice when asked
for.

Finally, there is one thing we desire to agitate for, as being a necessity
to all well-governed operating rooms, and that is that the iron fire
shutter should be of an improved make that can readily be relied upon
in all cases of emergency. Among the best we have seen on the market
are those with the strong lever releasing gear, which is controlled from
both the inside and the outside. Messrs. Jukes, Coulson, Stokes

156

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

and Company, of Plaistow, make a big feature of these shutters,
which are a real necessity for all up-to-date projection rooms.

THE WALTURDAW

STEP BY STdP PRINTER
1

FIG. 127. THE WALTURDAW PRINTER.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M AT GRA PH Y. 157

CHAPTER IV.
THE ILLUMINANT. ELECTRICITY.

Now to the consideration of the illuminant to use in the projection
of moving pictures. Practically speaking, except for amateur work
exhibiting films at home and such like there are only two alter-
native forms of illuminant available : limelight and electricity.

Even here our choice is still further limited by the recent Home
Office regulations governing the conditions under which limelight may
be employed. Comparing the two forms of illuminant on the grounds
of economy and efficiency, there can be no doubt as to the verdict for
all serious projection work lying with electricity. As to efficiency,
electricity can be made to give an amount of illumination only limited
by our expenditure upon current, whereas limelight, apart from every
consideration of economy, can never do more than yield a light rather
under than over three thousand candle power. Further, the light
source with electricity is far smaller than that obtained from the
glowing lime, with the result that in the former case the concentra-
tion of the pencil upon the projector gate is correspondingly more free
from wasteful nebulous edge. Further, electric light for projection
purposes is somewhat easier to manage than limelight (both require
skilled handling) and on the score of economy may prove anywhere
up to ten times as cheap in use, especially where the kinematograph
show is remote from the nearest centre for gas cylinder charging,
and where electric current is produced on the spot by means of a good
class private generating plant.

For the foregoing reasons, electricity claims first place in our
description of kinematograph illuminants. We will start upon its
manner of employment in the projection arc by giving a brief
sketch of its generation and measurement, also some of the most
important terms of nomenclature.

Electricity, or electric current, as it may be called, can be generated
in various ways. Moreover, the manifestation of it is often vastly
different according to how it is called into being. For instance,
lightning and the commodity which produces rotation in an electric
motor are both electricity, and the Only reason for the vastly different
phenomena connected with the two manifestations of electrical energy
is to be found in the manner of the current's generation.

The form of electricity which alone comes into evidence as the
electrical supply of a picture hall is a continual " flow " or " current "
manufactured by means of a machine called a dynamo or generator.

Such a generator consists of a soft iron drum wound about
with coil upon coil of insulated copper wire and made to rotate at
very high speed within the field of a powerful magnet. This rotating

158 HANDBOOK OF KINEM A T O G R APH Y

drum of wire is called the armature. The result of such a strange
arrangement is that currents or waves of electricity are caused
to form in the whirling wire coils, and this electric current is duly led
to a circular arrangement of metallic conductors called a commutator,
upon which press ' brushes ' usually consisting of blocks of carbon.
These collect the current and take it to binding screws or lugs, and
from them wires known as ' main leads ' further convey the electrical
energy on its mission of usefulness.

Sometimes this mission is directly to supply light for the projection
arc and the small incandescent lights of the picture hall. Sometimes,
on the other hand, the main leads take the current to a series of glass
boxes filled with weak sulphuric acid and containing lead plates
covered with a paste of lead oxide. These are known as accumulators
or secondary storage batteries.

When thejf are in use, the current in its passage through the acid
and the lead plates converts the paste on the latter into a very unstable
form of metallic lead. The accumulator is then said to be ' charged/
for it now has in its turn conferred upon it the property of giving out
electricity from its terminals in an amount dependent upon the size of
the plates and charging they have received.

Thus, we already see that besides electricity being generated
as the result of purely mechanical action, it may also be given off in
connection with chemical action. It is more usual, however, to take
the current direct off the dynamo or generator for supplying the pro-
jection arc.

Electricity as produced for picture work has a voltage of anything
from 60 to 500, the latter being very high for the work intended,
and about the greatest potential to be met with in practice. This
word ' voltage ' will be explained a little later, together with other
electrical terms. In any case, current of the voltage to be met with
in picture halls only flows well through metal leads, preferably copper.
Where the current is required it is accordingly led by the simple
means of connecting a copper wire of suitable diameter (according
to the amount of electricity wanted in any particular place) with one
terminal of the electrical generator, and bringing the electrical flow
back along a second copper wire to the other terminal of the generator.
The current is thus supplied with a loop of wire along which it may
run out from one terminal (the positive) and back again to the second
terminal (the negative). Break this loop by cutting the wire at any
point and the current refuses to leap the gap unless it is a particularly
short one.

That last simple fact is utilised in practice as the means of check-
ing electrical flow when not required. The adaptation of the idea
takes the form of the electrical switch.

A switch is merely a hinged metallic prong which can be made to
grip firmly between conveniently situated metallic jaws, or to fly out
of contact with them at will. The prong and the jaws into which it
fits form part of the ' circuit ' or electrical loop of wire to and from the

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M A T GR A PHY.

159

FIG. 128.

generator. When the prong is in
the jaws of the switch contact
current can flow along an unbroken
metallic path. Pull the prong
out and the track is interrupted.
Fig. 128.

Beside providing a copper track
for elecricity to run round, there
is another matter which is to be
attended to in order that the current,
especially current of the higher poten-
tials, may be employed in safety.
This is to see that the conducting circuit is surrounded by
substances through which the current has a particular objection
to flowing otherwise called non-conductors of electricity.

Non-conductors are non-metallic substances such as india-rubber,
manilla, oiled cotton, silk, vulcanized rubber, paper, etc. Electric wires
are insulated with such substances to make them safe to handle while
' alive,' or carrying electricity, also to prevent current from running
to waste through chance metallic side tracks. Damp surfaces are
-also partial conductors of electricity, and where a bare wire comes
against such some of the current has a habit of trickling down into
the ground below our feet and disappearing. This is known as an
' earth.' Where there is a doubt that electricity bills are unduly
high, ' earths ' or ' grounds ' should be tested for by the electrician'
using an insulation tester known as an ' ohmmeter and generator/
or ' megger.'

Below will be found diagrammatic illustration of a direct and alter-
nating current electric generator. The most fundamental difference

between them is that
whereas in the direct
current generator or
dynamo the commu-
tator is segmented, in
the alternator the
commutator is of the
' split ring ' type.

If, instead of driv-
ing a dynamo by means
of mechanical power,
electric current is sent
through its windings in
the opposite direction to

FIG. 129. DIRECT AND ALTERNATING
GENERATOR COUPLED.

which it would be given out in the usual way, the armature rotates of
itself as a consequence. Thus, we may either use such an electro-
magnetic machine to make electricity (for which purpose the armature is
turned mechanically by say a steam, gas, or petrol engine) , or we may use
it as a source of mechanical energy by turning electricity into its coils.

160 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

Electro-magnetic machines specially adapted to give power in
the shape of rotation in response to feeding with electric current are
termed ' motors/ Small motors of one-eighth horse power or less
are now commonly used in the operating box to turn the mechanism
of the projector, instead of the operator doing it by hand. These
small motors consume little more current than an ordinary sixteen
candle carbon filament lamp.

Now to turn to electrical nomenclature.

DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT (D.C. AND A.C.)

The electric ' current/ as it is termed (the word is not in any sense
explanatory, and an attempt to give here the modern theory as to what
electricity actually is would be productive of no practical good) this
electric ' current ' is generated of two kinds, direct and alternating.
Direct current flows in a constant stream from the positive to the
negative pole of the generating system, and that is all there is to say
about it, but alternating current may be looked upon as a succession
of electrical waves going in opposite directions. Each wave pulses
through the circuit in an almost infinitely short space of time, dies
down, and is succeeded in the fractional part of a second, by another
one going contrarywise to the last. Thus, with the alternating kind
of electricity there is really no positive and no negative pole, since
both terminals of the generator become alternately positive and nega-
tive at intervals of anywhere between the twenty-fifth and the one
hundredth part of a second. The sum of alternations of direction of
current flow per second is spoken of as the ' periodicity ' or number
of ' cycles ' of the alternator producing it. Thus, a fifty cycle system
would be produced by a fifty cycle alternator. All this means that
with the particular description of alternating current in use, the direc-
tion of flow alters fifty times in each direction with each second of
time.

Note that whereas either direct or alternating current may be
produced by an electrical generator according to the system of
' commutation/ or current collection employed, storage battery
systems give only direct current. Also, systems involving auxiliary
storage batteries for use in case of temporary breakdown of machinery
are invariably of the direct current type. In stamping the descriptive
plates to be affixed on electrical machinery, and otherwise in the
notation of electrical energy, a straight line stands to denote direct
and a curved one, alternating current.

In kinematograph projection, employ direct current whenever
possible. It is more economical than alternating when used for the
projection arc. Further, the arc's crater, on which it will subsequently
be found the performance of the arc depends, is formed much more
satisfactorily and is much steadier when direct than when alternating
current is employed. Also, where the kinematograph is to be

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 161

electrically driven, this can be far more satisfactorily accomplished
by means of a direct than with an alternating motor. The latter class
has a very bad efficiency at starting under load, the best small
power alternating motors being those of the ' repulsion ' type.

Having now tried to sketch the chief practical differences between
the two great systems of electrical supply, we will go on to define terms
common to both. Instead of putting the formal definitions first,
however, we will, if you please, work up to them in our own way.

VOLT. The Volt is the electrical unit of pressure, just as the pound
to the square inch is the unit of steam pressure. The word ' volt '
does not indicate quantity of electricity in the least. For instance,
there might be the equivalent of a horse power of electrical energy
passing through a conductor at a pressure of say ten or even five
volts while the next conductor might carry a tenth or even a hundredth
the amount of current at a pressure of 10,000 volts. The term for
quantity in electrical parlance is ' ampere/ commonly shortened into
the familiar contraction ' amp/

AMPERE. An Ampere signifies a definite amount of electrical
energy, the actual amount of work to which it is equivalent being
decided by its pressure in volts, and the time for which such current
flows. And this brings us to the consideration of our third important
electrical unit, the one which corresponds to friction as met with in
estimating ordinary mechanical energy. We all know that when a
machine is doing work, mechanical power is absorbed by the combina-
tion of gravity and friction, which tends to stop the rotation of the
wheels and mechanism generally of the machine.

These electrical terms may be compared to the action of a man pushing a
truck along a road. The man presses the handle of the truck (this is the voltage),
he overcomes the friction (the resistance) of the wheels on the axle and against
the surface of the road, etc., and the truck moves. The rate at which the truck
moves is equivalent to the electric current. The more the man pushes (viz.,
the greater the voltage or pressure) the greater is the movement of the truck,
which corresponds to the greater flow of current which would accrue from an
increased voltage. If, on the other hand, he suddenly wheels his truck off wood
pavement on to a rough gravel path, then the same pressure will only allow a
slow speed, and to get the same speed as when on wood pavement he has to
exert himself more. That is to say, the greater the resistance, the greater is
the pressure or voltage required to get the same current of electricity. Elec-
tricity in itself is practically useless. It is the flow the electric current
which is of value.

In electricity the flow of current along even the best conductor
is attended with the necessity for similar driving power to send the
current on its way. It is this driving of the current that calls for the
pressure otherwise voltage in an electrical circuit. The voltage
expends itself against the circuit's resistance the equivalent of
mechanical friction only that amount of * amperes ' of current
travelling through the circuit which the voltage is sufficient to drive.
Thus the third electrical measurement to be taken into consideration
is the internal resistance of the circuit. This resistance is measured
in ' ohms.'

1 62 HANDBOOK OF K INE MA TOGRAPH Y.

The OHM is the unit of electrical resistance. It is that resistance
to the current which is exercised by a column of mercury one square
millimetre in section and 106.3 centimetres in height. That gives us
our first tangible electrical measurement, and from it the volt and
ampere become also tangible electrical units, for :

ONE VOLT is that electrical pressure which is required to cause
ONE AMPERE to flow through the resistance of ONE OHM.

The actual pressure corresponding to one volt has been originally
decided by calibration with a standard type of electrical primary cell.
It is also possible to state the actual equivalent in horse power of an
amount of electrical energy, and this is done in terms of ' wattage/
Thus :

ONE WATT is the energy represented by one ampere at a pressure
of one volt. Seven hundred and forty-six watts is the equivalent of
one electrical horse power, so that it becomes comparatively easy
to work out the equivalent in horse power of any dynamo which
we shall remember is the name given to the machine used to produce
electrical energy. For instance, take the case of a five kilowatt
dynamo. This will give an electrical output of five thousand watts,
one kilowatt equalling a thousand watts. Divide 5,000 by 746
and we shall find the electrical output of the dynamo to be the
equivalent of 6 7-10 horse power (aprox.)

We cannot pass on to other considerations without setting forth
Ohm's Law :

OHM'S LAW : Current equals pressure divided by resistance.
Let C stand for current, E for pressure (electromotive force), and R
for resistance, then setting down Ohm's law as a simple algebraic
equation

E
C -

The above simple formula is of endless use to the electrician. By the
aid of it, he can ascertain for himself either the current, voltage, or
resistance of any given circuit where the other two electrical
quantities are known. Thus by simple means of algebra we see that if

(1) C it must also follow that

(2) R = as also that

(3) E - C x R.

As an example of the use of the above formulae derived from
Ohm's law, suppose the voltage of a given circuit is not known, but
the amperage and resistance are, then, from formula (3), multi-
plying the two latter together will give the required potential.

HANDBOOK OF KINEMATOGRAPHY. 163

Perhaps the simplest of all forms of stating Ohm's Law is by means
of the ' rule of thumb/ Here it is :

O A

V here means, of course, voltage, A amperage, and O resistance.
The rule is when wishing to find out the third unknown quantity where
two are given, cover up the letter representing the unknown and pro-
ceed to divide or multiply the amounts represented by the two remain-
ing letters according as to whether they show themselves on the same
side or on opposite sides of the line. The result is precisely the same
as when Ohm's Law is worked intelligently and takes the same amount
of trouble, only the rule of thumb seems on the surface to call for
less intellectual effort, and will doubtless therefore be appreciated.

ELECTRICAL UNITS OF THE ELECTRICITY SUPPLY CORPORATIONS

The electrical unit used when computing the charge for electrica
service is the watt-hour, or rather, the amount of electrical work repre-
sented by 1,000 watt-hours. The watt-hour is just the thing it calls
itself : the service of one watt of electrical energy for the space of
one hour, or of a correspondingly larger or smaller amount of energy
for an equivalent shorter or longer time. Two watts running for half
an hour would thus be one watt-hour. Also, the twentieth part
of a watt running for twenty hours would be one watt-hour. The
reason for making the practical commercial unit one thousand times
the watt hour is purely a matter of convenience. This thousand
watt-hour electrical quantity is known as the Board of Trade unit
familiarly the ' unit ' or ' B.T.U.' A unit of electricity may cost any-
thing from one penny to eightpence when bought off the public supply.
When generated by means of a suitable private plant, a unit may cost
the producer scarcely more than a halfpenny, according to how gener-
ated. The unit will be seen to be the equivalent of about one and a
quarter electrical horse-power for the space of one hour. Also, taking
the voltage of the projection arc at 70, one unit of electricity would
provide about 14 amperes for one hour. In other words, a 40 amp.
projection arc will consume about three units of electricity per hour.
We are here well up against the important item of running costs of
projection. Accordingly, it may not be out of place to note that
supposing the arc is on for three hours and the electricity rate fourpence
per unit, the cost of current (exclusive of upkeep of carbons, etc.,)
would be 35. This gives a fair idea as to what electricity charges would
be where town electric supply is in use. Later on, it is hoped to indi-
cate methods of obtaining one's own electrical energy in more econo-
mical fashion. This talk of quantities and cost of current brings us
to the consideration of electrical measuring instruments.

The instruments necessary on every well-equipped switchboard
are an ammeter and a voltmeter.

i6 4

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

An AMPERE METER, often abbreviated to 'Ammeter/ depends for
its action on the fact that a coil of wire carrying current is magnetic
and will attract an iron core, the amount of attraction being proper,
tional to the number of amperes applied. Current to be measured by
this instrument is made to flow through the windings, and the move-
ment of the core is then indicated on a dial by a pointer attached to it.

A VOLTMETER is an instrument for measuring the voltage or
electric pressure between any two points of an electric system or circuit:
The usual form of voltmeter for practical work is a core or coil arrange-
ment similar to that of an ordinary ampere meter, in which the move-
ment of the core depends on the magnetic pull of the coil. The amount
of this pull, in its turn, is governed by the number of turns of wire
in the coil, and the strength of current running through same. By
reference to Ohm's Law it will be seen that the voltage of an electric
current is dependent on the resistance of the circuit, and the number

FIG. 130. VOLTMETER AND AMMETER CONNECTED UP.

of amperes flowing. Accordingly, where the resistance is kept constant
the current will depend on the voltage applied. The movement of
a voltmeter's core depends therefore on the amount of current in the
instrument, and the deflection so produced will record the voltage
of the circuit. The resistance of a voltmeter is usually very high in order
that the current absorbed may be negligable, and therefore very many
turns of fine wire are necessary. For this reason it is very easy to
burn out a voltmeter by over-running. Fig. 130 shows the method
of connecting voltmeter and ammeter with the necessary wires.
Technically, the ammeter would be said to be connected in series, and
the voltmeter in parallel.

THE PROJECTION ARC.

The projection arc lamp on which the bioscope depends for its
source of illumination is a heavily made instrument of the hand-feed
type. The electric arc lamp consists essentially of two carbon points
or rods, one of them being connected with the positive and one with the
negative cable of the electrical circuit. If current of more than 40
volts potential be turned on and the carbons momentarily ' struck,'
or brought together and then as quickly parted again, the electricity

HANDBOOK OF K INE M A TOGR A PH Y. 165

FIG. 131. DIRECT CURRENT ARC SHOWING ANGULAR TILT TO BRACKET.

FIG. 132. ALTERNATING CURRENT ARC SHOWING VERTICAL BRACKET.

1 66 HANDBOOK OF KINE M A TOGR APH Y.

will be caused to jump from one carbon to another over a short air
gap. Incidentally, the positive carbon will become incandescent,
the amount of light given off by it depending upon its size
and the quantity of current flowing. While the light continues the
carbon is burning away from both rods, though chiefly from the positive
one. The positive being made of larger diameter, burns short at the same
rate as the negative and so keeps the arc at a constant position when
the carbons are fed together. All the same, the air gap gradually
widens till it becomes so great as to put the arc out. To cause the arc
to remain burning therefore, some device is necessary whereby the
carbon rods can be ' fed ' together as they are consumed. Further,
to ensure keeping the position of the arc's * crater ' upon the positive
pole (from which the major portion of the light emanates) exactly
at the focus of the condenser, a second movement is neces-
sary to the arc feed whereby the two carbons may be raised and lowered
together as a whole. We must bear in mind when dealing with D.C.
arcs that the crater when properly formed occupies a slope of about
45 degrees upon the end of the positive carbon, while the light from it
is thrown, not straight ahead, but partially downwards. Therefore,
to get it through the condenser lens, the entire bracket holding the
carbons has to be tilted backward about 25 degrees.

THE WALTURDAW

ACME .ARC LAMP

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR AP H Y.

167

The Walturdaw Acme Arc is a lamp of the latest and most approved
pattern, being fitted with every possible movement. See the six
insulated milled heads. (Fig. 133.)

The subjoined illustrations of practical hand-feed arc lamps
show the various movements referred to and how they are accom-
plished by means of insulated milled (handles) heads. It is significant
that while from time to time automatic feed projection arcs have been
placed on the market, they have made no headway. In truth, the
crater adjustments necessary for maintaining a steady light of high
efficiency on the gate of the projector are of so delicate a description
as to defy mere mechanical means of regulation.

With alternating current arcs other conditions are met. Here,
since both carbons are as much positive as negative they both burn
away at the same rate, also, there is a crater on each. The light given

FIG. 134.

' SCISSORS " SETTING OF
CARBONS.

FIG. 135. ANOTHER SETTING
OF CARBONS.

off travels straight out at right angles to the carbon set. Fig. 134 gives
the older arrangement for setting carbons when using alternating cur-
rent. It is known as the ' scissors ' arrangement. While giving a
good light efficiency this set has of later years been more or less sur-
planted by the one shown in fig 135, the latter set being, in fact, prac-
tically identical with the D.C. method, except that the backward tilt
of the bracket carrying the carbon feed arms is absent. The latter
set, while not giving so great a light efficiency as the scissors, has the
advantage that the crater,when formed, keeps its shape far better. It will
be noticed that with the direct current set either as used for actual direct
or for alternating supply, an essential point, is that the lower carbon
shall be somewhat advanced in relation to the upper one. This forward
position of the lower carbon determines the form of crater obtained,
and the skill of the operator in managing the projector illuminant
is very largely shown by his ability to keep the crater right through the
medium of such adjustment. Where the current is alternating, the-

1 68 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

carbons used in the lamp are both of one size (fig. 134 and 135),

and both ' cored/ that is to say having a core or stuffing of soft

carbon pressed through a central hole, like the lead in the centre of

a lead pencil. Flame arc carbons have a chemical core. With

direct current, however, it is only the upper or positive carbon which

is cored. This positive carbon must be of considerably larger

diameter than the negative one, as has already been noted. For a

35 amp. D.C. arc, the minimum size of carbons should be, upper

16 millimetre diameter cored, lower 12 millimetre solid. Where 50

amps, are being taken, the top carbon should be at least an ' 18 '

cored, and the lower a ' 14 ' solid, to use the customary abbreviated

way of speaking of them. Many operators use larger sizes for the

same current consumption. Size of carbons will also be found to

be in a measure dependent upon the voltage of the electrical supply.

For instance, considerably larger carbons can be used at a

.given amperage where the voltage is say 100 or no, than where

the voltage is only 60 or 65. With low voltages, moreover, the air gap

between the carbons has to be kept so short as to cause the

lower tip to interfere more or less with the light from the crater. Also

low voltage arcs have a very bad habit of collecting conglomerations

of incompletely volatilised matter from the core of the positive carbon

upon the tip of the negative one. The projection light is thereby

ruined until the collected matter has been knocked away by a sudden

blow of the operating box screw-driver or other equally handy and

unsuitable tool. On the other hand, high voltages have their own

drawbacks, such as wastefulness of current. An arc consuming

30 amps, at no volts will give a light practically no different

from one consuming the same current at 60 volts, yet the running cost

of the former will be almost twice that of the latter. Moreover,

where the voltage across the arc is comparatively high, the light will

burn long without attention but with an ever-diminishing efficiency

very much longer than where the voltage is low. Consequently,

the temptation to a careless operator to feed his lamp but seldom

becomes greater the higher the potential across the arc.

The best voltage for projection is 70 to 75. This is very economical.
At the same time it is just high enough to ensure a good clean burning
negative carbon, with unobscured crater upon the positive pole.

THE RESISTANCE. A resistance is employed to limit and control
the amount of current which will flow in a circuit. A resistance is
.absolutely essential in every arc circuit. It is sometimes asked why
kinematograph dynamos are not made to give the exact voltage
required for the arc and so avoid wasteful resistances. The reason
for this is as follows : The arc itself has practically no resistance,
the voltage which is measured across the arc being the result of a
back pressure, which is generated by the arc, and which acts in
opposition to the main supply. The back E.M.F. of an arc is about
35 volts. If the pressure in the mains were no higher than this each
would neutralise the other, and so no current would flow, making an

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APH Y.

169

arc impossible. The amount of current which will flow through an
arc is therefore exactly dependent on the number of volts over and
above this first 35, and which superfluous voltage acts on the line
resistance.

This number is obtained by deducting the 35 arc volts from the
supply volts. The number of ohms required for the arc resistance is
then arrived at by dividing the resulting figure by the required
amperes. (See Ohm's Law, page 162.)

The usual type of kinematograph resistance is one which can be
adjusted to give various strengths of current, and generally consists
of a metal frame carrying suitable insulating panels, between which
spirals of resistance wire are fixed. These spirals are so connected
that current passes through each in turn. Connections are also
made from a number of these coils to contacts on the lower panel,
and by means of a regulating switch on these contacts the amount of
resistance in the circuit, and hence the current, can be varied. As the
switch is rotated from left to right, the current is increased according-
ly, as the resistance coils are cut out of circuit.

The diagram will make clear the arrangement of connections.

Of course, in addition
to the resistance frame
mentioned above, a certain,
amount of ohmic opposition
to the flow of current is
always to be found in the
circuit. There are the car-
bons, for example, and bad
connections, etc. In the
case of the carbons, the
resistance is a varying
quantity, for it decreases as
the carbon burns away. For
this reason, it will be noticed
that on a low voltage supply,
say 70 volts or so, a small
variation in the resistance of
the circuit, due to the
carbon burning away, will
make a considerable differ-
ence to the amount of
current flowing, but on a
high voltage supply this
same variation will be rela-
tively small, and therefore

FIG. 136. SIMPLE REGULATING RESISTANCE w ^ not alter the current
WITH THREE POINTS AND "FULL ON." value so much. Ine im-
portance of careful feeding

and good quality carbons will now be seen, especially for the lower
voltages.

MAIN LEAD

1 7 o

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

Resistances should be capable of reducing the arc current to rela-
tively small proportions, so that at starting up, the lenses and the
apparatus generally may be warmed up gradually, to avoid sudden
expansions, which would cause breakage, to say nothing of burning
out the windings of motor generators through overload.

There is often much misunderstanding as to the correct gauge
of resistance wire required for certain currents. In this connection,
ventilation is a more important factor than the mere gauge of wire,
and calls for consideration first. Efficient ventilation is essential.
This means the coils must not be arranged too close together. Air must
circulate freely between the spirals if it is to carry away the generated
heat. Where resistance frames are designed with proper regard to
their ventilation, the following table of gauges may be taken as fairly
reliable. It should, however, always be borne in mind that smaller
gauges of wire can be safely employed where there is plenty of venti-
lation, but in enclosed situations it may be desirable to use much
heavier gauges. It is here also important to note that where the current
is large, considerable saving will accrue from using a number of thin

wires in parallel in
preference to one
thick one singly.

SAFE GAUGES OF
RESISTANCE WIRES
FOR VARIOUS CUR-
RENTS.

For resistance
wires having a spe-
cific resistance of
50 microhms per c.c.
Such alloys are
known by the names
of Eureka, Constan-
tan, Manganin, Plat-
inoid, German Silver
(30 per cent.), etc.
6 amps log

FIG. 137. A PRACTICAL REGULATING RESISTANCE.

i8g

i7g

i6g

i5g

146

I3g

I2g

ipg

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 171

FUSES.

These are of the greatest importance. Of the few fires
which start from electrical causes the majority probably owe their
origin to carelessness in regard to some fuse or other.

A fuse is a short length of metallic conducting wire suitably en-
closed and connected in series with the circuit through which current
runs. This wire is purposely chosen of such a current-carrying capa-
city that should the circuit become overloaded, the fuse will get hot
enough to melt, thus breaking the circuit and cutting off the current.

Fuses are of several different kinds. Some are made of lead,
some of tin, such being employed where the current in the circuit or
sub-circuit is only of small quantity, say up to twenty amps., or there-
about. For larger loads, tinned copper fuses are admittedly the best,
and for use in the projection arc circuit they are the only kind which
may be relied upon, since they are far more tolerant of the sudden
overload unavoidable at the moment of striking the arc than are
fuses of the softer metals. The usual tin and lead fuse capacities are
five, ten, and twenty amps. Reels of such wire are sold at all electrical
stores, and should never be far from the operator's hand when
in the box, or by the switchboard. For the fuse controlling a forty or
fifty amp projecting arc, a single strand of No. 20 tinned copper wire
is the thing. It is purchased wound ready for use on pound or half-
pound reels.

The best form of fuse at the present time consists of tinned copper
wire made up inside an insulating cartridge. Cartridge fuses are
fitted with copper lugs at either end, which grip by means of spring
pressure upon terminals on the inside of a covered terminal box.
With these fuses there is absolute protection from the splashing of
molten metal. Also, the cartridges being enclosed, it is not easy
for an incompetent electrician to introduce fuse wires into the circuit
of such over-large capacity as to be no real protection against overload
of the regular cable. Lastly, cartridge fuses are renewable in a mini-
mum of time, an item of consequence when one blows in the middle
of an exhibition.

INSULATED CABLE AND ITS CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY.

Needless to say, no system of fuses can be of avail unless the
cabling of the electrical circuit is properly insulated, and the joints
well and carefully made. Of all substances which act as insulators
or checks to the flow of electricity, india rubber, paper, tarred braid,
and bitumen are among the best. Transversely cut electric cable of
good quality will therefore invariably show several distinct yet closely
superposed layers of these current resisting substances. Only speci-
mens of electrical wiring where such covering is stout and well put on
should ever be included in the electrical installation of a kinematograph
show. When ordering such insulated cable, one should specify dis-
tinctly ' association cable.' This stipulation assures that the insulation

172

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

will be up to a definite standard of reliability. Also, one must be very
careful to see that electrical wire is never overloaded whether it be
of small or great current carrying capacity. Appended is a table
giving the current-carrying capacities of wires of various gauges.

CARRYING CAPACITY OF WIRES AND CABLES.

It will be noted that the standard adopted is that in which a conductor with a cross section of one
square inch is considered as able to carry a current of 1,000 amperes. This standard is sufficiently exact
for all ordinary purposes, but it may be pointed out that the carrying capacity of conductors has been
the subject of much investigation, and that the Institution of Electrical Engineers has revised the figures
somewhat. The difference between the two standards is not great, and for the sake of reference, both
figures are given in the table ; it may be said, however, that the kinematograph operator will be erring
on the safe side if he adopts the 1,000 amperes to the square inch standard for ordinary use.

Standard
Wire Gauge.

Amperes at
1000 to i
square inch.

Amperes at
I.E.E.
Standard

Standard
Wire Gauge

Amperes at
1000 to r
square inch

Amperes at
I.E.E.
Standard

.61

1-7

7.21

5-53

10.63

.80

2.2

7-2o

5-86

ir.ig

T.OI

2.6

7.20

7.00

12.90

1.25

3-2

7.19

8.64

15-34

1.80

4-2

7.18

12.46

20.68

2.46

5.4

7-17

16.95

26.62

3.21

6.8

7.16

22.14

33-12

4-07

8.2

7.15

28.03

40.22

5-02

9.8

7.i4

34-59

47.80

6.64

12.4

19.20

18.99

29-23

8.49

15-0

19.19

23-43

34-74

3-25

.92

2-45

19. r8

33-75

46.85

3-23

1-33

3-3

19-17

45-93

60.33

3-22

i.8r

4-25

19.16

60.00

75-o6

3-20

2-99

6.44

19.15

75-86

gr.T2

3-18

5-32

I0.3T

I9-I4

93-72

108.30

7-25

2.16

4.92

19.13

123.85

136.2

7-23

3-n

6.63

I9-T2

158.26

166.4

7.22

4-23

8.54

37.16

116.80

129.6

7.2i*

4.86

9-56

37-15

147.8

157.3

Single stranded conductors, from 22 to 12, have been included in the table. This has been done for
the sake of reference, but it must be pointed out that modem practice does not favour the use of single
wires. Of the sizes given, only the 18 S.W.G. is used to any extent at the present time, and many engineers
prefer to use instead the 3.22 size, which is a stranded conductor made up of three wires of 22 S.W.G.
The objection to single wires is that they are less flexible than stranded wires of the same total carrying
capacity, they are more liable to injury when the insulation is bared, and cases have been known where
they have fractured when bent at a short radius. For interior wiring, the sizes with which the kinemato-
graph operator will be called upon to deal are 3.22, 7.22, 7.20 and 7.18. For the lantern, however, such
heavier sizes as 19.16 or rg.rs, according to the amperes required, will have to be used.

ELECTRICAL JOINTS are to be avoided whenever possible. When,
however, they are essential they should always be " sweated " ; that
is to say, ends of wire intended to form part of an electrical circuit
should be so affixed to each other that the cable is electrically con-
tinuous. A badly made joint may get hot, and may thus cause a fire.
Large cables should never be joined by an inexperienced hand as the
consequences of bad workmanship would be serious. Before cable
ends can be sweated together with solder they must be thoroughly
cleaned of all rubber or grease and then carefully twisted together in
such a manner that good electrical contact is made. A small quan-
tity of ' flux ' is then applied to the joint. This prevents oxidation
of the wire and allows the solder to run freely when the joint is heated.
Success with soldering depends on using a very hot clean iron, on
thoroughly cleaning the j oint, and on using a good flux. Acid fluxes must
not be used for electrical work. The joint, when made, is neatly
taped up with rubber and special black tape.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 173

Leads of large capacity are usually sweated into lugs of copper
or brass. These lugs may then be conveniently bolted up with main
switches, ammeters, etc.

LAMP INSULATION. The current-carrying parts of a projection
arc lamp are insulated with mica, this insulator being perhaps the
most suitable, as it is capable of withstanding the great heat. Should
the insulation fail for any reason, then the current will pass through
the metal parts of the lamp, avoiding the carbons and so not forming
an arc. This would be called a short circuit, or, more simply, a ' short.'
It is always desirable to keep a small quantity of mica at hand for
temporary repairs.

WHEN CONNECTING THE B.C. ARC with the leads for the first time
it may give some difficulty to the novice to determine whether he has
really made his top carbon the positive, and the bottom one the nega-
tive pole. The simplest way to test is by striking the arc and letting
it burn for a minute or two. If now the current is turned off and the
two carbons examined after the lapse of 15 seconds, whichever shows
the hottest tip will be the positive one. Should the ruddy cherry
glow indicative of the positive pole be on the upper carbon, we shall
know all is as it should be. If, on the other hand, the best part of
this after glow is given off by the underneath carbon it is a case of
reversing the wiring connections to the lamp terminals.

Other indications that the poles of the projection arc are wrong
are the casting upward instead of downward of the light, refusal of
a proper crater to form on the upper carbon, and an unsteady puffy
flicker of the flaming gasses in the air gap.

CURRENT CONVERTING AND TRANSFORMING.

We have already pointed out in this chapter that the best voltage
of electric supply for kinematograph projection purposes is 70 to 75.
Incidentally, this same voltage is by no means over low for the incan-
descent electric lighting of a single building, especially where metallic
filament lamps are in use. It may therefore be taken that when as
where a picture hall owns its private generating plant the whole instal-
lation is at 70 or 75 volts, there will be a great gain on the running of
the arc and little or no loss elsewhere. When, on the other hand, the
hall takes its electrical supply off the public mains, it is likely the
voltage will be a higher one. Suppose it is 220 or more, then
the only practice consistent with economy will be to " transform "
or " convert " down to the required pressure.

The voltage of alternating current is easily altered to almost any
value, either high or low, by means of a static transformer. This
apparatus consists of two coils of wire arranged around an iron core,
the number of turns of wire on these coils being proportional to the
ratio of voltage transformation required. One coil the primary
is connected to thejnains, and the effect of the flowing current is to

174

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

create a magnetic field in the iron core. This magnetic field threading
through the other or secondary winding causes a new current to be
generated in it, which has a voltage dependent on the number of, its turns.
A static transformer only alters the potential or pressure of the current.
It does not alter the quality of the current. Current transformed in
this way is still alternating, and is of the same frequency on the second-
ary as on the primary side of the transformer. The actual value of
the current itself is transformed in inverse ratio to the voltage.

Thus, a transformer that is used to reduce the supply voltage
say 3 to i will incidentally increase the amperage in the proportion of
i to 3 with an efficiency loss of about 5 per cent, or b per cent. For
illustration of a static transformer see fig. 138.

When dealing with direct circuit the matter is quite different.
Here, since the electricity flows steadily in one direction
instead of pulsating in cycles, no method of converting by
means of simple induction could be of avail. Accordingly, re-
sort is made to a transformer of the rotary type. Such trans-
formers are in reality nothing more than small high potential
electric motors driving low potential dynamos direct coupled on the
one shaft. The waste of current in transforming by this method is
much greater than that where high potential alternating current
is to be converted to low, since now we have an actual transformation
of our original electricity supply into mechanical energy on the one
end of the shafting, the same mechanical energy being re-converted
back to electrical force on the other end. The actual amount of

current lost in process of
conversion depends on the
make of the machine, but
is anywhere from 30 per
cent, to 15 per cent.

FIG. 138. STATIC TRANSFORMER.

Alters voltage of alternating current but does not

convert it to direct current.

FIG. 139. THE ROTARY TRANS-
FORMER OF THE VICTORIA
DYNAMO AND MOTOR Co.

HANDBOOK OF KINE M ATOGRAPHY. 175

FIG. 140. MOTOR GENERATOR SETS (Two Machines on a Combined Bedplate).

FIG. 141. DYNAMO DESIGNED FOR KINEMATOGRAPH WORK.

I 7 6 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

PRIVATE GENERATING INSTALLATIONS.

Where a public electric supply is not available, and unless lime-
light is decided upon as the illuminant for the projector, there is no
alternative to making one's own current on -the premises by means of
suitable plant. The generator here will invariably be of the direct
current type, and should be specified "compound" wound.

As previously explained, current is got from a dynamo by revolving
a wound armature between the poles of a magnet. This magnet is it-
self electrically excited from current generated in the dynamo armature.
Upon the amount of current allowed to flow through these magnet
windings depends the strength of the magnetic field, and hence the
voltage generated by the dynamo. In order to regulate this
voltage, it is usual to put a variable resistance in the magnet
winding to control the amount of current flowing. This latter
is known as a " field " or "shunt" regulator.

So much for the dynamo itself. We already know that the voltage
to stipulate is 70 to 75, at least, the latter is the writer's personal prefer-
ence, though some current economists profess to find no great trouble
in use and some further current saving by installing a 60 volt supply.
For a medium sized hall the arc will probably take 50 amps, so that
allowing 25 amps more for interior and frontage lighting and a small
margin on top of that, we shall find an 85 amp set to be about what is
required.

Now to consider how the dynamo is to be driven. The
following are alternative possibilities. We may drive by means of :

Steam power,

Town gas (ordinary gas engine),

Suction gas,

Petroleum gas,

Petrol,

Water power.

The last of all would, of course, be the cheapest in those country
districts where it could be installed. Occasionally in small country
towns or their outskirts one comes across a water wheel converted
so as to drive a dynamo to good purpose. This experience, however,
is by no means a common one in England, and with that we will pass
on to the other more likely forms of driving power.

STEAM is in many ways ideal for large electric installations. The
running of high speed steam engines is particularly smooth and free
from jar. The same applies in even greater degree to steam turbines,
which are, of all forms of driving power, quite the best for running
dynamos. Steam is not, all the same, by any means the most econo-
mical form of power, besides requiring more attention than will usually
be convenient to expend upon it when utilised for kinematograph
purposes. Also steam engines with their attendant boilers are both
costly and bulky. Small steam engines are even less economical than

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGRAPHY. 177

larger ones. Practically, therefore, good as is this form of motive
force, it has to give way before others in the driving of small private
electric supply installations.

Exception to this last statement must, however, be made in the
case of touring and portable kinematograph shows which travel their
own fit-up by road. Here the ideal lighting system is to use
electricity generated by means of a high clas3 compound steam road
(traction) engine fitted with dynamo carried on the front plate. Such
a road engine is employed both for lighting and also for haulage pur-
poses, whereby the expenses of travel are cut down to a minimum.
In fact, the system of lighting and haulage here touched upon has
been in constant use for years by proprietors of roundabouts and
large movable bioscope shows.

TOWN GAS. We now come to the most popular source of energy
for our purpose. The gas engine is known to everyone as a cleanly
and simple means of obtaining mechanical energy for all manner of
diverse purposes. It nearly always works on the Otto cycle. That
is to say, power is communicated to the fly-wheel as the result of an
explosion of mixed gas and air occurring inside the cylinder once in
every two revolutions. Thus :

Revolution One. Mixed gas and air are drawn into the
cylinder through suitable inlet valves as the result of suction
brought about by the outward thrust of the piston. The
energy for this is derived from previous momentum of the
fly wheel. As the crank turns into position to send the piston
back again, the inlet valves automatically close. Conse-
quently, this backward strike compresses the gas and air
mixture into small compass in what is termed the ' explosion
chamber ' at the far end of the cylinder. At the end of this
backward stroke and when compression has reached its
height means are found of igniting the compressed and explo-
sive mixture in the cylinder end, and

Revolution Two. The gases expand enormously as the
result of explosion, the pressure of the burnt product in
the cylinder tending strongly to force the piston out again.
This outward thrust causes the crank and fly wheels to take
on further and increased momentum. On the second back-
ward stroke of the piston, the exhaust valve of the cylinder
opens, blowing out the burnt-up gases and leaving the cylinder
clean and ready to take in further charges of gas and air
wherewith to repeat the above ' Otto ' cycle.

Well-known and trustworthy examples of the gas engine are to
be found amongst such models as the National, Crossley, and many
others. These gas engines work very evenly, give little trouble, and
only require a comparatively small amount of cleaning to do their
work well. Usually they are connected with the dynamo for driving
by means of an endless belt. Latterly, however, several direct-coupled

178 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

sets have made their appearance. These possess the advantage over
belt-driven sets of a saving of something like 15 per cent, of power
otherwise lost in belt transmission.

When belting is used for driving purposes, allow at least one-
half inch width for every horse power to be transmitted to the dynamo.
This presupposes the belt to run at normal speed, about 2,000 feet per
minute. Driving should always be forward, that is to say, with the slack
of the belt on top. In apportioning power of engine to dynamo for belt-
driven sets it is useless to have the dynamo of much more than two-
third power as compared to the driving power. Thus, a nine horse
gas engine will not comfortably do more than drive a four and a half
kilowatt dynamo on the belt system, though with direct drive, it might
conceivably produce nearly an extra kilowatt of electrical energy.

SUCTION GAS. The gas here made use of is not town gas at all,
but a special brand produced by burning anthracite coal or coke in
a ' producer/ The disadvantages of a suction gas plant lie in compara-
tively heavy first cost, coupled with a certain lurking suspicion
of possible explosions if the producer is not looked after
intelligently. The advantage lies in extreme economy of running
cost of the installation. There is no doubt that where properly under-
stood and reasonably carefully controlled, suction gas is next to water
power the cheapest of all sources of mechanical and hence of electrical
energy.

PETROLEUM. Where town gas is not available for our dynamo
driving, and it is not wished to go to the somewhat heavy first cost
of a suction gas plant, we may substitute oil in the shape of ordinary
petroleum. Oil engines are manufactured by several reputable makers
such as National, Blackstone, Tangye, etc., and are of solid con-
struction, and in appearance very much like gas engines. Also, their
performance is equally satisfactory for short runs. Their disadvan-
tages are smell (which is usually cruel), and the necessity for constant
cleaning, involving taking the whole engine to pieces pretty
well every week. If cleaning is neglected ever so little power begins
to be lost, and running costs in oil consumption to go up enormously.
Even at their best, petroleum engines work out more expensive in run-
ning perhaps half as much again as town gas engines.

Both town gas, suction gas, and petroleum engines are now made
in models expressly intended for electric lighting. Such are provided
with extra heavy and specially balanced fly wheels, and are capable
of driving a dynamo so as to give an output steady to one volt on the
meter. This performance is very good indeed, as need hardly be
pointed out.

Whatever type of engine is used, great care must be exercised
over lubrication, or bearings will seize and soften. Once this happens
they will give trouble ever afterwards. Never start an engine until
it has been ascertained that all ring bearings and oil cups are properly
fed with lubricating oil.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

179

PETROL SETS. Petrol sets are the order of the day. They possess
many attractive points, notably small and compact configuration,
lightness, portability, simplicity in starting (provided adjustments
are correctly made) and such like interesting features. Petrol comes

FIG. 142. THE TYLER-ASTER GENERATING SET.

FIG. 143. A COMPACT PETROL GENERATING SET.

out in working somewhat dearer than petroleum, but these portable
petrol sets being of the direct drive type are thereby more' economical
than if a belt drive were employed.

i8o HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

Like all oil engines they have to be kept clean if satisfactory results
are to be expected. Mostly they are fitted with high tension magneto
ignition which is in itself very reliable, as is shown by the fact that
it is coming in more and more for gas and petrol engines of every des-
cription.

For touring kinematograph shows of the kind which hire and fit
up in provincial halls these petrol sets may and should prove very
useful. Needless to say, where long runs in one place are to be coped
with, the advantage would seem to lie with a more solidly constructed
town or suction gas plant.

FIG. 144. A WELL BURNED PAIR OF CARBONS.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 181

CHAPTER V.

LIMELIGHT AND MINOR ILLUMINANTS.

Where the kinematograph is only to be exhibited occasionally
and in neighbourhoods distant from a town electric supply, then the
one real alternative light to electricity is limelight as produced by
the impinging of a burning jet of mixed oxygen and hydrogen (or
coal gas) upon a cylinder of hard lime.

Under these conditions, a very good light may be obtained
emanating from a comparatively small source, and approximating irt
intensity anywhere up to 2,500 candle power, according to the skill
and lavishness of the operator in using his gases. With a wide
aperture projection lens such a light will prove adequate for a
well illuminated moving picture up to eight feet diameter. The
writer has read wondrous stories of fourteen feet pictures
illuminated brilliantly by means of the oxy-hydrogen jet,
but he would not personally care to attempt the projection
on this scale and with this illuminant of any but specially picked,
lightly printed film subjects.

Years ago, when kinematograph projection was in its infancy,
the bulk of shows were given with limelight, and it was then the rule
to keep the positive pictures very thin so as to make the illuminant
go as far as possible. Nowadays electricity has come in almost to
the exclusion of the other, and consequently, modern kinematograph
films are made correspondingly dense in the shadows. Hence the fact
of it is, the limelight operator has to curtail the dimensions of his picture
more, and attempt a far less ostentatious show now than formerly.
He may help himself to some extent by employing as the objective
of his projector one of the newer extra wide diameter makes. Even
here, however, there are pitfalls in his way, since, unless this same wide
aperture lens be the somewhat expensive product of a reputable firm
such as Busch or Dallmeyer, he will find the clearness of projection,
especially at the corners of the screen, diminish in proportion as added
brightness is gained.

Thus, if a rule be laid down at the start for the guidance of lime-
light operators in deciding upon throw and dimensions of the picture,
it had better be the following admittedly conservative one. Keep
to projector lenses of good quality and wide aperture, also limit the
throw from lens to screen as much as possible, and do not attempt to
show a large picture where the throw is great any more than where
it is small. Where limelight is in use a wise limit of throw
(distance between projector lens and projection screen) will be
thirty-five feet or thereabouts in the case of small exhibitions.

i8 2 1 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

Within^ these limits, however, really brilliant limelight pictures
may be projected.

! The actual apparatus for the work consists of the jet, connecting
tube, limes, oxygen and hydrogen (or coal gas) in cylinders, cylinder
regulators, gauges, cylinder key, lime tongs and borer, lime tray for
the jet, and wire for wiring on the tubing.

FIG. 145. THE "WALTURDAW" HIGH POWER MIXED JET.

The jet to use is technically known as a ' high power mixed.
It consists of a strong metallic chamber filled with sheets of perforated
metal or metal gauze through which streams of the two gases are
forced by the pressure behind them. While penetrating the gauze
the gases mix prior to issuing from the nozzle of the lime jet. To
start a mixed jet a tube is connected with one of the taps and its
other end wired to the regulator upon the oxygen cylinder. A second
similar connection is made up with the hydrogen cylinder.
With limelight of this class it does not usually matter which tap on
the jet is connected with which cylinder. See that the jet taps are
closed in starting. The main valves of the cylinders are now opened
wide by means of the cylinder key. If the regulators are working
correctly nothing will happen beyond the accumulation of a certain
amount of compressed gas in the respective lengths of tubing. Now
turn on the tap admitting hydrogen or coal gas to the mixing
chamber. There should be placed upon the lime pins a cylinder of
lime previously made hot. Apply a match to the hydrogen issuing
from the nozzle and it will burn in the ordinary way. We now
adjust the distance of this jet nozzle to about one eighth of an inch,
or slightly more from the surface of the lime. This is done by means
of the screw adjustment provided for shifting the lime gallery backward
and forward. Finally, turn on the oxygen tap gradually. The first effect

be to make the hydrogen flame appear to get smaller. If it gets

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y.

183

too small turn on more hydro-
gen and also more oxygen and
shortly one of two possible
things will happen. The jet
will begin to hiss loudly, or
the light at which we are aim-
img will show itself. If the
former, turn off the hydrogen
gradually till the hissing stops,
and then turn on more oxygen,
and so on till the light comes.
The sought-for illumina-
tion will show itself as a spot
of incandescence arising and
growing in brightness upon
the lime cylinder. Careful

FIG. 146.

GVVYER SPECIAL KINEMATOGRAPH LIME-
LIGHT JETS.

adjustment of the gas taps will cause this incandescence to increase
till the whole front face of the lime is white hot and glowing fiercely.
Hard limes for kinematograph purposes are usually one inch high
by one or one and a quarter inch in diameter, so that high power
limelight does not give nearly so concentrated an illuminant source
as electricity. This difference will duly show itself as a woolly yellow
margin to the light pencil around the projector gate, necessitating
a larger circle of illumination with consequent loss of effective light
on the mask aperture. Moreover, the impinging of the extremely
hot mixed gases upon the face of the lime cylinder has the effect of
burning it away, more or less, such burning or volatilisation taking
the form of pits which necessitate turning the lime round from time
to time. For this reason, every limelight jet is fitted with a lime
turning adjustment in addition to the backward and forward motion
of the lime gallery from the nipple. The lime turning actuates
corkscrew fashion, so that theoretically it should be possible
to pit the lime over the whole of its face before it would be burned
out. Practically, no lime will withstand the temperature of the mixed
burning gasses for so long without cracking. It is the business of
the operator to turn the lime slightly every couple of minutes, other-
wise, in addition to loss of light, there is great danger of the hollow
cup-shaped pit formed in the incandescent material causing the flame
to strike back at an angle and hit the condenser, with the inevitable
result of a smashed glass.

ECONOMY IN THE USE OF MIXED GASES.

It is possible to burn a mixture of gases widely differing from
the theoretical correct proportion of each constituent and still get a
very passable light. Such mixtures will, notwithstanding, be ineffi-
cient and wasteful. The way to ensure that the mixture of oxygen
and hydrogen passing through the mixing chamber and to the jet
nipple is rich enough without being too rich is as follows :

1 84 HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGRAPH Y.

Having got the lime to glow by means of the rough gas adjustment
already described proceed to turn down the hydrogen or coal gas
(not the oxygen) till the quality of the light suffers. Now once more
turn up the hydrogen slowly till the point is just reached at which
full light is maintained for the existing oxygen consumption. This
will now be the perfect mixture of gases for the work. Should it
be desired to increase the light, turn on more oxygen slowly and follow
by admitting correspondingly more hydrogen (or coal gas) till the
advance in brightness of the glowing lime ceases. To lessen light
with economy of gases, turn down the oxygen first, then proceed to
turn off hydrogen till the diminution in the lime's brightness which
took place on lessening the oxygen supply partially recovers itself
that is to say, till it recovers itself so far as is possible with the
reduced amount of mixture.

Centring the illuminant will be dealt with in the next chapter,
the remarks to be written concerning it applying equally well both
to lime and electricity.

Turning to the gases themselves, we have already stated broadly
that these are stored in cylinders. Such cylinders are supplied of
mild weldless wrought steel of great strength and comparative light-
ness. A twenty-foot gas cylinder, for instance, will weigh somewhere
about twenty-five pounds. For kinematograph work small sized
cylinders are not so useful or so economical as larger ones. Sixty-
foot sized cylinders come under the cheaper charging rates of the
companies supplying compressed gas, while they are also sufficiently
portable to be moved single handed by a muscular man. Gas cylinders
of 100 foot capacity are made where even larger supplies are necessary.
All these are thoroughly tested before leaving the compressing houses,
and only such as have stood on test an internal strain approximately
three times as great as the normal charging strain are allowed to go on
the market. The security of the public in handling them is thus seen
to be very great.

Oxygen cylinders are painted black, and have the ordinary right
handed threads cut upon their valves. Hydrogen cylinders are painted
red, and the screw threads are left handed, this affording a further
safeguard against the possibility of wrong charging at the works.
Oxygen for storing into the oxygen cylinders is obtained from the air
we breathe by means of the patent ' Brins Process/ in which the sub-
stance Barium Peroxide is made alternately to discharge oxygen
and re-absorb it from the air under the influence of varying pressures.
Pure hydrogen gas (where this is stipulated by the consumer) is made
from zinc and sulphuric acid after the manner adopted by the old
gas bag operators. More usually, however, coal gas is used with the
oxygen to form the gas mixture. Coal gas does not .give quite so high
a temperature on burning, but it is both cheaper to buy in its com-
pressed state and also much more economical in use. Ten feet of
oxygen require twelve feet of coal gas, or in the alternative, twenty

HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGRAPH Y.

185

feet'of pure hydrogen to form the burning mixture, and the difference
of light obtained is only slightly in favour of the latter much more
expensive material.

A high power lime jet burning its best will take at least the last
mentioned amounts of gas per hour. Thus a sixty foot oxygen and
eighty foot coal gas cylinder will be sufficient for about six hours
limelight with the kinematograph.

The gases, as stored in cylinders, are under so great pressure
that adjustment of them by means of the jet taps would be a sheer
impossibility were it not for the employment of special regulators
affixed to the cylinders themselves.

THE WALTURDAW

GOVERNOR FITTED WITH

BABV GAUGE
FIG. 147.

FIG. 148. SECTIONAL VIEW OF IN-
TERIOR OF GAS PRESSURE
REGULATOR.

Gas regulators work upon a simple principle. A lazy tongs is
enveloped in a strong airtight leather bag or ' bellows/ having a metallic
cover to the inside of which one end of the tongs is pivotted. Turning
gas from the cylinder into the regulator fills this bag, thereby causing
it to stretch upwards towards a counter spring placed outside its
stiff metal cover. This upward movement is transmitted to the lazy
tongs as a downward thrust of the end of its arms nearest the gas
orifice, and the downward thrust acting on a finely adjusted metallic
plug stops the gas flow as soon as the pressure in the leather bag is
sufficient to press back the external counter spring to a pre-determined
amount. Seeing that the internal pressure of a full cylinder is 120

186 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

atmospheres, or i,8oolb3. per square inch, it goes without saying the
work the regulator is called oh to perform in bringing this enormous
pressure down to the equivalent of two or three inches of mercury
is by no means light. It is therefore necessary to keep a sharp eye
upon this part of our apparatus, and be ready at once to detect minor
leaks or signs of wearing in the bellows or bag.

Leaks are best detected by putting one's ear to the side of the
regulator while the gas is turned on at the cylinder tap, but not at the
jet taps. An internal hissing will mean leaking either of the regulator
bellows or of the tubing between it and the jet. Which of the two
is really at fault is a matter that ought not to take any operator long
to discover for himself. Another way of testing a regulator is to
remove the tube from its delivery pipe, close it tightly with the thumb,
and then turn on the cylinder cock by means of the cylinder key.
Any continuous hissing heard must now result from leakage of the
bellows or around the screw threads and their connections, to find
which, plug the regulator delivery pipe, turn on the gas again, and
immerse the whole upper end of the cylinder, with regulator, in water.
Bubbles coming from the hole in regulator top then denote worn-out
bellows, while bubbles from elsewhere tell their own tale as to indif-
ferently made connections or battered screw threads, resulting from
knocks in course of railway transit.

One of the latest ideas in regulators is to have the counter spring
upon which pressure of gas delivery depends made so that it can be
tightened up at will. Both Beard and Brin have a regulator fashioned
on these lines, though in Brin's pattern the leather bellows gives place
to a metallic diaphragm. Such variable gas pressure regulators are
chiefly of use in controlling the oxygen supply where limelight is
produced by means of the injector jet.

CYLINDER GAUGES.

The cylinder gauge is like the motor drive of a projector a
matter which may prove a blessing or a curse according to how it
is used. The careful operator will be able to save pounds in a very
short time by the intelligent checking of his cylinder contents by
means of gas pressure gauges. On the other hand, these same gauges
are very delicate pieces of mechanism, and rough usage of them has
to be strenuously avoided or they will turn out more trouble than they
are worth.

Undoubtedly the best way to run a gauge is to have it permanently
fixed upon a branch connection of the regulator fitting. Thus mounted
it is always available for consultation, just like the gauge of a steam
engine. Also, it is for ever at the mercy of the rough-handed should
they take it into their heads to push the heavy cylinder about in a
careless manner. It will then only take a comparatively slight bump
to smash the gauge glass and bend the branch tube sufficiently to
make the whole fitting leak badly.

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APH Y. 187

A sort of half-way house in the use of gauges is to have them fitted
so as to be interchangeable with the regulators. In this case they
will only be available between, and not during, shows. Moreover,
the constant screwing and unscrewing of threads is none too good,
and minor leakage may well also result from it.

Oxygen and hydrogen gauges work upon the well-known prin-
ciple used in the case of testing steam pressure, and also adapted in
modified form when testing atmospheric pressure by means of the
ordinary aneroid barometer.

Under this principle compressed hydrogen or oxygen from the
cylinder passes without entering the regulator into a thin-walled
curved metal tube contained within the gauge cover. The tube has
a tendency to straighten itself in increasing extent according to
the difference between its internal and the external atmospheric
pressure. As the tube straightens, the movement of its free end
causes rotation in a series of toothed wheels actuating the pointer
on the gauge dial. Barring accidents due to carelessness in handling
the only thing about a gauge which is liable to go wrong is the breakage
of the thin internal pressure tube itself. Should this burst one soon
knows it by the rush of escaping gas, coupled with an unearthly buzz-
ing sound due to the vibration of the broken end. There is no way
of plugging up a broken gauge tube and going on with the show,
so the light will just have to be shut off while the whole fitting is
removed, and a new regulator union without gauge branch substituted.
In reading a gauge, whether oxygen or hydrogen, the great thing
to remember is that thirty atmospheres indicates quarter full, sixty
atmospheres indicates that the cylinder is half full, ninety indicates
three-quarters full, while at the figure 120 will be found a red mark
showing that this is where the pointer should come to rest when the
cylinder is returned quite full after charging. From the above figures
it will not be difficult to calculate how many feet of gas there are
actually in any cylinder at any time. For instance, say our cylinder
is a forty-foot one and it reads thirty on the gauge. It is then
quarter full, which means that there is in it ten cubic feet of gas.
Supposing it to be an oxygen cylinder we shall know ourselves to
have just enough gas left for one bare hour's show.

In addition to the foregoing, some gauges are now also figured
to show the number of feet there would be in a ten-foot cylinder.
With such a gauge, supposing the case of a sixty-foot cylinder and the
pointer standing at five (meaning five feet in a ten-foot cylinder),
multiply the figure by six, since our cylinder is of six times the capacity
of the one for which the gauge was calibrated, and we get as our result
the figure thirty. There are thus thirty feet of gas in our sixty-foot
cylinder the cylinder is half full.

In making connection between cylinder and regulator always
see that the separate wing nut upon the regulator union is screwed
down all the way into the cylinder thread before commencing to tighten
up the regulator itself. In this manner very strong and airtight joints

188 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

may usually be made. Occasionally the writer has found even this to
fail to make absolutely gas-proof joints. In such a case a very little
hard grease run into the screw threads works wonders. Such practice
cannot, however, be conscientiously recommended, since in the
case of oxygen fittings the procedure is not entirely free from danger
(at any rate, in theory) should any of the grease kter find its way
into the body of the cylinder. The writer does it all the same with
the best results, only, it needs a lot of care.

It is possible to work the gases successfully for mixed lime-
light without either gauge or regulator. The omission of the former
means that there will be a great danger of running short of gas unex-
pectedly, the only alternative being that the operator should keep
well on the safe side of his cylinder capacities, entailing sending back
cylinders before all the gas is used out of them. The absence of regu-
lators is attended with many difficulties, one of these being the need
to give constant attention to the main gas taps of the cylinders. When
working without regulators the cylinder threads must have screwed
into them what are known as fine adjustment taps. These, then,
serve to control the gas flow in its entirety, both jet cocks being left
full open at all times, otherwise the connecting tubing will be blown
off and ripped by the internal gas pressure. Fine adjustment taps
are merely strong screw valves controlled by means of milled heads.
The reason of the fine adjustment taps needing constant attention,
say every ten minutes or so during the show, is to compensate for lower-
ing of cylinder gas pressure, which is now unbalanced by the bellows
action of a regulator.

INJECTOR LIME JETS.

These differ from ordinary lime jets in that while they obtain
their feed of compressed .oxygen from a cylinder, the coal gas they
consume with it comes from the ordinary house supply, from which
it is conveniently obtained by affixing a rubber tubing connection
to any handy gas bracket. The system of the injector jet is the same
as that of the steam injector of an engine boiler. A fine spray of
steam blowing into a funnel-shaped passage way creates a draught,
which gives rise to strong back suction tending to draw air or other
gases in its track.

With the oxy-hydrogen light used on the injector principle
the mixing chamber of the jet is modified into more or less of a cone
through which a high pressure oxygen stream is driven, thus sucking
into its track and driving through the jet nozzle coal gas, which fills
the rest of the chamber. Needless to say, the mixture of gases in
an injector jet is not so intimate as with the regular mixed gas variety .
Consequently, the candle power realised on this system is not so good.
1,000 to 1,500 c.p. is the most to be expected from any injector jet.
This power will be found fairly suitable for kinematograph projection
up to say six feet diameter with two and a half and three inch focus
objectives. Further, since no licensing authority would countenance

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

189

this system of lighting in regular kinematograph shows, the power
available will probably prove amply sufficient for those conditions
where the light is practicable, such as small charity shows, private
house exhibitions, and the like. Remarks referring to the mixed
gas display apply for the most part also, to injector work, except that
here it is necessary to have the cylinder regulator adjusted to deliver
oxygen at not less than seven to ten pounds per square inch pres-
sure. This entails the use of specially reinforced and extra thick
' injector ' flexible tubing for making connections between regulator and

FIG. 149. THE " PRIMUS" INJECTOR JET.

jet tap. With the injector jet it is, moreover, essential that the oxygen
is led into the oxygen feed of the jet, for which purpose this tap will
be found to have the letter O engraved upon it. Wastefulness of A the
injector system is due to the high pressure oxygen stream inevitably
drawing after it rather less than the theoretical amount of coal gas
which would be necessary to bring about its complete comsuption.
For all that, relief from the necessity to run the second compressed
gas in a cylinder will be found to make injector work very much
cheaper in practice than the employment of the mixed jet.
Injector jets are always more or less noisy in burning.

IQO HANDBOOK OF K INE MA TOGRAPH Y.

The following systems of illumination in optical projection as applied
to the kinematograph are only of service for very small pictures and for
those projected at home or in the schoolroom and experimental laboratory.

THE BLOW THROUGH LIMELIGHT JET.

With this jet, as with the injector type, coal gas is taken from
the house supply, but here no internal mixture of any sort is attempted.

WALTURDAW" BLOW-THROUGH JET.

Indeed, the coal gas is first made to burn in a wide based ragged flame
against the side of a soft lime cylinder. When light is required oxygen
is blown through a narrow orifice into the middle of this coal gas flame.
In the result, a portion of the coal gas becomes so raised in temperature
as to transmit to the lime heat enough to bring about incandescence.
Needless to say, this system is very wasteful of both gases, a consump-

FIG. 151. COMBINED ETHER SATURATOR AND JET,

tion of six feet of oxygen per hour giving a light not much over 400
candle power, or 500 at the most. The light is comparatively silent
when skilfully managed. Any attempt to force it, however, at once
gives rise to that peculiarly irritating hiss familiar to all of us who have

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 191

attended parochial ' limelight lectures.' Blow through limelight will
serve for pictures up to three or four feet in diameter with the average
modern kinematograph films.

OXY-ETHER. OXY-PETROL.

This form of limelight would be most useful in kinematograph
work were it not for a lurking suspicion as to its safety which cannot
be dismissed from the mind of the conscientious operator, also for a
tendency on the part of ether or petrol fumes, as the case may be,
to pervade the air at such times as the light is burning. The form of
jet utilised with oxy-ether and oxy-petrol may be the same as that
used for high power mixed gas work. One cylinder of gas only is
required instead of two, this gas being, of course, oxygen. Instead
of employing the house gas supply, however, a branch off the oxygen
supply tube is connected with a tank containing sponge or tow
saturated with methylated ether, or in the alternative, ordinary motor
spirit.

As the oxygen forces its way through the ether or petrol it takes
up a surfeit of the vapour of it. This ' saturated ' oxygen vapour
mixture is then led to the hydrogen side of the jet. When the saturator
is working well the charging of the original oxygen with vapour
may be so thorough that the explosive point of the mixture is over-
passed. Thus a quietly burning hydro-carbon vapour finds
its way to the jet nipple on the hydrogen side. We then have what
practically amounts to a lime jet burning gasified ether or petrol
in place of coal gas, this being capable of being enriched with oxygen
turned in from the oxygen lead for the purpose of raising the lime to
incandescence, just as with the ordinary mixed jet. Moreover, the
oxy-ether and oxy-petrol light is almost as brilliant as mixed gas at
its best. Well over 2,000 candle power is available from such a source
when the ether tank is full and working well which it does when
slightly warm.

But there is with all such systems the lurking fear that the ether
or petrol supply may give out unexpectedly, and that the combustion
of the impoverished mixture may proceed down the length of
the jet and through the connecting tubing to the tank itself. An
internal explosion would then be inevitable, and though a strong
walled metal saturator might come out of it scatheless a weaker one
may burst and do great damage. In any event, and even where
the saturator withstood the explosion, there would be the sudden pop
of the back-firing jet, the rip of bursting tube, and the nauseous
escaping ether fumes permeating a darkened projection chamber,
and with kinematograph audiences all on edge, as they are, for danger
scares and causes of panic the prospect is not a nice one to contem-
plate. Latterly, the Home Secretary has ruled out as illegal systems
employing saturators in kinematography. This can only be called
a very wise precaution, though for laboratory purposes where a cheap

192 HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APHY.

and powerful illuminant is required in connection with kinematograph
experiments the oxy-petrol light is well worthy of remembrance
as an alternative to electricity. Many patterns of saturators now on
the market seem as safe as houses judging from their construction,
but then

OXY-SPIRIT.

About a year ago, a French firm put on the market a projection
lamp wherein boiling methylated spirit supplied the vapour necessary
to the hydrogen side of a mixed gas limelight system. The writer
has come across an example of this form of jet, and has heard well
of it from the owner. It is said to give a light of quite 2,000 candle
power. Moreover, it is economical in use; requiring only a compara-
tively small oxygen feed, but is very hot in working, owing to the
spirit boiler with its attendant auxiliary flame which has to be kept
going during exhibition. Altogether the light seems good enough and
simple enough to merit careful consideration by those private indivi-
duals interested in projection work who may live away from a town
gas supply and yet require some more powerful illuminant than acety-
lene. This spirit oxygen lamp is re-
ported to be good for a six-foot pro-
jection with a throw of twenty-four feet.

ACETYLENE.

With acetylene we come to a class
of illuminant which is barely on the
brink of utility for the amateur pro-
jection of moving pictures, but it may
be used where a two or three foot pic-
ture will satisfy requirements. Acety-
lene, as everyone who owns or has
owned or has a friend or relation who
owns or has owned a bicycle, will
know, is made by dropping water upon
calcium carbide. When water falls
upon carbide there arises a an
aroma. This is the aroma of acetylene,
celebrated as at once the most highly
illuminating and one of the most
noisome gases known to science. In-
cidentally, its mixtures with the air
FIG. 152. A 'CARBIDE TO WATER' are very explosive in very wide pro-
ACETYLENE GENERATOR.* portions, so that acetylene generators

A Gas container. should te carefully looked after, es-

C Carbide Container fitUdJwith auto- .

maticaiiy operated ,cutiet fcr pecially when their containers are large

carbide at bottom. j ,4. r 11

D Acetylene delivery tap. and pretty lull.

HANDBOOK OF- KINE M A TOGR APH V.

193

Acetylene generators are broadly divided into two classes, those
in which the gas is produced by water flooding trays whereon is
spread calcium carbide, and those in which the calcium carbide
is automatically discharged little by little into water as circumstances
may require. The first class of generator is a good knock-about
form, but has the disadvantage that once the flow of gas starts it is
difficult or impossible to stop it completely till the whole of the carbide
charge is used up. Gas production may be stopped off partially,
but there will always be more or less leakage going on with attendant
smell due to the carbide remaining in an atmosphere full of water
vapour.

The alternative or carbide discharge system is under the drawback
that the mechanism here is more complicated and requires to be more
carefully looked after. Further, the carbide used in charging the
' carbide to water ' generator has to be crushed to a definite calibre
and screened, all of which makes it more expensive to buy than that
which suffices for the ' water to carbide ' generator. But where the
system involves carbide discharging into water, the gas supply may be
turned off or on with much greater freedom.

For kinematograph purposes, the acetylene jet may consist
of three or four " Beta " Bray burners arranged with suitable
attachment to the lantern tray. Preferably, each burner should have
its own controlling tap, and the better class acetylene jets are

FIG. 153. FOUR-BURNER ACETYLENE GAS JET.

thus provided. A reflector completes the arrangement, and unless
the light is skilfully managed, this same reflector may, and probably
will give a lot of trouble in the way of unequal illumination effects
upon the screen.

Acetylene projection in kinematography generally takes about
one pound or a little more than one pound of carbide per hour for a
four-burner jet. Taking the retail price of a pound of best carbide
as sold in tins at the cycle shops at 6d., we shall see that acetylene,
while giving a vastly^ inferior light to oxy-hydrogen, is also very

194

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

much cheaper roughly six times. This is not reckoning light for
light, but merely putting the actual cost of an hour's run of the one
form of illuminant against an hour's run of the other. Small wonder
then if the hard-up amateur decides to content himself with a dimi-
nutive two foot acetylene show in lieu of the more pretentious one
possible with limelight. Acetylene gives a light of about 250 candle
power, 300 candle power is the outside limit.

INCANDESCENT GAS. SPIRIT. OIL.

Neither of the above forms of illuminant give a candle power
exceeding for practical purposes, 150. The only one of the three which
touches so high a figure as that named is the form of projection lamp
in which an incandescent gas mantle is made to glow in the flame
of vaporised methylated spirit mixed with air, fed to it under pressure
from a hand air pump. Incandescent gas, as adapted to projection,
even at its best rarely touches 100 candle power, while the best oil
lamps such as may give an effective 100 to 150 candle power in the
case of still view work are not feasible even for amateur kinemato-
.graphy on account of the abnormally large light source involved, with
the attendant difficulty of concentrating anything like the whole of
the emerging rays upon the gate.

Those who wish to find out more concerning these totally inade-
quate lighting systems, may therefore be referred to works on still
view projection and on photographic enlargement making, for which
purposes alone they are fitted.

FIG. 154. AN AUSTRALIAN OPEN-AIR Snow.

HANDBOOK OF KINE M A TOGRAPH Y. 195

CHAPTER VI.
IN THE OPERATING BOX.

The operating box of a modern picture theatre should be a
substantially built brick chamber provided with fireproof preferably
concrete floor. It must allow sufficient elbow room for the operator
and his assistant to get about freely between the projector or projectors
and winding and film storage benches situate around the sides of the
chamber. The winding bench will, as its name implies, have screwed
to it or otherwise made firm upon it, a film winder, the best kind of
winders being those in which two separate uprights carry respectively
the full and empty spools, thus allowing of a good expanse of film
between the two for purposes of examination while in passage from
the one spool to the other. The same table will also be of sufficient
size for the convenient accommodation of the pile of empty spools
necessary to the conduct of the exhibition, while the full ones will be
kept in one of the specially constructed metal cases, well
away from where hot carbons or limes, in the case of lime-
light may chance to be dropped or thrown.

One half of the second table or bench in the operating room
forms a handy place for the reception of boxes containing song slides,
announcement slides, title slides, etc., while the opposite half of it,
divided off by a ridge, serves for such indispensable tools as electrical
pliers, box containing bioscope spares and renewals, and also for fuse
wire reels. The winding table accommodates the film mender and
mending appliances including scissors, sharp knife, film cement,
brush and duster. Beyond the items already enumerated, place also
has to be found among the tools and spares for lubricating oil and
oilers, cleaning brushes and dusters, and such like necessary odds and
ends of the operating box. But when all these necessaries have been
accounted for, there comes in a further and no less important point
from the view of efficient operating. This is to see that no litter of
unnecessary trifles, beyond those enumerated, or rubbish is allowed
to accumulate on the operating box floor and under the benches.
Numerous shelves are likewise out of place in the operating box,
though it is a very neat plan to have hooks or nails for the accommoda-
tion of such tools as can be readily hung up, instead of allowing them
to lie about when not in use.

A box. or tray for the reception of new and used carbons, both for
the kinematograph and announcement lantern is necessary in the
case of electric shows. This should be fireproof or lined with fireproof
material, and should also be compartmented so as to allow of the
various sizes and descriptions of carbons being got at at a moment's
notice. Red hot stumps will be thrown into the waste compartment.

1 9 6

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR A P H Y

SOME OPERATING BOX REQUISITES.

FIG. 155. METAL FILM SPOOL STORAGE CASE.

I lift,

FIG. 157. SPARE CONDENSER LENSES.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 197

In the case of limelight shows, an old tin into which to throw the used
and cracked limes will answer all practical purposes. All benches
inside the operating box should be composed of, or covered with, fire-
proof material. Latterly the trend of licensing authorities is to
eliminate as far as possible every speck of wood and such like combus-
tible matter from the box equipment, so that where new boxes are
being put up it will probably not only be best, but also cheaper in
the end to be done with makeshifts.

In the case of a lime show, a good place for the cylinders is to have
them tied on to the iron projector stand either that, or they may
be accommodated in proper cylinder stands fixed permanently near
to the lamp house of the projector. With electric shows, the metal
conduit leading the mains into the box goes first to the enclosed
double pole main switch controlling the entire operating box circuit.
From here, the current, after flowing through enclosed main fuses,
placed on either pole, passes on to the variable resistance and the
sub-circuits for incandescent lighting, the latter being branched off
on the live side of the resistance frame. All sub-circuits must be
provided with their own individual switches and double pole fuses.
The conduit leading from the variable resistance (which latter must
be well protected and right out of the way of the celluloid film used in
projection) mounts up the side to the top of the box, where the leads
issue from it, and falls directly to the terminals of the arc. Asbestos
braiding is here a necessity. A similar arrangement of the smaller
leads supplying the announcement lantern completes our projection
current supply.

As to the sub-circuits mentioned above, there may be several,
of which one may control stage lights, footlights and battens, should
these be installed in the electric theatre in connection with incidental
turns, song slide work, lecturing, etc. A further sub-circuit will
control the lights in the auditorium, which go up and down between
the 1 showing of pictures. But here it is necessary to insist that where
the latter arrangement is made, a second hall lighting
circuit be also provided, controlled from the pay box or vestibule.
Sometimes the theatre will be arranged so that the bright lights in
the auditorium are on the operating box circuit, while a dull red glow
from obscured secondary electric bulbs, which are never extinguished,
even during showing, comes straight off the mains independent of
any control, save that in the pay box. The reason for such an arrange-
ment, as also for similar independent illumination of the exit signs,
is to prevent the possibility of the audience being plunged in complete
darkness, which might otherwise happen through an accident in the
box causing the operator to pull his main in a hurry.

Having now roughly sketched the electric system of a picture
theatre from the operator's point of view, we will pass on to consider
matters connected with the art of showing.

Firstly, when film consignments arrive from the renting houses,
it should be insisted that the operator unpacks them outside the

igS HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

SOME OPERATING BOX REQUISITES.

FIG. 158. FILM WINDER (APPROVED PATTERN).

FIG. 159. FUSE WIRE.

FIG. 160. FILM MENDER.

HANDBOOK OF KINEMATOGRAPHY. 199.

operating chamber. The films are too often done up with more or less-
of a litter of odds and ends of paper. Even promiscuous shavings
from short lengths of old and worn out spacing are by no means
always absent. A little of this sort of stuff getting about where a red-
hot carbon stump might conceivably fall might well be the cause of
incalculable damage. Make a rule, therefore, that packing and un-
packing of films are not to be done in the operating chamber.

There is another class of work which should also have a place
assigned to it as far as possible away from the box. This is the class
of job connected with repairing of the projector fittings and of the arc.
Some minor repairs and most adjustments, as also the cleaning of the
projector are inseparable from the operating chamber. Here the best
thing that can be done is to try and see that the one engaged upon the
job uses clean dusters, brushes, etc., and that he shakes them out each
time after use, and well away from the operating room. But when
it comes to the use of the file and such like more daring repairs executed
in the box, the risk to working parts of the mechanism, to say nothing
of risk to the travelling film, through grit getting in the gate, becomes
too serious to be tolerated. A repairing bench should accordingly
be provided for the operator whenever possible right away from
the projection chamber. If this bench is fitted with a few decent
tools, such as tap and dies, small hand drill, small turning lathe, even
of the most meagre description, together with an assortment of files,
pliers, and screwdrivers of reasonably varied sizes and characteristics,
there can be no question a good mechanic will do wonders in the way
of keeping the projector running sweetly and of prolonging its working
life. On the other hand a bad worker will never be able to resist
experimenting with that concerning which he knows nothing. If,,
therefore, your operator or operators are not absolutely up to snuff,
discourage all attempts by them at repairing on the grander scale.
It will pay you better to buy a spare projector right away, so that
you can send the old one off to be refurbished by the makers on the
first signs of approaching senility and decrepitude.

CLEANING THE PROJECTOR.

Next to the glasses of the optical system, the parts of a projector
which require most frequent and most careful cleaning are the gate
mask and gate runners. In the case of a dog machine, the sprockets
of the lower or take-up sprocket wheel are also of the utmost impor-
tance. However, the gate is best left till last when cleaning a projector
throughout, so we will get to work systematically on the machine as
a whole.

The first thing to be seen to will be the lamp house. Remove
the arc or lime jet, and take it with its attendant mess of carbon and
silicate dust, or lime ash, right out of the operating box. Proceed
to dust the lamp house carefully, and without stirring more than
necessary the debris into the air. Remove the cell holding the

200 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

condenser lenses and place on the winding table for cleaning before
returning the illuminant source to its place.

Having now got the lamp house clean we go on to the mechanism.
If this is in a passable state it will be sufficient to first thoroughly
brush the cogs of the gear wheels so as to remove collected dust and
oil blobs. Next oil the wheels with clock oil and turn the mechanism.
Of course, it will be understood that during these cleaning operations
there is no film threaded in the gate. Also it will be wise, at the start
to remove the objective lens from its jacket and place it with the
condenser out of harm's way.

If, on turning the mechanism, it runs smoothly with no shake,
and no jar or ' grind ' in the wheels, then we may leave it at that as
far a the cogs are concerned. If, however, shake or grind manifest
themselves, the thing to do is to wipe off as much as possible of the sur-
plus clock oil and anoint the cogs with vaseline, alternately applying it
and turning the projector handle till it works its way well into them.
This is a wonderful treatment for grind. Careful wiping of the spindles
with liberal oiling of the oil holes in the bushings and subsequent
cleaning up of all surplus which may exude, completes the treatment
of well kept gear wheels. Sprocket wheels are polished up like
door knockers, collected cakes of oil and dust around the sprockets
being first rubbed away by means of the cleaning brush, or by gentle
removal with a paper knife.

Where the gear wheels and pinions show signs of being clogged
with collected muddy-looking cakey matter which condition of things
is pretty constant where the film service is cheap and consequently
the films run old and dirty tnere will be nothing for it but to take out
the screws binding gear wheels and pinions together and remove both
for thorough burnishing and internal oiling.

Take a clean oily rag and thread it through the holes from which
shaftings have been removed for cleaning purposes. Pull the rag
backwards and forwards till the bushing is thoroughly bright and
lubricated. The polished pinion shaft may now be returned to place,
when it should work easily and give no more trouble.

When a machine gets into the condition known as ' running
hard/ and which condition is baffling to many operators, it is really
a sign the time has come for such thorough internal cleaning and
burnishing of bearings.

To clean the gate runners, also the gate and lens tube, usually
entails no more than their removal, dusting and burnishing with a
chamois leather. The rim of the gate mask must be gone over very
carefully to take away all trace of the furred edge which from time
to time gets to show on the projected picture. Gate runners and
springs are of several different models. In some of the older fashioned
and cheaper ones, the two are combined, the runners being in them-
selves flattened spring surfaces. Such are usually referred to as
' bow springs/ Gates fitted with these usually give trouble sooner
or later. A spare back plate with bow springs attacked must always

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APHY. 201

be kept handy with such gates, for when in use the thin steel bows
rapidly wear down and snap. The broken ends are then in condition
to rip off the film perforations till further orders, in other words till
the evil attracts attention, and the new plate and bow springs can be
slipped in place of the old and worn-out set.

Modern forms of gate are fitted with comparatively heavy rigid
polished runners, which serve to keep the film close against the film
mask, these runners or ' skates ' being backed by separate adjustable
tension springs bearing against their outer surfaces. Gate tension may
here be adjusted to suit the requirements of any individual film,
whether it be new or one worn and thin in the perforations. This
system is far better than the old one of bow springs with their unalter-
able tension. Gate runners, however, require careful cleaning, both in
themselves and as to the grooves in which they lie. Otherwise they
may get stiff and fail to transmit to the film the spring tension
behind them.

When cleaning the gate, start by polishing with a duster, Should
any old gelatine from the films have caked upon the film track and be
difficult to remove, it may be scraped off by means of a metal scraper
having a straight semi-sharp edge, and being of not quite the width
of the gate track. A penny will also serve the same purpose in most
cases, its edge, though round, having just about the required amount
of bite upon the gate. Personally, the writer uses neither. He dis-
covered for himself some time ago the advantages of a piece of ordinary
typing eraser. This, besides most thoroughly cleaning the gate and
runners of all suspicion of accumulated film coating, serves at the same
time to burnish the metal, thus making one job of what would otherwise
be two separate operations.

After cleaning the gate, wipe it over with a very slightly oiled rag.
More than a mere suspicion of oil is not permissible.

The dog roller of a dog machine is also very liable to collect about
it waste matter from much used film subjects. This waste material
prevents its rotating freely, and later on it will work into the dog
spindle and spoil the snugness of the bearing, and consequently much
of the steadiness of the machine. With Maltese cross machines, the
intermittent sprocket must be kept equally clean. The oil bath must
also be kept filled, while now and then the old oil should be completely
run off and a new supply substituted.

Occasionally as for instance, when the shaft spindles of projectors
have been removed from their bearings and replaced after cleaning-
it will be found that the synchronisation of the cover position of the
rotary light shutter with the picture change has been interfered with.
Here it will be necessary to re-adjust the covering shutter, except in
those rare cases where this part is non-adjustable. Then the still more
arduous operation of fitting the picture change to the light shutter
becomes inevitable. The former adjustment, however, is by no means
difficult.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

Thread a piece of positive film in the projector gate, as for showing
Now place yourself with the eye looking straight into the projector
lens at the threaded positive film. Turn the projector handle very
slowly until a shift of the film in the gate warns of the excapement
coming into operation, then proceed to set the light-cut-off so that
at the moment this movement of the film starts the cover sector justs
completely covers the lens. Continue turning till the covering sector
of the shutter clears the lens again, and if adjustment has been correctly
made the eye will just miss seeing the last trace of the picture shift
in the same way that it grazed the beginning of the movement. There
are besides this simple method, several mathematical ways of measur-
ing the middle point of the picture shift and setting the cover shutter
accordingly, but in practice the one given above is at least as simple
and also far more certain. One point must be borne in mind. When ad-
justing the light cut-off upon a projector fitted with rackwork masking
to the gate, see first of all that the gate rack is in its central position.
Where the masking of the film is effected by means of a jockey roller
riding upon the film between the gate and escapement, as in some
types of projectors, no precaution as to the mask setting is necessary.

The machine being now well cleaned in all its metal parts, there
only remains to polish the glasses of objective and condenser before
fitting them back in their places. Instructions for cleaning and
replacing the objective elements have already been given earlier in this
part. The condenser lenses are easy enough to replace, since in the
case of triple and Herschel condensers the fittings usually only allow of
the right glass being dropped into the right position, always remem-
bering that the concave side of the meniscus (smaller) lens must be
toward the illuminant.

Piano convex condensers consist of two identical piano convex
lenses, placed in a cell with their flat sides outward. Such condensers
are not much used in kinematography, but where met with the replace-
ment of the glasses after cleaning is easier still, since both being identical
one cannot well go wrong. Selvyt cloth kept scrupulously clean
and for the one purpose only will be found excellent for wiping over
the optical glasses of the projector.

We now come to centring and adjusting the projection light
ready for showing. To do this, first turn on the current into the arc
and strike carbons, or light up the mixed gases and adjust lime, in the
case of limelight. The light source is now to be considered as back once
again in the projector's lamp house. Leave the gate unthreaded. The slid-
ing light cut off, as well as the rotary light shutter, must, further, be out
of the way, so that as soon as correct illumination has been obtained,
it will be seen in the form of an evenly illuminated picture disc upon
the projection screen. Notice at first whether the light beam streaming
through the condenser strikes any part of the gate, or if not, where
it does go ; up, down, or one sided, or both. The object will be to
get the light shining in a neat even pencil just sufficiently large to
cover to the corners of the aperture of the mask, and illuminate the

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APHY. 203

projection disc equally all over. If now the light beam strikes too
high, lower it by raising the illuminant source ; if the light strikes
too low, bring it up by reversing the above process. Similarly, a left hand
turn to the source of illumination will switch the light beam to the
right, and vice versa. Sooner or later we cannot help getting the light,
such as it is, to strike into the gate aperture. But this is not to say
the effect will be right. Perhaps, instead of a compact bundle of rays
about the diameter of a five shilling piece or less, there will be a large
and correspondingly dimly illuminated area widely overlapping the
gate. This will mean that the light source is too near the condenser.
Pull the arc or lime jet bodily backwards as though sliding it out of
the lamp house, and the light pencil will come together till it is as it
should be. On the other hand, the light, on first centring, may show
a curious bluish cruciform effect upon the centre of the gate. Where
this manifests itself, it means the light source is already too far from
the condenser. The remedy is to shift it nearer up by pushing the
lamp bodily forwards further into the lamp house.

Even now, unless the front of the condenser is the right distance
from the gate, the light on the screen will not be even, but will exhibit
a. more or less circular or zonal gradation of colour and brilliance.
Where such effect shows itself, the lamp house itself must be shifted
further back upon its runners, so as to increase the distance between
condenser front and gate mask. From four to six inches is the usual
separation required between the two with a four and a half inch con-
denser, though the individual characteristics of the condenser can
alone determine the matter.

MAKING UP PROGRAMS.

Before a picture program can be exhibited properly and without
long and totally unnecessary gaps between the showing of the various
photo-plays, it is necessary to subject the films to the process known as
' making up.' Making up consists in collecting together the films
comprising the program, into groups of a length such as can be
conveniently accommodated upon the several spools. Not only must
the films be selected into aggregations totalling, say, 1,200 feet in
each, so as to wind on the minimum number of spools, and consequently
show with the minimum number of change intervals, but subjects
must be arranged in such sequence that each one will, by contrast,
help the next as much as possible.

Thus, suppose our film consignment has in it two Wild West
films, each of 600 feet, it would still be very bad making up
to join them together, although by doing so we should get our exact
1,200 feet spool length, for in this case it would mean that two similar
subjects totally devoid of contrast would appear one after the other.
A man who is good at make up understands the value of light and shade
in the picture program. But this is a matter on which more may be
said subsequently.

204

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

FIG. 161. A CORRECTLY CENTRED LIGHT BEAM.

L, light source. CC, the glasses of a Herschel condenser. F,
projector gate, in which is cut a hole of suitable size for the picture
mask. O, objective lens of the projector.

Note how the light beam is here adjusted, and try to centre it
the same in your projector.

FIG. 162.

How WANT OF CENTRING OF
THE LIGHT SHOWS ON THE
SCREEN.

i. Light correctly centred.

2. Light source too much to left.

3. Light source too much to right.

4. Light source too low.

5. Light source too high.

6. Light source too far from con-
denser.

HANDBOOK OF KINE M A TOGRAPH Y.

205

To make up a spool, the film which is to show last upon it is wound
up backwards, and to its latter end is attached about a foot of blank
spacing, either the white, black, or the blue variety. The film is then
rewound right way on to the empty spool. Its title will come
outermost after such winding. Affix to this title a foot of white
blank spacing, and to the other end of it attach the latter end of the
second film, and so on. When the last film the spool will accommodate
has been wound upon it, a further ' threading up ' length of blank
spacing is attached, and the reel is ready for exhibition.

White blank spacing is obtainable from all film renting houses
at a cheap rate. When splitting up the spool, or 'cleaning ' the films
off it for sending back to the renting house, the spacing is removed
and retained for further use in making up the next film program.

To join film for the purpose of mending it or when attaching
spacing, adopt the following routine. Cut an edge to be joined level
with the top of a picture. Cut off the edge to be attached to it about
one quarter of an inch or rather less below the bottom of the- picture
on the end of its length. Lick the portion of the picture last cut
into so as to moisten the gelatine coating. Then lay film down,
gelatine uppermost, and proceed to scrape away the coating from the
licked flap, till clear celluloid only is left.

Dip a camel hair brush into a bottle of film cement and apply
rather freely to the scraped flap, then press this flap down upon the
celluloid side of the length to which it is to be joined. If rightly done
both emulsion sides of film will look the same way. Shift the cemented
flap rapidly into place so that the lowermost sprocket hole of the one
length coincides with the uppermost on the other, and hold the two
thicknesses of celluloid together for a couple of minutes. They will
then be sufficiently stuck to adhere, and ten minutes more will make
a tight joint of them.

A reliable formula for ordinary film cement consists of com-
mercial Acetone and Amyl Acetate in equal parts. In this mixture
allow to dissolve sufficent clean celluloid chips (old cleaned off
film will do) to impart a slight degree of viscosity.

FORMULA FOR CEMENT FOR NON-FLAM FILM. Dissolve non-flam
film base in chloroform till a viscous liquid results. Use in the same
manner as ordinary cement, but bearing in mind that it evaporates
quicker, so leaving less time for effecting registration of the sprocket
holes.

Where the operator's skill in film joining is not too great, he may
press in the services of a film mender. This inexpensive little acces-
sory accomplishes the task of correctly superposing the sprocket holes
upon the two lengths to be joined, and holding all in position till dry.
It is a neat device but not necessary, and certainly not time saving,
in comparison with the hand mending of a good operator.

Film breakages are doctored by cutting out the portion of celluloid
which has been damaged and connecting together the nearest perfect
pictures, in the foregoing way.

2<)6 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

PUTTING THROUGH.

This is the actual thing the projection of the kinematograph
picture itself. It is set about in the following way.

To load the upper spool box, open the door and place the ready
made-up spool in position upon the central bobbin. Pass the film
end through the slit between the spool box feed rollers. If projecting
upon an opaque screen, which is now the almost universal practice,
the emulsion side of the film must unwind towards the condenser.
If it does not, it means that the spool has to be taken out and reversed,
the inner side becoming outermost, and vice versa.

Pull down about three feet of film, which corresponds with the
thread-up length, and close the spool box door after making sure that
everything is running normally inside. Snap down the jockey roller
from the upper feed sprocket, pass film between jockey and sprocket
then snap jockey up into place again. The film between film box
and upper sprocket wheel should be left fairly tight, that is
to say, without any slack lopping over the lens and light shutter.
Now open the gate and pass the film end into it, leaving
about a six inch free loop between the gate top and upper
sprocket feed. Pull the film well into its place in the gate track
so that it lies both flat and even, and proceed to snap the runner plate
into place. Try the film by pulling slightly on the film loop at top
of gate. It should slip evenly, but with a gentle friction as the result
of the pressure of the runners upon its edges.

Feed the film, which now lies free below the gate, over the jockey
roller of the masking adjustment, if the machine is one of this kind, and
round the dog of a dog machine or over the sprockets of the intermittent
sprocket wheel in the case of a Maltese cross projector. The film next
passes over the take-up or bottom sprocket in the same way as it was
led over the top one, and from thence goes to the take-up spool (empty)
within the bottom spool box. This take-up spool will have affixed
to its hub a spring arrangement for gripping the film end. Wind the
mechanism of the projector sufficiently to cause the take-up to pick
up one complete turn of film. This ensures that nothing will fail
to act, and with it threading is accomplished.

Adjustment of the light is presumed to have been made as des-
cribed earlier in this chapter. There is still the adjustment of the
gate mask, which has to be made before showing each picture. Make
it thus.

FOR RACKWORK GATE.

The shutter of the sliding light cut-off should have a very small pin
hole pierced centrally in it. This will pass an equally small light pencil,
almost devoid of heat and therefore harmless to the film. With this
arrangement it will be possible to look through the lens and see for
oneself if the masking is right, the sliding light shutter meanwhile
remaining closed. Adjust the mask and everything will be ready for
throwing the light cut-off out of the way and starting projection.

HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGRAPH Y. 207

Another way of going to work is this : Paint the inside of the oper-
ating box safety shutter white, when it will be found that the pictures
to be projected on the screen may be seen fairly distinctly upon this
whitened dropped shutter flap as the result of the narrow pencil of
light streaming through the pinhole of the closed light cut-off in
front of the condenser. Such light would, however, not be sufficient
to cause any visible image upon the comparatively distant projection
screen. The image on the shutter is used to adjust the mask and also
for centring the light, after which the shutter may be drawn up, the
light cut-off opened, and projection proceed.

FIXED GATE WITH JOCKEY ROLLER ADJUSTMENT FOR MASKING.

The difficulty of masking is here much greater, since with this
system no adjustment is possible until the projector mechanism is
actually at work. The best way is to start the projector slowly with
sliding perforated light cut-off closed, and with the operating box
shutter down. As an alternative to using the box shutter, the assistant
operator may hold a white card well in front of the lens. While the
projector is thus running dead slow, the jockey roller masking device
may be brought into operation until adjustment is seen to be effected.
The light cut-off is then opened, the card or shutter withdrawn from
the track of the light beam, and projection proceeds as usual. It
will be seen that masking in this way with short titles, there is the
danger of their being lost. This may be overcome by joining to the
front of such titles, other scrap film bearing an image or imprint of
some sort and having the same masking. Adjustment is made upon
the latter, and afterwards the cut-off is drawn out, and projection
proceeds upon the title proper.

DANGERS TO BE GUARDED AGAINST IN OPERATING.

Breakage of film, either through burst perforations, fault in the
celluloid base, wear, or bad film joining, is bound to occur more or
less often. Where such breakages take place in the gate, the film may
stop dead in the track of the light beam. If the operator is not on
the look-out to close the light cut-off instantly, the celluloid will
certainly, under such circumstances, fire. Such firing should not
spread if the gate is well designed. Still, the very fact of possible
combustion of any part of the highly inflammable film is enough to
warn the operator before-hand to be on the constant look-out all the
while the film is going through.

After a break, and when the light has been cut off, the thing to
do is to open the gate quickly, wind down enough film to carry it
over the escapement, and proceed to pin the free end to the broken one
for the purposes of taking up. Projection may then go on as before.
Do not use large pins for the purpose, and try not to do more injury
than necessary to the broken film ends. Every picture that can be
saved on the edges of a break is so much more film length, with its
representation of incident preserved.

208

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APH Y.

Occasionally, portions of film perforations will split and stick
in the gate in the middle of projecting. If such splinters do not spoil
the effect of the picture on the screen, one need not stop till the end
of the picture, since the moving celluloid between them and the light
source acts as an effective cut-off to the heat rays. It is well, however,
to increase the speed of projection considerably the moment any
splinters make their appearance and to keep it up till the subject is
over, when, of course, the light cut-off is at once thrown in, and the
gate opened and cleaned.

SPOOLING SINGLE FILMS FOR PROJECTION.

Single films are sometimes required to be exhibited in a hurry
and without winding previously on a regular film spool. In such
cases, it is usual to spool the film on a split spool, but when wound
tightly in the first place the hole in the centre of the wound film may not
be sufficiently large to admit of the hub of the split spool going through.
In such a case, which is figured in Fig. 163 C, the opening can be en-
larged in the following manner. Take hold of the roll with the left
hand as shown at D, Fig. 164, and then place the fore-finger of the

FIG. 163.

right hand in the centre of the roll, as shown. The roll may then be
drawn out horizontally, forming a cone shaped mass, as indicated at
F. Now grip with both hands, turning the left hand in the direction
indicated by the arrow at A, and the right hand in the direction indi-
cated by the arrow at B. If the larger end of the roll at A is allowed
to slip through the fingers whilst the right hand forces the film from
right to left, as shown by the arrow B, then it will be found that the
roll is gradually increasing in size, and that the opening in the centre
becomes enlarged, as shown in Fig. 165.

JOINING FILMS.

Film ends are joined together by first cleaning the extremities
as shown in Fig. 166, and then cementing the one on the other withfil m
cement. The accompanying detailed and illustrated description
may be of service to the novice.

Cut one end at the junction of the pictures, and the end of the
film to be joined thereto three-sixteenths of an inch from the junction
of the first picture. Take a rule as at C, Fig. 167, and place it over the
film last mentioned, with the edge of the rule in such a position that
a penknife E may be taken, and the gelatine scraped away, in a straight

HANDBOOK OF K I NE MA TOGR A PH Y.

209

line across the film in the direction of the arrow. There will now be
a clear space of celluloid surface at A, Fig. 168. Now wet the fore-

about three-sixteenths of an
inch. Having cleaned and
prepared the film, as shown
in Fig. 169, cement is ap-
plied to the cleaned surface,
the second film laid upon it
with the sprocket holes in
register, and the whole
pressed together or put
under pressure in a film
mender till a strong join is
effected, Fig. 170. It should
be noticed that the film

FIG. 1 66.

finger and moisten the
remaining gelatine B. After
a few seconds, this strip
may be pulled from the
celluloid support, so that

there will be a piece of clear , -^

and clean celluloid at the ''
end of the film measuring

FIG. 167.

FIG. 169.

FIG. 170. THE FILM IN THE MENDER.

HANDBOOK OF K INE MA TOGR APR Y.

cut at the junction of the last picture is laid celluloid uppermost upon
the film with the clear space extending, and the gelatine side upwards^
as indicated in the cut. The gelatine, however, has been removed
from this part, as already described.

Failing of the take-up is a very real danger to be faced when
operating. This danger is, moreover, greatly increased by the neces-
sity of using a lower as well as an upper spool box in compliance
with Home Office regulations. If the film begins to pay out on the
floor there is always a risk of its becoming ignited by a stray spark
or red hot particle from the light source. An assistant in the box to
rectify such a condition of things as sticking of the take-up spool by
if necessary completing the winding by hand, is a very wise precau-
tionary measure. If there is no second person handy when the take-up
fails, then the operator must manage to hand wind and attend to the
other parts of projection at the same time, and as best he can. It
is at such moments as this that masking is liable to go wrong, and indeed
such a reason should be about the only valid excuse for it doing so
and remaining out of adjustment for any length of time. After the
show,, a faulty take-up is adjusted by tightening or renewing the
spring clutch.

ORDERLY SHOWING.

The moment a film subject is concluded, the lights in the audito-
rium should be switched up, so that the audience may consult the
program as to the synopsis of the next motion picture story. Mean-
while, the masking of the forthcoming title is adjusted and the illu-
minant looked to. When all this is satisfactorily managed, the
auditorium lights once more go down, the light cut-off of the projector
is opened, and projection proceeds again.

As the spool of film becomes nearly exhausted, the attendant's
business is to fetch a new one ready for instant threading and to open
the film box doors. The moment the last subject on the spool comes
to its end and the cut-off is thrown in, the auditorium lights go up
and the operator quickly whisks the empty top spool from its place,
and replaces it with the new full one, proceeding to thread up without
delay. Meanwhile, the assistant removes the loaded take-up and
transfers it to the dead arm of the rewinder, returning immediately
to place the empty reel from the top box in position in the lower spool
box, where it will now act as the new take-up spool.

While the operator completes threading, the assistant may com-
mence rewinding the former spool on the rewinder, or he may stand
by the projector holding the adjustment card in front of the lens,
etc., until the signal is given for the auditorium lights once more to
go down, and projection of the second spool commences.

It is possible for an operator to do all the above single-handed,
but in such cases the light and masking of the projected image usually
suffer while his back is turned attending to the rewinding of films
for the next show. The latter remark refers only to motor-driven
shows, which only lend themselves to one man control.

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR AP H Y. 211

MOTOR DRIVEN PROJECTORS.

Many projectors are now motor instead of hand driven. Motors
for such a purpose are almost invariably of the direct current type,
developing a horse power of from the one sixteenth to the one sixth,
and being of the shunt type, in which the speed is variable and controlled

FIG. 171. BUTCHER'S MOTOR FOR DRIVING PROJECTOR.

by a multiple point rheostat, or shunt regulator. Fig. 171 gives the
method of connecting such a motor with the electric supply taken
as a sub-circuit off the dead end of the main operating box switch.
To start up motor, put in switch and turn rheostat handle till the
required speed is attained. The rheostat is conveniently bolted to
the side or end of the projector stand, so as to be controlled by means
of the left hand while masking and other adjstments are made with
the right.

FIG. 172. A ROOMY CONTINENTAL OPERATING Box.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR AP H Y.

FIG. 173. UP-TO-DATE KINEMATOGRAPH THEATRE IN NEW ZEALAND.

FIG. 174. AN AUSTRALIAN TOURING COMPANY.

PART IU.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRPA H Y. 215

PART III.

CHAPTER I.
ON ACTING BEFORE THE KINEMATOGRAPH.

MR. HENRY MORRELL, OF His MAJESTY'S THEATRE, HAYMARKET.
(Sir Herbert Beerbohm Trees Company.)

The more I have thought the more I have tried to give you
something intelligible on the subject of acting before the kinemato-
graph the more conscious have I become of the difficulty of my
task.

I could not write a chapter on how to act ! A book would not
teach a man that. I may be able to write a few remarks on how to
adapt stage acting to the requirements of the camera, though much
of what I say on this head seems after all only what would occur to
an actor of experience as readily as the way to remove ink-stains would
suggest itself to an experienced chemist. But how to give help to
the promising novice, that is the real difficulty I am now to try and
face.

So many books have been published on " How to become an
actor," " How to comport oneself like a gentleman on the stage "
(id.), etc., etc., that I feel rather guilty lest anything written by me
may seem like an attempt to add to the number. Let it be hoped
that in what follows I shall come rather nearer than that in my effort
to be of use to the would-be dumb show artist. And with this I will
pass on to the subject in hand.

It has always been a matter of regret amongst men and women
engaged upon such evanescent acts as singing, playing upon the piano,
or the violin, and acting on the stage, that the results of years of
patient and close application should be destined to perish at the very
moment of their birth.

True, an impression may live in the memory, but in being handed
down it becomes considerably changed, for better or worse, until at
length a very hazy and imperfect idea remains of what originally was.

2i6 HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGRAPH Y.

And this is not to the artist, at all events, a very satisfactory state of
affairs. The image which we conjure up of the past is the product
of a number of psychic factors. It results in part from the impressions
we receive from those to whom we have listened, or whose writings
we have read.

But these impressions, we must remember, bear a stamp of the
individuality of the person through whom they have come. They
represent only his personal view ; so that, however good the writer,
he offers an incomplete picture of his subject, limited by the stand-
point from which he has seen it. Limited, that is, by the bias of his
own taste and judgment. One has but to compare a criticism of a
play with one's own impressions upon seeing it, to realise how great
this difference can sometimes be. So, I am sure, it is with our idea
of the great actors of the past.

FUTURE POSSIBILITIES TO THE ACTOR.

If it were possible to see Edmund Keen or David Garrick, we
should probably find them vastly different from what we had imagined.
Not that I think we should be disappointed. I firmly believe
those elements in their work of perennial human interest, the depth
and sincerity of their passion, the truth of their emotion, would be
as moving as ever.

But we might find some difficulty in dissociating them from the
style in which they would be presented. Unhappily, that IF is an
infinitely large one. To our eyes, the panorama of the past is hidden.
We shall never see it. But posterity is destined to be more fortunate.
The kinematograph will bring the past before it, and it will be able
to look back, across centuries, maybe, to the distant present.

It will be able to judge with its own eyes of the past ... of

the great actors of to-day though still somewhat imperfectly

perhaps, for that elusive element in a man's success his personality
makes no appeal ;rom the photographic screen.

But that may come.

One could assign no limit to human ingenuity in face of the
progress of science during the past sixty years.

Well, here is comfort for the neglected genius whom the world
to-day refuses to recognise. He can appeal to the wider jury of
time if he is lucky enough, that is.

This is our aspect of kinematography, of interest to the actor.
But I am not sure it is of so much interest to the film makers.

The latter, whilst appreciating the actor's desire to be alive
a hundred years hence, might well wonder in what way the returns
then are going to benefit him to-day. And there is still this difficulty
for those who desire to go down to posterity : They must be suffi-
ciently popular to pay for their taking.

But there is another side : The art of acting applied to the kine-
matograph. Here is a field in which actor and film maker are interested
equally.

HANDBOOK OF KINE M A TOGRAPH Y. 217

The kinematograph as a form of entertainment has come to stay.
It offers so many possibilities at once amusing and instructive that
its future is, without doubt, in every way assured. And perhaps its
most popular appeal is with the kinematograph play. So great is
the demand for this now, one . might safely say there is not
an hour of the day or night, but that somewhere dozens of comedies or
dramas, farces, melodramas and plays are being exhibited upon the
screen.

With its growing popularity, more and more attention will be
concentrated upon its various factors, and one in particular, the
question of adapting stage acting to the requirements of the camera,
must come in for especial consideration.

Now, in order to gain a clear notion of kinematograph acting,
it will be best, perhaps, to make an analysis of the methods of stage
acting, and observe in what respect thay need adapting to the require-
ments of the camera.

We have on the stage three modes of expression, viz.:

1. Voice,

2. Gesture,

3. Facial expression.

Action, which is a combination of these, is the medium with which
the actor works. Of these modes of expression, by far the most impor-
tant is the voice. Indeed, this organ is capable of infinite expression,
for not only does it convey in words a definite train of ideas to the
minds of the audience and so, by a psychic process on their part, make
its appeal but by proper modulation it can be made to express every
emotion that we are capable of feeling. And this to a degree which
depends upon the actor's genius.

A line which to all appearances might be quite commonplace,
suddenly becomes electrified by the personality of the man or woman
whose whole being vibrates in the expression given to the words.
Since, then, in kinematograph acting, we are deprived of the use of
the voice, every other available means of expression must be used
in an enhanced degree to make up for the loss. We must convey
through gesture and facial expression the whole movement of the play.
This is by no means an easy business. Indeed, it is a high tribute
to an actor to have succeeded in holding an audience for any length
of time by the sole use of pantomime.

GESTURES.

In the old days, both in England and on the Continent, gesture
was recognised as an exceedingly important factor of expression,
and it received accordingly a good deal of attention. Those were
the days of Drama, Melodrama, and Farce. Many so-called authorities
however, approached their subject from anything but a scientific
point of view, with the result that much that was accepted as good
gesture was in reality clumsy and artificial.

.2i8 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

It was left to M. del Santo to found the school which to-day
enjoys universal acceptance.

This man was a pioneer in the science of psychology, and his.
methods are founded upon accurate observations and extensive experi-
ment. They can be used in every type of play it is merely a question
of adjusting breadth to circumstance.

In modern plays the gesture is obviously somewhat curtailed in
England, at all events, because it is not in the nature of Englishman to
use much gesture. In the classic play, on the other hand, gesture
plays a more important part, and finally, in the kinematograph play,,
it has the chief part.

The kinematograph actor will need, therefore, to be above all
things, an accomplished pantomimist. He will also need to have a
very expressive face. There will then remain only the circumstance
of adapting his skill to the requirements of the picture screen.

THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE KINEMATOGRAPH.

Now in acting before the kinematograph, there are one or two-
important points to be borne in mind. In the first place, it must
be remembered that although the photographic plate is, under certain
conditions, a perfect rendering medium, the swiftness of movement
and general defects attendant upon the reproduction of living pictures,
render the latter more or less insensitive to minute detail.

For this reason it would be a mistake to strive for subtlety of
effect. Even on the stage, and especially in large theatres, much of
the actor's finest work is lost to the audience. So much that can be
conveyed in a look or compressed into a whisper is lost immediately
these are exaggerated to carry to distant parts of the house. Now,,
in acting before the kinematograph, all this applies very much more.
It is therefore necessary to adopt a style which shall be impressionistic
rather than otherwise ; a style wherein effects are obtained by methods
at once broad, deliberate and incisive. One should, besides, act a
little more slowly than on the stage ; this gives the film a better
chance of taking the impression. On being reproduced, it can be
quickened again to whatever speed is required.

Besides the actor, the playright is called upon to adapt his act,.
for the dramatic possibilities of the kinematograph plot are limited
by the resources of the camera. A play that is built up of intuitions
requiring a lot of words to interpret them is out of its element on the
picture screen.

Each situation should carry no more words than are necessary to
suggest the pantomime that will convey the dramatic movement
of the scene.

The subject should be preferably of the strong and gripping order.
This will stir up the audience to a high degree of interest that will
carry them over any moments that might not be quite clear to them
in meaning.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APR Y. 219

The chief point to remember then, is to write for pantomime,
and in producing to point out to the actors the spirit to be conveyed ;
to pick out, as it were, the essential idea, and interpret it in panto-
mime, all other language being merely incidental and of no vital
interest to the story.

This is the ideal form of kinematograph play. Often, of course,
a certain interest prompts a film maker to photograph a stage play,
when the scenes most full of movement are usually chosen, but this
is not by any means a satisfactory kind of entertainment on the
kinematograph. The play was intended for stage representation,
and its general movement to be interpreted with the aid of the voice,
what gestures there would be being accidental or accessory, rather
than playing the vital part in the general interpretation of the drama-
tist's work.

Nor is it easy, nor satisfactory, except in those cases where the
subject lends itself especially well, to adapt this style of play to the
kinematograph. Rather does it require a special play the pantomime
play written for the kinematograph stage.

Of late an attempt has been made to use the gramophone in
conjunction with living pictures, but without results that are quite
satisfactory. In time, however, there is no doubt this question will
be solved. Then matters will be a good deal simplified, but at present,
the kinematograph actor must be a master pantomimist, and the writer
of kinematograph plays must write for pantomime.

FIG. 175. CURIOUS ACTORS FOR THE KINEMATOGRAPH.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR A P H Y.

CHAPTER II.

PLAYING TO PICTURES AND EFFECTS.

BY A. E. TAYLOR.

Whilst it has been repeatedly said that it is the pictures the people
come to see, it must always be borne in mind that the electric theatre
patrons like their pictures not neat, but diluted with a little music.

This corollary to the pictures may be of two kinds, instrumental,
that is to say, pianistic, or orchestral, by means of a band or orches-
matic orchestrion. There are, however, at the present time, very
few theatres employing orchestras.

Where a piano is used, it is advisable to sink the instrument in
a well close to the picture. Have the player sit where the screen
is clearly visible, but if a piano light has to be used, be sure it does
not shine into the eyes of those in the front rows. If your house is
semi-lighted, the piano light will not be needed.

Do not expect your pianist, however clever he may be, to make
good music with a poor piano. A second hand instrument in good
condition from a reputable maker is greatly to be preferred to the
gaudy new fraud that is made up solely to sell. A baby grand takes
up a lot of room compared with an -upright, but it yields a splendid
return. An organ can be used with good effect, either in combination
or by itself.

Pictures can, of course, be played to by an orchestra, but to do
so properly, it is necessary to have the very best talent. It is an
impossibility to gain results by engaging inferior talent. As a rule,
the majority of managers take the responsibility on their shoulders
of engaging musicians and the chances are that not one in fifty has the
least conception of what is required.

Where an orchestra is to be employed, always leave the choice
of musicians to the leader. If he is capable of leading an orchestra,
most assuredly he is capable of selecting his musicians. The whole
responsibility is on his shoulders of having the music rendered in the
proper manner. If he has an inferior class of performer who only
murders the music, he is the one who is ridiculed.

But no matter what form of music you employ, you will find that
motion pictures cannot be played without a proper repertoire of
incidental music. This class of music is an absolute necessity, and
can be used for any situation. There is, for example, hurry music
of every description that can be used for fights, Indian attacks, duels,
sword fights, etc. Sentimental music for death scenes, despair,

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APH Y. 221

sadness, meditation, and special music for military, comic, love,
exotic, racing, and the hundred other scenes too numerous to
mention.

And what sounds more encouraging to a manager than to hear
his patrons complimenting him on the fine orchestra or the capable
pianist he maintains, and the excellent manner the pictures are played.
When the public begins to talk in this way, you may rest assured
that you are giving satisfaction, and satisfaction is what brings your
profits each week.

Then too there are now the singing pictures, which employ what
are commonly designated talking machines, and which require a con-
stant supply of discs to supply the words and music for the songs
and operas illustrated. No picture theatre can be said to be tho-
roughly equipped that does not possess one of these mechanical
sound producers. In many places it is found wise to introduce one
or two vocal or instrumental solos, but the practice should only be
adopted by the manager who is able to afford really good talent.
Fifth or sixth rate variety turns do more harm than good, but real
concert artistes lend tone to a picture theatre, as ha's been proved
over and over again at the shows run by Mr. T. J. West, Mr. Dove
Paterson, and other leading entrepreneurs.

There is, of course, a variety of choice for the musician to draw
upon, but up to the present there has been no real attempt on the
part of music publishers in this country to collate in one or more
volumes a selection of music which would meet the requirements of
picture players. In America, however, much has been done in this
way, and there the latest acquisition to the music market is a volume
containing over one hundred numbers oi descriptive music used in
the presentation of motion pictures, Prof Gregg Frelinger being the
composer. There is also a specially written volume of music for
cinemas by M. Smyth of Paris. The music is especially selected and
can be adapted to any scene shown in motion pictures. The numbers
range from comic to sad, and changes in the rendition are unnoticeable,
harmony prevailing throughout. Characters and scenes alike are
represented in the volume. Some of the characters and scenes des-
cribed in notes and bars by the composer are an aged coloured man,
aged persons, antique dance, powwows, religious scenes, reminiscences,
repose, sneaky music, spectral music, soldiers in camp, weird panto-
mime, drum and fife imitation, and many others.

For effects, such as the clattering of horses' hoofs, the noise of
falling or running water, smashing of crockery, railway trains, and
the thousand and one things seen on the screen, there are all kinds
of appliances and effects machines, and the proprietor who wishes
to make the silent drama as realistic as possible, must invest in one
or other of these.

Music for kinematograph shows is somewhat outside the purlieus
of this book, and space will not allow full justice to be done here to
the subject. Readers desiring full information on this important

222 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

adjunct to the picture show should obtain " Playing to Pictures,"
by W. Tyacke George, and produced by the same publishers as this
book. Here will be found sections on the Musician, Music Arrange-
ments, Classifying the Picture, Music to Prevent Panics, The Art of
Improvising, How to Produce Effects, Music Licenses and How to
Obtain Them, Musicians' Salaries, How to Choose a Piano, Small
Bands, Making up Programs, Musical Copyright, List of Music Pub-
lishers, List of Specially Written Music, A Suggested List of Appro-
priate Music, List of Popular Songs, etc., etc.

We have recently seen in Paris a new type of instrument for
producing every conceivable sound in the most realistic manner and
when performed upon by an experienced man in conjunction with the
pictures it seems impossible to believe that it is not the actual thing
we are viewing. It is worked with a keyboard and is electrically
driven and controlled. Over 300 various sounds have been produced
by it.

FIG. 176. A WELL PACKED AUDITORIUM

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR AP H Y.

223

CHAPTER III.
THE STILL SLIDE.

Although the bulk of projection in the modern cinema theatre
consists in showing moving pictures, yet there is a certain amount
of still projection which gives relief to the eyes and variety to the
program.

Still slides shown in the electric theatre consist of titles photo-
graphic and non-photographic, illustrated song slides, and topical
slides illustrating local events.

TITLE SLIDES (NON-PHOTOGRAPHIC).

The usual hurriedly prepared title or announcement showing on
the projection screen in thin, somewhat ragged lines upon a black, or
reddish ground, is made thus :

A photographic lantern plate of the ' slow ' or ' gaslight ' variety
is withdrawn from its box without any precautions against light fogging,
since it is not going to be employed in its photographic capacity. A
needle is stuck through a cork so that only about quarter of an inch
of its point projects. With this needle held almost vertical the neces-
sary wording is scratched upon the emulsion side of the lantern plate.

The above procedure, though
producing slides of a distinctly
home-made appearance, has the
merit of being within the reach
of operators possessing neither
photographic nor artistic skill.
At the same time, where the pro-
ducer is more or less of a
draughtsman, the following way
of making announcement slides
will be found far preferable.

METHOD 2. In this case,
start with a plain piece of glass
of the regulation size (3^ by 3^
inches). The materials required
for putting on to it the announce-
ment consist of a good medium sized camel hair or sable brush and
a bottle of ' photographic stopping out medium.' The Vanguard
Company's ' Photopake ' is a very good medium for such work.

Apply it by means of the brush and it will be easy thus to
produce the necessary wording upon the glass in dead black opaque
characters. When the announcement is painted and dry back it
with a piece of tinted glass red, green, or blue such as is obtainable

FIG. 177. A TYPICAL " SCRATCHED IN
ANNOUNCKMENT SLIDE.

224 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR A P H Y.

at any glazier's, and bind the two together around the edge by means
of binding strips, after the manner of an ordinary lantern slide.

PHOTOGRAPHIC TITLES.

The title slide used for projection purposes is in this case
a photograph from an original, which original may take the
form of a title card neatly printed in black on white at the nearest
printer's. If the projected title or announcement is also to show
black on a white or tinted ground, then the procedure is to photograph
it in the ordinary way and proceed to print a positive lantern plate
off the resulting negative, also by means of photography. If, on the
other hand, the title or announcement is to have white letters on a
black background start from the ordinary black or white printed
original just the same, but use the negative itself for projection. Often
such a negative as photographed direct from a printed title card
will show inordinate weakness of contrast between what should be
the white and the black parts. In that case, it should be intensified
by means of the copper-silver intensifier after fixing and washing.

TOPICAL SLIDES OF LOCAL EVENTS.

The making of these is by no means difficult, nor does it call for
any great skill in photography. Also, the first attempts on the part
of the operator to master the rudiments of the art can be made
best and cheapest upon the production of topical lantern slides. If
successful, these same attempts may then prove the thin end of the
wedge towards mastering the much more difficult management of
the motion picture camera.

The apparatus required to start snap-shotting consists, first of
all, of a small quarter-plate hand camera. Such may be bought
for anything from about 55. upwards. Besides this, we shall require
the following sundries : Packet of quarter plates, (ordinary brand),
packet lantern plates, developing dish, printing frame, dark room light,
photographic measure, jug of water for washing, one bottle (or packet)
developer, one pound * hypo ' for fixing. The whole of the above
will cost about another 55. Thus, los. is the amount which must be
speculated if we are to try our hands at topical still view work.

TAKING THE NEGATIVE. Having loaded the camera with negative
plates, which loading must be done only by the light of the dark
room lamp, it is taken out into the open, the lens pointed at
the object to be photographed, and the knob controlling the shutter
pressed. Provided the light is good at the time (sunlight), and that
the camera is held steady, a photographic record should be made on
the foremost plate in the camera's magazine. This plate will, however,
require to be developed to make the record visible. Take the camera
back to the darkroom, remove the exposed plate, place it in the
developing dish and flow on the developer. After a short while the
invisible ' latent ' image will come out. Fixing and washing complete
the photographic operations.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y. 225

MAKING THE LANTERN SLIDE.

After the negative has dried by itself (which will take about
eight to twelve hours), place it in the printing frame in the dark room
and put behind it one of the lantern plates out of its box. Expose
the two in contact to light according to directions supplied with the
lantern plates, and develop the latter in the same way as the negative
was developed. When the lantern plate is dry it has a mask placed
over the edges and parts which are not required to show on
projection. This mask takes the form of a piece of black paper,
with a hole either circular, oblong, or lozenge-shaped in it.
The slide is spotted upon this mask, and finally a plain piece
of glass, known as a cover glass and of the same size as
the lantern plate, is bound over the emulsion side in the well-known
manner by means of gummed paper strips stuck round the edge.
More detailed instructions in the making of lantern slides by photo-
graphy may be found in any beginner's handbook of the still picture
camera. Those capable of using their own judgment and of adapting
methods to their needs, will also find all they want only given in
its relation to motion picture making in the first part of this volume.

SPOTTING LANTERN SLIDES.

This matter, although very trifling from the point of view of trouble
.involved in carrying it out, is of absolute importance to the
exhibition of all still view slides, whether announcements, title, or
otherwise. The word " spotting " means in this case the actual provision
of a white paper spot or patch which must be stuck inside the cover
glass or on the mask before binding the slide up. This spot must be
so placed as to be visible on one side of the slide only, and in such a
position that when the slide is in its carrier with the white spot in the
bottom left hand corner on the side away from the screen, projection
will be right way round and right way up.

Where the spotting of a lantern slide is omitted, there is always
even with the best operators an element of uncertainty as to the
projection being correct as regards way up and way round.

FORMULA OF THE COPPER BROMIDE (Copper-silver) INTENSIFY-
ING BATH. This bath was mentioned earlier in the chapter as the one
for increasing contrast in black and white titles. Its formula is here
appended.

Solution i. Copper sulphate ... 100 grains

Potassium bromide 100 grains.

Hot water 2 oz.

Dissolve the chemicals separately each in half the water, mix,
and allow to cool. Then bathe the negative in the mixture till it is
bleached white. Wash quickly and transfer to

Solution 2. Silver nitrate ... 45 grains.

Distilled water i oz.

226 HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGRAPH Y.

In this second solution, the original black parts of the negative
should darken again and become very dense, while where the veil
over the clearer parts was not pronounced, it will lift completely away.

Wash well and dry.

ILLUSTRATED SONG SLIDES.

Most of these are supplied ready made and coloured by the various
firms dealing in picture and variety show music. At the same time,
there may be occasions where a local effect introduced here and there
will add greatly to the point of a song. A certain song now being
issued, with slides for the picture theatre has a refrain introducing
the catch words ' Beautiful Devonshire/ Obviously, when singing
this in another county the name of that county would have to be
substituted. But if also, a slide of some local scene were introduced
upon the screen from time to time, interspersed with the regular illus-
trated slides, the local colour would undoubtedly become far more
convincing. For such local scenic lantern slides the nearest profes-
sional photographer may be found a satisfactory source of supply,
or where the operator is handy at snap-shotting he can turn out the
necessary for himself. In the case of utilising posed figures to heighten
the effect of the song the matter becomes considerably more intricate.
Not only shall we have to find suitable models for the work, but also
we must evolve pleasing poses wherein to arrange them. This is by
no means an easy matter, though where the best is to be made of a
fair to medium model one can often gain a considerable advantage
from what is known as front lighting. By this is meant not that the
light is arranged to strike towards the front of the model from behind
the camera, but that the light source is itself in front of the lens. In
such a case the faces of those posing before the camera will be more or
less in complete shadow, while in the case of female models very pretty
effects of light playing through the hair may be obtained, and these
often go a long way towards success in the general impression left
upon the audience.

Song slides are usually coloured, this being invariably done by
hand. For colouring them solutions of the aniline dyes are used,
and these are applied by means of ordinary paint brushes. Where
the surface of the gelatine of the finished lantern slide shows a tendency
to repel the dye or to absorb it unevenly a drop or two of prepared
ox gall, obtainable from the artists' colourman, will put things right.
Keep the first washes of dye well on the light side, also
select good large areas for their application. Sea, sky, banks of foliage
and such like should first be coloured lightly. After this, more con-
centrated colour is applied to the smaller objects in order of their
brightness. Where very brilliant flowers, jewels, or other small and
gaudily tinted things come into the view they may be touched up
with transparent oil colour, obtainable from the larger dealers
in artists' materials, and selected especially for the purpose in hand.
Needless to say, no oil colour should be applied to the gelatine till

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y. 227

after it has got bone dry again following the application of any watery
dye previously used for tinting.

DISSOLVING VIEWS.

Song slides undoubtedly gain much from being shown as dis-
solving views. Dissolving view work necessitates the installation in
the operating box of a special ' biunal optical lantern.' This is quite
distinct from the moving picture projector. In fact, with such a
biunal lantern installed in the box the usual shift-over lantern slide
showing attachment of the projector is not needed.

A biunal lantern consists of two still view projection lanterns
mounted one over the other with their lenses so tilted on their axes
that the projection discs cast by each superpose on the lantern screen.
The light sources (two in number, one for each optical system of the
biunal) are so arranged that turning on illumination in one lantern
simultaneously (or nearly simultaneously) turns it off from the other.
In the case of limelight biunals this effect is gained by the
turning of oxygen into one mixed jet and off from the other, while
with electric biunals it is best to leave both the actual light sources
on all the while and operate the dissolving effect through the inter-
position of iris diaphragms fitted on either objective, and so con-
nected that the opening of one iris closes the other.

To dissolve one view into the next by means of the biunal lantern
place the two slides in position in front of the two condensers in their
respective carriers. Show the first one. Then at the moment
for change turn off the light beam from the one showing, and
turn on the other. Such is the operation of working the dissolv-
ing view lantern in its simplest form. As an outcome of this
same system, and by means of careful centring of the projected
discs of light, coupled with equally careful centring of the slides
in special wooden holders, it is moreover possible to conjure into
effect the many startling optical metamorphoses common in the
old-fashioned still view displays of the better sort. For instance,
a certain cathedral is shown on the screen. While the audience
watches the windows become lighted up from within, etc. Triple
lanterns consisting of a combination of the biunal with yet a third
optical system have, in the past, also had their vogue, the advantage
with them being the possibility of still more daring optical meta-
morphoses than those of the sort before mentioned.

A very good way of showing song slides in the single lantern
with partial dissolving (or rather curtain) effect, is by means of what
is known as the Davenport carrier. With this carrier a curtain rolling
up and down covers the face of each slide at the moment when it is
being changed for another, the whole idea being very like the covering
of the kinematograph film picture during picture change. The only
drawback if it can be called such to the use of the Davenport carrier
is that, in common with the exhibition of dissolving views, it necessitates
a separate (in this latter case, single) announcement lantern being
installed, apart from the projector. As a matter of fact, however, the

228

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y.

push-over movement of the projector for lantern slide showing is only
at best a makeshift. It is far preferable, whether forced to or not >
to run announcements and song slides in a lantern of their own.

FIG. 178. SOME RESULTS OF THE WARWICK TRADING Co.'s ENTERPRISE.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APHY. 229

CHAPTER IV.

THE KINEMATOGRAPH CAMERA ABROAD.

So great a part of kinematography now deals with the production
of films of foreign scenes and customs that no text book on moving
pictures could be looked upon as complete without mention being
made of this branch of the art. It is to be hoped the following hints
on the exposing of film abroad will be of use to at least some of our
readers.

First and foremost, when touring in foreign lands with the moving
picture camera, one must know just what kit is necessary for the work
and just how it may be carried from place to place with the minimum
amount of trouble, expense, and anxiety. Needless to say, the camera,
tripod and t spool boxes are always necessities, as is also an adequate
stock of perforated negative film to last through the trip, or so much
of it as may elapse before the opportunity arises of replenishing the
supply. But with regard to the carriage of developing kit there are
two courses open to the photographer. Either he may re-box his
exposed film and send it home for development, or he may carry port-
able developing kit with him and do the work himself while on tour.

The first of the two expedients is not only by far the most simple,
but will obviously be the one to commend itself in every way where
possible. Where exposed film is sent home undeveloped one simply
has to save the original tin and wrappings of the film stock and repack
after the day's work, using for the purpose of obtaining the necessary
red light a small portable dark room lamp, such as are sold by the
hundred at all photographic supply shops.

Loading and unloading film stock in and out of spool boxes in
hotels or other houses where there is no regular darkroom available
is done at night. When it is dark draw down the window blind
closely as a further precaution. If the room is then so free from stray
light beams such as moonlight, the reflection from street lamps, etc.,
that one cannot see one's hand before one's face, the portable ruby
lamp may be lit and the work of loading, unloading and repacking of
films for shipment home proceeded with. Often, however, no mere
drawing of a window blind in a hotel bedroom will give the necessary
pitchiness to the apartment's interior. It then becomes essential
to drape the bedclothes, carpet, or whatever material may be handy,
over the curtain rods, or tack it up against the window apertures
until a real ' dark room ' has been manufactured.

Having got the exposed film safely reboxed in its tin cases, and
the edge of the tins sealed round by means of the usual adhesive tape,

230 HANDBOOK OF K I NE M A TOGR APR Y.

the repacking is completed by affixing to the top of each tin a label
bearing the following data :

Title of subject taken.

Length.

Stop used.

State of Light.

Suggestions for development.

Special remarks.

The package in which tins of exposed film stock are put up
for sending home should have attached to its exterior a label printed
in the language of the country and plainly declaring the nature of
the contents " Exposed kinematograph films (undeveloped). Sen-
sitive to light." It is well to add the following : "To customs officers.
Examine only by ruby light, or the contents of this package will be
spoiled."

If such labels are duly placed on the packages, all that is possible
will have been done to save the films from ruin through over-
assiduity of foreign customs officials.

Many kinematographers who adopt the system of sending home
exposed film stock for development take with them besides the ruby
lamp a small supply of photographic developing and fixing solution
and an ordinary quarter-plate developing dish. With these simple
additions to the travelling kit one can develop test slips off the ends
of exposed stock before sending home. Thus, one can satisfy oneself
from time to time that all is well with camera, film, etc. In short,
one knows pretty well from such test developments how the bulk of
the film may be expected to turn out at home.

This, then, is the simple way of getting over the development
difficulty where such a way is applicable. Unfortunately, there are
numerous occasions which confront the kinematographer in foreign
lands where the method cannot be resorted to. For instance, many
of the most interesting travel films are secured under such climatic
conditions as to render it impossible to retain the undeveloped film
in good condition sufficiently long for despatch home. Sometimes
one may contrive matters by hermetically sealing the tins in which
exposed stock is returned. M. Andre Barlatier, the well-known
kinematographer for Messrs. Raleigh and Roberts, also the Eclipse
Company, says in this connection that it is an impossibility to return
exposed and undeveloped film stock from India in good condition,
unless such is absolutely hermetically sealed in tins as soon as used.
Needless to add, the tins in which the unexposed film is taken out
must also be closed with an airtight seal. Film kept in India in un-
sealed tins is generally useless in about fifteen days, says this authority.

Another operator having great experience of work in India,
Mr. McKenzie, of Kineto and the Natural Colour Kinematograph
Company, makes no attempt to preserve exposed film stock in its

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR A P H Y. 231

undeveloped state. Here, then, we come to the second alternative
in actual operation. Mr. McKenzie on his last Indian tour took with
him a self-contained developing plant, including hundred foot folding
pin frames for development, developing, washing, and fixing tanks,
made of waterproofed wood and nested for convenience in carrying,
and last but not least, a folding drying drum. The latter instrument
was, by all accounts, particularly cleverly constructed. The light
wooden lathes of which it was made took apart and folded up in a
bundle for purposes of transit. Of course, with complete portable
developing kit one is confronted with the necessity of carrying
a correspondingly weighty and bulky amount of chemicals. At
the same time, the writer is informed the system of nesting the
chemical troughs and providing a collapsible drying. drum, as above
referred to, allowed of the whole developing kit being loaded on to
the shoulders of a couple of Indian coolies and by them carried in
comparative comfort.

Where film is thus developed abroad, especially where the water
supply is not good, it will often be found impracticable to give it more
than a very superficial washing after fixation. In fact, in very hot
climates thorough washing would be impossible without recourse to
ice cooling of the washing water or the intermediary use of a har-
dening bath. Otherwise the gelatine would melt and leave its
celluloid base entirely. Practically therefore, the way generally
adopted is to give the fixed film a good ten minutes' rinse in three
or four troughs full of clean cooled water, then to dry it at once on
the wheel and despatch home for further thorough washing prior to
printing.

Developing, washing and fixing baths should be iced down to
70 F. or thereabout before the film is immersed in them. Otherwise,
the subjects run a big risk of being spoiled.

Where, in the tropics, it is decided to harden film prior to fixation,
the formalin bath, as given in Part I., should be used. It must not,
however, be employed till after development and subsequent washing
of the film, or fog will result. A better way would be to employ a
fixing bath containing alum or chrome alum and plunge the developed
film straight into it. Such an alum fixing bath would harden the
film at the same time, and so tend to prevent solution of the gelatine
due to subsequent too warm a temperature of the washing water.

M. Barlatier has found that working in Southern India, where it
is not uncommon for the temperature to go up as high as 120 F. in
the shade, a reaction will sometimes set in between the emulsion and
base of the dry unexposed film stock. This causes the emulsion to
become brittle and shale off in flakes from the celluloid as it passes
through the gate of the kinematograph camera. For such a state of
things as this there would seem to be no possible remedy.

Mr. George Albert Smith, the inventor of Kinemacolor, informs
the writer of a very ingenious dodge of his for preserving exposed

232 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y .

and unexposed Kinemacolor stock in good condition during its voyage
on shipboard to and from a foreign country. The same dodge would
undoubtedly be applicable to any other film stock. It is simply to
tip the head steward on board the ship to store the tins containing the
stock in the ship's ice safe, or refrigerating room if there is one. Under
such circumstances film keeps in prime condition. On account
of its extreme simplicity the tip is well worth remembering by those
going abroad on kinematographing expeditions.

FIG. 179. ENCHANTING THE NIGGERS.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 233

CHAPTER V.

KINEMATOGRAPHY IN COLOURS.

The coloured moving picture, as seen on the screen, may be pro-
duced in two ways. It may be the result of pigments or dyes applied to
the celluloid film, or the natural tints as seen on projection may be due to
some process of optical synthesis having photography as its base.
The former class of coloured subject is exampled in the Pathe ' Coloured
Cinematography/ also in the Gaumont coloured films. In both of these
as in the case of all other commercial film subjects, where the colour
is apparent on the celluloid positive upon hand inspection, the system
employed is one of hand or machine tinting either by brush or ' stencil/
In any case, there is no mechanical guarantee that the colours as
projected are either identical with or even near to those of the original.
They may and probably will be pleasing.

In the only existing commercial system of photographic colour
kinematography Kinemacolor hand inspection of the positive film
would show no trace of colour upon it whatsoever. Neither do the film
pictures used in any other existing system of literal colour kinemato-
graphy (in the photographic sense of the term) show colour in
themselves.

One of these days, it is possible the world may see colour kinema-
tography on much the same lines as those by which the celebrated
Autochrome direct colour photographic transparencies are now pro-
duced, but that time is not yet.

THE PRINCIPLE OF COLOUR RECORDING BY PHOTOGRAPHY.

Towards the beginning of the nineteenth century two investi-
gators, Young and Helmholtz, propounded a theory of colour vision.
This theory, whether right or wrong, is, at any rate, sufficiently near
the mark to serve as the fundamental proposition in what has come
to be named ' three colour ' photography. According to it, all light
sensations are received through the medium of three distinct colour-
sensitive elements in the retina of the eye. These are the red, the
green and the blue violet elements. Intermediate colours send their
record to the brain by affecting in various degrees any two or as the
case may be all three elements of the eye. Thus, when we see white
light, it means that all three colour elements in the eye are being equally
excited. When we see yellow, the red and green elements only are
excited, with blue-green, the green and blue violet elements alone
are strongly excited, and so on. Elaborating the theory on these lines,
and presupposing the existence in the retina of the three (and three only)
distinct sets of primary colour sensation perceiving elements, it can
be made to fit in with the perception of all the numerous half-way
tints and complex tones perceived in the world around us.

234 HANDBOOK OF K INE MA TOGR APH Y.

In colour photography as usually practised, records in mono-
chrome are taken, one through a red glass (or filter), one through a
green filter, and one through a blue violet filter. By suitable com-
bination of these colour records, the original colours of nature
may be reproduced within the limits of practical error.

Thus, suppose three negatives taken from a coloured original, one
through red, one through green, and one through blue glass, it is
obvious that the opaque silver deposit on these will represent partially
the light and shade of the object or objects photographed, but it
follows, too, that each negative will also hold in the varying density
of its silver deposit a record of the amount of colour possessed by
the original objects corresponding with the transmission of the
particular light filter through which it was taken. Suppose
positive transparencies to be made from the three negatives, and that
these positive transparencies are backed by glasses of the colour
through which their respective negatives were taken. Further,
suppose these three backed transparencies to be projected and the
images as thrown to be superimposed on the projection screen. Then
if the practical side of the thing has been properly carried out, we should
have a true projected photograph in natural colours.

To demonstrate the reason simply on paper is, nevertheless, none
too easy. Still, in order to start the mind on the why and wherefore
of additive three colour projection, let us suppose the original photo-
graphed to be a red flower with green leaves. For the sake of sim-
plicity, we will for the moment ignore the third blue-violet record.
Arguing as simply as possible, we see that the red record negative will
show the flower as a heavy deposit, while the leaves, being green,
will leave only clear gelatine upon the glass of the photographic slide.
With the green negative matters will be just the other way about.
In the positives made from these negatives, the relation of the deposits
to original colour will, of course, be reversed. Accordingly, we find
the red record transparency showing the flower as clear glass and the
leaves as opaque deposit, while in the green record positive, the flower
is opaque and the leaves transparent, Back each record with a glass
similar in colour to the one with which its negative was taken and
project the two images in superposition on the screen. We get a red
flower projected through one lantern and green leaves projected
through the other. In the case where shades of blue come into the
scheme, the third colour, or blue-violet record, would get its look in
in precisely similar manner.

It must be noted that on this system since white is for the purpose
of the Young-Helmholtz theory compounded of the three primary
colours red, green, and blue-violet the superposition of these three
colours in correct quantities should give white on the lantern screen.
This is found by experiment to be the case, such resulting artificial
white being called ' synthetic ' white, to distinguish it from the real
white of the solar spectrum. Superposed red and green are similarly
found to give synthetic yellow, while superposed green and blue-violet

HANDBOOK OF KINEMATOGRAPHY. 235

give synthetic blue-green. Superposed blue-violet and primary red
give synthetic pink or rose. Rose, yellow, and blue-green are accord-
ingly known in colour work as ' secondary ' colours, each being due
to combination of two of the primaries. So much for the Young-
Helmholtz theory of colour photography. Now to see how it has been
applied to the moving picture.

The original attempt to adapt three-colour to kinematography seems
t o have been made by the investigators Lee and Turner, and is embodied
in their patent of 1899.

In the Lee-Turner process, the colour records were made by means
of a camera fitted with a single lens and revolving colour filter holder
containing three colour filters, red, green and blue. Projection was
by means of three lenses, before which were colour filters of somewhat
complicated design. The great drawback to this process was that it
came into existence too early, before the necessary colour sensitising
operations for kinematograph film had been carried to a point to
make the film of workable sensitiveness. The Lee-Turner patent was
purchased by Mr. Charles Urban, and is still held by him.

The next important chapter in colour kinematography would seem
to be the exhibition in Paris in 1904 of a two-colour system of motion
projection invented by Dr. Jumeaux and another. In this system
prisms were used in taking the negatives, such prisms throwing
a double image upon the kinematograph film. On projection
of the resulting transparencies, the same prismatic system
was employed to blend the two colour sensations. Though no
two-colour process can ever give natural colour results (any more
than any photographic lens can ever realise true depth of focus, both
suppositions being in the realm of sheer theoretical impossibility) the
prismatic two-colour experiments served to reveal to investigators
several important things. One of these was that a two-colour system
while not being quite true to nature, might yield very pleasing results.
Another point made plain was that no system involving the cutting
down of the area of the already too small kinematograph picture
could have a chance of commercial survival on account of the diffi-
culty of transmitting through the lessened aperture the comparatively
huge amount of light necessary for colour projection. Also it was seen
that prismatic splitting up and reblending of images tended to want
of sharpness of the projected result. So the practical investigation
of what might and what might not well be attempted in colour pro-
jection is found by now to have proceeded somewhat.

Then came word of Kinemacolor. Here we have a system
embracing the line of least resistance as mapped out by prior work
in colour kinematography. ' In Kinemacolor, panchromatic kinema-
tograph film (that is to say, film rendered sensitive to all colours)
i? exposed in a special kinematograph camera. This instrument is
practically similar to the ordinary black and white motion picture
camera, except that between the rotary light shutter and the gate

236 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TO GR A PH Y.

is a second rotating filter frame carrying on its opposite halves the two
colour filters employed for making the two-colour records.

Kinemacolor employs two color filters only, one of them being
usually orange red, the other a rather bluish green tint, while the
British Journal of Photography for August last describes yet an alter-
native type of colour filter for Kinemacolor and kindred two-colour
process, whether of kinematography or of still view photography,
worked out by the author, and by him considered to have certain
advantages in practice. However taken, Kinemacolor results are
not scientifically such as to be termed absolutely true to nature in
hue. None the less, the variation from the theoretical perfection of
Kinemacolor projected pictures is often surprisingly small. The pro-
cess is, moreover, deserving of all honour, as the first truly successful
and commercial adaptation of colour photography in any form to
motion picture work. The Kinemacolor patent is the joint invention
of Mr. George Albert Smith and Mr. Charles Urban, the noted kinema-
tographer and head of the Natural Color Kinematograph Company.
The mechanism of the Kinemacolor camera actuates the'colour filter
frame' so that every alternate negative taken will be a red-orange
and a blue-green record. Needless to say, special care is necessary
in developing panchromatic film, but once developed and fixed, the
film is printed from as if it were ordinary black and white negative.
In projecting the print, a projector is used fitted with a rotating
colour filter frame carrying red-orange and blue-green filters, as with
the taking camera. Thus every alternate positive will be shown
respectively by red-orange and b]ue-green light. These alternate
red-orange and blue-green pictures blend in the retina through the
well-known and already explained kinematographic principle of
persistence of vision, producing on the screen the effect of natural
colour.

Besides Kinemacolor, which claims rather a large place here on
account of its being at the moment of writing the only commercial
colour kinematographic process, several other systems of colour
kinematography have been more or less worked out

Mr. H. W. H. Palmer has taken out several patents in which he
uses the three colours. His chief departure from other investigators,
is that he leans to the use of a circular glass plate as his base, instead
of utilising kinematograph film for the colour record images. Un-
doubtedly, glass as a base has much to be said for it in place of celluloid,,
especially for experimental machines.

Mr. Friese Greene also has his system of colour kinematography,
which has even been exhibited in an English picture hall for the
delectation of the public. It is reported, however, that the exhibition
was not such as to show the process to have been brought to the com-
mercial point.

The author has recently had granted to him a patent (1642 of
1911) for an improved camera for taking colour record negatives
either for two or three colour systems of projection. The novelty

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M A T O G R A PHY. 237

about his system is that it employs three lenses in conjunction with
stationary colour filters and a multiple picture shift. Such an arrange-
ment being quite novel in the history of colour kinematography
naturally possesses advantages also novel, and which will be appre-
ciated better on perusal of the actual patent specification. The
lenses of the ' Bennett ' system camera being placed one above the
other, it is still possible to obtain all colour records on one and the
same band of film, while minor parallax errors are also provided against.

SAFE LIGHTS.

While ruby and yellow glass may prove fairly suitable in com-
bination as a filter for the light utilised in dark room illumination
during the loading and development of ordinary non-colour-sensitive
kinematograph film, such will be useless when handling the panchromatic
film necessary in colour work. Further, even when dealing with
non-colour-sensitive stock, the amount of light which may be passed
by commercial ruby glass without injury to the film is very small in
comparison with that which might safely be allowed to issue through
a proper ' safe light/ A suitable safe light is a necessity when handling
undeveloped colour stock, and a great luxury at other times. Direc-
tions are therefore appended for the making of safe lights such as
will be found of use in the dark room lamp or lamps when handling
any sort of film from slow positive to fastest colour-sensitive negative
stock. Needless to say, the same coloured safe lights will not do
for all purposes. A series of three graduated ones will therefore be
given, with directions such as will enable the experimental photo-
grapher to make each for himself.

CANARY YELLOW SAFE LIGHT.

This safe light allows of a brilliant yellow illumination, which is yet
quite safe for use when handling positive stock. The light is at least
four times as bright as that passed by commercial yellow glass, which
latter, however, would not be safe for use at all. The safe light is made
thus:

Fix out two undeveloped photographic plates of a size to fit the
dark room lantern to be glazed. Wash the fixed plates, and they
will now have left on them only a coating of clear gelatine. Proceed
to dye one plate in a strong (5 per cent.) solution of filter yellow K,
Hoechst. Dye the other in strong Metanile yellow, Grubler. Rinse
both plates after dyeing and stand them up on end to dry. When
dry, bind them together face to face, having placed a sheet of tracing
paper between the two to diffuse the light from the light source.
Engineer's tape is suitable for binding the glasses together, and is
applied round the edges after the manner of lantern slide binding
strips.

238 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA T OGRA PH Y.

SAFE LIGHT FOR HANDLING ORDINARY NEGATIVE FILM.

Treat one plate with filter yellow solution as above, but dye the
second a deep rose in Rose Bengal solution. Bind the two up when dry,
having interposed between their faces a sheet of tracing paper soaked
in strong Metanile yellow solution so as to make it almost orange in
colour, and subsequently dried. This will give a deep ruby coloured
filter, passing considerably more light than ordinary ruby glass, and
at the same time far more safe for use in dark room illumination.

SAFE LIGHT FOR USE WITH COLOUR SENSITIVE FILM.

Dye one of the fixed out plates deep violet in Methyl Violet
solution. Dye the second plate orange yellow in a solution of strong
mixed Filter Yellow and Metanile Yellow. The translucent paper
bound between the two plates must be stained green in Naphthol
Green dye solution. This filter when made up will be very dark,
and will pass only a small quantity of light in the pure green to bluish-
green part of the spectrum (technically known as little b). Though
the light is very faint, it will be found to penetrate the darkness com-
paratively well, so that after a little while, the eye will be able to
distinguish objects in the dark room more or less. Thus, this faint
green glow becomes a considerable help in the admittedly difficult
operations of winding and developing colour sensitive film. A
brighter safe light can be made by substituting Filter Blue Green,
Hoechst, for the Methyl violet wherewith to dye the one plate, but
in this case the filter will have to be used with much caution, or fogging
of the panchromatic film will result.

NOTE. Even the deepest red filters are useless when handling
panchromatic film.

SCREEN RULED COLOUR FILM FOR KINEMATOGRAPHY.

Mention has already been made of the possibility of a future
type of colour kinematography utilising some such system as that
now employed in the celebrated Autochrome plate for direct still
colour photography. This, which is known as the ' screen plate *
system, depends upon covering the base upon which the photographic
emulsion is afterwards coated with a patchwork of minute areas
dyed in the three primary colours. Exposure is made through the
back of the film or plate, and the resulting patchwork colour record
' reversed ' in a chemical reversing bath instead of being fixed in the
ordinary way. The Lumiere autochrome process utilises dyed starch
grains for the purpose, but other kindred screen plate systems
rule minute microscopical or crossed lines of clear primary colour on
the glass or celluloid emulsion base.

HANDBOOK OF K IN E M A T O GR A PH Y. 239

The present difficulties in the way of adapting screen plate systems
to the motion picture record are several in number. For one thing,
there is the trouble of obtaining sufficiently rapid exposures even
in the brightest light. Then the amount of light absorbed by the
coloured film base on projection is very great. Also, where magnifi-
cation is high, a spotty effect may be produced on the projection
screen.

Still for all its present drawbacks, both in manufacture troubles,
expense, and difficulty of working, there is at least a sporting chance
for the future of the screen-ruled motion picture film.

FIG. 180. EXTERIOR AND INTERIOR OF A MODERN PROVINCIAL
MOTION PICTURE THEATRE.

2 4 o H.ANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

CHAPTER IV.
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL KINEMATOGRAPHY.

Scientific kinematography is a branch of the motion picture art
the details of which must be worked out by each investigator in con-
formity with his particular line of research. At the same time, there
are certain broad hints which may be given, and which may help
towards making a start in a particularly fascinating and almost unex-
plored branch of kinematography.

MlCRO-KlNEMATOGRAPHY.

This is a combination of the microscope with the motion picture
camera, just in the same way as the microscope and still picture camera
have for many years been combined for micro-photography. Broadly
speaking, the same fundamental considerations as to technique apply
in both cases. Such main considerations may be summarised as the
obtaining of ' critical ' illumination, absolute rigidity, and sharp focus
with what is known in microscopy as good ' resolution/ or differen-
tiation of minor microscopic details by the objective lens of the optical
system. In motion picture micrography we shall in addition to the
above require that the light be sufficiently powerful to permit of
such turning rate as may be necessary for any given piece of work.

Turning rate, let it be noted, does not in scientific kinematography
mean of necessity the regular sixteen pictures a second of ordinary
studio and field work. Quite recently, a form of high speed micro-
kinematograph camera has been invented in France with which as
many as two to three hundred pictures a second are obtained. This
particular camera is not fitted with intermittent movement. It relies
on the light from a stream of sparks given off by a static electrical
machine as the source of illumination of the successive pictures.
The duration of each spark being almost infinitesimal it has been
found that quite clear-cut images may, by such illumination, be
obtained upon the fast rotating kinematograph film as it whirls round
upon the rim of a drum in the plane of focus of the objective lens.

As an example of a contrary class of scientific motion picture,
may be cited the ' Bud to Blossom ' series in connection with ' Kine-
macolor ' two-colour kinematography. Apart from the question of
colour, the interest of the films here depends upon great speeding
down of the camera mechanism during taking of the subjects. The
films so produced depict the opening of various flowers before one's
eyes.

To obtain such a speeded-down series all that is necessary is a
system of gear wheels driven by a small electric or other motor, whereby
the motion picture camera escapement may be driven at a constant

HANDBOOK OF KINE M A TOGR APH Y. 241

rate, such rate to be far below the normal. Thus, suppose it is found
by experiment that a certain flower bud placed in water takes from
two to three days to open, and such opening of the bud is to be
recorded so as to show in the space of one minute, we may arrive at
the exact speeding-down required as follows :

Three days equals 72 hours, or 4,320 minutes. One minute's
exhibition of kinematograph film at normal rate equals 60 feet, or
960 pictures. Therefore, our 960 pictures must be divided into
taking intervals spread equally over 4,320 minutes. That is to say, the
interval between the exposure of each successive picture in the speeded-
down camera is to be 4! minutes.

We accordingly arrange that our speeding-down gear shall operate
the picture movement once every 4^ minutes for three days. What
portion of this time shall actually be occupied in exposure may be de-
termined within certain limits by the adjustment of the camera shutter
opening. Suppose each exposure is to give one minute of actual
light impression on the film, then it is obvious our light source need
be much less than that obtainable from daylight. Also, since daylight
will wax and wane three times in three days it must be equally obvious
such in any case would not be available by us. Accordingly, suitable
artificial illumination has to be provided in the speeding-down labor-
atory.

For such comparatively large sized objects as flower buds where
no microscope attachment is needed a couple of small and suitably
shaded metallic filament electric lamps, placed one on either side of
the object to be illuminated, would be in most cases quite sufficient.
With microscope attachments, however, the light source will have to
be much stronger. Also, a great deal depends on how the original
light beam is collected and parallelised prior to striking the micro-
scope's optical system. We append a sketch showing the microscope
with its illumination as arranged for micro-kinematography.

A (Fig. 181) is the light source, shown here as an electric arc lamp
such being the most powerful, and generally speaking, most suitable
light for the work. From the lamp A the light beam passes outward
to the lens B known as a stand condenser. Stand condensers for
micrography are (unlike those used in moving picture projection)
highly corrected instruments. The stand condenser should throw a
clear achromatic or colourless light beam through the cell X, which
contains glycerine or water, with, perhaps, the addition of some
colouring matter, according to the work in hand. The functions of
the cell X are to cut off as much as possible of the heat rays from the
microscope stage. Also, where colouring matter is added, the resolu-
tion of the microscope objective may be improved thereby. Other
reasons for the use of a colour trough in special cases may deal with the
production of contrast in the film image, and similar points not necessary
to go into at length here.

Leaving the glycerine cell, the light pencil falls upon the substage
condenser C, in a very brilliant and concentrated patch, which, in its

242

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

FIG. 181.

turn becomes further concentrated by this second condenser, emerging
upon the object on the microscope stage as almost a pin point. It
is in this way that the object to be photographed is illuminated.
Afterwards, the light beam passes on through the objective lens D,
and the eye piece E of the microscope, till the image is brought to a
focus upon the film in the gate of the motion picture camera attach-
ment shown at F.

The camera lens will, of
course, have been removed be-
fore the adaptation of the instru-
ment to its use in micro-kine-
matography. G shows the driving
pulley actuating the picture
changing movement and connect-
ing by means of a belt through
the gearing down wheels H with
the electric motor J, the latter
being controlled by a switch or
rheostat K.

Fig. 181 shows the micro-
FIG. 182. kinematographic system arranged

WESTMINSTER" RIGHT ANGLE SEMI- in horizontal position, in which
AUTOMATIC ENCLOSED ARC LAMP. ^ ^ micros F cope stage win be

vertical. When photographing such subjects as animalculae moving in
liquid and suchlike, it will be necessary to tip up the whole arrangement
on end so as to make the stage of the microscope horizontal. When
starting first experiments in this line of research, it will be advisable
to use only microscope objective lenses of low power, say from two

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y. 243

inches to half an inch focus. With very low magnifications the eye
piece E may well be dispensed with altogether. For higher
magnifications, one of the ' compensating ' type eye pieces, or better
still, a ' projection eye piece ' will be used.

Where the electric arc is not available for experimentation in
micro-kinematography limelight may be substituted. Also, water
motors or hot-air motors can be made to take the place of electric ones
for such light work as the turning of the geared-down escapement
where such is used. In high magnification work, where great
resolution is required, and consequently wide apertures of objective
and substage condenser become a necessity, it may be found
necessary to have the optical system of the microscope of the
apochromatic variety.

TELE-KINEMATOGRAPHY.

There would seem to be a considerable field for the application
of the motion picture camera to the telescope, especially to the astro-
nomical telescope. At the present moment, photographic charts
of the heavenly bodies are made through the telescope with ordinary
still camera attachment, working on just such a general system as the
one in common use for photo-micrography of still objects, except that
in tele-photography the distant objects provide their own natural
illumination. Now, as made by tele-photography star maps either
show one fixed position only of the heavenly bodies, or else they give
the general direction of these in the form of lines due to the movement
of the earth during exposure.

The motion picture combined with the astronomical telescope
affords a ready means, not only of recording the direction of apparent
travel of the heavenly bodies, but actually of recording the motion
itself. For this purpose undoubtedly, some system of gearing down
the rate of taking to compensate for want of light in the bodies them-
selves, as also for reasons of economy of film length exposed, would,
however, be necessary.

In terrestrial tele-knematography also, there is a wide field and
a very interesting one for the exploitation of the motion picture man
with ideas of his own. Who, for instance, has not from the seashore
looked through a high power glass at shipping passing over the horizon ?
Such effects of distant ships passing, to say nothing of many another
odd and interesting subject, would most certainly be in range of the
owner of a good terrestrial tele-kinematographic outfit. These outfits
are not as yet on the market in their completed state. Perhaps this
is all the better for those of us who have the originality necessary
to their discreet use. Such will find no great difficulty in rigging up
the parts to make the completed machine for themselves.

244 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

CHAPTER VII.

SELF-PRESERVATION IN THE TRADE.
A WORD OF WARNING.

Those who have traced the devious paths in which the kinemato-
graph trade has trod during the past ten years must have stood aghast
at the snares and pitfalls which have ever beset the honest, straight-
forward dealer who desired to become acquainted with a new profession.
It is, therefore, but right that in such a Handbook as the present,
space should be devoted to making known certain dangers to be
avoided by those who seek to enter the profession.

The kinematograph trade is somewhat of a mushroom growth,
and consequently during its brief existence has had many drawbacks
caused by want of organisation and cohesion among its members.
This has been particularly noticeable in our own country, and if one
looks back to the records of 1905 it will be found the fact was already
being recognised, for this year saw the first suggestion of amalgamation
among kinematographers, with the object of correcting the want of
solidity in the business. This took the form of a Lantern Operators'
Guild, whose objects were : (i) To see that the interests of operators
were secured with i egard to salary, hours and health ; (2) To determine
the status of operators by a qualifying examination, aiid thus raise
the status of this branch of the profession ; (3) To give the various
branches of the trade a means of exchanging ideas and establishing a
centre where trade disputes could be adjusted. But in this year the
question of the operator was not the only one needing consideration,
for the grievance of duplicating film subjects was much discussed, and
the advocacy of registering and copyrighting films gave the manufac-
turers a chance of getting together to safeguard their interests. In
France, which was the centre of the industry at that date, the question
of co-operation was also in evidence, and a " General Cinematographical
Association " was formed (i) to bind the trade closer together, (2)
to hold competitions and a congress for the International Exposition
of Cinematography, and (3) to form a school to grant diplomas to prac-
tical cinematographers.

About this date, Mr. R. W. Paul, who worked so hard in the initial
stages of the business, threw energy into an association to preserve
the rights of manufacturers, and from this was formed the Kinemato-
graph Manufacturers' Association.

Later, we have had a Defence League to protect the showmen's
interests, and a Renters' Association to bind in closer harmony the
members of this important branch of the industry. But even were
these organisations in working order, there are many phases of wrong

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y. 245

doing which the unwary are likely to be the victims of unless put upon
their guard. Sharks abound in all directions, and the uninitiated will
find slippery places where least they are to be expected.

GRIEVANCES OF THE MANUFACTURER.

We will first deal with the manufacturer, as the most important
unit. He has suffered in many ways. Bogus companies with flashy
stationery, insinuating, well-dressed and plausible representatives and
sumptuous offices have ordered films lavishly, have paid splendidly
at first, and have obtained unlimited credit, only finally to let the
manufacturer in for a big sum. The moral is that greater care should
be taken to obtain regular and prompt payment, instead of allowing
the accounts to drag on.

Then, again, manufacturers have sent films on approval, and in
some cases allowed over a week to elapse before their return, to find
that the subjects are sent back badly scartched and worn, with a letter
stating that the applicant finds them unsuitable for his requirements.
Here, again, there is a remedy, and that is to forward an invoice with
the goods, which states in clear terms that unless returned within a
certain number of hours (not days) the films will be treated as having
been purchased.

In a great measure, our laws are favorable to the wrong-doer,
and in no case is this so evident as in that of the duplication of subjects.
What is easier to a man with a knowledge of the business and the
necessary apparatus than to get hold of a subject which may have cost
hundreds of pounds originally, to produce and whip off duplicated
copies for sale in other countries ? But individuals who have been
guilty of this bare-faced robbery have over-reached themselves. They
have obtained " on approval copies," duplicated them, and sold these
" dupes " before the makers' release dates ; they have not been con-
tent with selling in foreign lands, but have pushed them into certain
renting concerns as second-hand goods. Luckily this has been discovered,,
and the recent agreement between the makers and renters will put a
stop to such nefarious practice.

There are firms and individuals who sell " sole rights " to photo-
graph topicals, and who take no precautions to keep out unauthorised
photographers, or to safeguard the interests of those whose money they
have accepted.

The long credit demanded and taken by the renter is disastrous
to the manufacturer with small capital. . Some of the larger firms have
taken advantage of this fact, and they have ultimately suffered from
bad debts. The system of giving long credit should at once be dis-
continued.

Another disadvantage the manufacturer has is in having to sell
all films at 4d. per foot irrespective of the cost of production and the
pretensions of the subject. It seems ridiculous that a subject which
has cost a thousand pounds to produce should be sold at the same

246 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

price as a scenic for which there was necessarily no expensive
preparation.

There are many other grievances from which the makers suffer,
but want of space will not allow us to deal further with the subject.

GULLING THE HIRING CONCERN.

The chief troubles experienced by those who hire films to exhibitors
are those of incurring bad debts, and of having reels badly treated.
With regard to the former, much of the loss is richly deserved, owing
its existence to careless and lackadaisical methods of account keeping
on the part of many renting houses. But not only are they in fault
in bookkeeping, but price cutting and long credit are also too often
used to snatch business from competitors, while, needless to say, many
clients are found only too ready to take full advantage and finally to
make this fatal system recoil on the heads of those who adopt it.

Bad treatment of the films is only too frequently evident to those
who have occasion to see films returned after a week's hire. In all
cases, it is up to the renter to loan his goods under a definite agreement,
and to see that the terms of it are enforced.

The renter certainly has a grievance against many of the manufac-
turers and selling agents, for in many cases he is invited to see a film
run through only to find on arrival at the specified time that prepara-
tions are not complete, the operator is at lunch, the film is out else-
where on approval, or else he is kept waiting for others to turn up.
Even the renter's time is money, although the manufacturers class
him with the small fry, and make him wait their pleasure.

But this question of the value of time is also ignored by many a
renter who breaks faith with the exhibitor by not despatching his
reels to the promised time and throwing the blame on the carrier. A
little more consideration is needed by both parties.

Here is a case which recently came to our notice. A certain so
called but unregistered company obtained its films from a renter, and
for some time all went well. But presently the company sold its picture
theatre for a mere song, and still week by week the films were sent and
used. After eight weeks of this state of things, the first purchaser
again sold the show to another man, without telling him of the two
months' .arrears of film rental by now accumulated. The renters
all along thought they were treating with the original owners till they
suddenly learned the truth, and at the same time found they had no
redress, as they could not find the individual who owned the show
for the two months between the original company and the last man,
while from the latter they could only recover the amount for the films
he had actually used.

The loss sustained in damage to film by the carelessness of the
exhibitor's employees is well known. Pieces cut out and bad joins,
perforations ripped through, scratching through dirty gates, the bending
or folding of the film, and many other results of rough usage can only

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y. 247

be realised by those who go through the reels when returned from the
shows. Then there is the difficulty of attaching blame for the damaged
films in the proper quarter, more especially where the transfer system
is in vogue. Some method is badly needed -to stop this disastrous
ill-use of other people's goods.

Owing to over-production, the life even of good films is a very
short one, so that taking all these considerations together, the renter
does not have the rosiest time in making things pan out profitably.
But notwithstanding all these troubles there is now going on a reckless
reduction in the charge for hire service, and each renter seems anxious
to get his competitors' customers, whether the rental may be profit-
able or not.

How THE EXHIBITOR SUFFERS.

The renter may find some small satisfaction in knowing that the
showman also has his troubles, and we will now deal with a few which
have come to our notice.

First, there are the unfair tactics of competitors, who issue mis-
leading advertisements and stoop to every device to attract clients
from the opposition show. Perhaps the following will better prove
what we mean. When Barker's " Henry VIII." film was being boomed
a certain theatre paid a big price for the rights. Next day a hall four
doors from it had in tremendous letters across the front, " Henry VIII.
now showing." This proved to be an old film of the Eclipse Company,
and, of course, those who expected to see Sir Beerbohm Tree's
Company were disappointed, and the enterprising "sole right" man
suffered by the underhand business.

Many an exhibitor objects to the system of giving exclusive rights,
as being adopted to squeeze his purse still further.

Then, too, the new agreement between the manufacturer and
renter is causing the showman to shout. It is suggested that it gives
to the renters who are on the joint committee (if they are showmen as
well as renters) an unfair advantage over other showmen in towns
where they themselves possess theatres, by preventing the outside
showman from buying films, and compelling him to hire instead
at the renters' own figure.

OBTAINING GOODS AND CASH BY FRAUD.

Too frequently has our attention been called to the loss of films
and apparatus which have been forwarded in response to an apparently
satisfactory " want " advertisement. The advertiser will have given
what reads as a genuine enough address for the goods to be sent to.

Take one case. An advertisement appears something after the
style of the following : " To be sold after Tuesday to first person
sending 2os., only used two nights (here followed the title of a subject
much in request, and the value of which was quite 5). Send P.O.
Jackson, Theatre Royal, Margate." Many postal orders were sent

248 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

by persons anxious to secure so great a bargain, and in due time Mr.
Jackson or whatever his name was called at the Theatre Royal for
letters, informing the door-keeper such had been "intended for the
Electric Theatre, Margate." He then scooted with the contents.
The same sort of game is also played the other way round, and certain
second-class films, etc., are advertised for, and exceptional cash value
is offered on receipt of them. The big price tempts the owner to send
along his films or apparatus, but his frequent applications for cash
are returned " Not known." In both cases the lesson is taught that
it is unwise to part with goods or cash to an advertiser at a distance
unles his bona fides are known to be beyond reproach.

Here's another case : A kinematograph operator was charged
on warrant with unlawfully pawning on two dates 2,000 feet of film,
and a lamp, value 23 ios., the property of a picture hall proprietor.
The prosecutor stated that he advertised kinematograph supplies and
the prisoner had dealings with him, receiving a number of films and a
projector. Witness identified two spools of films and the lamp pro-
duced at a pawnbroker's ! The prisoner's solicitor explained that
his client was formerly employed as a manager of a picture theatre
which was being wound up. 10 was due to him for wages, and he
pawned the films, thinking he would be able to redeem them when he
got his wages.

The above instances are of a painful character, but we can cite
another which is even more outrageously dishonest. A well-dressed
individual asked to be allowed entry to a certain hall, with the idea
of renting it for a picture show. The caretaker was instructed to allow
him access at all times, so that he might plan out his arrangements.
Meanwhile, the applicant for the hall advertised for a manager, door-
keeper, cash taker and operator. They were to apply personally on
certain days and hours, and he plausibly held out possibilities that each
applicant was just the man he wanted, took their addresses, and the
day following their visit, each received a letter saying that he had de-
cided to employ them, but each must deposit a certain sum (fixed
according to what he thought they were worth) as security. Five
of them (unbeknown to each other), glad to get so promising a job
with such an excellent salary, scraped together the sums named,
and after other correspondence, called at the hall, signed and took
away a copy of agreement, and parted with their cash. Only after
the bird had flown from his address did they learn from the caretaker
that the " gent " had not really taken the hall but was considering the
advisability of so doing, and although the matter was left with the
police, nothing further was heard of the individual.

Then, again, there is the advertiser for " an operator with own
machine and films," to give a week's show in a remote town or village.
A man is out of engagement, borrows apparatus and films, pays his
railway fare and goes on spec., to find at the end of his run a man of
straw, unable either to continue the show, or pay his expenses.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR AP H Y. 249

" DUSTING DOWN " THE INVESTOR.

How many of the directors and promotors of the hundreds of
motion picture companies registered during the past three years have
failed to carry out the schemes or give the results so lavishly promised in
their prospectuses ? How many of these schemes have been of the wild
cat order, floated solely for the purpose of obtaining from the public
promoters' plunder ? For enticing reading, the prospectuses are enough
to draw blood from a stone, and their far-reaching results have done
much to frighten the investing public from further supporting the in-
dustry. It is to be hoped that the process of time has done much to
weed out this element of danger which, till recently, beset the
industry, but even yet new companies are sprung on the public by
men outside the legitimate business and channels have to be found
for the watered stock.

Companies have been formed with glowing prospects, but bad
management kills the profits, and finally a friend of the directors'
manages to buy for a mere trifle what has originally cost thousands.

The shareholder is trotted round the theatre, he sees the crowd
guided up to the pay-box, and is told that every sixpence paid
represents threepence profit to be used in paying dividends. The air of
prosperity and the wiles of the managing director have such an effect
on him that he not only buys more shares himself, but persuades his
friends to do the same. Meanwhile, those in the know are busy un-
loading their own stock, and perhaps to make matters more favorable,
a dividend is declared, which naturally gives further credence to the
game. But there comes the evil day. Debentures are issued,
reconstruction follows, and its goodbye to much hard-earned wealth
as far as the shareholders are concerned.

Much more in similar strain could be written in connection with
kinematograph financial matters, but like the other features of this
chapter, we have had to curtail our remarks on the subject, as being
somewhat subsidiary to the real purpose of the Handbook.

FIG. 183. A TRAVELLING OUTDOOR KINEMATOGRAPH
ADVERTISING CAR.

250 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE MANAGEMENT OF A PICTURE THEATRE.

Although somewhat outside the province of a Handbook on Kine -
matography, it is necessary, as this book will be used and referred to
by every section of the trade, and by those desiring to enter it, that a
brief chapter should be devoted to this important part of the profession.

The keen competition among the numerous halls in every part of
the country makes it incumbent for the management to be entrusted
to a man who possesses not only a thorough knowledge of the technical
side of picture theatre management, but one who can realise and tact-
fully judge the desires and requirements of the inhabitants of his
neighbourhood. He must be a capable organiser, a strict disciplin-
arian, able and willing to make himself popular with every section of
his patrons, and above all, must judiciously economise so that the
proprietor of the show, or its shareholders, can reap return for their
invested capital.

It is the intention of the writer of this chapter, therefore, to deal
particularly with the qualities necessary to the successful showman,
and the way for him to go about his most important duties. The
successful picture theatre manager will be showman in many senses,
not only for showing the advantages of his picture programs, but in
emphasising the comfort, cleanliness and beauty of his hall. He will
further be showman of his own personality and ability ; showman in
catering for the continual education and amusement of regular and
chance patrons ; and showman in judicious advertising and skill in
inducing people to visit the establishment under his charge.

And now for the particular functions of which he should have
complete control.

THE BUILDING.

We take it he comes on the scene when the actual hall is erected
and furnished suitably for the class of public who inhabit that
particular district.

The opening, with the usual " send off," has to be arranged.
It is wise to obtain the assistance of a popular individual the mayor
or local member of parliament to perform the opening ceremony,
assisted by subordinate magnates and big-wigs. This not only gives the
local papers a chance of making much of the event in their columns, but
binds the hall up with other social affairs, and proves one of the best ad-
vertising wheezes that can be adopted. It is up to the manager to " pull
the strings " and induce the right man to take on the job. He seldom

HANDBOOK OF KI'NE M A TOGR APH Y. 251

pleads in vain if he argues that a strong feature will be a clean and
healthy entertainment, good class films, and wise man that the
proceeds of the day will be entirely devoted to a local charity in which
the opener is particularly interested. Having obtained his opener,
he sends a well-printed and high-class looking invitation card " re-
questing the honour of the company of Lord and Lady (or other

notabilities) to support ' T. B. Windbag, Esq., M.P./ on the occasion
of the opening of the Grand Electric Empire, etc., etc.," not forgetting
the " R.S.V.P.," so that he can invite others if there is a deficiency
in the number of replies. Having been successful in this direction,
the next step is to have everything complete and ready for the momen-
tous event. Now this is where the manager must shine. He must
hustle the various workmen and yet see that no portion of their work
is stinted or badly finished, but in this hustling he must look well
ahead, clearing everything at least a day before the opening, for he
will find many little details needing attention at the last moment.

We take it that the building is all he desires ; it complies with the
necessities of the local council, the Cinematograph Act and the police
requirements. It possesses an excellent lobby and waiting rooms,
the rake of the floor has been judiciously arranged at the approved
slope of one in ten, and the walls are ready for the final decoration.

It is here that artistic taste is necessary so that there is a general
appropriateness in the embellishment right through the building.
The first consideration is the lobby, which has to be depended upon
to create the best impression in the minds of patrons. A dingy lobby
betokens in the thoughts of many a dingy entertainment. How often
the mistake is made that all the public expect for outside appearance
is a blaze of light. The wise picture theatre manager knows this is
far from the case, and will see that the embellishments and adornments
are neither garish nor glaring.

Nothing short of eighteen feet should be devoted to the lobby.
Nor is this waste space, for it enables an advertising display to be made
to advantage, and the passer-by who stops to read the program boards
or day bill is well against the pay box before he or she realises that
their curiosity has already got him or her almost inside the theatre.

The floor should be of tile or cement, and care must be taken to
see that it is swept and washed at least once, if not twice a day. Greater
variety of material is permitted in walls and ceiling. As a general
thing, plaster casting is to be preferred to imitation marble ; and if
tastefully done, finished in white and gold, and kept always fresh by
the plentiful use of white paint and gold foil as required, such plaster
casting will have a very good effect indeed.

The lighting should be brilliant, but not dazzling, and plants and
shrubs which should be carefully tended and watered, and full of
life not faded and dead, to convey the impression that the show is
also half-dead should be placed in suitable positions out of the way
of the traffic.

252 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

The many excellent frames, easels, and advertising devices put
on the market by such firms as the Tress Company, the Tyler Appa-
ratus Company, Walturdaw Company, and many others, make it pos-
sible for the manager to give an interesting and attractive display in
an unobtrusive fashion. The gaudy, bloodthirsty posters issued by
some of the Continental and American makers are to be avoided in
the better-class neighbourhoods, and the manager must see that his
announcements are not an exaggeration of his program, or disappoint-
ment will "kill off" those who might become regular patrons.

The pay box that important feature of the lobby like the
announcements, must not be too obtrusive. People must be attracted
inside the lobby and incidentally pay their entrance money before they
know they are off the pavement. At this latter and most important
department, the manager must adopt a careful system of money taking,
and when adopted, see that it is carried out in every detail. If a ticket-
issuing machine is used, it must be frequently examined and checked,
and the manager should constantly pop in and see that his instructions
are being minutely carried out. The weekly statement sheets published
at the offices of the KINEMATOGRAPH WEEKLY give a comprehensive
scheme of account adjustment, and if used in combination with the
Harper Ticket Issuing and Recording Machine, or some other suitable
check issuer, they make this part of the manager's task easy if only
he religiously adheres to the work of attending to them at a fixed time
each morning.

In too many of the theatres, spectators are treated to currents
of cold air falling on their shoulders and making them so uncomfortable
as to discourage them from returning. A waiting room, however,
obviates this, and it should be adjoining the lobby. Also with the present
system of continuous performance and of allowing anyone to enter or
leave the auditorium while the picture is on the screen, many devotees
deeply interested in a scene have either to move to allow someone to
pass in front of them, or to have some newcomer masking the view
while looking for a seat. A waiting or ante-room again proves a genuine
remedy to this drawback, as the ushers would allow no one either to
enter or leave the auditorium while a picture is on the screen.

And now, having passed through the entrance and waiting room,
we enter

THE AUDITORIUM.

The brilliancy of the outside and lobby here gives way to a
somewhat dark and sombre interior. But even though in many
existing halls the colouring of the walls and upholstery may
be rather grave, perhaps almost to depression, there is no reason
why the hall should not be suitably and artistically decorated, so
that when the lights are up the audience are impressed with their
surroundings.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 253

In a light coloured theatre, the light of the machine naturally
reflects on the cream coloured walls, and from them back on the curtain,
and many exhibitors not acquainted with this fact blame the operator
for a bad light. An experienced operator may suggest some colour
effects that would suit a particular house better than our present
general suggestions, but at least we can say avoid glaring
contrasts of colours and vivid hues, and kill the man who
wants to put a couple of pounds of gold leaf on the walls. Light
greens, blues or pinks, with a deeper tint in the shadow, would
work well, as will a French grey worked up with a very little white.
Two shades of the same colour are to be preferred to contrasting colours,
but the great requirement for a moving picture theatre is that the
paint shall be flat. It is not enough that it is said by the makers to
be flat. If there is the slightest gloss it will cause cross reflections.
Have the walls sand-papered.

A light tint that will economise lighting current and an 8 c.p. lamp
will be as effective as your 16 c.p. in an auditorium done in deep red
or brown. In some cases, tinted globes to match the colour scheme
will be striking, and for present purposes the tinting had better be
done at home. If you are careful not to get the colour on too thick
the diminution of light will not be excessive. You can obtain electric
lamp globe lacquering solution of almost any colour. In most cases,
the solution should be used far thinner than the directions indicate,
since you merely wish to tint your light, not to use the lamps for direct
display.

A good plan for a dark colour scheme is to have the panels in a
rich red border, with a border of a still darker shade, and have all
the plastic ornaments painted imitation walnut or mahogany. You
will then have one of the richest interiors that you can wish. When
you use green for your colours and borders, you can have the plastic
ornaments in either walnut or ebony colour. With brown coloured
walls, the plastic ornaments may well be imitation old gold or old
oxidised silver ; this combination would produce a rich and tasteful
interior.

For floor covering, it is becoming increasingly universal to use
a good carpeting instead of linoleum. There is something in the feel
of a velvet pile that sub-consciously suggests and conveys the impression
of luxury. It is hard to keep clean on muddy days, but it is worth
the care, and if you can afford it, it will pay. If carpet is too expen-
sive for the character of the house, use linoleum in solid colours for
the aisles, and have the rest of the floor of bare hardwood, well waxed,
but not to the point of slipperiness. Keeping the floor clean will then
be a comparatively easy matter.

THE SEATING AND FITTINGS.

There is only one form of seating that is worthy of consideration,
and that is the tip-up ; but there are tip-ups and tip-ups ! The

254 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

market has been flooded with a kind of gaspipe arrangement which
sells at four shillings, but beware of these and go to a reputable firm
who will supply seats which will stand the wear and tear, and you will
gain in the end. Among the many firms specialising in suitable seating
are Messrs. J. S. Lyon and Company, Lazarus and Company, Hampton
and Company, Maple and Company, Whiting and Bosisto, the Premier
Seating and Electrical Company, City Wholesale Cabinet Works,
Duf field and Company, A. R. Dean, Ltd., etc., etc.

It is well to have a centre, as well as two side aisles where floor
area permits. The sides can be used for entrance and the centre for
exits. Give as much space as possible between the rows of seats,
from 2ft. 6in. to 3ft. is a fair distance. The number of seats in a row
is, of course, dependent on the width of the hall.

The upholstery should be in keeping with the other decorations,
and a point should be made of having the seats and hangings carefully
brushed each morning before the hall is swept out.

HEATING AND VENTILATION.

These are two important points which many a manager overlooks*
If hot water pipes the acme of perfect heating are too expensive,
an excellent substitute will be found in the gas steam radiators now so
much in evidence at our places of amusement. They have the pre-
liminary advantage of a good reputation, being much in use and very
effective in their results. A big mistake is made in having the hall too
hot. People get sleepy and languid, lose interest in the pictures and
refuse to budge. You don't want them to occupy a comfortable seat
for the whole evening, and you don't wish them to say the pictures
(for it is always the pictures which get the blame) gave them a fearful
headache.

With regard to ventilation, too, many a manager thinks that by
creating a draught with a fan he is ventilating the hall, but he is really
only stirring up dust and other trouble. The best plan is to go to a
firm specialising in ventilation and let them handle the problem in
a systematic and professional manner. Such firms as the British
Westinghouse Company, the Sturtevarit Engineering Company, the
General Electric Company, etc., specialise in ventilation svstems for
buildings. Now we have the hall, the lobby and fittings, the seating,
ventilation, heating, and naturally the next item of importance is

THE SCREEN AND PROSCENIUM.

Time and again have we been asked to advise as to the best
material for the former important fitting of the hall, and, of course,
we have been solicited to give an opinion on patented screens, which
would be difficult to touch upon in this work. No screen at all is
wanted if you have a good, solid even wall, properly treated and kept

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 255

clean, but if you do have a screen, mind you get one of even texture,
and see that it is hung tautly. Many firms specialise in screens,
including the Tyler Apparatus Company, the Walturdaw Company,
Bulman and Partners, New Things, Ltd., Wilmot, Barnard and
Company, etc.

A screen, however, which is in front of the people all the time
must be something more than the bare white material on which the
films are to be presented. It should have an ornamental and artistic
bordering or curtain, with a row of plants at the foot, or grouped artis-
tically at each side. The best plan is to fix upon the amount you can
spend on plants for this and the lobby, and let the local florists tell
you the best they can provide at this figure. Of course, if you can
get them to do it in exchange for an advertisement in your program
or notices, saying " the Plants and Floral Decorations are provided
by" so much the better.

It is incumbent on the manager to get the best terms on his fire
policies, and to do this he should instal some of the approved auto-
matic fire sprinklers, hand grenades and fire buckets. Not only does
he effect economy on his insurance by so doing, but the public are
impressed by the precautions taken on their behalf.

DISINFECTING THE THEATRE.

Another feature which must not be lost sight of is the thorough
daily sweeping and cleansing of the theatre and its fittings. Very
much depends on this, and also upon the use of disinfectants. For
removing dust, nothing is better than one of the forms of vacuum
cleaner now on the market. Then, too, there are patent circular brush
brooms, as instance the " Bissell," and many others.

With regard to disinfectants, do not allow the use of strong
smelling, over-advertised materials, but use those which are really
capable of killing the bacteria and obnoxious putrefactive organisms
always deposited where people most do congregate.

The frequent spraying, too, of some of the scented disinfecting
essences not only helps in purifying the air, but the audience prefers
the flavour to the moist, perspiring odour only too frequently found in
our theatres. Among the devices for spraying may be mentioned
the vaporizer of the Tyler Apparatus Company. Some excellent
essences are manufactured for the purpose by F. J. Hyam, of Finsbury
Pavement.

How TO ADVERTISE.

Our remarks here must, of necessity, be of a limited nature, for
the field of possibilities can only te covered by an entire work on the
subject. The tactful and economic manager may be content with a
brilliant front and his personality to assist in making regular friends
and patrons of those who may be attracted inside by the exterior show.

256 HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGRAPHY.

But more than this is needed now that competition is so keen, and halls
are continually opened within a stone's throw of each other. Local
advertising is always more or less of a gamble, and before advertising
in the local press, posting the hoardings, or putting out sandwich
men, the wise manager will weigh up every argument for and against
each means of making his theatre known, and only indulge in those
likely to bring results to the box office. If he is advertising in the local
press, he should get all the news pars, puffs and write-ups it is possible
to obtain ; if posting bills on the hoardings, he should not be content
with the billposters' display, but see that only the best positions are
utilised for his announcements and if sandwich men are employed,
give them definite stations to be found at not too near the public
houses, for unless looked after carefully, more than half the time of
these individuals will be spent at the bar.

One suggestion we make which, as the result of practical experience
should be of value to those managers who have not adopted it. This
is, that every now and then, say once a month, an exceptional film
subject should be boomed as a special attraction. No matter who
supplies the film service, or on what basis it is arranged, some pre-
sumably rather extraordinary film of the startling kind now so often
announced in the KINEMATOGRAPH WEEKLY should be made much of,
and it should be presented with special music and effects, and featured
as a star attraction. This is a fine paying advertising instrument,
when carried out with proper preparations and announcement.

Another excellent method of keeping the public anxious to patron-
ise the show is occasionally to present some sort of souvenir, which
thus forms a permanent advertisement. Novelties which are shown
to friends because of their ingenuity ; illustrated booklets which are
taken home, and though inexpensive, are too good to throw away ;
picture postcards, and many other souvenirs are sprats to capture
shoals of mackerel, and the wise manager will ever be on the qui vive
to discover attractions in this direction.

PROGRAMS, SWEETS AND TEAS.

A program may cause a manager a good deal of work, but it should
not only become a paying proposition but a useful advertiser if made
attractive enough for the patron to take away with him. Brief
synopses of the films, taken from the KINEMATOGRAPH WEEKLY,
make excellent reading, and materially help the story of the pictures,
and add to the attractiveness of the program. Photographs of the
actors, too, can now be obtained from the film makers, and if used
in a program create a lively interest in the pictures.

The sale of chocolates and sweets is a profitable addition to the
returns if properly managed, and the inducement of a cup of good tea
leads many to visit the show who would not enter for the pictures
alone.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 257

THE STAFF AND OFFICIALS.

Great discretion should be used by the manager in engaging
those who are to assist him in running the hall, and a careful and com-
prehensive agreement not of too legal a nature is essential if matters
are to run smoothly.

We start first with that important, dignified and conspicuous
individual, the doorman, generally a huge commanding specimen of
manhood, resplendent in, say, blue and gold, who in stentorian tones
announces the " special " now showing, and in grandiose manner directs
his " captures " to the ticket office. A good man on the door is one
of the greatest acquisitions to the hall, and his duties do not end at
the entrance, for in the morning he takes his share in the cleaning
up, and as the last to leave at night, it is he that sees everything is
O.K. before finally locking the front door. His salary is anything
from 253. to 505. weekly, including uniform.

The cashier or pay box attendant is generally a lady of more or
less fascinating appearance and businesslike methods. She must be
quick at handling the cash, on the watch for bad coins, and able to
fill up the cash forms and slips at the end of each day. Her weekly
wages run from 125. 6d. to i, and considering the many cases where
she handles quite a goodly sum, her salary is not too remunerative.

Then at the door of the auditorium we run across the check taker,
chucker-out, messenger and general utility man. He is also in uniform
of a more subdued nature than our friend, the doorman, however. He
must be courteous and responsive to the many questions continually
thrust at him by those entering or leaving the theatre, and 255. is his
average weekly wage.

Once inside, the seat attendants, with their electric torches,
conduct us to our places, and their neat costumes and smart appear-
ance do much to keep up the prestige of the house. They must be
sufficiently attractive to be in keeping with the general style of the
show, but not so attractive as to warrant flirtation with every youth
who enters into conversation with them. If love making is allowed
to start it seems contagious, and the manager will find all his work
cut out to prevent every member of the staff giving more attention
to the pastime than to the work they were engaged for.

In many halls, the attendants sell programs and sweets, and add
to their los. or 155. weekly wage by a commision given on their sales.

It will be seen from this chapter that the manager's job is no
sinecure. He must be ever on the spot, at the beck and call of his
assistants ; ever on the alert for improvements in the performance ;
ver courteous to his numerous patrons, and ever in possession of a
manner calculated to surmount the many difficulties which con-
tinually crop up, even in the best regulated picture show.

2 5 8 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

CHAPTER IX.
THE LAW AND THE KINEMATOGRAPH.

Until the passing of the Cinematograph Act in 1909, which came
into operation January ist, 1910, the picture showman had a fairly
free hand in the conduct of his performances, but the powers which
this act gave to the various councils caused very stringent regulations
to be put into force, which, as circumstances and necessities have arisen,
have been materially added to and altered. In the following pages
we have not attempted to deal in extenso with the Act itself, but
have condensed the most important and essential points.

WHAT is THE CINEMATOGRAPH ACT, 1909 ?

The Act primarily is to make better provision for securing safety
at kinematograph exhibitions, and first provides against any motion
picture exhibition for which inflammable films are used, elsewhere than
in licensed premises, and unless the regulations of the Secretary of
State for securing safety are complied with.

It gives power to the county councils to grant yearly licenses for
that object, and to transfer such licenses. The applicant for the license
or transfer must give seven days' notice in writing to the county council
or chief police officer. The county council may grant, or renew
transfer, and may fix their charges at an amount not exceeding i
for a year, or in the case of a grant or renewal for any less period,
55. for every month for which it is granted.

THE PENALTIES.

The penalty if the owners use or allow to be used (or if the
occupier of any premises allows to be used) the premises contrary to
the provision of the Act, i a fine not exceeding 20, and in the case of
continuing the offence, a further penalty of 5 each day, and the
license may be revoked.

INSPECTION OF PREMISES.

The Act gives power to an officer appointed for the purpose to enter
the premises at reasonable times to see that the provisions of the Act
are complied with.

DELEGATION OF POWERS TO OTHER AUTHORITIES.

The council may delegate its powers to justices sitting in petty
sessions.

No LICENSE FOR OCCASIONAL USE.

It is not necessary to obtain a license for premises used only six
days in a year for a kinematograph show, but notices of such

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APHY. 259.

occasional shows must be given to the county council or chief police
officer, and these shows must conform with the regulations.

LICENSING TRAVELLING SHOWMEN.

Performances may be given in movable structures without a
license from the council of the county in which the performance is
to take place, as long as a license in respect of that building has been
obtained from the council of the county in which the owner ordinarily
resides, but two days' notice must be given to the council or chief
police officer, and the regulations must be complied with.

THE REGULATIONS OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE.

Thus, the Act vested the Secretary of State with powers to make
and enforce regulations to provide for safety in kinematograph exhibi-
tions. The first set of regulations was issued from the Home Office
on December 2oth, 1909, but these were amended and repealed on
February i8th, 1910, and these latter we give in extenso.

GENERAL.

1. In these regulations the word " building " shall be deemed to include
any booth, tent, or similar structure.

2. No building shall be used for kinematograph or other similar exhibitions
to which the Act applies, unless it be provided with an adequate number of
clearly indicated exits so placed and maintained as readily to afford the audience
ample means of safe egress.

The seating in the building shall be so arranged as not to interfere with free
access to the exits ; and the gangways and the staircases, and the passages
leading to the exits shall, during the presence of the public in the building,
be kept clear of obstructions.

3. The kinematograph operator and all persons responsible for or employed
in or in connection with the exhibition shall take all due precautions for the
prevention of accidents, and shall abstain from any act whatever which tends
to cause fire and is not reasonably necessary for the purpose of the exhibition.

FIRE APPLIANCES.

4. Fire appliances adequate for the protection of the building shall be pro-
vided, and shall include at least the following, namely, a damp blanket, two
buckets of water, and a bucket of dry sand. In a building used habitually for
the purpose of kinematograph or other similar exhibitions they shall also' include
a sufficient number of hand grenades or other portable fire-extinguishers.

The fire appliances shall be so disposed that there shall be sufficient means
of dealing with fire readily available for use within the enclosure. Before the
commencement of each performance, the kinematograph operator shall satisfy
himself that the fire appliances intended for use within the enclosure are in working
order, and during the performance, such appliances shall be in the charge of
some person specially nominated for that purpose who shall see that they are
kept constantly available for use.
ENCLOSURES.

Regulations applying in all cases and to all classes of buildings.

5. (i) (a.) The kinematograph apparatus shall be placed in an enclosure
of substantial construction made of or lined internally with fire-resisting material
and of sufficient dimensions to allow the operator to work freely.

(6.) The entrance to the enclosure shall be suitably placed and shall be fitted
with a self-closing close-fitted door constructed of fire-resisting material.

260 HANDBOOK OF KINEMATOGRAPHY.

(c.) The openings through which the necessary pipes and cables pass into the
enclosure shall be efficiently bushed.

(d.) The openings in the front face of the enclosure shall not be larger than
is necessary for effective projection, and shall not exceed two for each lantern.
Each such opening shall be fitted with a screen of fire- resisting material, which
can be released both inside and outside the enclosure so that it automatically
closes with a close-fitting joint.

(e.) The door of the enclosure and all openings, bushes and joints shall be so
constructed and maintained as to prevent, so far as possible, the escape of any
smoke into the auditorium. If means of ventilation are provided, they shall
not be allowed to communicate direct with the auditorium.

(/.) If the enclosure is inside the auditorium, either a suitable barriers hall be
placed round the enclosure at a distance of not less than two feet from it, or other
effectual means shall be taken to prevent the public from coming into contact
with the enclosure.

(g.) No unauthorised person shall go into the enclosure or be allowed to be
within the barrier.

(h.) No smoking shall at any time be permitted within the barrier or enclosure.

(i.) No inflammable article shall unnecessarily be taken into or allowed to
remain in the enclosure.

Regulations applying only to specified classes of buildings.

(2) In the case of buildings used habitually for kinematograph or other similar
exhibitions, the enclosure shall be placed outside the auditorium ; and in the
case of permanent buildings used habitually as aforesaid the enclosure shall
also be permanent.

Provided, with regard to the foregoing requirements, that, if the licensing
authority is of opinion that compliance with either or both of them is imprac-
ticable or in the circumstances unnecessary for securing safety and shall have
stated such opinion by express words in the license, the requirement or require-
ments so specified shall not apply.

LANTERNS, PROJECTORS AND FILMS.

6. Lanterns shall be placed on firm supports constructed of fire-resisting
material, and shall be provided with a metal shutter which can be readily inserted
between the source of light and the film-gate.

The film-gate shall be of massive construction and shall be provided with
ample heat-radiating surface. The passage for the film shall be sufficiently
narrow to prevent flame travelling upwards or downwards from the light-opening.

7. Kinematograph projectors shall be fitted with two metal film-boxes of
substantial construction, and not more than fourteen inches in diameter, inside
measurement, and to and from these the film shall be made to travel. The film-
boxes shall be made to close in such a manner, and shall be fitted with a film-slot
so constructed, as to prevent the passage of flame to the interior of the box.

8. Spools shall be chain or gear driven and films shall be wound upon spools
so that the wound film shall not at any time reach or project beyond the edges
of the flange of the spool.

9. During the exhibition all films when not in use shall be kept in closed
metal boxes.

LIGHTING.

10. Where the general lighting of the auditorium and exits can be controlled
from within the enclosure, there shall be also separate and independent means
of control outside and away from the enclosure.

11. No illuminant other than electric light or limelight shall be used within
the lantern.

Electric Light.

12. (a.) Within the enclosure the insulating material of all electric cables,
including " leads " to lamps, shall be covered with fire-resisting material.

(b.) There shall be no unnecessary slack electric cable within the enclosure.
The " leads" to the kinematograph lamp shall, unless conveyed within a metal

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APHY. 261

pipe or other suitable casing, be kept well apart both within and without the
enclosure and shall run so that the course of each may be readily traced.

(c.) Cables for kinematograph lamps shall be taken as separate circuits from
the source of supply and from the supply side of the main fuses in the general
lighting circuit, and there shall be efficient switches and fuses inserted at the
point where the supply is taken, and in addition, an efficient double-pole switch
shall be fitted in the kinematograph lamp circuit inside the enclosure. When
the kinematograph lamp is working, the pressure of the current across the terminals
of the double-pole switch inside the enclosure shall not exceed no volts.

(d.) Resistances shall be made entirely of fire-resisting material, and shall
be so constructed and maintained that no coil or other part shall at any time
become unduly heated.* All resistances, with the exception of a resistance
for regulating purposes, shall be placed outside the enclosure, and if reasonably
practicable, outside the auditorium. If inside the auditorium, they shall be
adequately protected by a wire guard of other efficient means of preventing
accidental contact.

The operator shall satisfy himself before the commencement of each perfor-
mance that all cables, leads, connections and resistances are in proper working
order. The resistances, if not under constant observation, shall be inspected
at least once during each performance. If any fault is detected, the current
shall be immediately switched off, and shall remain switched off until the fault
has been remedied.

Limelight.

13. (a.) If limelight be used in the lantern the gas cylinders shall be tested
and filled in conformity with the requirements set out in the Appendix hereto.
The tubing shall be of sufficient strength to resist pressure from without and shall
be properly connected up.

(b.) No gas shall be stored or used save in containers constructed in accordance
with the requirements contained in the Appendix.

LICENSES.

14. Every license granted under the Act shall contain specific conditions
for the carrying out of regulations 2 and 5 (i) (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (/) in the
building for which the license is granted, and may in accordance with the regula-
tion 5 (2), contain an expression of opinion on the matters referred to in the
proviso thereto.

15. Subject to the provisions of No. 16 of these regulations, every license
granted under the Act shall contain a clause providing for its lapse, or, alterna-
tively, by its revocation by the licensing authority, if any alteration is made in
the building or the enclosure without the sanction of the said authority.

1 6. Where a license has been granted under the Act in respect of a moveable
building, a plan and description of the building, certified with the approval of
the licensing authority, shall be attached to the license. Such a license may
provide that any of the conditions or restrictions contained therein may be
modified either by the licensing authority or by the licensing authority of the
district where an exhibition is about to be given. The license and plan and
description or any of them shall be produced on demand to any police constable
or to any person authorised by the licensing authority or by the authority in
whose district the building is being or is about to be used for the purpose of an
exhibition.

17. The regulations dated December 2oth, 1909, made under the Cinemato-
graph Act, 1909, are hereby repealed, provided, nevertheless, that any license
granted prior to such repeal shall remain valid for the period for which it "was
granted without the imposition of any more stringent condition than may have
been imposed at the time of the grant.

*e.g., they shall not become so heated that a piece of newspaper placed in contact
with any part of the resistance would readily ignite.

262 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

APPENDIX.

LIMELIGHT.

The gas cylinders shall be tested and filled in conformity with the requirements
set out below, which follow the recommendations of the Departmental Committee
of the Home Office on the Manufacture of Compressed Gas Cylinders (C. 7952
of 1896.) :

Cylinders of Compressed Gas (Oxygen, Hydrogen or Coal Gas.)

(a) Lap-welded wrought iron. Greatest working pressure, 120 atmos-
pheres, or i, 800 Ibs, per square inch.

Stress due to working pressure not to exceed 6| tons per square inch.

Proof pressure in hydraulic test, after annealing, 224 atmospheres
or 3,360 Ibs. per square inch.

Permanent stretch in hydraulic test not to exceed 10 per cent, of the
elastic stretch.

One cylinder in fifty to be subjected to a statical bending test, and to
stand crushing nearly flat between two rounded knife-edges without
cracking.

(b) Lap-welded or seamless steel. Greatest working pressure, 120 atmos-
pheres, or i, 800 Ibs. per square inch.

Stress due to working pressure not to exceed y| tons per square inch
in lap-welded, or 8 tons per square inch in seamless cylinders.

Carbon in steel not to exceed 0.25 per cent, or iron to be less than
99 per cent.

Tenacity of steel not to be less than 26 or more than 33 tons per square
inch. Ultimate elongation not less than 1.2 inches in 8 inches. Test
bar to be cut from finished annealed cylinder.

Proof pressure in hydraulic test, after annealing, 224 atmospheres,
or 3.360 Ibs. per square inch.

Permanent stretch shown by water jacket not to exceed 10 per cent,
of elastic stretch.

One cylinder in fifty to be subjected to a statical bending test, and
to stand crushing nearly flat between rounded knife-edges without
cracking.

Regulations applicable to all Cylinders.

Cylinders to be marked with a rotation number, a manufacturer's or
owner's mark, an annealing mark with date, a test mark with date. The
marks to be permanent and easily visible.

Testing to be repeated at least every two years, and annealing at least
every four years.

A record to be kept of all tests.

Cylinders which fail in testing to be destroyed or rendered useless.

Hydrogen and coal gas cylinders to have left-handed threads for attach-
ing connections and to be painted red.

The compressing apparatus to have two pressure gauges, and an auto-
matic arrangement for preventing overcharging. The compressing
apparatus for oxygen to be wholly distinct and unconnected with the
compressing apparatus for hydrogen and coal gas.

Cylinders not to be refilled till they have been emptied.

If cylinders are sent out unpacked the valve fittings should be protected
by a steel cap.

A minimum weight to be fixed for each size of cylinder in accordance
with its required thickness. Cylinders of less weight to be rejected.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 263

NON-INFLAMMABLE FlLMS.

It will be seen, therefore, that where non-inflammable film is
used, the Act and Regulations in no way apply ; and in several cases
this point has been tested, but the results have not been entirely satis-
factory, as the onus of proving that the film was in no way inflammable
was fixed on the user, who, in several instances, failed to prove con-
clu ively to th3 magistrates that the film would not burn.

APPLICATIONS FOR LICENSES.
The following is the form used in applying for a license.

ADMINISTRATIVE COUNTY OF LONDON.

CINEMATOGRAPH ACT, 1909 (9 Edw. VII., Ch. 39).
APPLICATION FOR LICENSE

, 19...-

(a) Insert Christian I, the undersigned, (a)

name and surname residing at (6)

of applicant . (c)

(b) Insert place of hereby give notice that at the expiration of seven days I
residence. intend to apply for a License for a Kinematograph Exhibi-
*(c) State whether tion to be carried on within the premises called or known

applicant is occupier as

of the premises and situated at

or owner of in the Metropolitan Borough of

apparatus. and in the Metropolitan Police District of (d)

(d) Insert letter of The Exhibition to be held for a period of

Police Division. commencing on

Signature of Applicant.
To

The Clerk of the London County Council,
County Hall,

Spring Gardens, S.W.

* Except in the case of an occasional license the application must be made by
the occupier of the premises. Where the premises are in the occupation of a
company or syndicate the application should be made by the Secretary or Manager
and the address of the registered offices of the company should be stated.
NOTE. Notice should be given to the Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis,
New Scotland Yard, S.W., or if the premises sought to be licensed are
situated within the City of London, to the Commissioner of Police for
the City of London, 26, Old Jewry, E. C.

We give hereunder the form in which the license is granted :
ADMINISTRATIVE COUNTY OF LONDON.

Cinematograph Act, 1909 (9 Edw. VII., Ch. 30.)

WHEREAS

of .

has duly given the notices prescribed by sub-section 4 of section 2 of the Cinema-
tograph Act, 1909, the London County Council, in pursuance of the provisions

of section 2 of the said Act, hereby grants this Licence to the said

...~. to use the premises called or known as

...and situated at...

264 HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

for the exhibition of pictures or other optical effects by means of a kinematograph
or other similar apparatus for the purposes of which inflammable films are used.
Such exhibition to be subject to the regulations of the Secretary of State for
securing safety and on the terms and conditions and under the restrictions fol-
lowing, viz.

1. That the period during which such license shall remain in force

shall be from the day 'of

, 19..., unless previously revoked in pursuance of the

provisions of the above-mentioned Act.

2. That the premises be not opened on Sundays, Christmas Day or
Good Friday for kinematograph entertainments.

3. That in the event of any alteration being made in the building or
enclosure without the sanction of the Council having been first obtained
the license will be liable to be revoked by the Council.

4. That all the exits be indicated by notices clearly painted to the
satisfaction of the Council over the doors or openings at a height of at least
6 feet nine inches above the floor.

5. That each exit door or opening do have a distinct light fitted
over it to illuminate the exit notice, and that such light be on a different
system from the main lighting of the building, and be maintained through-
out the performance.

6. That all exitways, corridors, passages and staircases affording
means of egress from the premises be efficiently lighted by two independent
systems of lighting during the whole time the public are on the premises.

7. That all exit doors, if fastened during the time the public are in
the building, be secured during such time by automatic bolts only of a
pattern and in a position to be approved by the Council, and do have a
notice clearly painted on them indicating the method of opening.

8. That the management do allow the public to leave by all exit and
entrance doors, which must open outwards.

9. That the seating be set out so that there shall be a space of at least
i foot in depth between the front of one seat and the back of the next
measured between perpendiculars and that where chairs are used they be
battened together in lengths of not less than 4 or more than 12 chairs.

10. That all curtains covering doors or in passages be hung on sliding
rings and so as not trail on the ground and be parted in the centre.

11. That persons be not permitted to stand or sit in any of the inter-
secting gangways, and, if standing be permitted in the gangways at the
sides and rear of the seating, sufficient room be left for persons to pass
easily to and fro.

PICTURE SHOWS ON SUNDAY.

The London County Council, having been given power to enforce
these Regulations of the Secretary of State, were bold enough to take
full advantage of Clause 2 of the Act, which states that they " may
grant licenses to such persons as they think fit to use the premises
specified in the license for the purposes aforesaid on such terms and
conditions and under such restrictions as, subject to regulations of the
Secretary of State, the Council may by the respective licenses deter-
mine."

Sunday was one of the most profitable days the showman had,
and representations were made and much discussion took place until
finally the London County Council issued the following manifesto,
which naturally sets the precedent for other licensing bodies to follow.

HANDBOOK OF KINEMATOGRAPHY. 265

LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL.

SUNDAY CINEMATOGRAPH ENTERTAINMENTS.

The Council on nth April, 1911, considered the question of Sunday enter-
tainments at premises licensed by it for cinematograph exhibitions, and decided
that applications for permission to use premises licensed by the Council under
the Cinematograph Act, 1909, for Cinematograph Entertainments on Sunday
or other days prohibited by the license, be considered only when the entertain-
ments will be given by recognised societies or organisations unconnected with
the premises concerned, and only when accompanied by a copy of the agreement
between the licensee and the society or organisation proposing to give the enter-
tainments, and by a joint undertaking, signed by the licensee and by a responsible
officer of the society or organisation in question, to the effect that :

1. The entertainments will be of a healthy and elevating character,
and properly conducted and not for private gain or by way of trade.

2. The name of the society or organisation giving the entertainments
will be exhibited in a conspicuous position outside the premises.

3. No performance shall begin before 6 p.m., or finish later than n
p.m.

4. The licensee or his servants will have nothing to do with the arrange-
ments for the entertainments, (e.g., the engagement of operators or
employees) beyond being responsible to the Council for the observance
of its regulations.

5. No person shall be employed on Sunday who has been employed
in connection with the cinematograph entertainments for each of the
previous six days.

6. The society or organisation will by its duly appointed representative
pay to each employee his or her wages for the Sunday, and such repre-
sentative shall not be the licensee or any of his employees, or any person
officially connected with the licensed premises.

7. The signature of each employee will be obtained each Sunday by
the duly appointed representative of the society or organisation giving
the entertainments to a wages sheet containing the following particulars :
names and addresses of the employees, the capacity in which each serves,
the wages for the week, excluding Sunday, the agreed wages for the
Sunday, and a statement that each employee works voluntarily on the
Sunday and without pressure from the management and such wages
sheet must be signed when completed by the representative of the society
or organisation.

8. An audited balance sheet giving full details of the receipts and
expenditure for each Sunday will be submitted to the Council by the repre-
sentative of the society or organisation giving the entertainments at the
end of each four weeks, and there shall be forwarded with the balance
sheets the wages sheets referred to in condition (7).

9. The rules required to be observed on week days for securing the
safety of the audience will be complied with.

10. The licensee and the heads of the society or organisation will
hold themselves responsible for seeing that the undertaking given to the
Council is adhered to.

In any case in which it appears from the agreement that the sum proposed
to be paid for the hire of the hall is greater than is necessary to cover one-seventh
of the weekly expenditure fdr rent, rates, taxes, etc., and the actual out-of-
pocket expenses, such as cost of lighting and heating the premises, damage and
depreciation to building, hire of films, etc., the application will be refused on

266 HANDBOOK OF K I NE MA TOGRAPH Y.

the grounds that the proposal is inconsistent with the condition that the enter-
tainments shall not be for private gain or by way of trade.

In order, therefore, to enable the Council to come to a decision on an appli-
cation, there should be forwarded with the copy of the agreement referred to
above, a statement of the annual expenditure on rent, rates and taxes, on the
lighting and heating of the premises, and on any other items covered by the pay-
ment to be made for the use of the premises.

Music IN PICTURE THEATRES.

Under an act of George II. The Disorderly Houses Act no
musical entertainment can be given unless the premises have
been duly licensed fcr that purpose.

Pictures require the enlivening influence of music to increase
their attractiveness, and many showmen, on the plea that a piano or
gramophone was a subsidiary part of the performance, introduced
automatic musical instruments, only to find that the law quickly
stepped in and prohibited their use. There is still a doubt as to the
legal position, and the exhibitors who desire to keep clear of the
" myrmidons of the law " would do well to save the expense of ultimate
legislation, and apply to the licensing authorities for the license.

The form issued by the London County Council is as follows :

ADMINISTRATIVE COUNTY OF LONDON.

MUSIC, MUSIC AND DANCING, AND STAGE PLAYS LICENSES.

APPLICATION FOR LICENSE.

(a) Insert" Music" FOR A (a) LICENSE

or " Music and Dane- 1911.

ing, "or" Stage Plays".

(b) Insert Christ- I, the undersigned, (6)

ii an and Surname of (c)

of applicant. hereby give notice that I intend to apply, under the pro-

(c) Insert place visions of the Statutes 25 Geo. II., chap. 36, or 6 and 7
of residence. Viet., chap. 68, and 51 and 52 Viet., chap. 41, to the London

County Council for a License for (a)

to be carried on within the house

or premises, situated at

and known as the in

(d) In the cases the Metropolitan Borough of (d)

of the City of London in the London County Council Electoral Division of

and the City of and in the Metropolitan Police Division (e)

Westminster, strike and now in my occupation ; and I further give notice that
out the words" Metro- such application will be made at a meeting of the Theatres
politan Borough " and Music Halls Committee of the said Council, to be
and insert the word held on or about the nth day of November next.

" City."

(e) Insert letter of
Police Division.

Signature of Applicant.

N.B. The Council does not recognise any special agent or other intermediary
in regard to applications made for licenses or the transfer of licenses. No charge
is made by the Council in respect of any such application.

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGR APHY. 267

The license when granted, reads as follows :
ADMINISTRATIVE COUNTY OF LONDON.

WE, THE LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL, at a Meeting holden in and for
the said Administrative County of London, on the Twenty-fifth day of November,
1910, Do, by Virtue of the Power given us by the " Disorderly Houses Act,
1751 " (as amended by the " Public Entertainments Act, 1875 ") and " The

Local Government Act, 1888 " HEREBY license

(hereinafter called the " Licensee ") to keep a certain House or Place called...

in the said County for public MUSIC to the

end of the Meetings of the said Council, sitting for the purpose of granting and
refusing Licenses, in the ensuing year of 1911. The Licensee to take care,
as far as in h... lies, that no disorders be committed within the said House or
Place, and that nothing contrary to Sobriety, Decency and Good Manners be
exhibited, represented or transacted therein ; and that... he... do not suffer any
of the aforesaid Entertainments after midnight ; and that ...he do not open the
said House or Place on the Lord's Day (commonly called Sunday), nor on Christ-
mas Day, Good Friday, nor on any day of Solemn Fast and Humiliation which
now is or hereafter shall be by lawful authority appointed ; and ...he do in all
things conduct the said House or Place decently, soberly, and orderly, according
to the true Intent and Meaning of this License, and of the said Acts of Parlia-
ment. PROVIDED NEVERTHELESS that the Licensee, in order to give public
Notice that the Said House or Place is so licensed as aforesaid, Do affix and keep
up in some Notorious Place over the Door or Entrance thereof, an Inscription in
Large Capital Letters in the words following : " LICENSED PURSUANT TO ACT
OF PARLIAMENT OF THE TWENTY-FIFTH OF KING GEORGE THE SECOND." AND
provided LIKEWISE that the said House or Place so licensed as aforesaid shall
not be opened for any of the said purposes on any Day whatever, before the
hour of noon.

GIVEN under the Seal of the said Council at the said Meeting on the said
Twenty-fifth Day of November, 1910.

Clerk of the Council.

By the Second Section of the " Disorderly Houses Act, 1751," it is directed
that no Fee or Reward shall be taken for this License.

This License shall remain in force from its date to the end of the Meetings
of the London County Council, sitting for the purpose of granting and refusing
Licenses, in the next ensuing year of 1911.

Subject to the undertaking which I hereby give :

AN AGREEMENT WITH THE MANAGER.

It is always advisable for all parties concerned that proprietors
should have definite and concise agreements with managers, operators,
and other employees. To use a stereotyped form of agreement is
unwise, as the local requirements and individual needs in each case
should be dealt with by a specially drawn agreement. As some guide
t ) the form used, we give hereunder a form used by many companies:

MANAGER S AGREEMENT.

AN AGREEMENT made the day of 1911

between of

(hereinafter called " the Company ") of the one part and

of (hereinafter called " the

Manager ") of the other part WHEREBY it is agreed as follows :

268 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y.

1. The Company shall employ the Manager and the Manager shall serve
the Company as working Manager of the Company's business carried on at

for a period of calendar months from the

day of , and the Manager's employment may be determined on the

day of next by either the Company or Manager giving to

the other one calendar month's previous notice in writing. The Manager's

remuneration shall be per week payable weekly, the first payment to

be made on the day of and the Manager shall also be

entitled to a bonus of Five per centum of the net profits of the business divisible
as dividends earned by the said company in each month and such bonus shall
be paid within 5 days of the end of each month and the Certificate of the Com-
pany's auditor shall be conclusive evidence of the amount of such net profits
and of the proportion thereof to which the Manager is entitled. The Manager
shall be entitled to a proportional part of such bonus at the termination of his
employment.

2. If at any time during his employment the Manager shall be guilty of
misconduct or in any way whatever pledge the credit of the Company or shall
neglect to give adequate time and personal attention to the said business or shall
neglect to open punctually and carry on efficiently the entertainments to be
given by the Company or shall fail to maintain good order and discipline amongst
the staff and to keep the premises clean and in good order or shall neglect or
disobey any lawful orders or directions of the directors then the directors may
determine his employment without notice and without being liable for any claim
for compensation by reason of such determination.

3. The Manager shall so far as possible personally attend to the said business
at all times during the usual business hours and shall also personally exhibit as
far as possible all pictures and films and shall give such attention to the working
of the engine and other apparatus as is consistent with the efficient projection
of the pictures.

4. Subject to such orders and directions as may from time to time be given
to him by the directors through their Secretary (all which orders and directions
the Manager shall promptly and faithfully obey observe and comply with)
the Manager shall have the general control and management of the said business
and of all persons employed in and about the same and shall use all proper means
in his power to protect and further the interests of the Company PROVIDED
THAT :

(a) . The Manager shall not engage any employee without the sanction
of the Directors.

(b) No goods shall be ordered for or in the name of the said Company
except upon the Company's printed order form countersigned by the
Secretary and no goods shall be paid for by the Manager except such as
may be authorised by the Directors to be paid for out of petty cash.

5. Upon the determination from whatever cause of his employment the
Manager will not at any time 'or for any purpose use the name of the Company
or any information concerning the Company to its detriment or so as to in any
way injure the business of the Company.

6. In case the Manager is prevented by illness or personal accident from
performing his duties and shall furnish the Directors with such evidence thereof
as may be satisfactory to them he shall receive his salary in full for the first two
weeks and half his salary for the two succeeding weeks during such incapacity
and if he is incapacitated for longer than four weeks the Directors shall have power
to determine his employment and he shall not be entitled to claim any compen-
sation from the Company in respect of such determination.

AS WITNESS, etc.,

Is A LICENSE NEEDED FOR AN OPEN AIR SHOW?

In the Regulations, the definition of the term " building " is
given as including " a booth, tent, or similar structure/' therefore we

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y. 269

thought it advisable in the interests of the trade to take counsel's
opinion as to whether the word ' premises ' could be made to include
land in the sense of an open field. We regret to find that it does so
and print below counsel's opinion to this effect.

" In our opinion the Act is clear. A kinematograph exhi-
bition may not (when inflammable films are used) be given
elsewhere than in premises licensed for the purpose. The
popular meaning of the word ' premises ' includes land, and if
it did not an exhibition given on unlicensed land would certainly
be given ' elsewhere than in premises licensed.' The fact that
the regulations framed under the Act deal wholly, or, as we
should say, chiefly with buildings, cannot qualify the Act.
The requirements in the case of an open air exhibition may be
merely nominal, but the need for the license is not dispensed
with."

THE WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION ACT.

Showmen are responsible for accidents to employees who do not
receive more than 250 per annum. This does not apply to casual
workers, but it would apply to a woman who was engaged to clean
windows, say, every Friday, because, being employed every ^riday, the
work is not casual. Further, the Act treats certain diseases arising
in the course of employment as accidents. Fortunately, a very easy,
and all things considered, economical solution is at hand in the form
of insurance of employees.

THE CHILDREN'S ACT, 1908.

There is only one section applying to showmen, and it is due,
without doubt, to the fact that an accident happened from the faulty
construction of a staircase. The section applying is 121, and is wedged
into the statute. But it only applies where the majority of the audience
are children, at which some, at least, reach their seats by way of a
stair-case, and even then the children are to exceed one hundred in
number, when three attendants should be provided for each hundred.

Is LAVATORY ACCOMMODATION COMPULSORY.

Section 36 of the Public Health Act allows the local authority
to require that the occupier or owner of a house which has not sufficient
lavatory accommodation in the shape of water closets, shall provide
such water closets. But the question is, what does the section mean
by the term " house " ? Section 4 defines house to include schools,
factories and other buildings in which persons are employed. One
of the best text books states "it is presumed that the term would
signify any building in which persons are employed." It is quite
certain that persons are employed in places of entertainment, and the
proprietors are bound to supply sanitary conveniences for such persons
and also for artistes whom they may employ.

270 HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y.

SHOWMEN LIABLE FOR ACCIDENT TO PATRONS.

A showman is compelled to take every precaution for the care
and safety of those visiting his show, but still accidents continue to
happen. Here is a case which came recently to our notice : A
person, a woman, had been visiting a show, and upon leaving, stumbled
over a step and fractured a leg. This step was in a side passage,
and the passage was fairly well lighted. She stated it was not lighted
at all ! She brought an action claiming 40 for injuries and 16 special
damages ; four weeks at seaside, 10 ; new dress, 4 ; special nourish-
ment, wine, beef tea, chicken, etc., 2. In all 56. Most motion
picture shows are given in the dark, and the question is, under the
circumstances, did the woman willingly expose herself to the risk of
walking along a dark passage ? If she knew of the danger and ran
into it of her own accord, she cannot recover. But this case is somewhat
wider. The woman fell in a fairly well-lit passage. Moderate lighting
is a wise precaution, because if too well lie, a person coming out of
the show into a sudden glare cannot see at all is really more or less
blind for a few moments. Accidents often happen from such causes.
Before she could recover she must prove that the showman was neg-
ligent. If the case went for trial, the showman's possible negligence
would be that he did not station an attendant at the top or near the
step to call out : " Mind the step/'

How LONG MAY FILMS BE RETAINED ON APPROVAL.

Manufacturers of film subjects have had many abuses played
upon them by unscrupulous showmen. One of the worst is obtaining
films on approval, making use of them for show purposes and returning
them in three or four days as not suitable for their requirements.
This treatment has caused several County Court actions, and in these
the general opinion has been expressed that films retained for more
than twenty-four hours have been purchased. Judge Woodfall,
however, stopped a case in February, 1910, brought by the Nordisk
Films Company against the New Film Hiring Company, Limited. He
considered the case rested on two alternative grounds : whether the
film sent on the Saturday and not returned on the Monday constituted
a sale, or whether there was a clear case of sale at any time. He
admitted the sending back of certain films was in the plaintiff's favour,
but as the managers of the defendant company had both denied buying,
he must assume the other alternative, viz., the acceptance by the time
the film was kept. To that His Honour contended no evidence had
been given to prove that such a custom prevailed, and that the twenty-
four hours' approval limit was not binding without an individual contract
being entered into and was honoured as much in the breach as in obser-.
vance.

DOES A PICTURE SHOW CONSTITUTE A FACTORY.

Several summonses have been taken against showmen under the
Factory and Workshops Act. In one case at Burnley, a visitor

HANDBOOK OF K I X E M ATOGR AP H Y. 271

entered the room where the proprietors generate their own electric
supply, and became entangled in the machinery with fatal results.
The summons was brought under the Factory and Workshops Act,
the prosecution contending that the premises came within the scope
of that measure on account of the arc lamps overhanging the streets.
The Home Office inspector explained that an engine used to generate
electricity for the purpose of lighting a public place, street, or thorough-
fare, came within the meaning of the Act. The company denied
that on the night the accident happened, the arcs were lit, and
eventually the case was dismissed on payment of costs. As a matter
of fact, there is no doubt that where generating sets afe used, the
Factory Act applies. In the case of shows where motor generators
(or transformers) are installed, however, we have thought it worth
while to be at some considerable trouble to get the authoritative opinion
of the Home Office as to how such shows stood with regard to the
Factory Act.

In the end and after the customary delay and red tape which was
to be expected in a direct appeal to the head authority, we have been
successful in our efforts. Moreover, the true state of the case as
regards showmen installing motor generators turns out to be par-
ticularly interesting. It is this :

Where the converter is used for transforming down for the kine-
matograph arc only it does not place the show under the Factory Act.

Where used for general hall or show front lighting in addition
to supplying current for the projection arc, a rotary converter does
bring the showman under the factory regulations.

FIG. 184. POSING FOR THE CAMERA IN EAST AFRICA.

Printed and Published

E. T. HERON & Co.,

9-11 Tottenham Street,

London, W.

1912.

There is only one outfit."

PATHE'S IMPERIAL OUTFIT

GET IT

AND

SMILE.

"All Steel" Projector with "Mallet" Spool Boxes

and Automatic Cut- Off, direct drive take-up, Lens,
complete ... ... 19 1O O

Adjustable Iron Table ... ... ... ... ... 3 12 O

Lantern with ^ Cone and Condenser ... ... ... 4 O O

Arc Lamps, 70 amps. ... ... ... ... ... 4 1O O

Special Lantern Lens support with Lens and Horizontal Slide Carrier 2 5 O

Motor with Resistance ... ... ... ... ... 4 1O O

Rheostats, Switchboards, etc., at proportionate prices.

PATHE FRERES CINEMA, LTD., (Machine Dept.)
84 WARDOUR STREET, LONDON, W.

Telephone 8532 Gerrard. Telegraphic Address " Pathegraph, London."

Every Thing BIOSCOPIC.

Jet Fittings

Limelight Jets

Lantern Bodies for
Cinematographs

Lantern Objectives

Lenses for Cinemato-
graphic Cameras

Lenses for Condensers

Lime Holders

Limelight Jet

Accessories

Limelight Tongs and
Borers

Limes

Machine Oil

Mechanical Trays

Metallic Tubing

Motor Generators

Motors

For,

Acetylene Generators
Acetylene Jets
Adaptors

Adjustable Resistance
Ammeter

Announcement Slides
Arc Lamps
Auto-Converters
Bioscope Cameras and

Accessories

Bioscope Lantern Bodies
Bioscope Lens Cylinders
Bioscope Mechanisms
Bioscope Objectives
Bioscope Stands
Bioscope Travelling

Cases

Bi-unial Lanterns
Cables

Camera Tripod Stands
Carbons
Carriers
Carrying Cases for

Spools

Cinematophone
Condensers
Curtains Lantern
Cut-Off and Dissolver
Cutting Pliers
Cylinder Keys
Effect Machines
Ejector Jets
Electric Flame Arc

Lamps

Electric Light Plant
Electric Motors
Ether Saturators
Films
Film Cement

Multifocal-Objectives

Nipples

Opaque Screens
Operating Boxes
Oxygen Cylinders

Paint (Fireproof)

Perforator

Posters

Regulators

Resistances

Revolving Head Camera

Rheostats

Russian Iron Lantern

Screen -Supports

Screens

Screw Down Valves

Singing Pictures

Spare Parts for Arc
Lamps

Spare Parts for
Bioscopes

Spool Cases

Spool Winders

Stands for

Cinematographs

Stand for Cinemato-
graph Cameras

Switchboards

Synchroniser

Theatrical Box Limelight

Tinters

Title Slides

Transformers

Transit- Boxes

Travelling Cases

Trays

Tripod Stands

Tubing

T-Connections

Voltmeters

Film Measuring

Machines
Film Menders
Film Perforators
Film Printers
Film Spacing
Film Spool Winders
Film Spools
Film Winders
Fine Adjustment Valves
Fireproof Spool Boxes
Fuse Boxes
Gas Connectors and

Adaptors
Gas Regulators
Gauges

Oxygen Generators
Hydrogen Generators
Iron Houses

We Stock Everything Listed.

HANDBOOK OF KINEMATOGRAPHY.

Size of Carbons for Projector Arcs.

CONTINUOUS CURRENT.

CURRENT IN AMPS.

LOWER SOLID CARBON

TOP CARBON CORED

10-15

10 m/m

13 m/m

15-25

25-40

13 ,.

35-50

*4 *.

20 ,,

40-60

6O-IOO

ALTERNATING CURRENT.

CURRENT IN AMPS.

TOP AND BOTTOM CARBONS BOTH CORED

15-25

10 m/m.

20-35

13 ,,

30-40

35-50

45-65 20 , ! ,

6o-8o 22 ,,

75-100

Table of Fuse Wires.

APPROXIMATE
FUSING CURRENT

IN AMPS.

APPROXIMATE STANDARD WIRE GAUGE

TIN

LEAD

COPPER

2 5

Strip fuses above

this gauge

100

120

NOTE. The full normal load on a fuse should be two-thirds of
its fusing load. For projector arcs, however, it is wise to allow a margin
of 50 per cent., or double the current between full and fusing load.
Always use copper wire for arc fuses.

THE SILENT EMPIRE

No. 12.

PERFECT ...
PROJECTION.

STEADY AS
A LANTERN
SLIDE AND
AS FLICK-
ERLESS.

Write for the
Empire Kine-
matograph
Manual giving
complete spec-
ification of this
Projector and
other models,
also particu-
lars of electri-
cal and lime-
lightapparatus
and everything
pertaining t o
Kinemato-
graphy

W. BUTCHEfi & SONS, LTD.,

The Showman's Headquarters for everything Appertaining to Cinematography

CAMERA HOUSE, FARRINGDON AVENUE, LONDON, E.G.

Studio and Works: LEE, S.E.
Telegrams: "England, London." Telephones: 5995, 5996, 5997, 5998 Holborn.

Agents for Australia : Messrs. JERDANS, Ltd., 393 GEORGE STREET, SYDNEY.
Agents for New Zealand : JOHN FULLER & SONS, WELLINGTON, N.Z.

HANDBOOK OF KINE M A TOGRAPH Y.

Synopsis of Chapters.

CHAPTER

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
10

12
13

PART 1.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINCIPLE ...

KlNEMATOGRAPH CAMERA

CHOICE OF A CAMERA KIT...
IN THE FIELD. SCENIC WORK

TOPICALS

THE DARK ROOM

DEVELOPMENT

POSITIVE MAKING OR PRINTING ...

TINTING, TONING AND TITLING POSITIVES

THE AFTER-TREATMENT OF NEGATIVES AND
POSITIVES

DRYING

TRICK KlNEMATOGRAPH Y ...

REHEARSED EFFECTS

APPENDIX TO PART i

CHAPTER

PART 2.

THE ELEMENTS OF PROJECTION ...
PERSISTENCE OF VISION
APPARATUS USED IN PROJECTION...
THE ILLUMINANT. ELECTRICITY ...
LIMELIGHT AND MINOR ILLUMINANTS
IN THE OPERATING Box

PART 3.

CHAPTER i ACTING BEFORE THE KINEMATOGRAPH ...

2 PLAYING TO PICTURES

3 THE STILL SLIDE

,, 4 THE KlNEMATOGRAPH CAMERA ABROAD

6 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL KINEMATOGRAPHY

7 SELF-PRESERVATION IN THE TRADE

8 MANAGEMENT OF A PICTURE THEATRE ...
Q THE LAW AND THE KINEMATOGRAPH

ROCK-STEADY

- AND -
FLICKERLESS
PICTURE.

Most Durable

Machine
on the Market.

NEW CENTURY
FILM SERVICE

- LTD.,

2 & 4 Quebec St.,

LEEDS.

Q
&

48 Rupert Street,

LONDON.

HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGRAPH Y.

Blocks and Diagrams.

FRONTISPIECE. THE EVOLUTION OF THE MOTION PICTURE ...

FIRST SUBJECTS PHOTOGRAPHED FOR LIVING PICTURES ... ... v.

ONE OF THE PIONEERS vi.

FIGURE i ORDINARY HAND CAMERA ... ... ... ... i

AN EASTERN PICTURE SHOW PROPRIETOR... ... ... .... 4

FIGURE 2 PERFORATED FILM STOCK 5

3 MECHANISM FOR MOVING PICTURE CAMERA ... ... 6

4 ESCAPEMENT ... ... ... ... ... ... 6

5 CLAW OR PIN MOVEMENT ... ... ... ... 6

6 THE SHUTTER 8

7 DITTO ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8

8 SECTIONAL VIEW OF LOADED CAMERA ... ... 10

9 A CAMERA CLOSED FOR USE n

,, 10 ANOTHER POPULAR CAMERA ... ... ... ... 12

ii THE CAMERA SHUTTER ... ... ... ... ... 12

12 EXTERIOR OF PATHE CAMERA 13

13 WORKING PARTS OF PATHE CAMERA ... ... ... 14

14 WRENCH REVOLVING TRIPOD HEAD ... ... ... 15

15 A COMPLICATED TRIPOD HEAD 15

16 ANOTHER TYPE OF TRIPOD HEAD ... ... ... 16

17 TRIPOD WITH HEAD ATTACHED ... ... ... 17

18 CAMERA HEAD HANDLES CLOSED 17

19 ZEISS TESSAR LENS ... ... ... ... ... 19

20 BUSCH GLAUKAR LENS ... ... ... ... ... 19

; , 21 DALLMEYER Fi.g LENS ... ... ... ... ... 19

22 VOIGHTLANDER HELIAR LENS 19

,, 23 BECK NEOSTIGMAR AND ISOSTIGMAR LENSES ... 19

24 WILLIAMSON FILM PERFORATOR ... ... ... 21

25 EMPIRE FILM PERFORATOR 21

26 DEBRIE FILM PERFORATOR ... ... ... ... 22

27 KINETO FILM PERFORATOR ... ... ... ... 22

28 DEBRIE PERFORATION GAUGE 23

29 A POPULAR FILM MEASURER ... ... ... ... 23

30 EXPOSURE METERS ... ... ... ... ... 24

31 LOADING THE FILM Box ... ... ... ... 25

,, 32 LONG Focus LENS ... ... ... ... ... 30

33 SHORT Focus LENS 30

34 MARKING OR SNIPPING THE FILM ... ... ... 32

AN AWKWARD SCENIC SUBJECT ... ... ... 34

3=; MARKING THE LENS JACKET ... ... ... ... 37

KINETO, LIMITED,

Kinematograph Specialists Kinemacolor Building, ::

and Film Publishers :: :: 80-82 WARDOUR ST.,

Telephone 6730 City.

Codes and 1 Liebers and A. B.C., 5th Edn.
Cables Western Union.

Publishers of the

URBAN SCIENCE
SERIES

Educational

Entertaining

Specialists in Travel and Scenic Films.

The KINETO Model B Projector

Rock Steady : : Smooth Running : : Flickerless.

Write for New Film and Machine Catalogues.

Particulars of Weekly Film Releases will be
sent on application.

' 8

HANDBOOK OF KI NE MA TOGRAPH Y.

FIGURE 36 SCALE DISTANCES FOR FOCUSSING 38

37 THE KINEMATOGRAPHER ON THE BATTLEFIELD ... 40

38 A TROUGH WITH DIVISIONS ... ... ... ... 41

,, 39 PIN FRAMES FOR DEVELOPING ... ... ... ... 43

40 WINDING THE FILM ON THE PINS 43

41 COMBINED DEVELOPING AND DRYING FRAME ... 44
42 THE B. AND C. DRYING ROOM ... ... ... 46

,, 43 UNDER-EXPOSED AND UNDER-DEVELOPED NEGATIVE 51

44 HOPELESS UNDER-EXPOSURE 51

45 UNDER-EXPOSED AND OVER-DEVELOPED NEGATIVE... 51
46 UNDER-EXPOSED NEGATIVE SCRATCHED BY DIRTY

GATE 51

47 OVER-EXPOSED BUT CORRECTLY DEVELOPED ... 51

48 CORRECTLY EXPOSED, SOFT DEVELOPMENT ... 51

49 OVER-DEVELOPMENT 51

50 CORRECT EXPOSURE, FULL DEVELOPMENT 51

,, 51 FOGGED FILM ... ... ... ... ... ... 51

52 LOOPING FILM FOR PIN FRAME ... ... ... 53

53 THE FILM LOOP 53

,, 54 SYPHON WASHING TROUGH ... ... ... ... 55

55 STEP BY STEP PRINTER ... ... ... ... ... 59

56 WILLIAMSON MOTOR-DRIVEN PRINTER 60

,, 57 KEY TO WILLIAMSON PRINTER ... ... ... 61

,, 58 A HAND PRINTER ... ... ... ... ... 63

59 FILM TINTING IN A SMALL WAY 70

60 TITLE MAKING APPARATUS ... ... ... ... 73

6 1 ORDINARY TITLE PRINTER ... ... ... ... 74

62 A DRYING DRUM 81

,, 63 A CONTRACTION ATTACHMENT FOR DRUM ... ... 82

,, 64 HlNGEING THE SLATS ... ... ... ... ... 82

65 HEATED DRYING DRUM 83

66 A PRINTING ROOM AT HEPWORTH WORKS ... ... 84

,, 67 A SIMPLE TRICK EFFECT ... ... ... ... 86

68 THE DANCING MIDGET 87

69 THE GIANT BABY TRICK 88

,, 70 AIRSHIP AND ROCKING DEVICE ... ... ... 91

71 SELF FORMING TITLES 93

73 A CURIOUS REVERSING EFFECT 94

73 EXAMPLES OF DOUBLE PRINTING ... ... ... 96

,, 74 AN EFFECTIVE AND PRETTY TRICK ... ... ... 97

75 MARKING THE LIMITS OF THE PICTURE 102

76 MONSIEUR PROSZINSKI AND His AUTOMATIC CAMERA 104

77 DOUBLE CONVEX LENS ... ... ... ... ... 105

,, 78 DOUBLE CONCAVE LENS ... ... ... ... 105

79 MENISCUS LENS 105

80 FORMATION OF THE IMAGE 106

81 CONJUGATE Foci ... ... ... ... ... ... 107

82 STOPPING DOWN THE LENS ... ... ... ... 107

KINEMACOLOR

(URBAN* SMITH PATENTS)

The ONLY system of (Cinematography

IN NATURAL COLORS

Nature's colors are recorded at the
moment of photographing and the
films are shown as taken. : : : :

All other systems consist of hand or
machine- painted black and white films.

Kinemacolor Films are issued |to
Licensees only.

JTT j& M #

Sole Owners' fc and Producers :

THE NATURAL COLOR
KINEMATOGRAPH Co., Ltd,

Kinemacolor Building, 80-82 WARDOUR ST., W.

Telegrams )" Kinmacolor, London." Telephone:

and Cables } Liebers and A.B.C., 5th Edn. 3976 City.

HANDBOOK OF K INE MA TOGR APR Y.

FIGURE 83 DIFFERENT MASKINGS OF FILM 108

84 THE PROJECTOR AND ITS OPTICAL SYSTEM 114

85 HERSCHEL CONDENSER ... ... ... ... ... 114

86 EARLY TYPE COVER SHUTTER ... ... ... ... 119

87 NON-FLICK SHUTTER 120

88 THREE-BLADED SHUTTER 120

,, 89 MALTESE CROSS MOVEMENT ... ... ... ...121

90 DOG MOVEMENT ... ... ... ... ... ... 122.

91 BUTCHER'S EMPIRE HOME KINEMATOGRAPH 125

92 ERNEMANN HOME KINEMATOGRAPH ... ... ... 126

93 BEARD'S PATENT PERFECT PROJECTOR ... ... 127

94 KINETO MODEL B. PROJECTOR ... ... ... 128

95 TYLER ERNEMANN PROJECTOR 129

96 MALTESE CROSS ... ... ... ... ... ... 129.

97 MALTESE CROSS, EMPIRE PROJECTOR ... .. ... 130

98 GENERAL VIEW OF CHRONO PROJECTOR 131

99 GAUMONT MALTESE CROSS CHRONO, SHOWING ARRANGE-

MENT OF GATE AND LIGHT SHUTTER ... ... 132

100 WRENCH PROJECTOR APPARATUS 133

,, 101 RUFFELL'S PROJECTOR ... ... ... ... ... 134

102 MOTIOGRAPH ... ... ... ... ... ... 136

103 KAMM'S MALTESE CROSS PROJECTOR 137

,, 104 PATHE LUMIERE ... ... ... ... ... 138

105 PATHE IMPERIAL PROJECTOR ... ... ... ... 139

106 TYLER'S INDOMITABLE PROJECTOR 140

,, io6a ZAR PROJECTOR ... ... ... ... ... 141

,, 107 URBANORA PROJECTOR ... ... ... ... ... 142

,, 108 WARWICK PROJECTOR 143

109 NEW CENTURY KALEE PROJECTOR ... ... ... 144

,, no IRON DUKE STILL VIEW LANTERN ... ... ... 145

in EMPIRE ARIEL No. 2 ARC LAMP 146

112 PATHE No. 2, WITH MALLET ATTACHMENT 147

113 PATHE CONDENSER HOLDER ... ... ... ... 147

,, 114 BUTCHER'S PRIMUS CONDENSER ... ... ... 147

.., 115 KINETO'S EXTRA HEAVY CONDENSER 148

,, 116 BUSCH GLAUKAR PROJECTION LENS ... ... ... 149

117 COURTLANDER'S CINASTIGMAT PROJECTION LENS ... 149
,, 118 CASKET OF PROJECTION LENSES 150

119 DALLMEYER PROJECTION LENS ... ... ... 150

120 BEARD'S LIGHT CUT-OFF ... ... ... ...151

121 KINETO'S LIGHT CUT-OFF ... 151

,, 122 IRIS DIAPHRAGM 152

123 HEPWORTH REWINDER ... ... ... ... ... 152

124 SEABORNE POWER-DRIVEN FILM CLEANING MACHINE 153

125 DEBRIE NAMING AND BRUSHING MACHINE ... ... 154

.., 126 FILM LETTERED BY THE NAMING MACHINE ... 154

,, 127 WALTURDAW PRINTER 156

128 ELECTRICAL SWITCH ... ... ... ... ... 159

THE

Home of all that is
Latest and Best in
British Apparatus.

The Imdomitable Projector,

Advance Lanterns.
Fireproof Film Storage

Cases.

Unbreakable Condensers.

Announcement Slides.

Advertising Slides.

Song Slides.

The Picturephone.

Tyler-Aster Generators.

Motor Generator Sets.

Switchboards.

Dynamos.
Automatic Shutters.

Arc Lamps.
Automatic Lanterns.

WRITE AT ONCE FOR OUR
- - LATEST CATALOGUE. - -

The Tyler Apparatus Co., n

Charing Cross Rd.,
- London, W.C.

Telegrams "Tylematco, London.'

'Phone 8579 Central.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

FIGURE 129 DIRECT AND ALTERNATING GENERATOR COUPLED ... 159
130 VOLTMETER AND AMMETER CONNECTED UP ... 164

131 DIRECT CURRENT ARC SHOWING ANGULAR TILT TO

BRACKET ... ... ... ... ... ... 165

,, 132 ALTERNATING CURRENT ARC SHOWING VERTICAL

BRACKET 165

,, 133 WALTURDAW ACME ARC LAMP ... ... ... 166

,, 134 " SCISSORS " SETTING OF CARBONS ... ... ... 167

,, 135 ANOTHER SETTING OF CARBONS ... ... ... 167

136 SIMPLE REGULATING RESISTANCE WITH THREE

POINTS AND " FULL ON " ... ... ... 160

137 PRACTICAL REGULATING RESISTANCE ... ... 170

138 STATIC TRANSFORMER 174

,, I 39 VICTORIA DYNAMO AND MOTOR COMPANY'S ROTARY

TRANSFORMER ... ... ... ... ... 174

140 MOTOR GENERATOR SETS 175

141 DYNAMO DESIGNED FOR KINEMATOGRAPH WORK ... 175

142 TYLER-ASTER GENERATING SET ... ... ... 179

142 COMPACT PETROL GENERATING SET ... ... ... 179

144 WELL-BURNED PAIR OF CARBONS 180

,, 145 WALTURDAW HIGH POWER MIXED JET ... ... 182

,, 146 GWYER SPECIAL KINEMATOGRAPH LIMELIGHT JETS 183

147 WALTURDAW GOVERNOR FITTED WITH BABY GAUGE 185

148 SECTIONAL VIEW OF INTERIOR OF GAS PRESSURE

REGULATOR ... ... ... ... ... 185

149 PRIMUS INJECTOR JET 189

,, 150 WALTURDAW BLOW-THROUGH JET ... ... ... 190

151 COMBINED ETHER SATURATOR AND JET ... ... 190

152 'CARBIDE TO WATER' ACETYLENE GENERATOR ... 192
X 53 FOUR-BURNER ACETYLENE GAS JET ... ... 193

154 AN AUSTRALIAN OPEN-AIR SHOW ... ... ... 194

155 METAL FILM SPOOL STORAGE CASE 196

156 CARBONS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 196

157 SPARE CONDENSER LENSES ... ... ... ... 196

158 FILM WINDER (APPROVED PATTERN) ... ... 198

159 FUSE W r iRE 198

,, 160 FILM MENDER ... ... ... ... ... ... 198

161 CORRECTLY CENTRED LIGHT BEAM ... ... ... 204

162 How WANT OF CENTRING OF LIGHT SHOWS ON THE

SCREEN 204

,, 163 SPOOLING SINGLE FILMS FOR PROJECTION ... ... 208

164 DITTO ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 208

165 DITTO 208

1 66 JOINING FILMS 209

167 DITTO 209

168 DITTO 209

169 DITTO ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 209

170 THE FILM IN THE MENDER 209

. . Film . .
Producers.

THE FIRM

that can

Fill all your Wants.

.. Film..
Hirers.

... EXPERTS IN FILM PRODUCING ...

PIONEERS OF THE SPECIAL HIRE SERVICE,
SI- per 1,000 feet. - Changed Twice Weekly.

In every emergency and for every requirement
^~~^ you cannot do better than consult -~^

-THE-

CO-OPERATIVE

CINEMATOGRAPH CO., Ltd

Who supply

CARBONS, CONDENSERS, SLIDES,
SHEETS, LENSES, RE-WINDERS, and all

Accessories o5 the best quality at the cheapest

PRINTING & PERFORATING FOR THE TRADE.

Promptness and Efficiency a Speciality. -

WRITE US YOUR REQUIREMENTS

..LOCAL..
SUBJECTS
. TAKEN. .

31 Litchfield Street,
Charing Cross Rd.,W.C,

Telephones- Central 9251 ; Cerrard 189.
Telegrams "Lanterning, London.

TRADE

REQUISITES

SUPPLIED.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

FIGURE 171 BUTCHER'S MOTOR FOR DRIVING PROJECTOR ... 211

172 A ROOMY CONTINENTAL OPERATING Box ... ... 211

173 UP-TO-DATE KINEMATOGRAPH THEATRE IN NEW

ZEALAND ... ... ... ... ... ...212

,, 174 AN AUSTRALIAN TOURING COMPANY ... ... 212

,, 175 CURIOUS ACTORS FOR THE KINEMATOGRAPH ... 219

176 A WELL- PACKED AUDITORIUM 222

177 A TYPICAL " SCRATCHED IN " ANNOUNCEMENT

SLIDE ... ... ... ... ... ... 223

,, 178 SOME RESULTS OF THE WARWICK TRADING COM-
PANY'S ENTERPRISE 228

,, 179 ENCHANTING THE NIGGERS ... ... ... ... 232

,, 180 EXTERIOR AND INTERIOR OF A MODERN PROVINCIAL

MOTION PICTURE THEATRE 239

l8l MlCRO-KlNEMATOGRAPHIC SYSTEM ARRANGED IN

HORIZONTAL POSITION ... ... ... ... 242

,, 182 " WESTMINSTER " RIGHT ANGLE SEMI-AUTOMATIC

ENCLOSED ARC LAMP ... ... ... ... 242

,, 183 TRAVELLING OUTDOOR KINEMATOGRAPH ADVERTISING

CAR 249

184 POSING FOR THE KINEMATOGRAPH IN EAST AFRICA 271

IF you want a Pianist, Band, Manager,
Doorman, Operator, Program Seller, Effects
Worker, Electrician, Cashier, Lecturer,

ADVERTISE IN THE . . .
KINEMATOGRAPH WEEKLY

Guaranteed circulation over 7,000 weekly
among those interested in the Trade.

THE ORIGINAL AND LEADING
ORGAN OF THE INDUSTRY.

You are sure of Results if you advertise in the
Recognised Trade Organ.

. . THE ..

VITAGRAPH

COMPANY OF AMERICA

SPECIALISE IN

LIFE PORTRAYALS

THAT ALWAYS COMMAND SUCCESS.

Every subject produced is note-
worthy for perfect photography,
clearness of story, and wonder-
full realism, which have placed
Vitagraph productions far

AHEAD OF ALL COMPETITORS,

Telegrams " Vitgraf, London." Telephone 14277 Central.

THE VITAGRAPH CO. OF AMERICA,

15-17 CECIL COURT, CHARING CROSS RD., LONDON, W.C.

NEW YORK: 116 Nassau Street. CHICAGO : 109 Randolph Street.

PARIS.: Rue St. Cecile. BERLIN: 220 Friedrichstrasse.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

Contents.

PUBLISHER'S FOREWORD
HISTORICAL PREFACE

HISTORY OF KINEMATOGRAPH

PTOLEMY

LUCRETIUS

THAUMATROPE
PERSISTENCE OF VISION
PHENAKISTOSCOPE
ZOETROPE
DR. ROGET

DR. FARADAY

DR. PLATEAU

CHOREUTOSCOPE ... ... ... ...)

L 111

MUYBRIDGE ... ... ... ... ... ... ..J

MAREY PHOTOGRAPHIC GUN ... ... ... ...\

FRIESE-GREENE AND M. EVANS ... ... ... .... ! j v

DONISTHORPE AND CROFTS ... f

LUMIERE ClNEMATOGRAPHE ...J

ACCIDENTS CONTRIVED BY TRICK PHOTOGRAPHY 87

TO PICTURE PATRONS, LIABILITY FOR 270

ACCUMMULATORS, USE OF ... ... ... ... ... ... 158

ACETYLENE ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 192-193

ACTING TO PICTURES ... ... ... ... ... ... 215

,, SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS ... ... 218

ADJUSTING PICTURE MOVEMENT 202

ADVERTISING ... ... ... ... 256

AERIAL EFFECTS (TRICK) 91

AFTER-TREATMENT, WHEN REQUIRED 76

AGREEMENT WITH MANAGER ... ... ... ... ... 267

ALTERNATING CURRENT DESCRIBED 160

AMMETER ... ... ... ... ... J 64

AMPERE ... ... ... ... ... *6i

ANNOUNCEMENT SLIDES, How TO MAKE 223

APPLICATION FOR KINEMATOGRAPH LICENSE 263

APPROVAL, FILMS ON ... 270

ARC LAMP (MINIATURE) ... 146

(See under Projection Arcs) ...

C1NEMA-HALLES. Ltd., Specialities.

The "ZAR" Machine

Embodies every modern improvement worthy of consideration and moreover improve'
ments that are obvious to any operator at first sight.

We guarantee the Machine free from all defects of workmanship for 12 months, and
claim that no other Machine on the Market will project such a

ROCKSTEADY FLICKERLESS PICTURE.

POINTS WORTHY OF NOTE.

Adjustable and Removable Maltese Cross Action. Outside Condensers (instantly removable).
Adjustable Spring Skates in Gate. Visible Oil Feed. Automatic Fireproof Shutter, passing
sufficient light on the gate for the operator to frame his picture on the sheet without fear of
fire. Patent Flickerless Shutter, allowing the maximum of light. Automatic Take Up all
Rollers in three parts (therefore no uneven wear), Film Guides, Oil Bath. Lantern Lens can
be set at any angle. All Steel Projector. Lantern body of the finest manufacture, and the
whole Machine highly finished with heavy Nickle Plate.

Price, complete 39 10s.

HEAD OFFICES-

SHOW ROOMS

29 Charing Cross Road. Cecil Court, London, W.C.

Telephone 3768 Nat.

Telegrams " Tipups," Bristol.

WHITING & BOSISTO,

Wholesale Theatre Seating Manufacturers,
BRISTOL*.

Lowest Prices consistent with Good Quality.

Write for Latest
Tip- Up Catalogue.

Estimates given for every description
of Theatrical Furnishing. - - -

DO YOU USE

"Whitisto"

The Ideal Cinema
Screen Paint acknow-
ledged to be the finest

preparation ever
invented for producing

a beautiful surface to

Cinema Sheets, thereby

throwing forward every

detail in the picture.

7/6

Per Gallon Tin,
Carriage Paid.

Finest Bronze Paint

for Renovating
Chair Standards, etc.,

6/6

Per Pint, Carriage Paid.

Whiting & Bosisto,

BRISTOL.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

AUDITORIUM, THE 253

BATHS FOR DEVELOPMENT (NEGATIVE) ... ' ... ... 48,49

BEATER (OR DOG) MOVEMENT DESCRIBED ... ... ... 122

BEAUTY, How TO ENHANCE BY PHOTOGRAPHY 103

BENNETT'S COLOUR CAMERA ... ... ... ... ... 237

BIUNAL LANTERN, WORKING A ... ... ... ... ... 227

BLOW-THROUGH LIMELIGHT ... ... ... ... ... 190

BODY, TAKING CARE OF THE ... ... ... ... ... 39

Bow SPRINGS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 200

BREAKAGE OF THE FILM 207

BRIN'S PROCESS OF OXYGEN MANUFACTURE ... 184

B.T.U., THE 163

CABLE, CARRYING CAPACITIES OF 172

ELECTRIC ... 171

CAMERA USED AS PRINTER, LIMITATIONS WITH 65

CANDLE LIGHT EFFECT, TINTING FOR 69

CARBON, SIZES FOR PROJECTION ... ... ... ... ... 168

CENTRING THE ILLUMINANT ... ... ... ... 202, 203

CHEMICAL TABLE FOR KINEMATOGRAPHY ... ... ... 68

CHILDREN'S ACT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 269

CHOOSING A CAMERA ... ... ... ... ... ... 10

THE VIEW IN SCENIC WORK ... ... ... ... 26

CLEANING THE PROJECTOR ... ... ... ... 199, 200

CLOCK IN DARK ROOM ... ... ... ... ... ... 45

COAL GAS FOR LIMELIGHT AS COMPARED WITH PURE HYDROGEN 184

COLOUR KINEMATOGRAPHY, PRINCIPLE OF ... ... ... 233

,, OF THE FUTURE ... ... ... 239

COMEDY, ARRANGING A ... ... ... ... ... ... 99

COMPONENTS OF DEVELOPERS ... ... ... ... ... 66

CONDENSER, ACTION OF IN KINEMATOGRAPH PROJECTOR ... 115

HOLDER ... ... ... ... ... ... 148

OF PROJECTOR, USUAL FORMS OF ITJ.

CONJUGATE Foci, LAW OF ... ... ... ... ... 107

COPPER-SILVER INTENSIFIER 225

COST OF RUNNING PROJECTION ARC 163

CURRENT CONVERTING 173, 174

CYLINDER CONNECTIONS WITH GAS 187

DARK ROOM, THE EQUIPMENT OF ... ... ... ... 41

DEL SANTO M 218

DENSITY, WANT OF, CORRECTING ... ... ... 78, 79

DETECTIVE DRAMA ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 100

DEVELOPER FOR POSITIVES, HYDROQUINONE ... ... ... 66

DEVELOPERS, GENERAL EXPLANATION OF ... ... ... 66

Kamm's Patent

Maltese Cross Projector

And DOG MACHINE, and everything appertaining to
{Cinematography.

The ONLY Flickerless Projector. :: As steady as a Lantern Slide.
: (BRITISH MADE THROUGHOUT.) :

As supplied to His Majesty's Government.

WE GIVE THREE YEARS
GUARANTEE AGAINST ..
WEAR and TEAR, WORKING
12 HOURS A DAY.

Kamm's English

Patents of the

Projector.

23,904,

24,952,

24,953,

24,157,

7,815,

7,816,

10,977,

14,573,

FIG. i.

PRICES of

Kamm's Patent Maltese Cross Projector with lamp house,

fitted on steel frame, with one cine lens, one lantern slide lens

and two spools, complete as shown in the illustration ...

Extra: Steel Stand, Telescopic... ... ... ...

Arc Lamp (100 amp.) continuous or alternating current
Two Fireproof Spool Boxes, 14 inch diameter ...

Complete Outfit, ready for projection

DOG MACHINE 5 LESS.

35
300
400
300

L. KAMM & Co., 27 Powell St., Goswell Rd., London, EC.

Telegraphic Address : "Zerograph, London." Telephone: 8281 Central.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

DEVELOPING A WARNING ... ... ... ... ... ... 46

FITTINGS FOR THE SMALL MAN AND AMATEUR 45

TROUGHS, MEANS OF WARMING ... ... ... 42

DEVELOPMENT, DESCRIPTION OF ... ... ... ... ... 47, 54

OF OVER AND UNDER EXPOSED FILMS ... 48

,, TROUGHS FOR ... ... ... ... ... 41

UNKNOWN EXPOSURES ... ... ... ... 49

DIAPHRAGMS, LENS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 82

DIFFERENCES IN CAMERA AND PROJECTOR FUNDAMENTALS ... 119

DIRECT CURRENT DESCRIBED ... ... ... ... ... 160

WHY PREFERABLE TO A.C 160

DIRECTION OF THE SUN ... ... ... ... ... ... 27

DISINFECTING PICTURE THEATRES ... ... ... ... 255

DISSOLVING VIEWS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 227

DOG AND CROSS MOVEMENTS COMPARED ... ... ... 123

DOG PROJECTOR MOVEMENT DESCRIBED 122

WEAK POINTS OF 122

DON'TS IN PICTURE PLAY ACTING 103

DOUBLE PRINTING IN TRICK WORK 96

DOWNWARD POINTING CAMERA 73

,, ,, ,, IN TRICK WORK ... ... ... 92

DRIVING MECHANISM OF CAMERA ... ... ... ... 9

DRYING ARRANGEMENT WITH ARTIFICIAL HEAT ... ... 8|

DRUM, USUAL COMMERCI A L ... ... ... ... 82

SIMPLE 81

EARLY MORNING EFFECT, TINTING FOR ... ... ... ... 69

EARTHS, How DETECTED ... ... ... ... ... ... 159

EIKONOGEN, HYDROQUINONE DEVELOPER ... ... ... 49

ELECTRIC CURRENT FOR PICTURE PURPOSES ... ... ... 157

GENERATOR 157

CURRENT, USUAL VOLTAGE OF 158

MOTOR 160

ELECTRICAL CABLE 172

. CIRCUIT EXPLAINED i5 8

INSTRUMENTS, How TO CONNECT 164

JOINTS i7 2

TERMS EXPLAINED ... 161

SUPPLY UNITS ... ... ... ... *63

SWITCH i5 8

ELEMENTS OF PROJECTION ... 113

ENGAGING A MANAGER ... 267

ETHER SATURATOR, THE ... ... ... ... ... iQ 1

EXHIBITORS, How BESTED 247

WE ARE NOT MAKERS OR FACTORS OF
KINEMATOGRAPH MACHINES OR FILMS. Jg

OUR SPECIALITY IS

PROJECTION LENSES

The wliole of our attention and skill is concentrated on the manufacture

of the optical system which is after all the most important factor in

your picture show.

Being the actual manufacturers with a world-wide

reputation, huilt up on the merit of our goods, we

cannot afford to sell an indifferent article.

In this fact you have a guarantee, that if you order your
machine to he fitted with Busch Lenses, you will know
that the quality will he the best that money can huy.

FOR PICTURE TAKING.

The " Glaukar " Anastigmat
F/3.1 in focal lengths from
If to ST inches.

Full particulars are given in

our listt a copy of Which Will be

sent Free on Application-

FOR PROJECTION.

The " Ki " small Standard size in
focal lengths from 2i to 7} inches.

The "Kino" Series Double Illu-
mination Standard size, in focal
lengths from 3 to 5f inches.

The " Glaukar " Series Anas-
tigmats It to 6 inches.

Piano Convex and Triple
Meniscus Condensors.

EMIL BUSCH OPTICAL CO.,

35 Charles Street, Hatton Garden, London, E.G.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR A PH Y.

EXPOSING KINEMATOGRAPH FILM, A RULE FOR THE NOVICE ..'. 30

EXPOSURE METERS 24

,, ,, USING ... ... ... ... ... ... 27

EXPANSION OF FILM ON WETTING ... 54

FACTORY, is PICTURE SHOW A 271

FAILURE, HOPELESS, IN KINEMATOGRAPH FILM, How TO TELL 76

FARCE, WHAT is IT 99

FILM CEMENT, FORMULA FOR ... 205

CLEANER, SEABORNE 153

DEBRIE ... ... ... ... ... ... 155

,, MASKINGS, NOTE ON 108

,, MEASURING MACHINE ... 24

,, MENDER ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 205

,, STOCK 56

LENGTHS SUPPLIED IN ... ... ... .... 108

UNPACKING FOR PROJECTION ... ... ... ... 199

FINE ADJUSTMENT TAPS ... ... ... ... ... ... 188

FIXATION, JUDGING COMPLETION OF 50

ENSURING THOROUGH 56

FIXING BATH, FORMULA FOR 50

FIRELIGHT EFFECT, TINTING FOR 69

FLAT FRAME FOR FILM DEVELOPMENT 44

,, ,, ,, (improved form) ... 44

FLICKER, REASON OF 119

ELIMINATING DEVICES 120

FOCUSSING THE CAMERA IMAGE ... ... ... ... ... 27

FOREIGN TRAVEL ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 229

FORMATION OF IMAGE BY LENS EXPLAINED ... ... ... 106

ON PROJECTION SCREEN 115

FORMULAE FOR DEVELOPERS (NEGATIVE) ... ... 48, 49

FRAUD IN KINEMATOGRAPH TRADE 248

FRIESE-GREENE COLOUR KINEMATOGRAPH Y ... ... ... 236

FUSE, ELECTRICAL ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 171

FUSES, CARTRIDGE ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 171

GAS, AMOUNT OF MIXTURE CONSUMED ... ... ... ... 185

,, CYLINDERS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 184

SHOW WORKING WITHOUT GAUGE OR REGULATOR ... 1 88

GATE OF CAMERA ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7

GAUGE CONNECTIONS ... ... ... ... ... ... 187

GAUGE, READING A ... ... ... ... ... ... 187

GEARED DOWN CAMERA, USE OF ... 95

GESTURES ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 217

GHOST APPEARANCES (TRICK)

2 3

1018

:: THE MOST IMPORTANT ::
FACTOR IN KINEMATOGRAPHY

is THE LENS from
which the original films are produced.

A poor Lens is unsatisfactory
in its performance, and is dear at any price.

ZEISS "TESSAT LENSES

(F 3-5 and F4'5)

AGE ACKOWLEDGED TO BE THE BEST.

Producing Pictures that are

FULLY EXPOSED, BRILLIANT AND SHARP.

Detailed List post free from

f ADI 7RKQ (London) 13 & 14 Great Castle Street,
WiKL LLlJJ :: Ltd., :: Oxford Circus, London, W.

The

Tie:

NERV]
HUES I

From A to Z.

This book should be in
the hands of everybody in
the picture business, for
it is a -

Complete
Encyclopaedia

of the Showman's needs.

:: :: POST FREE :: ::
ON APPLICATION.

BROCKLISS

4 New Compton St., W.C.

Wires: " Stafilm, London."
Phone: 1262 Gerrard.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGRAPH Y.

GLYCIN DEVELOPER 49

GROUND GLASS, IMAGE ON THE ... ... ... ... ... 4

HARDENING BATH ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 80

HEATING THE AUDITORIUM ... ... ... ... ... 254

HIRING FIRMS, How GULLED ... ... ... ... ... 246

HOME KlNEMATOGRAPHS ... ... ... ... ... 125, 126

HUMAN INTEREST PLOTS/ ... ... ... ... ... ... 100

HYDROQUINONE DEVELOPER FOR POSITIVES ... ... ... 66

HYPO ELIMINATING BATH ... ... ... ... ... ... 80

,, WHAT IT REALLY is ... ... ... ... ... 50

ICE IN DEVELOPMENT ... ... ... ... ... ... 231

ILLUMINANT FOR PROJECTIONS, LIMELIGHT AND ELECTRICITY

COMPARED ... ... ... ... ... 157

ILLUSTRATED SONG SLIDES ... ... ... ... ... 226

IMAQE ON PROJECTION SCREEN, FORMATION OF 115

INCANDESCENT GAS ... ' 194

INCIDENT LENGTHS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 101

INJECTOR LIMELIGHT JETS 189

INTENSIFIER, CHROMIUM 79

MERCURIC IODIDE 78

INTENSIFIERS COMPARED 79

INTERMITTENT MOVEMENT OF CAMERA 56

INVERSION OF IMAGE BY LENS EXPLAINED ... ... ... 106

INVESTOR, DUSTING DOWN THE ... ... ... ... ... 249

IRIS DIAPHRAGM IN PROJECTION ... ... ... ... 152

,, ,, USE IN PHOTOGRAPHY ... ... ... 107

JOINING FILM ^ 205, 209

JUMEAUX-DAVIDSON COLOUR CAMERA ... ... ... ... 235

KEEPING WITHIN THE PICTURE 102

KlNEMACOLOR BRIEFLY EXPLAINED ... ... ... 235, 236

KlNEMATOGRAPH ACT REVIEWED ... ... ... ... 258

CAMERA MESSRS. BUTCHER'S ... ... 10

,, ,, KINETO ... ... ... 12

,, ,, ,, PATHE ... ... ... 14

,, WALTURDAW ... ... n

LICENSE, APPLICATION FOR ... ... ... 263

PHOTOGRAPHY. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ... i

KIT, COMPLETE FOR TOURING WITH CAMERA 26

LAMP INSTALLATION, (ELECTRICAL) ... ... ... ... 173

LANTERN SLIDES (PHOIOGRAPHIC) MAKING ... ... ... 225

LAVATORY ACCOMMODATION, How FAR COMPULSORY ... ... 269

LAW OF INVERSE SQUARES ... ... ... ... ... 115

LEAKS IN GAS CONNECTIONS ... ... ... ... ... 186

2 5

1 1VT

JL* J 1 t

C \NCWAT G GHAPVA

BRITISH ESTABLISHED
MADE. 1860.

THREETIMES MORE LIGHT
Projection lenses give clear pictures, sharp up to the corners
and transmit a large amount of colourless white light, fitting
them pre=eminently for the showing of pictures in colour.
They are made to suit all machines and halls, and full particulars
are given in the new booklet. Dallmeyer taking lenses working
at F/1.9 and requiring less than one quarter the usual exposure
are also made.

WRITE FOR FREE BOOKLET, FROM

J. H. DALLMEYER, L TD -

Church End Works, D42, Willesden, N.W.
and 25 Newman Street, Oxford Street, W.

A. E. HUBSCH & Co., Ltd.

We are the largest Cinematograph Manufacturers 1 Agents

in Europe.

If you are not satisfied with your Sales in Great Britain or
Europe, communicate with us.

We are the sole concessionaires for Great Britain and Europe
for the. Nicholas Power Co., of New York.

Sole Agents for Great Britain, for Deutsche Bioscope Ges,
m.b.H. of Berlin, Messters Projection, G.m.b.H. of Berlin,
Duskes Kinematograph and Film Fabriken of Berlin, Vesuvio Films
of Naples, and Deutsche Mutoskop and Biograph G.m.b.H. of Berlin.

Buying Agents for Great Britain and the Continent, for Messrs.
Harringtons, Ltd., of Sydney, and Messrs. Harringtons (New
Zealand) Ltd., of Auckland, New Zealand.

We can buy for you on the very best terms. Get into
touch with us. It means money for you.

A. E. HUBSCH & Co., Ltd.,
18 Charing Cross Road,

PARIS. LONDON, W.C. BERLIN.

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APJl Y

LEE-TURNER PROCESS 235

LENGTH OF FILM INCIDENTS 101

LENS, THE 3. 18

BECK (NEOSTIGMAR AND ISOSTIGMAR) ... ... ... 20

BUSCH GLAUKAR ... ... ... ... ... ... 20

DALLMEYER ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20

VOIGTLANDER HELIAR ... ... ... ... ... 2CT

ZEISS TESSAR FOR PHOTOGRAPHY ... ... ... 18

DIAPHRAGMS, USE OF ... ... ... ... ... 28

LENSES, CONVEX, CONCAVE AND MENISCUS ... ... ... 105

FOCAL LENGTH OF IN RELATION TO ANGLE OF VIEW 30

THE FASTEST LENS MADE ... ... ... ... 39

LIGHT CUT-OFFS (HAND) ... ... ... ... ... ... 151

SUDDEN VARIATION OF IN PHOTOGRAPHY ... ... 37

TRAP FOR DARKROOM ENTRANCE ... ... ... 41

LIMELIGHT APPARATUS REQUIRED FOR ... ... ... ... 182

ECONOMY IN USING 183, 184

How TO START 182, 183

POWER AND LIMITATIONS OF 181

SIZE OF PICTURE WITH 181

LOADING THE FILM Box 25.

LONG Focus LENSES, PRACTICAL USES OF 31

Low PRESSURE LIMELIGHT 190

MAKING UP PROGRAMS 203

MALTESE CROSS, ACTION DESCRIBED 121

,, WEAK POINTS OF ... ... ... ... 121

MANAGER, FORM OF AGREEMENT WITH ... ... ... ... 268

MANUFACTURERS, Ho\v SWINDLED ... ... ... ... 245

MASK, VARYING SHAPE OF ... ... ... ... ... 98

MASKING FILM FOR PROJECTION ... ... ... ... 206, 207

METOL-HYDROQUINONE DF.VELOPER ... ... ... ... 48

MlCRO-KlNEMATOGRAPHY ... ... ... ... ... ... 240

ARRANGEMENT FOR DESCRIBED ... 241

MOONLIGHT EFFECT, TINTING FOR ... ... ... ... 69,

MOTOR DRIVE FOR PROJECTOR ... ... ... ... ... 211

Music AND DANCING LICENSE, APPLICATION FOR ... ... 266

FOR PICTURE PROGRAMS ... ... ... ... ... 221

NAMING AND BRUSHING MACHINE ... ... ... ... 155

NON-CONDUCTORS OF ELECTRICITY ... ... ... ... 159

NON-PERFORATE FILM, CAMERAS USING ... ... ... no

NUMBER OF PICTURES TAKEN PER SECOND 29.

OBJECTIVE LENS, MOST USED FOR PROJECTION 114

OHM 162

Mr. Showman This is what you have been wanting ever since your
Theatre was opened

TRADE MARK

INASTIGMAT

T TAeKeytozi
PerfectPictare

An Unique Cinematograph Projection Lens giving'aabrilliantly illumin-
ated screen with a definition sharp right to the extreme edges.
It is free from Chromaic Aberration and corrects all Spherical Aberration,
whilst Anastigmatic Aberration is absolutely non-existent. Although
we do not make a feature of it, our Cinastigmat, using 30 per cent, less
light, will give a better picture than any other lens on the market.
Write for interesting descriptive booklet.

THE .

JOHN BULL

ALL- BRITISH

Maltese Cross PROJECTOR

is unequalled in this or any other country. The
utmost care is given to its design, manufacture and
finish, and all wearing parts are of the very finest
quality material. An evidence of our faith in the
quality of the "John Bull" is shown by the fact
that it is GUARANTEED for THREE YEARS.
It is not a cheap machine but it is the Best. May
be seen at our showrooms at all times, or illustrated
list will be sent free on request.

We specialise in the complete
electrical equipment of Picture
Theatres, and are in a position
to quote rock-bottom prices con'
sistent with first-class work-
manship. Motor Generators,
Rotary Converters, Petrol and
Gas-driven Generating Sets
supplied for cash or easy
payments.

Large and complete stock of
Accessories including Fireproof
Spool Boxes, Lenses, Conden-
sers, Carrying Cases, Carbons,
Lantern Slides, etc., etc. Tip-up
Seating, covered pegamoid, from
3/9 per seat. Pit Seating at
very cheap rates. Special Pos-
ter Frames made to order. Ask
for our Accessories Lists.

Universal Cinematograph Supplies,

58 Dean St., Shaftesbury Avenue, London, W.

'Phone: 94 Gerrard. 'Grams: "Wilgrams."

HANDBOOK OF K I N E M ATOGR APH Y.

OHM'S LAW 162

OIL ... 194

OPERATING, Box, ELECTRING WIRING OF THE ... ... ... 197

,, EQUIPMENT OF THE ... ... ... ... 195

FIRE SHUTTER GEAR FOR 155

,, ,, FITTINGS OF THE ... ... ... ... 197

KlNEMATOGRAPH CAMERA IN SCENIC WORK ... 32

OPTICAL SYSTEM OF PROJECTION 114

ORDERLY FILM PROJECTION 210

OTTO CYCLE, THE (OF GAS AND OIL ENGINES) 177

OVER-DENSITY, CORRECTING ... ... ... ... ... 77

OVER-EXPOSURE, DEVELOPMENT OF 48

OXY-ETHER LIGHT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19 1

OXY-SPIRIT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 192

PALMER'S COLOUR CAMERA ... ... ... ... ... 236

PERFORATING, NOTE ON ... ... ... ... ... ... 109

PERFORATION GAUGE (DEBRIE) ... ... ... ... ... 23

,, ,, HOME MADE ... ... 23

PERFORATORS, DEBRTE ... ... ... ... ... ... 22

,, EMPIRE ... ... ... ... ... ... 21

KINETO ... ... ... ... ... ... 22

WILLIAMSON ... ... ... ... ... 21

PETROLEUM ENGINES FOR PRIVATE ELECTRICAL PLANT .... 178

PETROL SETS 179

PHOTOGRAPHIC EMULSION 2

PICTURE SHOW, ARRANGEMENT OF A 251

PIN FRAME, DESCRIPTION AND USE OF 42

FOR TRAVELLING (SMALL SIZE) 45

SIZE OF 43

WINDING A 53

PIN MOVEMENT PROJECTOR 124

PLAYING TO PICTURES 220

POLARITY OF ARC LAMPS, TESTING ... ... ... ... 173

POSITIVE FILM, USE IN TITLING ... ... ... ... 75

STOCK, How DIFFERING FROM NEGATIVE 58

PRINTER, A TYPICAL ... ... ... ... ... ... 59

COMMERCIAL ... ... ... ... ... ... 61

ESCAPEMENT OF ... ... ... ... ... 62

WALTURDAW ... ... ... ... ... ... 155

PRINTING, ADAPTING CAMERA FOR ... ... ... ... 64

,, METHOD OF ... ... ... ... ... ... 57, 62

REASON OF EXPLAINED 57

,, SUITABLE ILLUMINATION FOR ... ... ... 65

"SEABORNE"

Film Cleaning Machine

IS SCIENTIFICALLY CORRECT AND IN EVERY WAY PERFECT.

It THOROUGHLY CLEANS, POLISHES and TOUGHENS FILMS, Plain or
Coloured, at the rate of

AT A TOTAL COST OF

2,000 it. per hour,

COST OF

4|d. per 1,000 ft.

Besides dispensing with all harmful and injurious chemicals and fluids.

The Seaborne Machine Co.,

97 New Oxford Street, LONDON, W.C.

f&rthti

-^^^_ . /

For blocking out back-
grounds. For use in
combination printing. For writing titles. For
painting artificial clouds. For fancy vignet-
ting and for " shadow effects." For blocking
out statuary and machinery. For blocking
out groups from street scenes. For spotting
out pinholes on glass or celluloid negatives or
lantern slides, &c., &c. Post free 1 /1 , of all
dealc-rs.

Transparent. No skill needed, as flat washes
give best results. Set of seven, post free 1 /7
of leading dealers. Particulars, and list of forty
other useful photographic preparations, free. "

SCREENOLENE & SUBSTRALENE

are for writing Kinematograph announce-
ments and making drawings in pencil, ink, or
scratch. Price 1/- each.

THE VANGUARD "K" CO., MAIDENHEAD, ENGLAND.

DAYLIGHT SCREEN.

THE "DAY & NIGHT SCREEN" (fully patented).

ONLY PRACTICAL DAYLIGHT SCREEN.

Will give magnificent pictures in broad daylight, and has been operated with GIGANTIC SUCCESS at the
Open-Air Cinema, Marine Parade, Dover, daily at 3.30. There are no dark chambers necessary, and
projection is done from the front of the Screen. All that is required is the Screen itself, properly
shaded from the sun. No longer the oppressive atmosphere of a Picture Theatre in tin* Summer, but
Pure Air and Entertainment. At Night, with 75 ft. throw, the same Screen gives a better Picture

with only Ten Amperes than you can get on the ordinary Screen with 30 Amperes !

We supply Prosceniums and will quote prices for the complete Daylight Outfit. This is not ,? so-called

Daylight Screen, it is an actual Daylight Screen which gives a splendid Picture in broad daylight.

DAY & NIGHT SCREENS, Ltd., 38a, Bcrncrs St., Oxford St., W.

Telephone 5799 Gerrard. Telegrams " Pennyano."

H A ND BOOK OF K I N E M A TO G A 1 A ni Y.

PRINT DEVELOPMENT ... ... ... 55, 66

PRIVATE ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS 176

PROGRAMS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 256

PROJECTION, ELEMENTS OF ... ... ... ... ... 113

ARCS EXPLAINED 164

,, ALTERNATING 167

,, AUTOMATIC, WHY NOT SATISFACTORY ... 167

,, HEPWORTH 153

,, WALTURDAW 167

LENSES, BUSCH 148

ClNASTIGMAT l^g

DALLMEYER 151

,, DOUBLE ILLUMINATION ... ... ... 148

,, GLAUKAR ... ... ... ... ... 149

WALTURDAW LENS BATTERY ... ... 150

SCREEN, THE ... ... ... ... ... 254

PROJECTOR, SUBSIDIARY PARTS OF ... ... ... ... 116

,, BEARD ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 127

,, EMPIRE ... ... ... ... ... ... 130

ERNEMANN ... ... ... ... ... ... 129

CHRONO... ... ... ... ... ... 131, 132

FOR THE AMATEUR 125 126

KAMM M.C 137

KINETO ... ... ... ... ... ... 128

,, MOTIOGRAPH ... ... ... ... ... ... 135

NEW CENTURY KALEE ... ... ... ... 145

PATHE IMPERIAL ... ... ... ... ... 139

,, LUMIERE ... ... ... ... ... 138

RUFFELL'S ... ... ... ... ... ... 134

TYLER INDOMITABLE ... ... ... ... 140

, URBANORA ... ... ... ... ... ... 142

WARWICK ... ... ... ... ... ... 143

WRENCH ... ... ... ... ... ... 133

ZAR ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 142

PRESSURE GAUGES FOR GAS ... ... ... ... ... 186

PURE HYDROGEN, How MADE ... ... ... ... ... 184

QUINONE INTENSIFIER AND FILM HARDENER 109

RATE OF CHANGE IN CAMERA AND PROJECTOR ... ... 119

TURNING CAMERA HANDLE ... ... ... ... 31

RECORDING MOTION IN THE KINEMATOGRAPH PICTURE ... 29

REDUCING BATH, HOWARD FARMER'S 77

REGULATORS (GAS) 185

,, VARIABLE PRESSURE ... ... ... ... 186

LTD.

HAPPY HOURS

NOTTINGHAM.

'Phone 3546 Nottingham. Wires Pictures, Nottingham.

: Cinematograph Film Hirers. :

-n-

Complete Outfits, Gas, Oil, Petrol
Engines and Dynamos, :: Motor
: : Generators, etc. : :

ON EASY TERMS.

Sole Makers of the Celebrated "SILVER PAINT."

CINES Co.,

(OF ROME)
- Producers of the most elaborate and successful

HISTORICAL, DRAMATIC,
SCENIC and COMIC SUBJECTS

Photographic Quality and Sumptious and

Attractive Productions can always be

relied upon.

18 CHARING CROSS ROAD, LONDON,

Telephone 12912 CENTRAL, W.C.

Telegrams-" ROSSICINES, LONDON."

HANDBOOK OF K I NE M ATOGRAPH Y.

REGULATIONS OF SECRETARY OF STATE ... ... ... 259-262

REPAIR WORK ... 199

RESISTANCE IN ARC CIRCUIT, USE OF 168

METHOD OF CALCULATING ... ... ... ... 169

REGULATING 169

WIRE, GAUGE OF 170

RETOUCHING, AS APLLIED. TO KINEMATOGRAPH FILMS ... 98

RETURNING AFTER TOPICAL WORK 39

REVERSING EFFECTS (TRICK) 90

REWINDER, HEPWORTH 153

RULE OF THUMB 163

SAFE (DEVELOPING) LIGHTS ... ... ... ... 237, 238

SAFETY SPOOL Box ATTACHMENT " MALLET "... ... ... 146

SALARIES OF STAFF ... ... ... ... ... ... 257

SCALE, SETTLING THE, FOR GENERAL TOPICAL WORK ... 38

SCALING A MOTION PICTURE LENS 37

SCREEN, THE 254

RULED KINEMATOGRAPH FILM 239

SEATING 254

SENDING FILM HOME 230

SET BACKS IN TOPICAL WORK ... ... ... ... ... 36

SHUTTER AND STOP ADJUSTMENT TO CONDITIONS OF EXPOSURE 28

DOUBLE SPEED 120

MODERN THREE BLADED 120

OF KINEMATOGRAPH CAMERA 7

(ROTARY LIGHT) AN HISTORIC 119

WITH NON-FLICK FISHTAIL 120

SIZE OF PROJECTED IMAGE, How EFFECTED ... ... ... 115

SMOKE PUFFS, USE OF IN KINEMATOGRAPHY 95

SONG SLIDES ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 226

SPEEDING DOWN IN SCIENTIFIC WORK ... ... ... ... 241

SPIRIT BURNERS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 194

SPLIT SCREW MOVEMENT ... ... ... ... ... ... 123

SPOOLING SINGLE FILMS ... ... ... ... ... ... 208

SPOTTING LANTERN SLIDES ... ... ... ... ... 225

STAFF OF PICTURE THEATRE ... ... ... ... ... 257

STAGE, MODES OF EXPRESSION ON THE 217

STAR WHEEL (OR MALTESE CROSS) MOVEMENT 121

STEAM FOR GENERATING ELECTRICITY 176

STILL VIEW LANTERN, "IRON DUKE" 145

PHOTOGRAPHY. WITH SNAPSHOT CAMERA ... 2

STOPPING DOWN LENS, REASON OF ... ... ... ... 107

STORING FILMS IN THE TROPICS 230

THE WILLIAMSON
RINEMATOGRAPH CO.,

LIMITED,

28 DENMARK STREET,
Charing Cross Road,
LONDON :: :: W.C.

Williamson's

Perforators, Printers, Cameras.

STAR FILM SERVICE,

BIOSCOPE OUTFITTERS.

Developing, Printing and . .
Topical Film Work

Telegrams :
KINETOGRAM, LONDON. 1

Telephone :
7S9S CENTRAL.

HANDBOOK OF KINE MA TOGR APH Y.

STORY PICTURES, WHAT PAYS IN 100

STUDIOS FOR MOTION PICTURE WORK 102

SUB-TITLES, USE OF 101

SUCTION GAS FOR GENERATING ELECTRICITY 178

SUNDAY SHOWS 264, 265

SWEETS, SELLING IN THEATRE ... ... ... ... ... 256

SYNTHETIC WHITE ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 234

TAKE-UP OF CAMERA ... ... ... ... ... ... 8

, OF PROJECTOR, FAILURE OF ... ... ... ...' 210

SPOOL ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 116

TAPES, USE OF IN FILMING STORY PICTURES ... .".. ... 102

TEAS IN PICTURE THEATRE ... ... ... ... ... 256

TELE-KINEMATOGRAPHY, POSSIBILITIES OF ... ... ..? 243

TEMPERATURE OF DEVELOPMENT ... ... ... ... ... 48

TEST STRIPS, WORKING WITH 47, 50-52

THEATRE FITTINGS, WHERE OBTAINED 254

THREADED CAMERA 5

THREADING THE FILM ... ... ... ... ... ... 206

TIME SAVING IN PRODUCING KINEMATOGRAPH FILM ... ... 80

TINTING KINEMATOGRAPH FILM ... ... ... ... ... 69

,, SHORT TITLE LENGTHS ... ... ... ... ... 70

TITLE SLIDES 224

TITLING BY " REDUCTION " 74

FOR THE OCCASIONAL WORKER 75

IN A HURRY 75

73. 74. 75

TONING KINEMATOGRAPH FILM ... ... ... ... 71, 72

SPECIAL WARNING ... ... ... ... ... 72

,, WHEN ADVANTAGEOUS ... ... ... ... ... 71

TOPICAL SLIDES (STILL) 224

WORK, LENSES SUITED FOR 39

TOWN GAS FOR ELECTRICAL GENERATING 177

TRANSFORMERS AND CONVERTERS 173, 174

TRICK EFFECTS 85-97

AERIAL EFFECTS ... ... ... ... ... 91

,, ,, FATAL AND COMIC ACCIDENTS ... ... ... 87

GHOST EFFECTS 88

,, MAGICAL METAMORPHOSIS ... ... ... 87

MIRACULOUS APPEARANCES ... 85

REVERSING EFFECTS ... 90

TRICKS OF THE KINEMATOGRAPH TRADE EXPOSED 244

,, TITLES ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 93

TRIPOD HEADS, MECHANICAL ... ... ... ... 15, 16, 17

RUFFELL'S

Imperial Bioscope.

Al Model. British made throughout.

A perfectly steady picture. Will last a life-time, never tears
your films to pieces. Send for our Lists.

The latest PROJECTOR Al, at 28 nett.

Fitted with 14 inch Fireproof Spool Boxes having Double Set of Rollers.

Chain take-up, two spools, and projection and announcement lenses (size
as required).

Extra large lantern body.

RUFFELL'S RESISTANCES, U'SSu 3 3 each.

RUFFELL'S HEAVY Type Hand-fed

ARC LAMP, Am ' p e res , 3 10 each.

:: :: ALL ACCESSORIES SUPPLIED AND FITTED. :: ::

WE ARE THE LEADING MANUFACTURERS OF BRITISH-
MADE CINEMATOGRAPH MACHINES AND APPARATUS.

guff ell's Imperial Bioscope Syndicate, Ltd.,

12 LITTLE NEWPORT STREET, W.C.

Telegrams-" RUFFOSCOPE, LONDON." Telephone GERRARD 6695.

Secondhand Film List posted regularly to any address.

HANDBOOK OF KINE M A TOGR APH Y.

TROPICAL FILM MAKING TROUBLES

230

TROUGHS FOR DEVELOPMENT

UNDER-EXPOSURE, DEVELOPMENT OF

UNKNOWN EXPOSURE, DEVELOPMENT OF

UNSTEADY PICTURE, REASONS OF

124

VIEW FINDER, THE

USE OF

VISION, PERSISTENCE OF IN KINEMATOGRAPHY

118

VOLT

161, 162

VOLTAGE OF PROJECTION ARC DISCUSSED

168

VOLTMETER ...

164

WASHING FILM

VALUE OF ...

WATT

162

WAYS OF TACKLING TOPICALS

WEIRD EFFECTS, TINTING FILM FOR

WINDING TABLE, DESCRIPTION OF

WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION ACT

269

YOUNG HELMHOLTZ THEORY OF COLOUR VISION

233

No 181 Vol 7

IMPERIAL
PICTURES L T - D

142 LONG ACRE, LONDON. we.

**** Tltn..

40 GERRAKD STREET. LONDON V. 'LolSr&'SiJS

PltMtNotf V* KM a \grtf Mack of 6c.4 - Herd Aouatoaa Biogwyh patet CMU) otter tt** fllmj br S<)lt (perf
Ttieprwrx J9I8 CCfiKAHD MOwn( H MI IW UT

DO^'T flCT A3 If /Ot MAD HWDOED3 Or /CAPS TO

FllaMS KND TMB KIR\7 RIA
r>REAONOU<3WT" 1 1 JU| W LxIV/

TIME AND MONEY. **>

NEW BIO

I to 5 Cecil Court, Charing Cro*a Md.. London. W.C.

__ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^

6 NEW COPIPTON STREET. CHAKO CHOSS_R^.

x1 Sud HandFi

RUFFELLS "EEHSfit BIOSCOPE

SPECIALISTS IN HIGH Gi

KmEMTGCRFM A7,.^TUS OF tn PliiWPTiqH FQCtA'.E
LITTLE NEWPORT STRtET UONDON .W.C

URBANORA

"WE PUT THE WORLD BEFORE YOU."

Cameras, Printers, Perforators,
Doj Movement & Maltese Cross

Projectors
and every Bioscope Accessory.

Regular Weekly Production of
renowned " Urbanora " Films
including Dramatic, Historical,
Detective, Trick, Travel, and
j Industrial Subjects. M

WRITE FOR COMPLETE LIST.

CHARLES URBAN TRADING Co., Ltd.

ERNEST REED (Manager),

89-91 W ARDOUR STREET, LONDON, W.

Telegrams: Telephone:

" Bioscope, London.' 3118 CENTRAL.

Telegrams " Ashvic, London." Telephone 5538 Victoria.

ERNEST HAWKINS & CO., Ltd.,

"Builders and Contractors,
109 VICTORIA STREET, WESTMINSTER, S.W.

Works Ashford, Middlesex.

Artistic Cinematograph Halls,

Permanent or Composite Construction, erected
and fully equipped, at cheapest possible rates.

FINANCE GIVEN TO APPROVED SCHEMES.

Estimates given for converting old premises into revenue
earning Halls.

The Original

RECOGNISED TRADE ORGAN

is the

.Kinematograph Weekly.

GUARANTEED CIRCULATION. Best Advertising Medium.

6/6 per annum, post free from Publishers, E. T. HERON & Co.
9-- 11 Tottenham Street, London, W.

IRON FIRE SHUTTERS

For openings in Kinematograph Operator's
Rooms, with spring lever releasing gear,
controlled from both inside and outside of

the room.
In use all over the Kingdom. Delivery in 2 or 3 days.

Send sizes and position of openings for estimate

JUKES COULSON, STOKES & CO.,

HOWARD'S ROAD IRONWORKS, PLAISTOW, E.

THE RECOGNISED

TRADE PAPER.

100 PAGES.

Id. Weekly. 6/6 per Annum, Post Free.

10/10 Abroad.

THE

KlNEMATOCRAPH & LANTERN WEEKLY

is the

Original journal devotee! to Motion Pictures

The only trade paper at the Popular Penny

Has a guaranteed circulation all over the world

Is distributed by every wholesale newsagent

Gives original articles by recognised experts

Contains far more news than any other trade organ

Employs responsible correspondents in every country

Has representatives in every Provincial town

Prints only genuine advertisements

Has only one price for advertisements

Is read by everyone interested In the Trade

Its original features are copied by every other Journal

Is acknowledged THE PREMIER TRADE JOURNAL

Brims with vital interest each week

Is owned by a responsible individual Who

Has no connection with any firm in the Trade and

no axe to grind

Has two agents in France, one in Italy, one In Ger-
many, four in America, four in Australia, one In
India, one in Canada, one in Belgium, one In
Norway

Is pre-eminently the organ of the moving picture
world, to the interests of which it is entirely
and exclusively devoted.

THE

KINEMATOGRAPH WEEKLY,

9-11 Tottenham Street, London, W.

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UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO
LIBRARY

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