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A HANDBOOK
OF MODERN JxVPAN

f vV

PERRY MONUMENT, NEAK URAGA

A HANDBOOK

MODERN JAPAN

ERNEST W. CLEMENT

WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

CHICAGO

A. C. McCLURG & CO.
1903

A. C. McCluug & Co.
1903

Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.

Published October 10, 1903

rNIVERSlTY PRESS . JOHN WILSON
AND SON • CAJinRIDGE, U. S. A.

To THE Memory of my Father

AND

To MY INIother

INTRODUCTION

This book, as its title indicates, is intended
to portray Japan as it is rather than as it
was. It is not by any means the purpose,
however, to ignore the past, upon which the present
is built, because such a course would be both foolish
and futile. Moreover, while there are probably no
portions of Japan, and very few of her people, en-
tirely unaffected by the new civilization, yet there
are still some sections which are comparatively un-
changed by the new ideas and ideals. And, although
those who have been least affected by the changes are
much more numerous than those who have been most
influenced, yet the latter are much more active and
powerful than the former.

In Japan reforms generally work from the top down-
ward, or rather from the government to the people.
As another* has expressed it, “the government is the
moulder of public opinion ” ; and, to a large extent,
at least, this is true. We must, therefore, estimate
Japan’s condition and public opinion, not according
to the great mass of her people, but according to
the “ruling class,” if we may transfer to Modern
Japan a term of Feudal Japan. For, as suffrage in
Japan is limited by the amount of taxes paid, “the

^ Miss Bacon, in “Japanese Girls and Women.”

INTRODUCTION

viii

masses ” do not yet possess the franchise, and may be
said to be practically unconcerned about the govern-
ment. They will even endure heavy taxation and
some injustice before they will bother themselves
about politics. These real conservatives are, there-
fore, a comparatively insignificant factor in the equa-
tion of New Japan. The people are conservative, but
the government is progressive.

This book endeavors to portray Japan in all its
features as a modern world power. It cannot be ex-
pected to cover in great detail all the ground out-
lined, because it is not intended to be an exhaustive
encyclopa3dia of “things Japanese.” It is expected
to satisfy the specialist, not by furnishing all mate-
rials, but by referring for particulars to works where
abundant materials may be found. It is expected to
satisfy the average general reader, by giving a kind
of bird’s-eye view of Modern Japan. It is planned
to be a compendium of condensed information, with
careful references to the best sources of more com-
plete knowledge.

Therefore, a special and very important feature of
the volume is its bibliography of reference books at the
end of each chapter. These lists have been prepared
with great care, and include practically all the best
works on Japan in the English language. In general,
however, no attempt has been made to cover magazine
articles, wliich are included in only very particular
instances.

There are two very important works not included
in any of the lists, because they belong to almost all ;
they are omitted merely to avoid monotonous repe-
tition. These two books of general reference are

INTRODUCTION

indispensable to the thorough student of Japan and.
the Japanese. Chamberlain’s “Things Japanese”^
is the most convenient for general reference, and is a
small encyclopsedia. “The Mikado’s Empire,”^ by
Dr. Griffis, is a thesaurus of information about Japan
and the Japanese.

After these, one may add to his Japanese library
according to his special taste, although we think
that Murray’s “ Story of Japan,” also, should be in
every one’s hands. Then, if one can afford to get
Rein’s two exhaustive and thorough treatises, he is
well equipped. And the “ Transactions of the Asiatic
Society of Japan” will make him quite a savant on
Japanese subjects.®

We had intended, but finally abandoned the at-
tempt, to follow strictly one system of transliteration.
Such a course would require the correction of quota-
tions, and seemed scarcely necessary. Indeed, the
doctors still disagree, and have not yet positively
settled upon a uniform method of transliteration.
After all, there is no great difference between Tokio
and Tokyo ; kaisha and kwaisha; lyeyasu and leyasu ;
Kyushiu, Kiushiu, Kyushu, and Kiushu. There is
more divergency between Ryukyu, Riukiu, Liukiu,
Luchu, and Loo Choo ; but all are in such general use
that it would be unvdse, in a book hke this, to tiy^ to
settle a question belonging to specialists. The fittest
will, in time, survive. We have, however, drawn the

* Fourth edition. 2 Tenth edition.

* If any are inclined to delve still more deeply into any of these
topics, they will find further references in the books in the lists, espe-
cially in “ Things Japanese.” And the most complete treatment of
this subject is found in Wenckstern’s “Bibliography of Japan.”
Poole’s Index is also valuable.

INTRODUCTION

line on “Yeddo,” “ Jeddo,” and similar archaisms and
barbarisms, for which there is neither jot nor tittle of
reason. But it is hoped that the varieties of trans-
literation in this book are too few to confuse.

The author is under special obligations to Professor
J. H. Wigmore, formerly a teacher in Tokyo, and now
Dean of the Northwestern Law School, Chicago, for
kind criticisms and suggestions; to Mr. Frederick W.
Gookin, the art critic, of Chicago, for similar assist-
ance, and for the chapter on “-Tisthetic Japan,” which
is entirely his composition ; and also under general
obligations for the varied assistance of many friends,
too numerous to mention, in Japan and America. He
has endeavored to be accurate, but doubts not that he
has made mistakes. He only asks that the book be
judged merely for what it claims to be, — a Hand-
book of Modern Japan.

Ernest Wilson Clement.

Chicago, August 1, 1903.

CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I. Physiography 1

II. Industrial Japan 16

III. Travel, Transportation, Commerce ... 29

IV. People, Houses, Food, Dress 44

V. Manners and Custo.ms 60

VI. Japanese Traits 76

VII. History (Old Japan) 90

VIII. History (New Japan) 102

IX. Constitutional Imperialism 118

X. Local Self-Government 133

XL Japan as a AVorld Power 146

XII. Legal Japan 159

XIII. The New Woman in Japan 175

XIV. Language and Literature 191

XV. Education 209

XVI. ^Esthetic Japan 222

XVII. Disestablishment of Shinto 237

XVIII. Confucianism, Bushido, Buddhism .... 250

XIX. Japanese Christendom 261

XX. Twentieth Century Japan 277

XXI. The Mission of Japan 289

APPENDIX

305

ILLUSTRATIONS

Perry Monument, near Uraga Frontispiece

Pack

Nagasaki Harbor 10

Lighthouse Inland Sea 10

!Map of the Pacific 14

Cotton Mills, Osaka 22

Baron Shibusawa 38

Nobles’ Bank and Bank of Japan, Tokyo .... 40

First Bank, Tokyo 42

Group of Country People 48

Garden at Oji 54

New Year’s Greeting 64

The Emperor of Japan 82

The Prince Imperial 82

Osaka Castle 86

Four Gates : Nijo Castle, Kyoto ; Palace, Kyoto ;

Palace, Tokyo; Sakurada, Tokyo 92

Statesmen of New Japan : Prince San jo and Count

Katsu 96

Statesmen of New Japan: Okubo, Kido, and Prince

Iwakura 108

Departments of State : Navy ; Agriculture and Com-
merce; Justice; Foreign Affairs 124

Diet Buildings : House of Commons and House of

Peers 128

Statesmen of New Japan : Viscount Katsura and
Marquis Ito 138

xiv ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Statesmen of New Japan : Count Okuma, Count
Inouye, Count Itagaki, Count Matsukata . . . 142

Military Leaders: Field Marshal Yamagata ; Field

Marshal Oyama 148

Naval Leaders : Admiral Enomoto ; Admiral Kaba-

yama 152

Court Buildings, Tokj’^o 164

The Mint, Osaka 164

The Empress of Japan 180

The Princess Imperial 180

Educators and Scientists : Fukuzawa, Viscount

Mori, Baron Ishiguro, Dr. Kitasato 200

Imperial University Buildings, Tokyo 214

Painting by Yasunobu : Heron and Lotus .... 224

Painting by Ho-Itsu : View of Fuji-San .... 228

Cherry Blossoms 246

Group of Pilgrims 252

Buddhist Priests 252

Gospel Ship (Fukuin Maru) 268

Y. M. C. A. Summer School, Doshisha, Kyoto . . 268

Military Review, Himeji 280

“Shikishima” in Naval Review, Kobe .... 284

Imperial Dockyard, Yokosuka 300

Map of the Empire 310

JAPANESE PRONUNCIATION

a like a in father
e “ e “ men

i “ i “ pin

o “ 0 “ pony

u “ 00 “ book

o 1

M as 00 in moon

ai as in aisle
ei “ weigh

- as o in bone

i in the middle of a word and m in the middle or at the end of
a word are sometimes almost inaudible.

The consonants are all sounded, as in English : g, however, has
only the hard sound, as in give, although the nasal ng is often
heard ; ch and s are always soft, as in check and sin ; and z before
u has the sound of dz. In the case of double consonants, each one
must be given its full sound.

There are as many syllables as vowels. There is practically
no accent; but care must be taken to distinguish between o and
o, w and u, of which the second is more prolonged than the first.

Be sure to avoid the flat sound of a, which is always pro-
nounced ah.

A HANDBOOK

MODERN JAPAN

CHAPTER I

PHYSIOGRAPPIY

Outline of Topics : Situation of country ; relation to tlie United
States ; lines of communication ; “ Key of Asia.” — Area of em-
pire. — Divisions ; highways, provinces, prefectures, principal cities
and ports. — Dense population; natives and foreigners; Japanese
abroad. — Mountains, volcanoes, hot springs, earthquakes. — Lakes,
rivers, bays, harbors, floods, tidal waves. — Epidemics, pests. — Cli-
mate: temperature, winds (typhoons), moisture, ocean currents.
— Flora and fauna. — Peculiar position: Japan and the United
States. — Bibliography.

The Japanese may appropriately be called
“our antipodal neighbors.” They do not
live, it is true, at a point exactly opposite
to us on tliis globe; but they belong to the obverse,
or Eastern, hemisphere, and are an Oriental people
of another race. They are separated from us by from
4,000 to 5,000 miles of the so-called, but misnamed.
Pacific Ocean ; but they are connected to us by many
lines of freight and passenger vessels. In fact, in
their case, as in many other instances, the “ disunit-
ing ocean” (JJceanus dissociabilis') of the Romans has
1 1

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

really disappeared, and even a broad expanse of waters
has beeome a connecting link between the countries
on the opposite shores. It may be, in a certain
measure, correct to say, as pupils in geography are
taught to express it, that the Pacific Ocean separates
the United States from Japan; but it is, in a broader
and higher sense, just as accurate to state that this
ocean binds us with our Asiatic neighbors and friends
in the closest ties. Japan was “opened” by the
United States; has been assisted materially, politi-
cally, socially, educationally, and morally by Ameri-
can influences in her wonderful career of progress;
and she appreciates the kindliness and friendship of
our people. We, in turn, ought to know more about
our rapidly developing proUge, and no doubt de-
sire to learn all we can concerning Japan and the
Japanese.

The development of trade and commerce has been
assisted by the power of steam to bring Japan and
the United States into close and intimate relations.
There are steamship lines from San Francisco, Van-
couver, Tacoma, Seattle, Portland, and San Diego
to Yokohama or Kobe; and there are also a great
many sailing vessels plying between Japan and
America. The routes from San Francisco and San
Diego direct to Japan are several hundred miles
farther than the routes from the more northerly ports
mentioned above. The time occupied by the voyage
across the Pacific Ocean varies according to the ves-
sel, the winds and currents, etc. ; but it may be put

PHYSIOGRAPHY

down in a general way at about 14 days. The fast
royal mail steamers of the Canadian Pacific line often
make the trip in much less time, and thus bring
Chicago, for instance, within only a little more than
two weeks’ communication with Yokohama. It must,
therefore, be evident that Japan is no longer a re-
mote country, but is as near to the Pacific coast of
America, in time of passage, as the Atlantic coast
of America was twenty years ago to Europe.

It is true that the steamers of the San Francisco
and San Diego lines, especially those carrying mails
and passengers, go and come via Honolulu, so that
the voyage to Japan thus requires a few more days
than the direct trip would take. But, as Hawaii is
now part of the United States, our country has
thus become only about 10 days distant from Japan.
iNIoreover, as the Philippine Islands are also a por-
tion of our country, and Formosa has been for several
years a part of Japan, the territories of the two na-
tions are brought almost within a stone’s throw, and
the people almost within speaking distance, of each
other. This proximity of the two nations to each
other should he an incentive to draw even more
closely together the ties, not only historical, com-
mercial, and material, hut also political, social, edu-
cational, intellectual, moral, and religious, that bind
them to each other, and, so far as possible, to make
“Japan and America all the same heart.”

But Japan is also an Asiatic country, and thus
holds a peculiar relation to the countries- on the

4 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

eastern eoast of the mainland of Asia. The islands
of Japan stretch along that shore in close proximity
to Siberia, Korea, and China, and are not far distant
from Siam. With all of those countries she enters,
therefore, into most intimate relationship of many
kinds. With Russia the relation is one of rivalry',
of more or less hostility, at present passive, but
likely to be aroused into activity by some unusually
exasperating event. In any case, Japan is the only
Far-Eastern power that can be relied upon to check
the aggressions of Russia; and this fact the wise
statesmen of Great Britain have clearly recognized by
entering into the Anglo- Japanese Alliance. Toward
Korea, China, and Siam, Japan sustains a natural
position of leadership, because she is far in advance
of all those nations in civilization. Ties geographi-
cal, racial, social, political, intellectual, and reli-
gious, bind them more or less closely together, so that
Japan can more sympathetically and thus more easily
lead them out into the path of progress. The natural
and common routes of trade and travel from the
United States to those countries run via Japan,
which thus becomes, in more senses than one, “the
key of Asia”; and for that very reason she is also
the logical mediator between the East and the
West.

The Japanese call their country Dai Nihon, or
Dai Nipjwn (Great Japan), and have always had a
patriotic faith in the reality of its greatness. But
this delightful delusion is rudely dispelled when the

PHYSIOGRAPHY

fact is expressed statistically, in cold figures, that
the area of the Empire of Japan is about 161,000
square miles, or only a little more than that of Cali-
fornia. It has, however, a comparatively long coast
line of more than 18,000 miles. The name Nihon,
or Nippon (a corruption of the Chinese Jih-pen, from
which was derived “ Japan ”), means “sun-source,”
and was given because the country lay to the east
from China. It is for this reason that Japan is
often called “The Sunrise Kingdom,” and that the
Imperial flag contains the simple design of a bright
sun on a plain white background.^

Japan proper comprises only the four large islands,
called Hondo, Shikoku, Kyushiu, and Yezo (Hok-
kaido); but the Empire of Japan includes also For-
mosa, the Pescadores, and about 4,000 small islands,
of which the Ryukyu (Loo Choo) and the Kurile
groups are the most important. Japan proper lies
mainly between the same parallels of latitude ^ as the
States of the Mississippi valley, and presents even
more various and extreme climates than may be
found from Minnesota to Louisiana.

The extreme northern point of the Empire of
Japan is 50° 56' N., and the extreme southern point is
21° 48' N. The extreme eastern point is 156° 32' E.,®
and the extreme western point 119° 20' E. These
extremes furnish even greater varieties of climate

^ Another design shows the sun’s rays shooting out from the
sun in the centre.

» 24° 14'-4o° 30' N.

® But this does not include Marcus Island (Torishima).

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

than those just mentioned. The Kurile Islands at
the extreme north are frigid, and have practi-
cally no animal or vegetable life; while the beau-
tiful island of Formosa at the extreme south is half
in the tropics, with a corresponding climate, and
abounds in most valuable products. Marcus Island,
farther out in the Pacific, has guano deposits worth
working.

Japan proper is divided geographically into nine
“circuits,” called Gokinai, Tokaido, Tosando, Hoku-
rikudo, Sanindo, Sanyodo, Nankaido, Saikaido, Hok-
kaido. The word do, which appears in all the names
except the first, means “road” or “highway.” Some
of these appellations are not much used at present;
but others are retained in various connections, espe-
cially in the names of railways, banks, companies,
or schools. A common official division of the largest
island {Hondo) is into Central, Northern, and West-
ern. Japan proper was also subdivided into 85 Kuni
(Province), the names of which are still retained in
general use to some extent. But, for purposes of
administration, the empire is divided into 3 Fu
(Municipality) and 43 Ken (Prefecture), besides Yezo
(or Hokkaido) and Formosa, each of which is ad-
ministered as a “ territory ” or “colony.” The dis-
tinction between Fu and Ken is practically one in
name only. These large divisions are again divided:
the former into Ku (Urban District) and Gun (Rural
District) ; and the latter into Gun. There are also
more than 50 incorporated Cities (Shi) within the Fu

PHYSIOGRAPHY

and Kcn.'^ Moreover, the Gun is subdivided into
Chv (Town) and Son (Village).

But, while the prefix “great” does not apply to
Japan with reference to its extent, it is certainly
appropriate to the contents of that country. Within
the Empire of Japan are great mountains with grand
scenery, great and magnificent temples, great cities,
and a great many people. For, while the area of
Japan is only one-twentieth of that of the United
States, the population is about one -half as numerous.
Even in the country districts the villages are almost
continuous, so that it is an infrequent experience to
ride a mile without seeing a habitation; and in the
large cities the people are huddled very closely to-
gether. The latest official statistics, those of 1900,
give the total population of Japan as 47,646,810, of
whom the males exceed the females by about 600,000 ;
and as of late years the annual increase has amounted
to about 500,000, the present population (1903) may
fairly be estimated at more than 49,000,000.

The number of foreigners resident in Japan in
1900 exceeded 12,000, of whom more than half were
Chinese, and more than a quarter were British and
American. The number of Japanese then living
abroad was 123,791, of whom 90,146 were in the
United States (chiefly in Hawaii), 15,829 in Korea,
and 8,215 in British territory.

J apan is a mountainous country. The level ground,

* There is a Tokyo Shi, for instance, in Tokyo Fu. See Appen-
dix for lists of Kuni and Ken.

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

including artificial terraces, is barely 12 per cent of
the area of the whole empire. A long range of high
mountains runs like a backbone through the main
island. The highest peak is the famous Fuji, which
rises 12,365 feet above the sea-level, and is a “dor-
mant volcano,” whose last eruption occurred in 1708.
Its summit is covered with snow about ten months
in the year. There are several other peaks of more
than 8,000 feet elevation, such as Mitake, Akashi,
Shirane, Komagatake, Aso, Asama, Bandai, some of
which are active volcanoes. Eruptions happen not
infrequently; and earthquakes, more or less severe,
registered by the seismometer, are of daily occur-
rence, although most of the shocks are not ordinarily
perceptible.^ There are also several excellent hot
springs, of sulphuric or other mineral quality, as at
Ikao, Kusatsu, Atami, Hakone, Arima, Onsen. The
mountainous character of Japan has also its pleasant
features, because it furnishes means of escape from
the depressing heat of summer. Karuizawa, Nikko,
Miyanoshita, Hakone, Arima, Chuzenji are the most
popular summer resorts.

There are not many, or large, lakes in Japan.
Lake Biwa, 50 miles long and 20 miles wide at its
widest point, is the largest and most famous. Ha-
kone Lake, the “Asiatic Loch Lomond,” is beautiful,
and especially noted for the reflection of IMount Fuji
in its water by moonlight. Lake Chuzenji, in the
Nikko mountains, is regarded by many as “unri-

1 Students of seismology should consult Professor Milne’s works.

PHYSIOGRAPHY

vailed for beauty ” and “ hardly surpassed in any
land.”

There are many beautiful waterfalls, such as
Kegon, Urami, and others in the Nikko district,
Nunobiki at Kobe, Nachi in Kii, etc.

There are numerous rivers, short and swift; and
it is these streams, which, after a rainy season,
swelling and rushing impetuously down from the
mountains, overflow their sandy banks and cause
annually a terrible destruction of life and property.
The most important rivers are the Tone, the Shinano,
the Kiso, the Kitakami, the Tenryu, in the main
island, and the Ishikari in Yezo. The last is the
longest (about 400 miles) ; the next is the Shinano
(almost 250 miles); but no other river comes up
even to 200 miles in length. The Tenryu-gawa ^ is
famous for its rapids. Some of these rivers are
navigable by small steamers.

Japan, with its long and irregular coast line, is
particularly rich in bays and harbors, both natural
and artiflcial, which furnish shelter for the shipping
of all kinds. The “open ports,” which formerly
numbered only 6 (Nagasaki, Yokohama, Hakodate,
Osaka, Kobe, Niigata), have reached the figure 26;
and the growing foreign commerce annually demands
further enlargement. Of the old ports, Niigata is
of no special importance in foreign commerce ; but,
of the new ports, Kuchinotsu in Kyushiu, Muroran
in Yezo (Hokkaido), and especially Bakan and Moji,

1 Kawa, or gawa, in composition, means “ river.”

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

on opposite sides of tlie Straits of Shimonoseki, are
rapidly growing. In this connection it is, perhaps,
not inappropriate to make mention of the far-famed
“Inland Sea,” known to the Japanese as Seto-no-uclii
(Between the Straits), or Seto-uchi, which lies be-
tween the main island, Shikoku and Kyushiu.

The long coast line of Japan is a source of dan-
ger; for tidal waves occasionally spread devastation
along the shore. These, with floods, earthquakes,
eruptions, typhoons, and conflagrations, make a
combination of calamities which annually prove very
disastrous in Japan.

The country is subject to epidemics, like dysen-
tery, smallpox, cholera, plague, and “La Grippe,”
which generally prove quite fatal. In 1890, for
instance, some 50,000 Japanese were attacked by
cholera, and about 30,000 died; and during two
seasons of the “ Russian epidemic ” large numbers
of Japanese were carried away. In both cases the
foreigners living in Japan enjoyed comparative im-
munity. And now, on account of the advance in
medical science, more stringent quarantine, and
better sanitary measures, the mortality among Jap-
anese has been considerably diminished. This for-
tunate result is largely due to the efi’orts of such
men as Dr. Kitasato, whose fame as a bacteriologist
is world-wide. The zoological pests of Japan are
fleas, mosquitoes, and rats, all of which are very
troublesome; but modern improvements minimize
the extent of their power.

NAGASAKI HARBOR, AND LIGHTHOUSE INLAND SEA

A ir b

PHYSIOGRAPHY

But, in spite of the drawbacks just enumerated,
Japan is a beautiful spot for residence. “The aspect
of nature in Japan . . . comprises a variety of savage
bideousness, appalling destructiveness, and almost
heavenly beauty.” The climate, though somewhat
debilitating, is fairly salubrious, and on the whole
is very delightful. The extremes of heat and cold
are not so great as in Chicago, for instance, but
are rendered more intolerable and depressing by the
humidity of the atmosphere. No month is exempt
from rain, which is most plentiful from June on
through September; and those two months are the
schedule dates for the two “rainy seasons.” Septem-
ber is also liable to bring a terrible typhoon. Except
in the northern, or in the mountainous, districts,
snow is infrequent and light, and fogs are rare.
The spring is the most trying, and the autumn the
most charming season of the year.^

On account of the extent of Japan from north to
south, the wide differences of elevation and depres-
sion, and the influence of monsoons and ocean
currents, there is no uniformity in the climate.
For instance, the eastera coast, along which runs
the Kuro Shio (Black Stream), with a moderating
influence like that of the Gulf Stream, is much
warmer than the western coast, which is swept by
Siberian breezes and Arctic currents. The exces-
sive humidity is due to the insular position and
heavy rainfall. Almost all portions of the country
1 See also meteorological tables in Appendix.

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

are subject more or less to sudden changes of
weather. It is also said that there is in the air a
great laek of ozone (only about one-third as much
as in most Western lands) ; and for this reason Occi-
dentals at least are unable to carry on as vigorous
physical and mental labor as in the home lands.
Foreign children, however, seem to thrive well in
Japan.

“Roughly speaking, the Japanese summer is hot
and occasionally wet; September and the first half
of October much wetter; the late autumn and early
winter cool, comparatively dry, and delightful; Feb-
ruary and March disagreeable, with occasional snow
and dirty weather, which is all the more keenly
felt in Japanese inns devoid of fireplaces; the late
spring rainy and windy, with beautiful days inter-
spersed. But different years vary greatly from each
other.” ^

In Japan “a rich soil, a genial climate, and a
sufficient rainfall produce luxuriant vegetation ” of
the many varieties of the three zones over which the
country stretches. In Formosa, Kyushiu, Shikoku,
and the Ryukyu Islands, “ tlie general aspect is tropi-
cal”; on the main island the general appearance is
temperate; while Yezo and the Kurile Islands begin
to be quite frigid. The commonest trees are the
pine, cedar, maple, oak, lacquer, camphor, camellia,

1 This quotation is from Murray’s “ Hand-Book for Japan ” by
Chamberlain and Mason. The Introduction of that book contains
most valuable practical information for prospective travellers in
Japan.

PHYSIOGRAPHY

plum, peach, and cherry; but the last three are
grown for their flowers rather than for their fruit
or wood. The bamboo, which grows abundantly,
is one of the most useful plants, and is extensively
employed also in ornamentation.

In the fauna of Japan we do not find such great
variety. Fish and other marine life are very abun-
dant; fresh-water fish are also numerous; and all
these furnish both livelihood and living to millions
of people. Birds are also quite numerous ; and some
of them, like the so-called “ nightingale ” (^uguisu),
are sweet singers. The badger, bear, boar, deer,
fox, hare, and monkey are found; cats, chickens,
dogs, horses, oxen, rats, and weasels are numerous ;
but sheep and goats are rare. Snakes and lizards
are many ; but really dangerous animals are compara-
tively few, except the foxes and badgers, which are
said to have the power to bewitch people!

In conclusion, attention should be called once more
to the phj’siographical advantages of Japan, and
it may be of interest to set them forth from the point
of view of a Japanese who has indulged in some
prognostications of the future of his nation. From
the insular position of Japan, he assumes an adapta-
bility to commerce and navigation ; from the situation
of Japan, “on the periphery of the land hemisphere,”
and thus at a safe distance from “the centre of
national animosities,” he deems her comparatively
secure from “the depredations of the world’s most
conquering nations”; from the direcdou of her chief

14 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

mountain system (her backbone), and “ the variegated
configurations of her surface,” he thinks that “na-
tional unity with local independence ” may easily be
developed. Likewise, because more indentations are
found on the eastern than on the western sides of the
Japanese islands, except in the southwestern island
of Kyushiu, where the opposite is true ; because the
ports of California, Oregon, Washington, and British
Columbia are open toward Japan ; because the Hoang-
Ho, the Yangtze Kiang, and the Canton rivers all
flow and empty toward Japan; because the latter
thus “turns her back on Siberia, but extends one
arm toward America and the other toward China and
India”; because “winds and currents seem to imply
the same thing [by] making a call at Yokohama
almost a necessity to a vessel that plies between the
two continents,” — he conceives of his native country
as a nakodo (middleman, or arbiter) “between the
democratic West and the Imperial East, between the
Christian America and the Buddhist Asia. ”

But since these comparisons were made, the geog-
raphy of Eastern Asia and the Pacific Ocean has
been somewhat altered. Japan has acquired For-
mosa; the United States has assumed the responsi-
bility of the Philippines; and China is threatened
with partition through “spheres of influence.”
Japan, therefore, seems now to be lying off the
eastern coast of Asia, with her back turned on
Russia with Siberian breezes and Arctic currents,
her face turned toward America, with one hand

PHYSIOGRAPHY

stretched out toward the Aleutian Islands and
Alaska and the other toward the Philippines, for
the hearty grasp of friendship.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

For more detailed information concerning the topics treated
in this chapter, the reader is referred to “ The Story of Japan ”
(Murray), in the “Story of the Nations” series; “The Gist
of Japan” (Peery) ; and “ Advance Japan ” (Morris).

For pleasant descriptions of various portions of Japan, “ Jin-
rikisha Days in Japan” (Miss Scidmore); “Lotos-Time in
Japan ” (Finck) ; “ Japan and her People ” (Miss Hartshorne) ;
and“ Unbeaten Tracks in Japan” (Miss Bird, now Mrs. Bishop)
are recommended.

The most complete popular work on the country is the
“ Hand-Book for Japan” (Chamberlain and Mason), 7th edition ;
and the most thorough scientific treatment is to be found in
Rein’s “Japan.”

CHAPTER II

INDUSTRIAL JAPAN

OoTLiNE OF Topics : Agriculture ; petty fanning ; small capital
and income ; character of farmer ; decrease of farmers ; principal
products ; rice ; tea ; tobacco ; silk ; cotton ; camphor ; bamboo ;
marine products and industries. — Mining. — Engineering. — Ship-
building. — Miscellaneous industries. — Mechanical industries. —
Shopping in Japan. — Wages and incomes. — Guilds, labor unions,
strikes, etc. — Mr. Kataj-ama. — Socialism. — Bibliography.

The chief occupation of the Japanese is agri-
culture, in which the great mass of the
people are employed. On account of the
volcanic nature and the mountainous condition of
the country, there are large portions not tillable ; ^
and for the same reason, perhaps, the soil in general
is not naturally very fertile. It must be, and can be,
made so by artificial means; but as yet not half of
what is fairly fertile soil is under cultivation. Large
portions of arable land, particularly in Yezo and
Formosa, can be made to return rich harvests, and
are gradually being brought under man’s dominion.
But it can be readily understood that if for any
reason the crops fail, severe suffering will ensue,
and perhaps become widespread. The prosperity of
the country depends largely upon the prosperity of
its farmers.

1 See Appendix.

INDUSTRIAL JAPAN

Farming, like almost everything in that land of
miniatures, is on a limited scale, as each man has
only a very small holding. “There is no farm
in Japan ; there are only gardens ” (Uchimura).
Even a “petty farmer” of our Northwest would
ridicule the extremely insignificant farms of the
Japanese, who, in turn, would be astounded at the
prodigious domains of a Dalrymple. A careful in-
vestigator, Dr. Karl Rathgen, has summed up the
situation as follows: “In Japan are to be found only
small holdings. A farm of five did ^ (twelve acres)
is considered very large. As a rule the Japanese
farmer is without hired labor and without cattle.
The family alone cultivates the farm, Avhich, how-
ever, is so small that a large share of the available
labor can be devoted to other purposes besides farm-
ing, such as the production of silk, indigo, tobacco.
The average holding for the whole of Japan (ex-
cluding the Hokkaido) for each agricultural family
is 8.3 tan'^ (about two acres), varying from a maxi-
mum of 17.6 tan in the prefecture of Aomori to a
minimum of 5.3 tan in the prefecture of Wakayama.”
“There are no large landed proprietors in Japan.”

A Japanese farm is so insignificant, partly because
a Japanese farmer has only a very small capital, and
needs only a slight income to support life. It has
been estimated that a man so fortunate as to own
a farm of five cho^ obtains therefrom an annual in-
come of 100 or 120 yend And yet the Japanese

1 See tables of measurement and coinage, in Appendix.

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

farmers are very careful and thoroughly understand
their business. “In spade-husbandry,” says Dr.
Griffis, “they have little to learn”; but “in stock-
raising, fruit-growing, and the raising of hardier
grains than rice, they need much instruction.”^

A Japanese farmer is hard-working, industrious,
stolid, conservative, and yet, by reason of his fatal-
istic and stoical notions, in a way happy and con-
tented. “ Left to the soil to till it, to live and die
upon it, the Japanese farmer has remained the same,

. . . with his horizon bounded by his rice-fields,
his water-courses, or the timbered hills, his intellect
laid away for safe-keeping in the priest’s hands, . . .
caring little who rules him, unless he is taxed be-
yond the power of flesh and blood to bear.” He is,
however, more than ordinarily interested in taxation,
for the land-tax of three and one-third per cent of the
assessed value of the land amounts to about half the
national revenue, and is no inconsiderable part of
the state, county, town, and village taxes. A reduc-
tion to two and one-half per cent is now vigorously dis-
cussed in the press ; a bill to that effect, however, has
not yet succeeded in passing the Imperial Diet.^

1 See “ The Yankees of the East ” (Curtis), chap. xiii.

2 The “ Shakai Zasshi” has the following on the decrease of

farmers : The causes of the phenomenon, briefly stated, are as

below: (1) The current methods of farming require no intelli-
gence in the farmer. He works very much like an animal in a
purely mechanical fashion. Hence lads with minds are attracted
to trade and industry. (2) The universality of education has in-
creased the number of intelligent men among the lower classes, and
this has made farmers discontented with their lot. (.“I) City life offers
many attractions to active-minded persons ; and hence in Japan, as

INDUSTRIAL JAPAN

The principal products of the Japanese farms are
rice, barley, wheat, millet, maize, beans, peas, pota-
toes (Irish and sweet), turnips, carrots, melons, egg-
plants, buckwheat, onions, beets, and a large white
bitter radish (daikon). A very good average yield
is fifty bushels to an acre. The entire annual pro-
duction of rice varies each year, but averages about
40,000,000 koku and the annual exportation of rice
runs from about 3,500,000 yen to over 10,000,000
yen. The list of fruits ^ and nuts grown in Japan
includes pears, peaches, oranges, figs, persimmons,
grapes, plums, loquats, apricots, strawberries, bananas,
apples, peanuts, chestnuts, etc.

Among other important Japanese productions must
be mentioned, of course, tea, tobacco, and mulberry
trees. Of these the last is, perhaps, indigenous;
but the other two are importations in their origin.
The culture of tea is most extensively carried on in
the middle and southern districts. The annual pro-
duction is now about 8,000,000 kwan the annual
export trade is valued at about 8,000,000 yen. The
price of tea runs from five cents to six dollars per
pound, of wliich the last is raised at Uji, near Kyoto.
The Japanese are a tea-drinking people; they use
that beverage at meals and between meals, at all

in the Western world, there has been a steady flow of country
people towards the towns. The statistics published on this matter
show, that, whereas in 1889 the proportion of townspeople to the
total number of inhabitants was 15 in every 100 persons, in 1898 it
has risen to 18. This accounts for the scarcity of farm labor, which
has constantly been complained of in recent years. — Japan Mail.

1 See tables in Appendix. 2 ggg Appendix.

2 See tables of weights and measures in Appendix.

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

times and in all places. It is true that they drink it
from a very small cup, which holds about two table-
spoonfuls, but they drink, as we are toM to jjray,
“ without ceasing.” Hot water is kept ever ready for
making tea, which is sipped every few minutes, and is
always served, with cake or confectionery, to visitors.^

Tobacco was introduced into Japan by the Portu-
guese, but its use was at first strictly prohibited.
The practice of smoking, however, rapidly spread
until it became well-nigh a universal custom, not
even restricted to the male sex. The Lilliputian
pipe would seem to indicate that only a limited
amount of the weed is used; but smoking, like
tea-drinking, is practised “early and often.” The
Japanese tobacco is said to be “remarkable for its
mildness and dryness.”

The silk industry is the most important in rela-
tion to Japan’s foreign trade, and is on the increase.
Silk is sent away to American and European markets
chiefly in its raw state, but is also manufactured into
handkerchiefs, etc. The exports of silk for the year
1898 amounted to about $31,000,000, or about one-
flfth of the entire export trade. It would, of course,
he beyond the limits of this chapter to enter into the
description of the details of sericulture; it may he
sufficient here to state that only the stolid patience
of Orientals can Avell endure the slow, tedious, and
painstaking process of feeding the silkworms.^

^ Scidmore’s “ Jinrikisha Days in Japan,” chap, xxxv., and
Gribble’s paper in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xii.
pp. 1-33.

* Scidmore’s “Jinrikisha Days in Japan,” chaps, xxvi., xxvii.

INDUSTEIAL JAPAK

Cotton-Spinning is a comparatively new industry
in Japan, but is growing rapidly. Cotton is, of
course, the principal material for the clothing of the
common people, who cannot afford silk robes. But
Japan, though raising a great deal of cotton, cannot
supply the demand, and imports large quantities
from India and America. It is only within a short
time that cotton-spinning by machinery has become
a Japanese industry; formerly all the yarn was spun
by hand; but in 1900 there were 76 cotton-mills in
Japan. Some are very small concerns; but in Osaka,
Nagoya, and Tokyo there are comparatively large and
flourishing mills. Ordinary workmen receive from
12 to 20 sen a day; skilled laborers make from 30 to
40 sen; girls earn from 10 to 20 sen, and children
only a few sen per day ; but the stockholdei’s receive
dividends of from 10 to 20 per cent per annum.

Since Japan acquired Formosa from China, she has
had added to her resources another very important
and valuable product, in which she possesses prac-
tically a monopoly of the world’s market and a sup-
ply supposed to be sufficient for the demands of the
Avhole world for this entire century. It has been
estimated, for instance, that the area of interior dis-
tricts in which the camphor tree is found will reach
over 1,.500 miles. The camphor business of Japan
in Formosa is in the hands of a British firm, to
whom, as highest bidder, the government let out
its monopoly for a fixed term of years. ^

^ See Davidson’s “ Island of Formosa.”

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Perhaps the most generally useful product of Japan
is the bamboo, 1 which “finds a use in eveiy size, at
all ages, and for manifold purposes,” or, as Huish
expresses it, “is used for everything.” Rein and
Chamberlain each takes up a page or more for an
incomplete list of articles made from bamboo; so
that Piggott is surely right when he states that it is
“an easier task to say what is not made of bamboo.”

Inasmuch as Japan is an insular country, with a
long line of sea-coast, it is natural that fishing should
be one of the principal occupations of the people, and
that fish, seaweed, and other marine products should
be common diet. From ancient times down to the
opening of Japan, the fishing industry was a simple
occupation, somewhat limited in its scope ; but since
the Japanese have learned from other nations to what
extent marine industries are capable of development,
fishing has become the source of many and varied
lines of business. The canning industry, for in-
stance, is of quite recent origin, but is growing
rapidly. Whaling and sealing are very profitable
occupations. Smelt-fishing by torchlight by means
of tame cormorants was largely employed in olden
times, and is kept up somewhat even to the present
day. The occupation of a fisherman, though arduous
and dangerous, is not entirely prosaic, and, in Japan,
contributes to art. The return home of the fishing-

1 See Transactions Japan Society, London, vol. i., for an interest-
ing paper by Charles Holme, and Transactions Asiatic Society of
Japan, vol. xxvii., for an elaborate and finely illustrated paper by
Sir Ernest Satow, on “ Bamboo.”

COTTUM .MILLS, OSAKA

INDUSTRIAL JAPAN

smacks in the afternoon is an interesting sight; and
the aspect of the sea, dotted with white sails, appeals
so strongly to the ccsthetic sense of the Japanese
that it is included among the “ eight views ” of any
locality.

IMining is also a flourishing industry in Japan, as
the country is quite rich in mineral resources. Coal
is so extensively found that it constitutes an item of
export. Copper, antimony, sulphur, and silver are
found in large quantities; gold, tin, iron, lead, salt,
etc., in smaller quantities. Oil, too, has sprung up
into an important product.^

Engineering, perhaps, deserves a paragraph hy
itself. This department in the Imperial University
is flourishing, and sends forth annually a large
numher of good engineers. In civil engineering
the Japanese have become so skilful that they have
little need now of foreign experts except in the
matter of general supervision.

It is worthy of special notice that the Japanese
have become quite skilful in ship-building, so that
they now construct vessels of various kinds, not only
for themselves but for other nations. The Mitsu
Bishi Company, Nagasaki, has constructed for the
Japan Mail Steamship Company three fine passenger
steamers of 6,300 tons each. At the Uraga Dock-
yard large American men-of-war have been satisfae-
torily repaired; and on October 15, 1902, a small
United States gunboat was launched, — “f/ie first

1 See Appendix.

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

instance in which Japan has got an order of shij}-
huilding from a Western country.'' ^

Among the minor miscellaneous industries which
can only be mentioned are sugar-raising, paper-
making (there are a number of mills which are
paying well), dyeing, glass-blowing, lumber, horse-
breeding, poultry, pisciculture, ice, brick, fan, match,
button, handkerchief, pottery, lacquer, weaving, em-
broidery, sake and beer brewing, soy, etc. The ex-
tent and variety of the industries of Modern Japan
are also clearly evidenced in a short article about
“ Tbe Osaka Exhibition ” of 1903 in the Appendix.

In what we style “the mechanical arts” the Jap-
anese excel, and have a world-wide reputation. With
their innate aesthetic instincts they make the most
commonplace beautiful. It is a trite saying that a
globe-trotter, picking up in a native shop a very
pretty little article, and admiring it for its simplicity
and exquisite taste, is likely to find it an ordinary
household utensil. Japanese lacquer work is dis-
tinctive and remarkable for its beauty and strength ;
lacquered utensils, such as bowls, trays, etc., are
not damaged by boiling soups, hot water, or even
cigar ashes. In porcelain and pottery, the Japanese
are celebrated for the artistic skill displayed in
manufacture and ornamentation. “ The bronze and
inlaid metal work of Japan is highly esteemed.”
Japanese swords, too, are remarkable weapons ^\•ith
“astonishing cleaving power.” To summarize this
1 Japan Times. See also Appendix.

INDUSTRIAL JAPAN

paragraph, it may be said that the Japanese have
turned what we call mechanical industries into fine
arts, which display a magnificent triumph of aestheti-
cism even in little things.^

This chapter would be incomplete without a para-
graph concerning Japanese shops, or retail stores,
which are among the first curiosities to attract and
rivet a foreigner’s attention. The building is, per-
haps, a small, low, frame structure, crowded among
its fellows on a narrow lane. The floor is raised a
foot or so above the ground, and is covered, as usual,
with thick matting. Spread out on the floor or on
wooden tiers or on shelves are the goods for sale.
The shopkeeper sits on his feet on the floor, and
calmly smokes his pipelet, or fans himself, or in
winter warms his hands over the hibachi (fire-bowl).
He greets you with a profound bow and most re-
spectful words of welcome, but makes no attempt to
effect a sale, or even to show an article unless you ask
to see it. He is imperturbably indifferent whether
or not you make a purchase; either way, it is all
right. He will politel}' display anything you want
to see ; and, even if, after making him much trouble,
you buy nothing or only an insignificant and cheap
article, he sends you away with as profound a bow
and as polite expressions as if you had bought out
the shop. Whether you buy little or much or even
nothing, you are always dismissed with Arigato
gozaimam" and Mata irasshai,” which are very re-
1 See also chapter on “Aesthetic Japan.”

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

spectful phrases for “ Thank you ” and “ Come again,”
Having dropped into “a veritable shoppers’ para-
dise, ” you will quickly “ find yourself the prey of an
acute case of shopping fever before you know it ! ”
It is, indeed, true, to quote further from this same
writer, that “ to stroll down the Broadway [known as
the Ginza] of Tokio of an evening is a liberal educa-
tion in every-day art.” ^

From what has already been written, it is easily
noticeable that wages and incomes, like so many
things in petite Japan, are insignificant. It may be
added liere that ordinary mechanics earn on an aver-
age 50 sen a day, and the most skilful seldom get
more than double that amount ; that carpenters earn
from 50 to 80 sen a day; that street-car drivers and
conductors receive 10 or 12 yen per month, and other
workmen of the common people about the same.
Even an official who receives 1,000 yen per year is
considered to have a snug income. It will be in-
ferred from this that the cost of living is proportion-
ately cheaper, whether for provisions or for shelter
or for clothes, and that the wants, the absolute ne-
cessities, of the people are few and simple. Literally
true it is, that a Japanese man “wants but little here
below, nor wants that little long.” With rice, bar-
ley, sweet potatoes, other vegetables, fish, eggs, tea,
and even sweetmeats in abundance and very cheap,
a Japanese can subsist on little and be contented and
happy with enough, or even less than that. But,

1 Lowell’s " Soul of the Far East,” pp. 114-117.

INDUSTKIAL JAPAN

unfortunately, the new civilization of the West has
carried into Japan the itch for gold and the desire for
more numerous and more expensive luxuries, and has
increased the cost of living without increasing pro-
portionately the amount of income or wages. ^

Industrial Japan has already become more or less
modified by features of Occidental industrialism,
such as guilds, trade unions, strikes, co-operative
stores. It is true that feudal Japan also had guilds,
which are, however, now run rather on modern lines.
One of the oldest, strongest, and most compact is
that of the dock coolies, who without many written
rules are yet so well organized that they have
almost an absolute monopoly, with frequent strikes,
which are always successful. Others of the guilds
are those of the sawyers, the plasterers, the stone-
masons, the bricklayers, the carpenters, the barbers,
the coolies (who can travel all over the empire with-
out a penny and live on their fellows), the wrestlers,
the actors, the gamblers, the pickpockets, etc. The
beggars’ guild is now defunct. The labor unions
of modern days include the iron-workers, the ship-
carpenters, the railway engineers, the railway work-
men, the printers, and the European-style cooks.
The last-mentioned is one in which foreigners resi-
dent in Japan necessarily take a practical interest !
The only unions which have become absolute masters
of the situation are those of the dock coolies, the
railway laborers, and the railway engineers. As for
1 The Yankees of the East (Curtis), chap. xii. Also see Appendix.

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

co-operative stores, there are a dozen or more in
Tokyo, Yokohama, and Northern Japan.

The perfect organization of these modern unions
is due largely to the efforts of a young man named
Sen Katayama, who is the champion of the rights
of the laboring man in Japan. He spent ten years
in America and made a special study of social prob-
lems. He is the head of Kingsley Hall, a social
settlement of varied activity in the heart of Tokyo,
and editor of the “ Labor World, ” the organ of the
working classes. That the changes rapidly taking
place in the industrial life of Japan will raise up
serious problems, there is no doubt; what phases they
will assume cannot be foreseen. But “socialistic”
ideas are carefully repressed in modern Japan.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

“Japan and its Trade” and “Advance Japan” (Morris);
“The Yankees of the East” (Curtis); “Japan in Transition”
(Ransome), chap. x. ; “ The Awakening of the East ” (Leroy-
Beaulieu), chaps, iv. and v. ; and especially Rein’s “ Industries
of Japan,” in which the subject is treated in great detail with
German thoroughness. But to keep pace with the rapid prog-
ress along industrial and commercial lines, one really needs
current English newspapers and magazines, such as are men-
tioned in the chapter on “Language and Literature.” The
reports of the British and United States consular officials are
also very useful in this respect. “Japan and America,” a
monthly magazine published in New York City, will he found
convenient and valuable on this subject.

CHAPTER III

TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE

Outline of Topics: Travelling in Old Japan; vehicles of Old
and New Japan ; jinrikisha ; railway travel ; telegraph and tele-
phone; street-car, bicycle, and automobile; steamships. — Postal
system. — Oil, gas, and electric light. — Poreign commerce ; variety
of imports. — Mixed corporations. — Stock and other exchanges. —
Banking system ; coinage ; monetary standard. — Baron Shibusawa
on business ability of Japanese, prospects of industrial and com-
mercial Japan, and financial situation. — Bibliography.

ONE of the most common and most important
indications of a great change in the life and
civilization of Japan is to be seen in tlie
improved modes of travel and transportation. The
ancient method, though in some sections pack-horses
and oxen were used, was essentially pedestrian. The
common people travelled on foot, and carried or
dragged over the road their own baggage or freight.
Couriers, carrying the most important despatches,
relied upon fleetness of foot. The higher classes and
wealthy people, even though not themselves making
any exertions in their own behalf, were carried about
in vehicles by coolies, who, with their human burdens,
tramped from place to place. On water, too, travel
and transportation depended mostly upon human mus-
cular exertion, as all boats, small or large, had to be
propelled by oars or poles, except when favored with a

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

breeze to swell the sails and allow the boatmen a respite
from their toil. But all this hard labor developed, of
course, a strength of limb and a power of endui-ance
that even in recent years have enabled the Japanese
soldiers to march and fight in either the piercing cold
and deep snow of Manchuria or the bhstering heat
of Formosa. A life of constant outdoor exposure to
Avind, rain, cold, or heat has toughened and browmed
the skin, and made an altogether hardy race out of the
common people ; while the lack of this regular exercise
and calisthenic training has left its mark in the com-
paratively weak constitutions of those who travelled,
not on their own feet, but on the shoulders of others.

The common vehicles of the olden days were
ordinary carts for freight and norimono and hago for
passengers. The norimono is a good-sized sedan-chair
or palanquin, in which the rider can sit in a fairly
comfortable position. The kago is a sort of basket in
which the traveller takes a half-sitting, half-reclining
posture, not altogether comfortable — at least for tall
foreigners. At present the norimono is seldom if
ever employed except for corpses or invalids, but
the kago is still used in mountainous regions, where
nothing else is available. It must be understood, of
course, that the nobles and their retainers often
rode on horseback ; but the great mass of the people
walked and the few rode in kago or norimono.

Now, howcA^er, modes of traA’el have changed
greatly, and are changing year by year. There are
still many pedestrians ; the kago is yet to be seen ;

TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE 31

boats are I propelled by stern-end oar or laboriously
pushed along with poles ; and pack-horses and oxen
— even in the streets of Tokyo — are in frequent use.
But there are many other means of communication
and transportation. There have come into use the
horse-car, the stage, the jinrikisha, the railroad, with
the telegraph and the telephone ; the modern row-
boat, the steamboat ; the bicj^cle, the automobile, and
the electric railway, with the electric light to show
the road by night. An excellent postal system and
various other modem contrivances for facilitating the
means of communication have been adopted.

The most common mode of conveyance at present, in
all possible localities, is the jin-riki-sha (man-power-
carriage), or “ Pull-man car,” as it has been wittily
called. This is a two-wheeled “ small gig,” or large
baby-carriage, pulled by one or more men, A ride in
a jinrikuha, after one has become accustomed to
human labor in that capacity, is really comfortable
and delightful. The coolies who pull these vehicles
develop swiftness and endurance, but are comparatively
short-lived. There is also a two-wheeled freight cart
manipulated in the same fashion. It has been es-
timated that in Tokyo alone there are more than

700.000 hand-carts, almost 200,000 Jinrikishas, about

10.000 ox-carts, more than 25,000 other freight carts,
and almost 3,000 omnibuses and horse-cars. The
business of transportation there furnishes occupation
to thousands of people, but gives to each engaged
therein only a scanty remuneration, which is often

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

insufficient for the support of life, after the tax has
been paid. The fee for a jinrikisha ride averages
about 10 or 12 sen per n (2| miles), or varies from
10 to 20 sen per hour. If a coolie makes 50 sen in
one day, he is fortunate, and is lucky to average 25
or 30 sen per day ; for some days he may be wearily
waiting and watching from dawn to the dead of night
without receiving scarcely a copper. Hard, indeed,
is their lot; and their death rate is rather low.^

But even the jinrikisha will eventually be sup-
planted for long journeys wherever a railroad goes.
There are now in Japan about 4,000 miles of railway,
and at least 1,200 miles more are said to be absolutely
necessary. There is one continuous line of railroad
from Aomori in the extreme north to Shimonoseki in
the extreme south of the main island, and then, after
crossing the Straits of Shimonoseki, there is another
unbroken line from Moji to Nagasaki and Kagoshima
or Kumamoto. In the island of Yezo (Hokkaidd) is a
short line built by American engineers after American
models ; but all other railroads in Japan were built

1 “ Unlike ordinary laborers jinrikisha men have alwa3's to
work in the open air, often in defiance of the elements, and irre-
spective of day or night. Sometimes they are covered from head
to foot with dust and at other times drenched to the skin with
water. Then again they experience a constant change in their
bodily temperature, at one time perspiring from their arduous
exertions, and at another shivering with cold. No one can doubt
that such quick change in bodily temperature will sooner or later
tell on the health of those unfortunate victims. At every street
corner they are to be found on the eager look-out for customers,
but exhaustion soon asserts its claim over them, as they invariably
doze whenever and wherever they have the chance.”

TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COfilMERCE S3

and are operated according to the British methods.
The rate of fare is 1 sen per mile for third class,
2 sen for second class, and 3 sen for first class, and
the rate of speed rarely exceeds 20 or 25 miles per
hour ; but fortunately the people are not in such a
hurry as Americans. Recently, however, express
trains, running at the rate of 30 or more miles per
hour, have been started on several of the roads, espe-
cially between large and important places. Dining-
cars and sleeping-cars, too, may be found on some of
the lines ; and the American check system is used for
baggage. The government owns most of the rail-
ways, and has been contemplating for some time the
policy of buying up all tlie private lines. This may
be desirable from a strategic point of view ; but from
the business standpoint it is not advisable, for the
government lines are not well managed. The best
line in the country is a private one, the Sanyo Rail-
way Company, operating west from Kobe.^

Railroads have been naturally accompanied, and
often preceded, by telegraph lines, which now keep
the various parts of the empire in close communica-
tion with Tokyo and with each other. During 1901
the telegrams numbered over 16,000,000, and are
increasing rapidly in number every year. The
Japanese syllabary has lent itself easily to a code
like the IMorse Code.^ Telephones, too, have been

1 See Appendix for important railway statistics.

* Japan is also in cable communication with the rest of the
world via both Hongkong and Vladivostock ; and press rates are
available.

A HANDBOOK OF MODEKN JAPAN

introduced and are growing in favor so rapidly that
the government cannot keep up with the petitions for
installation. According to the latest reports, there
were 10,554 telephones in Tokyo, wliile 11,015 more
were applied for. There are many public slot tele-
phones, which can be used for a few minutes for 5 sen.

Horse-cars are largely used in cities, but are being
gradually supplanted by electric cars. The bus in
the city and the stage in the country are in com-
mon use, but cannot be recommended for comfort.
Bicycles are very popular, and are cheaply manufac-
tured in Japan ; even Japanese women have begun to
ride, while young men are very skilful as trick riders
and rapid as “scorchers.” Automobiles also are
coming into a Limited use.

In a country where formerly no ships large enough
to make long voyages were allowed to be made, steam-
ship companies are now flourishing. The Osaka
Shosen Kwaisha (Osaka Merchant Marine Com-
pany) is a very large and prosperous corporation,
whose business is chiefly the coasting trade, but
which also runs to Formosa, the Ryukyu Islands,
the Bonin Islands, Korea, and China. But the lar-
gest steamship company in Japan, and one of the
largest in the world, is the Nippon Yusen Kivaisha
(Japan Mail Steamship Company). It has a fleet
of 76 vessels with 242,000 tons; and maintains not
only a frequent coasting service, but also several for-
eign lines, to Siberia, Korea, China, Incba, Australia,
Europe, and America. This is the line which runs

TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE 35

fortnightly from Seattle to Hongkong with excel-
lent passenger accommodations. The Toyo Kisen
Kwaisha (Oriental Steamship Company) is a Jap-
anese organization with tliree fine vessels running
about once a month from San Francisco to Hawaii,
Japan, China, and Manila. The word Maru^ in such
combinations as “ America Maru ” or “ Kaga Maru ” is
a special suffix always attached to the name of a ship.

In Old Japan there was no official postal system,
and letters were despatched by private messengers
and relays of couriers. When Japan was opened to
the world, some of the foreign nations represented
there maintained special post-offices of their owii, but
these were gradually abandoned. It was in 1872 that
the modern postal system of Japan was organized on
American models ; and it was only five years later
when Japan was admitted to the International Postal
U nion. The twenty-fifth anniversary of this event was
celebrated with great eclat in Tokyo in 1902. The
Japanese postal system has been gradually improved
during its quarter-century of existence, so that in some
respects it excels its model, the United States postal
system, and is really one of the most efficient in the
world. It includes registration, money orders, parcel
post, reply postal cards, postal savings,^ and universal
free delivery. Letter postage is 3 sen within the
empire and 10 sen to all countries of the International
Postal Union; postal cards are 1| and 4 sen respec-

1 It should be pronounced Mah-rob, not Ma-roo'.

- See Appendix.

36 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

lively. We also beg leave to remind Americans that
letter postage to Japan is not 2 cents, but 5 cents per
half ounce.

Oil is most extensively used for lighting purposes ;
but gas and electricity are also employed, and bring
good dividends to companies furnishing such illumina-
tion. A very large amount of oil has been annually
imported from the United States and Russia ; but as
rich fields have been found in Northern Japan,^
the Standard Oil Company is also interested in a
Japanese corporation, the International Oil Companj^
organized to work Japanese fields. Foreign capital
has also been invested in the Osaka Gas Company,
and is sought by the Tokyo Gas Company, as well as
by several electric and steam railway companies. The
first buildings erected for the Imperial Diet were
supplied with electric lights, but caught fire in some
way, and were totally destroyed. This calamity was
laid at the door of a flaw in the electric lighting
apparatus, and so frightened the Emperor that he
decided not to use the electric lights in the palace ;
but if my memory serves me rightly, after one or
two nights of imperfect and unsatisfactory lighting,
he resorted once more to electricity.

The foreign trade of Japan has increased from
$13,123,272 in 1868 to $265,017,161 in 1902,—
twenty-fold in a third of a century Of recent }'^ears
the imports have been larger than the exports; in

^ See Appendix.

^ See table in Appendix. In 1902 the exports footed up almost
^130,000,000, and the imports more than §135,000,000.

TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE 37

1898 they were more than !J55,000,000 in excess ; in
1900, almost $41,500,000 in excess; but in 1901 the
difference was only about $1,750,000. The chief
articles of export are silk (either raw, or partly or
wholly manufactured), cotton yarn and goods, matches,
coal, high-grade rice, copper, camphor, tea, matting,
straw braid, and porcelain. The principal imports
are raw cotton, shirting and printed cotton, mousse-
line, wool, cotton velvet, satin, cheap rice, flour,
sugar, petroleum, oil cake, peas and beans, machinery,
iron and steel (including nails and rails), steamers,
locomotives, and railway carriages. The exports are
sent chiefly to the United States, Great Britain and
colonies (especially Hongkong), China, and F ranee ;
while the imports come mostly from Great Britain
and colonies (especially England, India, and Hong-
kong), the United States, Germany, France and col-
onies, and China.

The variety in the geograpliical distribution of the
imports of Japan may be faintly illustrated by the fol-
lowing partial list of supplies taken by an American
family from Toky5 to the summer resort of Hakone :
soap from England and America, cocoa from England,
butter from California, cornstarch from Buffalo, N. Y.,
Swiss milk, Holland candles, pickles from England,
Scotch oatmeal, American rolled oats and cracked
wheat, flour from Spokane Falls, Washington, canned
goods from San Francisco, Kansas City, Chicago, and
Omaha, and evaporated cream from Illinois.

The first mixed corporation, composed of Japanese

38 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

and foreigners, to be licensed under the new Commercial
Codes after the new treaties went into effect in 1899,
was the Nippon Electric Company, in which a large
electric company of Chicago is specially interested.

Japan has several stock exchanges and chambers
of commerce in various localities, and these are all
under the strictest supervision and close restrictions.

It was in 1872 that National Bank Regulations were
first issued, and a few banks Avere established ; but in
1876 it was found necessary to make radical amend-
ments in those regulations in the Avay of affording
greater facilities for the organization of banks. The
result Avas that by 1879 there were 153 national banks
in the country ; and in 1886 the further organization
of national banks was stopped. In the mean time the
Yokohama Specie Bank had been organized (in 1880)
for the support of the foreign trade ; and (in 1882)
the Bank of Japan (Nippon Ginko) had been organ-
ized to “ secure proper regulations of the currency.”
In 1897 the Industrial Bank, and later provincial
agricultural-industrial banks were organized to give
special banking facilities to local agricultural and in-
dustrial circles. The Bank of Formosa, the Colonial
Bank of Hokkaido, and a Credit Mobilier complete the
list of official institutions. By 1899 all the natiomil
banks had either been changed into private banks or
had gone out of existence. Private banks number
over 1,800, of Avhich the Mitsui, the Mitsubishi, the
Hundredth, the Sumitomo, the Fifteenth (Nobles’), the
First, and the Yasuda are the strongest. Savings-

BAKOX SHIBUSAWA

TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE 39

banks are also quite numerous (681), and are helping
to develop habits of thrift and economy among the
common peopled

The first Japanese mint was established at Osaka
in 1871, and has been actively at work ever since ;
and there is an institution in Tokyo for the manufac-
ture of paper money. The coins now cliiefly used are
copper, nickel, silver, and gold ; but in the country
districts it is still possible to find brass coins of less
than mill values. The copper pieces are | sen (5 rm),
1 sen, and 2 sen ; the 5 sen jiiece is the only nickel
coin ; the silver pieces are 5 sen, 10 sen, 20 sen, and
50 sen ; and the gold coins are 5 yen, 10 yen, and 20 yen.
There are also paper notes of 1 yen and upward :
these are issued only by the Bank of Japan, and
amounted in 1899 to over 250,000,000 yen.

In 1897 Japan adopted the gold standard, so tliat
exchange fluctuations with the Occident are slight,
and the Japanese currency has a fixed value, at the
rate of about 50 cents for the yeiu^

Concerning the prospects of industrial and com-
mercial Japan, it may be well to note the views® of
Baron Shibusawa, one of the foremost of Japanese
merchants and financiers. In referring to the capacity
of the Japanese for business, the Baron says: —

“ There are, however, four peculiarities in the Japanese
character which make it hard for the people to achieve

^ See Hamaoka’s pamphlet on “ The Bank of Japan.”

* For tables of currency, weights, measures, etc., see Appendix.

* See “ Japan and America ” for June and July, 1903; also consult
Diosy’s “ New Far East,” chap. vi.

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

business success. These are : Firstly, impulsiveness,
which causes them to be enthusiastic during successful
business and progressive even to rashness when filled
Avith enthusiasm ; secondly, lack of patience, which
causes easy discouragement when business is not so suc-
cessful ; thirdlj', disinclination for union ; and fourthly,
they do not honor credit as they should, which is so im-
portant a factor in financial success. These four pecu-
liarities are to be met Avith iu Japanese business men in
a more or less marked degree.

“Although Japan, as a country, is old, yet her com-
mercial and industrial career being new, there are neces-
sarily many points of incompleteness. For example,
although Ave have many railways, yet there is no close con-
nection made between the railway station and the harbor.
Again, although we have raihvays, yet Ave have no appro-
priate cars, etc. To complete such work and to open
up the resources of the country, and to alloAv Japan to
benefit from them, we need more capital. The capital
we have in the country is not enough. So what is noAv
wanted in Japan is foreign capital. A great proportion
of the Japanese people, however, are opposed to the
idea of sharing any profits equally Avith any other na-
tion. Their exclusiveness in this respect is a distinct
relic of the old era. They ignore altogether the fact
tliat, with the assistance of foreign capital, the profits
Avould be quadrupled. The very idea of sharing with an
outside power is distasteful to them. For instance, I
have been endeavoring for many years by word and deed
to obtain a revision of the laws relative to the ownership
of land in Japan by foreigners. I may say that Marquis
Ito and other public men are of my opinion in the mat-
ter. Because, however, of this exclusive element in
Japan, it has still been found impossible to allow for-
eigners to own Japanese land. Until this change is

noble’s bank and bank of japan, TOKA'O

TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATIOTT, COMMERCE 41

made, foreign investors will naturally feel that there is
little safety for their investments.

“ I am also anxious to introduce the idea of a system
of trusteeship in order to encourage foreign nations to
invest their money in Japanese enterprises. There are
very many uncompleted works in Japan, which need out-
side money to finish them and which would return good
profits. I feel assured that it would be possible for
prominent Japanese bankers and capitalists to make
tliemselves personally responsible for the money of the
foreign investor. By such a system the security of the
investment would be much increased, and the foreign
investor would have the assurance that his money was
safe, even if the business in which it had been invested
may have ceased to exist. The entire loss caused by
the failure of Japanese business enterprises would thus
be borne by the Japanese.

“ The day will come when Japan will compete with the
powers already in the field on all lines of manufactured
goods, but this time must necessarily be far distant. The
trouble at present is that, while the Japanese can imitate
everything, they cannot, at the same time, invent su-
perior things. But the trade of the Oriental countries
will come to be regarded as Japan’s natural share, and
she is already well capable of supplying it.

“The resources of Japan are very varied and very fair
in quantity at present. Raw silk and tea are abundant,
while coal is plentiful, as also copper and silver ; gold is
not so much so. I hope to see our plentiful water sup-
ply turned into good account and harnessed to produce
electric energy. This would be a great saving of ex-
pense and w'ould cheapen the cost of production very
much. Oil has been found in several districts and will
take the place of coal to a large extent, and it is possible
that if fully developed its export trade may be made to

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

the neighboring countries. In Hokkaido we have rich
coal and silver mines and oil wells, while in Formosa
we have rich gold mines. The iron we use in our iron
works in Kiushiu comes partly from several mines of
Japan and partly from China.

“ My hope for the future is that foreign capital may be
brought into the country and that the economic position
of the country may be made so secure as to leave no
doubt possible in the mind of the world as to the stabil-
ity of the Japanese Empire.”

We also take pleasure in quoting the same high
authority upon the subject of the present financial
situation in Japan, as follows —

“ The present financial difficulty in Japan is only the
natural sequence of the over-expansion of business of
some years ago. In every country there are waves of
prosperity followed by periods of depression. I have
kuown, in the economic history of Japan since the
Restoration, five or six such waves. They do not neces-
sarily injure the real financial standing of the country.
The peculiarities of the Japanese business character
have much to answer for in the way of increasing the
appearance of financial insecurity during the times of
depression. After the prosperous times of 1893 came
the war with China and the subsequent indemnity.
Much of the money paid by China was spent in Japan,
and the Japanese people came to the conclusion that this
increased circulation of money would be permanent.
They acted impulsively in many enterprises, and rushed
into all kinds of business because the government had
over-expanded its enterprises after the war. The de-
pression reached its height in 1900 and 1901, and busi-

1 See “Japan and America” for June and July, 1903.

I'lliST hank, TOKYO

TRAVEL, TRANSPORTATION, COMMERCE 43

nesses ■svere abandoned or reduced because it was not
such easy work as formerly. I agree with Viscount
Watanabe in his views on the present financial situation
of the country, but I do not agree with him in his
opinion that the present condition of affairs will inevi-
tably result in national bankruptcy. This Avill not be
the case, because by proper management our national
income can be made still greater than our expenditure.”

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

For interesting .accounts of travel when and where modern
conveniences were not available, read “ Unbeaten Tracks in
Japan” (Bird); “The Mikado’s Empire” (GrilBs); “ Noto,
an Unexplored Corner of Japan” (Lowell); “Glimpses of
Unfamiliar Japan ” (Hearn); and papers in the Transactions
of the Asiatic Society of Japan. For similarly interesting
accounts of travel with modern conveniences read “ Jinrikislia
Days in Japan” (Scidmore); “Japan and her People” (Harts-
horne); “ The Yankees of the East ” (Curtis).

On the industrial and commercial phases of these topics,
consult books, papers, magazines, and pamphlets mentioned in
the bibliography of the preceding chapter; also “ General View
of Commerce and Industry in the Empire of Japan,” occasion-
ally published for free distribution.

CHAPTER IV

PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS

Outline of Topics : Ainu ; ethnology ; two types ; compara-
tive stature and weight; intellectual and moral qualities. — Classes
in society of old and new regimes; social principle. — Family and
empire. — Houses ; public buildings ; rooms ; foreign architecture.
— Gardens. — Food; meals; table manners; foreign cooking. —
Undress and dress ; European costume. — Bathing. — Bibliography.

WHO were the aborigines of Japan is yet a
disputed question. Remains have been
found of a race of dwarfs who dwelt in
caves and pits, but who these people were is not
positively known. They may have been contempo-
rary with the Ainu, whom many call “ the aborigines
of Japan.” It is certain, however, that the Ainu
were once a very numerous nation, “the members
of which formerly extended all over Japan, and w'ere
in Japan long before the present race of Japanese.”
But the latter gradually forced the former northward,
until a final refuge was found in Yezo and the Kurile
Islands. There the Ainu are now living, but are
slowly dying out as a race ; there are at present only
about 17,600 remaining. They are said to be “the
hairiest race in the whole world,” “of sturdy build,”
filthy in their habits (bathing is unknown), addicted

PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS

to drunkenness, and yefc “of a mild and amiable dis-
position.” Their religion is nature-worship.^

It is well known that the Japanese are classed
under the Mongolian (or Yellow) Race. They
themselves boastfully assert that they belong to
the “golden race,” and are superior to Caucasians,
who belong to the “silver race”! As Mongolians,
they are marked, not only by a yellowish hue, of
many shades from the darkest to the lightest, hut
also by straight black hair (rather coarse), scanty
beard, rather broad and prominent cheek-bones, and
eyes more or less oblique. Some think that the
Japanese people show strong evidences of ISIalay
origin, 2 and claim that the present Emperor, for iu=

1 “ Unbeaten Tracks in Japan,” by Miss Bird (now Mrs. Bishop),
is interesting and reliable in its treatment of the Ainu of that
day. Chamberlain also has written on the “ Ainos.” The best
single book is, of course, “ The Ainu of Japan,” by Rev. J.
Batchelor, the leading authority, who has also written a book
on “ Ainu Folk-lore.”

^ “Various Impressions” is the title of an address delivered
at a meeting of the Imperial Education Society by Dr. Nitobe,
reported very fully in the Kyoiku Kolio. Dr. Nitobe gave an
account of his travels in the South Pacific. He visited Java,
many other islands, and Australia. At Java he felt persuaded
that an eminent French ethnologist who not long ago said tliat, as
the result of much investigation, he had come to the conclusion
that the Japanese race was %o Malay, %o Mongolian, and Vio mixed,
was right. Among the mixed elements there was an Aryan ele-
ment, which came from India, and a negrito element. “ Now it is
supposed,” says Dr. Nitobe, “ that this negrito element comes from
the Javanese. It no longer shows itself in the Japanese in regard
to the form of the nose and that of the cheek-bones, but it is to be
seen in the curly hair of certain inhabitants of Kyushiu. In Oshfi,
from which I come, this peculiarity is not known. During my
travels in the South Pacific Islands I was repeatedly struck by

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

stance, is of a striking IMalay type. It is not im-
possible, nor even improbable, that Malays were
borne on the “Japan Current” northward from
their tropical abodes to the Japanese islands; but
there is no historical record of such a movement.
Therefore the best authorities, like Rein and Baelz,
do not acknowledge more than slight traces of
Malay influence. A more recent theory concerning
the origin of the real Japanese — or Yamato men, as
they called themselves — is that they are descendants
of the Hittites, whose capital was Hamath, or Yamath,
or Yamato.

There are two distinct types of Japanese: the
oval-faced, narrow-eyed, small aristocratic class ;
and the pudding-faced, full-eyed, flat-nosed, stout
common people. Of these, the latter is the one
claimed to be Malay. The plebeians, having always
been accustomed to hard labor by the sweat of the
brow, are comparatively strong; the others, having
been developed by centuries of an inactive life, have
inherited weak constitutions. Indeed, the people, as
a whole, are subject to early maturity and early decay.
There is a Japanese proverb to this effect: “At ten,
a god-like child ; at twenty, a clever man ; from twenty-
five on, an ordinary man.” And, in spite of the fact
that there have been remarkable exceptions to this
rule, careful investigation by Japanese supports the
truth of the proverb. And yet there seems to be no

the similarity of Malay customs to our own. In the structure of
their houses even this was very manifest.” — Japan Mail.

PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS 47

doubt that modern education and conditions of life
show a gradual improvement in this respect.

The average Japanese, compared with the average
European or American, has a lower stature ^ with a
long body and short legs. A good authority states
that “the average stature of Japanese men is about
the same as the average stature of European women ” ;
and that “the [Japanese] women are^ proportionately
smaller.” Some one has wittily called the Japanese
“the diamond edition of humanity.”

The Japanese also weigh much less than Euro-
peans. The average weight of young men of twenty
years of age in Europe is about 144 pounds, while
the average weight of the strongest young men of
the suburban districts of Tokyo was only about 121
pounds; which gives the European an advantage of
23 pounds.

The Japanese are very quick to learn. Their
minds are strong in observation, perception, and
memory, and weak in logic and abstraction. As
born lovers of nature, they have well-trained powers
of ohserv'ation and perception, so that their minds
turn readily to scientific pursuits. And as the an-
cient Japanese system of education followed Chinese
models, the power of memorizing by rote has been
strongly developed, so that the Japanese mind has
little difficulty in becoming a storehouse of historical
and other facts. But, as the powers of reasoning
and abstraction have not been well trained, the

1 Dr. Baelz estimates the average stature at about 5 feet.

48 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Japanese do not take so readily to mathematical
problems and metaphysical theorems.

The typical Japanese is loyal, filial, respectful,
obedient, faithful, kind, gentle, courteous, unselfish,
generous.^ His besetting sins are deception, intem-
perance, debauchery, — and these are common sins
of humanity. In respect to these evils, he is un-
moral rather than immoral; and in his case these
sins should not be considered so heinous as in the
case of one who has been taught and knows better. ^
And it is with reference to these very evils that
Shinto, Buddhism, and Confucianism have been a
complete failure in Japan, and that Christianity is
making its impress upon the nation.

There never were distinct and rigid castes in Japan,
as in Egypt and India, but formerly there were four
classes in society. These were, in order, the official
and military class; the agricultural class, or the
farmers ; the laboring class, or the artisans ; and the
mercantile class, or merchants. Above all these were
the Emperor and the Imperial family; below all these
were the tanners, grave-diggers, beggars, etc., who were
the Japanese pariah, or outcasts. The first class in-
cluded the court nobility, the feudal lords, and their
knights; they alone were permitted to carry two
swords, were exempt from taxation, and were also
the special educated and literary class, because thej’’

1 See also subsequent chapter on “Japanese Traits.”

® His is simply a case of what is called “ undeveloped moral
consciousness.”

GKOUl' OF COUNTHV FKUl’LE

PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS

had the most leisure for study. The other three classes
together constituted the common people, who were
kept in rigid subjection and bled profusely by taxes.

Under the present regime there are three general
classes of the entire population of Japan: the no-
bility, the gentry, and the common people. The
nobility, created in 1884, comprises five orders:
prince, marquis, count, viscount, and baron; the
gentry are the descendants of the knights (samurax)
of the old first class ; the common people include all
the rest of the population. By the census of 1898
the nobility numbered 4,551 ; the gentry, 2,105,698;
and the common people, 41,652,904. (These figures
are exclusive of Formosa.) Even now the burden
of taxation falls upon the mass of the common
j)eople, especially upon the farming class, for the
land tax is the most important source of revenue in
Japan.

The fundamental principle of Japanese society was,
and still is, reverent obedience to superiors. This
polite and humble deference is exhibited in their
language and in their manners and customs, and has
become so thoroughly incorporated into their natures
that it even yet resists the levelling tendency of the
present age. The language is full of honorifics to
be applied to or concerning another, and of humilifics
to be applied concerning self. I and mine are thus
always ignorant, stupid, dirty, homely, insignificant,
etc., while you and yours are ever intelligent, wise,
clean, beautiful, noble, etc. Perhaps there is noth-

50 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

ing that causes the student of the vernacular deeper
chagrin than to find that he has made so serious an
error as to transpose the humble and the honorific
words or phrases ! The ordinary salutation is really
an obeisance, as it consists of a profound bow, — on
the street with body bent half forward, in the house
Avith forehead touching the floor. This deep and
universal feeling of re\'erence for superiors and elders
early developed into worship, both of the family and
of the national ancestors. This is the fundamental
and central idea of Shinto, the native cult, of which
more will be written in a subsequent chapter.

The Japanese family^ Avas, in its constitution, an
empire, with absolute authority in the hands of one
man. The husband Avas, theoretically and prac-
tically, the great authority to Avhom wife and chil-
dren Avere subject. He Avas a veritable autocrat and
despot; and he received superciliously the homage
of all the family, Avho literally bowed doAvn before
him. The family, and not the individual, was the
unit of society ; but by the new codes now in opera-
tion the individual has acquired greater rights. There
is much hope, therefore, that gradually the tyranny
of the family Avill be eliminated.

One Avriter on Japan has Avell said: “The Empire
is one great family ; the family is a bttle empire. ” ^
In truth, the empire is founded and maintained on

1 See Transactions Japan Society, London, toI. ii., papers by
Goh and Aston.

* See Lowell’s “ Soul of the Far East,” chap. ii.

PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS

the family idea of one line “ in unbroken succession ”
from Jimmu Tenno.

A house alone does not make a “home,” but
merely gives it local habitation; and as Japanese
houses ^ are unique, they deserve some consideration.
Although brick and stone are coming into use among
the wealthy classes, wood is the chief material em-
ployed in building. A typical Japanese house is a
slight and flimsy frame structure with straw-thatched,
or shingled, or tiled roof. It has no foundation in
the ground, but rests on stones laid on the ground,
and stands wholly above the surface. This and other
peculiar features of construction and ornamentation
are the outcome of attempts to lessen the dangers
from the frequent and severe earthquakes. The
outer doors and windows of Japanese houses are
called amado (rain-doors), and are solid wood.
They slide in grooves above and below; in stormy
weather and at night they are closed and fastened,
not so tightly, however, as to prevent them from
rattling; at other times they are open. The inner
doors, the windows, and sometimes the partitions
between the different rooms are lattice frames, cov-
ered with a translucent, but not transparent, white
paper, and running in grooves. These, too, as well
as the opaque paper screens used between the rooms,
can be taken out, so that all the rooms may be turned
into one, or the entire house be thrown open to the
air of heaven. The floors are covered with tatami —

1 Morse’s “Japanese Homes” is the one book on this subject.

52 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

thick, soft mats of straw, each usually six by three
feet in size. Thus the accommodations of rooms are
indicated by the terms, “six -mat room,” “eight-mat
room,” etc. Inasmuch as on these mats the Japanese
walk, sit, eat, work, sleep, it is necessary to keep
them very clean. They are carpet, chair, sofa, bed,
table, all in one, and must not be soiled by dirty
sandals, clogs, shoes, or boots, all of which are,
therefore, to be removed before entering a house.
It may readily be seen that this is quite an incon-
venient custom for foreigners!

Schools, churches, offices, stores, and other places
for large and frequent public gatherings are being
constructed in Occidental style, with doors on
hinges, glass windows, chairs, benches, tables, stoves,
grates, and other “modern conveniences.”

A room in a Japanese house seems to an American
to be comparatively bare and plain, as it is devoid
of furniture and bric-a-brac. There is no stove, for
only a small box or brazier, containing a few pieces
of charcoal in a bed of ashes, is used for heating
purposes. There are no chairs or sofas, for the
Japanese sit on their feet on the floor. There are
no huge bed sets, for they sleep on thick padded
quilts spread on the floor at night, and kept in a
closet when not needed. There is no large dining-
table, for each person eats sitting before a small, low
lacquer tray, or table, about a foot high. There is
no dazzling array of pictures and other ornaments on
the wall — only a kakemono (wall banner) or two;

PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS 53

and there are no miscellaneous ornaments set around
here and there — only a vase of flowers.

But more and more are the Japanese coming to
build at least parts of the house in Occidental style,
so that it is now quite common to find, in houses of
well-to-do people, a foreign room with carpet, table,
chairs, pictures, etc. Stoves and grates, too, for
either wood or coal, are being largely used. ]\Iat-
tresses, springs, and bedsteads are also coming into
use, because sleeping on the floor, where one is
subject to draughts, has been found to he un-
healthy. In the case of foreign rooms, moreover,
it is generally unnecessary to take off the shoes ;
and thus another frequent cause of colds is re-
moved. A prevailing style of architecture at present
is the hybrid !

The best rooms of a Japanese house are not in the
front, hut in the rear, and have an outlook upon the
garden, which likewise, from its plainness and sim-
plicity, is unique. “ Its artistic purpose is to copy
faithfully the attractions of a veritable landscape,
and to carry the real impressions that a real land-
scape communicates. It is, therefore, at once a pic-
ture and a poem ; perhaps even more a poem than a
picture.” It is in Japan, moreover, that it is pos-
sible to have a “ garden ” without flowers or grass —
with, perhaps, only “rocks and pebbles and sand.”
For the Japanese truly and literally find “sermons in
stones,” and give them not only “character” but also
“tones and values.” More than all that, “they held

54 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

it possible to express moral lessons in the design of
a garden, and abstract ideas, such as charit}', faith,
piety, content, calm, and connubial bliss.” In Japan,
therefore, landscape-gardening is and always has been
a fine art.'

The Japanese may be called vegetarians, for it is
only within a recent period that meat has come to
play any part in their diet. Fish, flesh, and fowl
were once strictly forbidden as articles of food by
the tenets of Buddhism, but gradually, one after
another, came to be allowed as eatables. Even now
meat, though becoming more and more popular as
an article of diet, is not used in large quantities at
one meal. Chicken, game, beef, ham, and pork may
be found on sale in most large towns and cities. But
beef is cut up into mouthfuls, and sold to Japanese
by the ounce; chickens are carefully and minutely
dissected, and sold by parts, as the wing, the leg, or
an ounce or two of the breast. It was a matter of
great amazement to the Japanese of Mito that the
foreigners living there bought a whole chicken or
two, or five or six pounds of beef, at one time, and
devoured them all in two or three meals!

Rice is, of course, the staple article of diet, “ the
staff of life” of the Japanese; and yet, in povert}’-
stricken country districts, this may be a luxury, with

1 Besides Morse’s “Japanese Homes,” Conder’s “Landscape-
Gardening in Japan ” (Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol.
xiv., and in book form, illustrated), is very valuable. An instruc-
tive short description of this subject ma}’’ be found in chap, xvi.,
vol. ii., of Hearn’s “ Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan.”

UAUOEN AT UJl

PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS

barley or millet as the ordinary food. Various vege-
tables, particularly beans, are much used, fresh or
pickled; seaweed, fish, eggs, and nuts are largely
eaten; and a sauce, made of beans and wheat, and
sold in America as “soy,” is “the universal condi-
ment.” Thin vegetable soups are an important part
of their meals, and, as no spoons are used, are drunk
with a loud sucking noise, which is a fixed habit in
drinking. The principal beverages, even more com-
mon than water, are tea and sake. The latter, an
alcoholic liquor brewed from rice, is taken hot; the
former, without milk or sugar, is also taken hot,
and is served, not only at meals, but just about
all the time. A kettle of hot water is always kept
ready at hand, in house or inn, so that tea may
be steeped in a moment and procured to drink at
any time. It is always set before a guest as soon
as he arrives, and is absolutely indispensable in every
household.

At meal time each person sits on the floor before
a small, low table on which his food is placed. They
use no knife, fork, or spoon, only chop-sticks ; and
do not consider it in bad form to eat and drink with
loud smacking and sucking sounds. Their food,
when served, seems to foreigners more beautiful than
palatable; it is “unsatisfying and mawkish.” One
who has probably had innumerable experiences dur-
ing a long residence in Japan says : “ After a Japanese
dinner you have simultaneously a feeling of fulness
and a feeling of having eaten nothing that will do

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

you any goocl.”^ Yet, in time foreigners learn to
like many parts of a Japanese bill of fare; and when
travelling about the country, by carr}dng with them
bread, butter, jam, and canned meats, can get along
with rice, eggs, vegetables, and chicken or fish to
complete the daily fare. In the summer resorts fre-
quented by foreigners there are always hotels and
restaurants where only European cooking is served.
With the introduction of Western civilization came
wine, ale, beer, etc., which are extensively used by
the Japanese.

Indeed, we must not fail to take notice of the
change that is taking place in the diet of the Jap-
anese. Bread and meat, which were long ago intro-
duced into the diet of the army and the navy, are
pretty generally popular; and many other articles of
“foreign food ” are largely used. It is quite a com-
mon custom in well-to-do families to have at least
one “ foreign meal ” per day ; and “ foreign restau-
rants,” especially in the large cities, are well patron-
ized. It is said, indeed, that first-class “foreign
cooking” is cheaper than first-class “Japanese cook-
ing.” The standard of living has been considerably
raised within the past decade.

It is important to touch briefly on the subject of
costume, though it will not be possible or profitable
to describe minutely every garment. It may not be

1 For descriptions of Japanese meals or banquets, see Miss
Scidmore’s “Jinrikislia Days in Japan,” ;)ass/m ; “The Yankees
of the East” (Curtis), vol. ii. chap. xiv. ; and Norman’s “Heal
Japan,” chap. i.

PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS

improper to begin with the topic of undress ; for the
Japanese, perhaps because great lovers of nature,
tliink it nothing immodest to he seen, even in public,
in the garb of nature. Of course, in the open ports
and large cities, foreign ideas of modesty are more
strongly enforced ; but in the interior the primitive
innocence of the Garden of Eden prevails to a greater
or less extent. In hot weather children go stark-
naked, and men wear only a loin-cloth: “J/owz soit
qui vial y pcnse" — “Evil to him who evil thinks.”

The ordinary Japanese costume may be said to
consist of a shirt, a loose silk gown fastened at the
waist with a silk sash, short socks with separate
places for the big toes, and either straw sandals or
wooden clogs. For ceremonial occasions, “a divided
skirt,” and a silk coat, adorned with the family crest,
are used ; these are ealled, respectively, hakama and
haori. In winter two or three padded gowns are
added; and in all seasons many persons go bare-
footed, bare-legged, and bare-headed. The female
garb ^ does not differ greatly from the male costume,
except that the sash is larger and richer and the
gown is made of lighter fabrics. The women powder
and paint, oil their hair, and adorn their heads with
pretty combs and hairpins.

The Japanese costume is certainly very beautiful
and becoming, and is pronounced by medical authori-
ties to be highly sanitar}’. For persons, however, in
active business, and for those who work in the fields,

1 See Norman’s “Real Japan,” pp. 180-195.

58 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

it is not so convenient as the European costume; but
it is altogether too charming to be entirely discarded,
and, with some modification, might well be adopted
in other lands. At court, the European costume is
generally used; the frock coat and evening dress
have become common ceremonial garbs; and silk
hats, gloves, and canes also have become fashionable.
The elforts of the Japanese to adopt Western cus-
toms and to conform to the usages of the Occident
in matters of dress are sometimes quite amusing to
those who witness them.^

Chamberlain affirms that “cleanliness is one of
the few original items of Japanese civilization.”
Surely their practice of frequent bathing ought to
have brought them to that stage which is considered
“next to godliness.” A bathroom is commonly an
important part of the house; hut if a room is not
available for that purpose, a bathtub outdoors will
do, or the public bath-houses afford every facility
at a very small charge. Necessary exposure of the
person in connection with bathing is not considered
immodest; but, in large cities at least, the two sexes
are no longer permitted to bathe together promiscu-
ously. The hot baths, with water at about 110° F.,
are generally unendurable by foreigners. The latter,

1 For instance, “ such an attire as Japanese clogs, flannel
drawers, swallow-tail coat, and opera hat ” has been seen ; and
another witness testifies to the “oddest mixtures of evening dress
and bathing suits, naked legs with a blouse and a foreign hat, high
boots with a kimono, legs and head Asiatic with trunk European,
or vice versa, with endless combinations and variations.” There
is a great variety, with all kinds of fits and misfits.

PEOPLE, HOUSES, FOOD, DRESS

however, after some experience, may become accus-
tomed to such heat and find it quite healthy. “ Sea-
bathing was not formerly much practised ; but since
1885 the upper classes have taken greatly to it, in
imitation of European usage, and the coast is now
dotted with bathing establishments.”' The Jap-
anese also resort “ to an almost incredible extreme ”
to the hot mineral springs, which are so numerous
in Japan and generally possess excellent medicinal
qualities.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Rein’s “Japan” is valuable on these topics; “Advance
Japan ” has a good chapter on “ Diet, Dress, and Manners ”
(iv.); “A Japanese Interior,” by Miss Alice M. Bacon, gives
most interesting glimpses of the inner life of the people ; Mur-
ray’s “Story of Japan,” chap, ii.; Knapp’s “Feudal and
Modern Japan,” vol. i. chap. v. and vol. ii. chap. iv. ; and
“Japan in History, Folklore, and Art” (Griffis), are useful;
Fiuck in his “Lotos-Time in Japan,” also gives interesting
glimp.ses of these topics; and Miss Bacon’s “Japanese Girls
and Women ” (revised and illustrated edition) is invaluable
concerning family life. Miss Hartshorne’s “Japan and her
People ” is worth reading on these subjects.

^ Chamberlain.

CHAPTER V

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

Outline of Topics : Birth and birthdays ; marriage ; death
and funeral ; mourning. — Holidays (national, local, class, and
religious); the “five festivals”; New Year’s holidays; the other
four festivals ; fioral festivals ; religious festivals. — Games; wrest-
ling.— Theatre; scenery and wardrobes; chorus and pantomime;
the iVd. — Music ; dancing-girls. — Occidentalization. — Folk-lore ;
superstitions about lucky and unlucky days, hours, ages, years, etc.
— Bibliography.

f ■ ^HE three great events in the career of a
H Japanese are, of course, birth, marriage,
and death, each of which is, therefore
celebrated with much formality. When a child is
born, he or she is the recipient of many presents,
which, however, create an obligation that must
eventually he cleared off. A very common but
honorable present on such an occasion consists of
eggs in small or large quantities, according to cir-
cumstances. When the first American baby was
born in Mito, she was favored with a total of 456
eggs, besides dried fish, toys, Japanese robes, and
other articles of clothing, etc., and her parents were
favored with universal congratulations, diluted with
condolences because the new baby was a girl instead
of a boy! Japanese babyhood is blithesome.^

1 “The Wee Ones of J.ipan,” by Mae St. John Bramhall, can be
recommended.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

The birthday of an individual, however, is not
especially observed upon its recurring anniversary;
for New Year’s Day is a kind of national, or uni-
vereal, birthday, from which age is reckoned. And
this loss of an individual birthday is also made up
to the boys and girls by the two special festivals,
hereafter described, of Dolls and of Flags.

The wedding ceremony ^ is quite simple but very
formal. The principal feature thereof is the san-
san-ku-do (three-three-nine-times) ; that is, both the
bride and the bridegroom drink three times out of
each of three cups of different sizes. This cere-
mony, however, does not affect at all the validity
of the marriage ; it is purely a social affair, of prac-
tically no more imporUince than the wedding recep-
tion in America or England. In Christian circles
this convivial ceremony is omitted, and a rite per-
formed by a Christian minister is substituted. As
marriage is only a civil contract, its legality rests
upon the official registration of the couple as hus-
band and -wife; and this formality is often neg-
lected, so that divorce is easy and frequent. And
as “matches” are generally made by parents,
guardians, relatives, or friends, the mariage de
convenance prevails in Japan. But the new Civil
Code throws safeguards around the institution of
wedlock; and the teachings of Christianity have
already caused considerable improvement in the

1 See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xiii. pp. 114-137 ;
and “A Japanese Bride,” by Kev. N. Tamura, is admirable.

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

way of elevating marriage from its low standard to
a holy rite.

To the fatalistic Japanese death has no terrors,
especially as they are a people who seem to take
about as much care of the dead as of the living.
Funeral ceremonies^ are very elaborate, expensive,
solemn, and yet somewhat boisterous affairs. The
Shinto rites are much plainer than Buddhist cere-
monies. In the former, the coffin is long and low,
as in the West, but in the latter it is small and
square, so that the corpse “is fitted into it in a
squatting posture with the head bent to the knees.”
There are other distinguishing features of the two
funerals : the hare shaven heads of Buddhist priests in
contrast with the non-shaven heads of Shinto priests ;
the dark blue coats of the Buddhist pall-bearers in
contrast with the plain white garb of the Shinto
pall-bearers.

The mourning code of Japan is rather strict, and
contains two features: the wearing of mourning gar-
ments (which a»e white), and the abstinence from
animal food. The regular dates for visits to the
grave are the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, thirty-
fifth, forty-ninth, and one-hundredth days, and the
first, third, seventh, thirteenth, twenty-third, twenty-
seventh, thirty-third, thirty-seventh, fiftieth, and
one-hundredth years.

As is shown in another chapter (“ Japanese Traits ”),
the Japanese are a merrj^, vivacious, pleasure-loving

1 See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xix. pp. 507-544.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

people, who are satisfied with a simple life. They
give and take frequent holidays, which they enjoy
to the fullest extent. The national holidays are
numerous, and come as follows every year: —

Four Sides’ Worship, January 1.

First Beginning Festival, January 3.

Emperor Komei’s Festival, January 30.

Kigen-setsu, February 11.

Spring Festival, INIarch 22 (about).

Jimmu Tenno Festival, April 3.

Autumn Festival, September 24 (about).

Kanname Festival, October 17.

Emperor’s Birthday, November 3.

Niiname Festival, November 23.

Some of the national holidays need a few words of
explanation. Kigen-setsu, for instance, was originally
a festival in honor of the ascension of Jimmu, the
first Emperor, to the throne, and was thus the anni-
versary of the establishment of the Old Empire ; but
it is now observed also as the celebration of the pro-
mulgation of the constitution (Feb. 11, 1889), and
is thus the anniversary of the establishment of the
New Empire. The Jimmu Tenno Festival of April 3
is the so-called anniversary of the death of that Em-
peror. The Kanname Festival in October celebrates
the offering of first-fruits to the ancestral deities, and
the Niiname Festival in November celebrates the
tasting of those first-fruits by the Emperor. The
Spring and Autumn Festivals in March and Sep-
tember are adaptations of the Buddhist equinoctial

64 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

festivals of the dead, and are especially observed for
the worship of the Imperial ancestors. The Em-
peror Komei was the father of the present Emperor,
and reigned from 1847 to 1867. “Four Sides’ Wor-
ship ” naturally suggests worship from the four prin-
cipal directions. This and the “First Beginning
Festival ” make the special New Year’s holidays.

Besides these, there are a great many local, class,
and religious holidays, including Sunday, so that
comparatively few persons in Japan are kept under
high pressure, but almost every one has frequent
opportunities to relax from the tension of his occu-
pation or profession. Even the poorest, Avho have
to be content with a hand-to-mouth existence, take
their occasional holidays.

The five great festivals of the year fall on the
first day of the first month (New Year’s Day), the
third day of the third month (Dolls’ Festival),
the fifth day of the fifth month (Feast of the Flags),
the seventh day of the seventh month (Festival of the
Star Vega), and the ninth day of the ninth month
(Chrysanthemum Festival). These are now officially
observed according to the Gregorian calendar, but
may also be popularly celebrated according to the
old lunar calendar, and would then fall from three
to seven weeks later. And there are not a few
people who are perfectly willing to observe both
calendars and thus double their number of holi-
days !

The greatest of these is the New Year’s holiday

was

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

or season, which is often prolonged to three, five,
seven, or even fifteen days. The practice of mak-
ing calls and presents still prevails, and, though
quite burdensome, illustrates the thoughtfulness, good
cheer, and generosity of the people.^

The Dolls’ Festival is the one especially devoted
to the girls; and the Feast of Flags is set apart
for the boys. The Festival of the Star Vega com-
memorates a tradition concerning two starry lovers on
opposite sides of the Milky Way, or Iliver of Heaven.
The Chrysanthemum Festival seems to have been
overshadowed by the Emperor’s Birthday.

There are also many “flower festivals,” such as
those of viewing the plum, cherry, wistaria, iris,
morning-glory, lotus, maple, etc.*'^

Oue of the most important of the Buddhist festi-
vals is that in honor of the spirits of the dead ; it is
called Bon-matsuri and comes in the middle of July.
Buddha’s birthday in April is also observed. There
is a Japanese Memorial Day, celebrated twice a year
in iMay and November, when immense crowds flock
to the shrines called SJwJconsha, and pay their homage
to the spirits of those who have died for their coun-
try. IMoreover, space would fail to tell of the numer-
ous local shrines and temples, Shinto and Buddhist,
where the people flock annually or semi-annually, to
“ worship ” a few minutes and enjoy a picnic for the
remainder of the day. And, in Christian circles,

^ See chap. xx. of Hearn’s “ Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan.”

2 See Appendix.

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Christmas, Easter, and Sunday-school picnics are im-
portant and interesting occasions.

The common games are chess, yo (a very compli-
cated game slightly resembling checkers), parchesi,
and cards. Flower-cards and poetical quotations are
old-style, but still popular; while Occidental cards,
under the name of torompu (“trump”) are coming
into general use. Children find great amusement
also with kites, tops, battledore and shuttlecock,
snow-men, dolls, cards, etc.^ The chief sports of
young men are wrestling, rowing, tennis, and base-
ball. In tbe great American game they have be-
come so proficient that they frequently win against
the Americans and British who make up the base-
ball club of the Yokohama Athletic Association !

Professional wrestling-matches ^ continue to draw
large crowds to see the huge masses of flesh measure
their strength and skill. Jujutsu is a kind of wrest-
ling in which skill and dexterity are more important
than mere physical strength. Sleight-of-hand per-
formers and acrobats are quite popular.

The theatre 2 is a very important feature in the
Japanese world of amusements, and still remains
about the only place where Old Japan can be well
studied. Theatrical performances in Japan are, of
course, quite different from those in the Occident, and
seem very tedious to Westerners, partly because they

1 See chapter on “Children’s Games and Sports” in “The
Mikado’s Empire,” and Mrs. Chaplin Ayrton’s “ Child-Life in
Japan.” >

^ See chap. xx. of “ The Yankees of the East ” (Curtis).

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

are so long and partly because they are unintelligible.
When the writer attended the theatre in Mito, the
play began, thirty nnnutes late, at 3:30 p. M., and
continued, without interruption, until almost mid-
night. Then, according to custom, a short supple-
mentary play of almost an hour’s duration followed,
so that it was about one o’clock when he finally
reached home. The Japanese, however, are accus-
tomed to this “sweetness long drawn out,” and
either bring their lunches or slip out between acts
to get something to eat and drink, or buy tea and
cake in the theatre.

The wardrobes and the scenery are elaborate and
magnificent. The former are often almost priceless
heirlooms handed down from one generation to an-
other. Changes of wardrobe are often made in the
presence of the audience; an actor, by dropping off
one robe (which is immediately carried away by a
small boy), entirely metamorphoses his appearance.
One convenient arrangement of the scenery is that
of the revolving stage, so that, as an old scene grad-
ually disappears, the new one is coming into view.
The supernumeraries, moreover, though theoretically
invisible, are distinctly present, but seem to distract
neither players nor audience. The female parts are
usually taken by men dressed as women; and animals
are represented by either men or wooden models.

The orchestra plays an exceedingly important part
in a Japanese drama. It consists of the samisen
(a guitar of three strings), the fue (flute), and the

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

tailco (drum). It plays, not between the acts to en-
tertain the spectators, but, like the Greek chorus,
during the scene, to direct and explain the drama.
Pantomime is an important element in the play and
exceedingly expressive. The pantomimic actions are
guided by the orchestra and the singers of the chants
that furnish necessary explanations. Japanese plays
are mostly historical, though some depict life and
manners. It is quite interesting to note that in 1903
an adapted translation of “ Othello ” was put on the
Japanese stage with marked success.

The No “dances,” as they are sometimes called,
were at first “ purely religious performances, intended
to propitiate the chief deities of the Shinto religion,
and were acted exclusively in connection with their
shrines. ” But they were afterwards secularized and
popularized, as lyric dramas. They are compara-
tively brief, and occupy only about an hour in per-
forming. They are now given chiefly as special
entertainments in high society or court circles to
extraordinary guests.^

Music, especially in connection with dancing, fur-
nishes another common means of amusement. The
chief instruments of the old style are the koto^ a kind
of lyre; the samisen, already described; the kokyU, a
sort of fiddle ; lutes, flutes, fifes, drums, etc. ; while
tlie violin, organ, and piano are coming into general

1 On the subject of the Japanese theatre and drama, see
McClatchie’s “Japanese Plays” and Edwards’s “Japanese Plays
and Playfellows.”

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

use. These instruments, moreover, are now being
manufactured by the Japanese. Individuals, bands,
and orchestras, trained under foreign supervision, fur-
nish music, both instrumental and vocal, for private
and public entertainments ; and concerts in European
style are becoming very popular.

It used to be that no evening entertainment
was considered complete without the dancing-girls
(^geisha), whose presence is never conducive to
morality. But a strong effort is now being made,
even in non-Christian circles, to banish these evil
features of social entertainments. The Occidental
mixed dances have not yet met with great favor,
except that in the court circle, which is cosmopoli-
tiin, quadrilles, waltzes, etc., are encouraged.

The manners and customs, especially in the large
cities, are undergoing considerable Occidentalizing,
which results at first in an amusing mixture, or a
queer hybrid. This is particularly true of social
functions in official or high life. It is, of course,
true that the great mass of the people, the “lower
classes,” are not yet to any great extent affected by
the social changes in the world above their reach
and ken, and still conduct their social intercourse
more Japonico, that is, in the approved methods of
their ancestors ; but in the life of the middle and
upper classes, and especially in oGBcial functions, the
influence of Occidental manners and customs is quite
marked. ^

1 See Norman’s “ Real Japan,” chap. ix. ^ Appendix.

70 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Japanese literature is immensely rich in stories of
adventure, most interesting historical and biographi-
cal incidents, folk-lore, and fairy tales. All of these
are quite familiar to the Japanese child, whether
hoy or girl, whose mind feasts upon, and delights
in, the heroic and the marvellous. The youth and
the adults, also, are not at all averse to such mental
pabulum, and flock, for instance, to the hall of
the professional story-teller, who regales them with
fact and Action ingeniously blended. Yoshitsune,
Benkei, Momotaro, Kintaro, and others are common
heroes of folk-lore and Action; while “The Tongue-
Cut Sparrow,” “ The Matsuyama Mirror,” “ The Man
who Made Trees Bloom,” are examples of hundreds
of popular fairy tales. Japanese folk-lore is an in-
structive and most interesting subject, which must,
however, be now dismissed with references.^

To an audience of Athenians on Mars Hill, Paul
said: “Ye men of Athens, I perceive that in all
things ye are altogether superstitious.” One might
likewise stand before an audience of Japanese and
say: “Ye men of Nippon, I perceive that in all
things ye are altogether superstitious.” For most
faithfully and devoutly do the mass of the people
still worship their innumerable deities, estimated with
the indefinite expression “ eight hundred myriads ” ;

1 The best books oa this subject are Milford’s “Tales of Old
Japan,” IMiss Ballard’s “Fairy Tales from Far Japan,” and the
series of crepe booklets of “Japanese Fairy Tales,” published by
the Kobunsha, Tokyo. See also author’s papers in the “ Folk-Lorist,”
vol. i. nos. 2, 3, 4.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

and most firmly do they continue to believe in the
efficacy of charms and amulets and to hold to in-
herited superstitious ideas. It is only where the
common school and Christianity have had full sway
that these “foolish notions” disappear. And while
we have not space for a methodical study of Japanese
superstitions, we ought at least to present, even in
a desultory manner, some illustrations, culled at
random from various sources.^

The days of each month were named, not only in
numerical order, but also according to the animals
of the Chinese zodiac. And the latter names were
perhaps more important than the numerical ones,
because, according to these special names, a day was
judged to be either lucky or unlucky for particular
events. “Every day has its degree of luck for re-
moval [from one place to another], and, indeed,
according to another system, for actions of any kind ;
for a day is presided over in succession by one of six
stars which may make it lucky throughout or only at
night, or in the forenoon or the afternoon, or ex-
actly at noon, or absolutely unlucky. There are also
special days on which marriages should take place,
prayers are granted by the gods, stores should bo
opened, and signboards put up.” Dr. Griffis in-
forms us in “The Mikado’s Empire,” that “many
people of the lower classes would not wash their
heads or hair on ‘ the day of the horse,’ lest their

1 See “Japanese Calendars,” Transactions Asiatic Society of
Japan, vol. xxx. part. i.

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

hair become red.” On the other hand, this “horse
day ” is sacred to Inari Sama, the rice-god, who em-
ploys foxes as his messengers; and “the day of the
rat ” is sacred to Daikoku, the god of wealth, who, in
pictures, is always accompanied hy that rodent. As
for wedding days. Rev. N. Tamura says : “We think it
is very unfortunate to be married on the 16th of Jan-
uary, 20th of February, 4th of March, 18th of April,
Gth of May, 7th of June, 10th of July, 11th of August,
9th of September, 3d of October, 25th of November,
or 30th of December, also on the grandfather’s or
grandmother’s death day.” These dates are probably
applicable to only the old calendar. “ Seeds will not
germinate if planted on certain days ” (Griffis).

The hours were named, not only according to the
numerical plan, but also according to the heavenly
menagerie in the following way : —

Hour of the Eat . .

. 11 P. M. - 1 A. M.

Hour of the Ox . .

. . . . 1-3 A. M.

Hour of the Tiger . .

. . . . 3-5 A. M.

Hour of the Hare . .

. . . . 5-7 A. M.

Hour of the Dragon .

. . . . 7-9 A. M.

Hour of the Serpent .

. . . 9-11 A. M.

Hour of the Horse

. 11 A. M. -1 P. M.

Hour of the Goat . .

. . . . 1-3 P. M.

Hour of the Monkey .

. . . . 3-5 P. M.

10.

Hour of the Cock . .

. . . . 5-7 p. M.

11.

Hour of the Dog . .

. . . . 7-9 p. M.

12.

Hour of the Boar . .

. . . 9-11 P. M.

The “hour of the ox,” by the way, being the time
of sound sleep, was sacred to women crossed in love

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

for taking vengeance upon a straw image of the
recreant lover at the shrine of Fudo.

“ After 5 r. m. many people will not put on new
clothes or sandals” (Griffis). From “Superstitious
Japan”: “If one swallows seven grains of red beans
{azuki) and one go of sake before the hour of the ox
on the first day of the year, he will be free from
sickness and calamity throughout the year; if he
drinks toso (spiced sake) at the hour of the tiger of
the same day, he will he untouched by malaria
through the year. On the seventh day of the first
month if a male swallows seven, and a female four-
teen, red beans, they will he free from sickness all
their lives; if one bathes at the hour of the dog on
the tenth day [of the same montli], his teeth will
become hard.”

There are also superstitions about ages. Some
persons, for instance, “are averse to a marriage be-
tween those whose ages differ by three or nine years.
A man’s nativity also influences the direction in
which he should remove; and his age may permit
his removal one year and absolutely forbid it the
next.” There are also critical years in a person’s
life, such as the seventh, twenty-fifth, forty-second,
and sixty -first ^ years for a man, and the seventh,
eighth, thirty-third, forty-second, and sixty-first^
years for a woman. There is a similar story to the
effect that a child born (or begotten ?) in the father’s

1 The sixty-first year of a person’s life is of special interest,
because it is the first of a second cycle of sixty years.

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

forty-third year is supposed to be possessed of a devil.
When such a child is about one month old, it is,
tlierefore, exposed for about three hours in some
sacred place. Some member or friend of the familj'
then goes to get it, and bringing it to the parents,
says : “ This is a child whom I have found and whom
you had better take and bring up.” Thus having
fooled the devil, the parents receive their own child
back.

From Inouye’s “Sketches of Tokyo Life ” we learn
that aged persons provide against failing memory by
passing through seven different shrine gates on the
spring or autumn equinox. An incantation against
noxious insects, written with the infusion of India
ink in liquorice water on the eighth day of the fourth
moon, Buddha’s birthday, will prevent the entrance
of the insects at every doorway or window where it
is posted. January 16 and July 16 were and are
special holidays for servants and apprentices, and
considered sacred to Emma, the god of Hades. At
the time of the winter solstice doctors would wor-
ship the Chinese Esculapius. “The foot-wear left
outside on the night of the winter equinox should be
thrown away; he who wears them will shorten his
own life. If you cut a bamboo on a moonlight night,
you will find a snake in the hollow of it between the
third and fourth joints.” “During an eclipse of
the sun or moon, people carefully cover the wells, as
they suppose that poison falls from the sky during
the period of the obscuration. ” “ If on the night of

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

the second day of the first moon, one dreams of the
takara-hune (treasure-ship), he shall become a rich
man.” The first “dog day” and the third “dog
day” in July are days for eating special cakes.
“ The third dog day is considered by tbe peasantry
a turning-point in the life of the crops. Eels are
eaten on any day of the bull [ox] that may occur
during this period of greatest heat.” The author
was once warned by a Japanese woman that he must
not take medicine or consult a doctor on New Year’s
Day, because such acts would portend a year of
illness.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

There are many good books which portray the manners
and customs of the Japanese people; and as for magazine and
newspaper articles on the subject, their name is legion. The
works of Griffis, Chamberlain, Rein, Hearn, Lowell, Miss
Bacon, Miss Scidmore, Miss Hartshorne, Mrs. Isabella Bird
Bishop, and Mitford’s “Tales of Old Japan” may be recom-
mended. Good novels, like “ Mito Yashiki ” (Macla}"), “ Honda
the Samurai ” (Griffis), “ In the Mikado’s Service ’’(Griffis), etc.,
give an insight into Japanese life. This may suffice, as more
particular references have been given in connection with many
of the topics of the chapter. “A Japanese Boy” (Shigemi),
“Japanese Girls and Women” (Miss Bacon), and “The Wee
Ones of Japau ” (Mrs. Bramhall) give good pictures of child-life.

CHAPTER VI

JAPANESE TRAITS

Outline of Topics : First impressions : minuteness ; polite-
ness and courtesy ; etiquette ; simplicity ; vivacity ; equanimity ;
union of Stoicism and Epicureanism ; generosity ; unpracticality ;
procrastination ; humility and conceit ; lack of originality ; fickle-
ness ; ffistheticism ; loyalty ; filial piety ; sentimental temperament ;
susceptibility to impulse ; land and people. — Bibliography.

IRST impressions are, of course, often deceit-

ful, as they are likely to be formed from

merely superficial views ; but they are quite

certain to emphasize the peculiar characteristics of
a person or a people. The points of difference are
very evident at first, but gradually become less ob-
servable or prominent, and in time may scarcely be
noticed. It is, of course, undeniable that first im-
pressions must be more or less modified, but it is
also true that some remain practically unchanged, or
are verified and strengthened by long experience.

In the case of the Japanese, for instance, a first
and lasting impression is that of minuteness. This
characteristic of “things Japanese ” pertains less to
quality than to quantity, is not a mental or a moral,
so much as a physical or dimensional, feature. The
empire, though called Dai Nippon (Great Japan )

JAPANESE TKAITS

is small; the people are short; the lanes are narrow;
the houses are low and small ; farms are insignifi-
cant;^ teacups, other dishes, pipes, etc., are like our
toys; and innumerable other objects are Lilliputian.
Pierre Loti, the French writer, in his description
of Japanese life, draws extensively on the diminu-
tives of his native tongue. In business matters,
moreover, the Japanese seem incapable of managing
big enterprises, and do everything on a small scale
with a small capital. The saying that they are
“great in little things and little in great things”
contains some truth. But it must, in fairness, be
acknowledged that, of recent years, the Japanese
have begun to display a remarkable facility and suc-
cess in the management of great enterprises. They
are outgrowing this characteristic of smallness, and
are even now reckoned among the “great world-
powers.”

The Japanese are famous the world over for their
politeness and courtesy; they are a nation of good
manners, and, for this and other qualities, have
been styled “the French of the Orient.” From
morning to night, from the cradle to the grave, the
entire life is characterized by unvarying gentleness
and politeness in word and act. ISIany of the ex-
pressions and actions are mere formalities, it is true ;
but they have, by centuries of hereditary influence,

1 “The vast rice crop i.s raised on millions of tiny farms; the
silk crop in millions of small, poor homes ; the tea crop on count-
less little patches of soil.” — Lafcadio Hearn.

78 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

been so far incorporated into the individual and
national life as to be a second nature. This trait
is one which most deeply impresses all visitors and
residents, and concerning which Sir Edwin Arnold
has written the following : —

“ Where else in the world does there exist such a con-
spiracy to be agreeable ; such a widespread compact to
render the difficult affairs of life as smooth and graceful
as circumstances admit; such fair decrees of fine be-
havior fixed and accomplished for all ; such universal re-
straint of the coarser impulses of speech and act ; such
pretty picturesqueness of daily existence; such lovely
love of nature as the embellisher of that existence ; such
sincere delight in beautiful, artistic things; such frank
enjoyment of the enjoyable ; such tenderness to little
children ; such reverence for parents and old persons ;
such widespread refinement of taste and habits ; such
courtesy to strangers ; and such willingness to please
and to be pleased ? ”

As stated above, the innate courtesy of the Japan-
ese manifests itself in every possible way in word and
deed. Thus has been developed an almost perfect
code of etiquette, of polite speech and conduct for
every possible occasion; and while these formali-
ties are sometimes apparently unnecessary, often even
a cloak for insincerity, and also a waste of time in
this practical age, we cannot but lament the deca-
dence of Japanese manners.

Another prominent and prevailing element of
Japanese civilization is simplicity. The people have
the simplicity of nature to such an extent that the

JAPANESE TRAITS

garb of nature is not considered immodest. They
find delight in the simplest forms of natural beauties,
and they plant their standard of beauty on a simple
base. A rough and gnarled tree, or even a mere
trunk or stump; a bare twig or branch without
leaves or blossoms ; an old stone ; all kinds of flowers
and grasses have in themselves a real natural beauty.
A Japanese admires the beauties of nature just as
they are; he loves a flower as a flower. The Japan-
ese truly worship Nature in all her varied forms
and hold communion with all her aspects. Tliey
enjoy the simplest amusements with the simplest
toys which, cheap and frail, may last only an hour,
but easily yield their money’s worth and more of
real pleasure. They find the greatest happiness in
such simple recreations as going to see the plum
blossoms or cherry flowers, and gazing at the full
moon. They are, in comparison with Americans,
childish in their simplicity ; but they succeed in ex-
tracting more solid enjoyment out of life than any
other people on the globe. Americans sacrifice life
to get a living: Japanese, by simply living, enjoy
life.

And this leads to another impression and char-
acterization of the Japanese people as merry, light-
hearted, and vivacious. Careless, even to an extreme ;
free from worry and anxiety, because easily satisfied
with little, and because inclined to be excessively
fatalistic, — they not only are faithful disciples of
the Epicurean philosophy, that happiness or pleasure

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

is the summum honum of life, but they succeed in
being happy without much exertion. They believe
that men “ by perpetual toil, bustle, and worry render
themselves unfit to enjoy the pleasures which nature
places within their reach”; and that the Occidental,
and especially the American, life of high pressure,
with too much work and too little play, is actually
making Jack a dull boy. It is certainly to be hoped,
but perhaps in vain, that the increasing complexity
of modern life in Japan will not entirely obliterate
the simplicity and vivacity of the Japanese; for they
seem to “ have verily solved the great problem —
how to be happy though poor.”

The Japanese are, however, extremely stoical
in belief and behavior, and can refrain as rigidly
from manifestations of joy or sorrow as could a
Spartan or a Roman. ^ Many a Japanese Leonidas,
Brutus, or Cato stands forth as a t}-pical hero in
their annals. Without the least sign of suffering
they can experience the severest torture, such as dis-
embowelling themselves ; and without a word of com-
plaint they receive adversity or affliction. Shikata
ga nai (“ There is no help ”) is the stereotj’ped phrase
of consolation from the least to the greatest loss,
injury, or affliction. For a broken dish, a bruise,
a broken limb, a business failure, a death, weeping
is silly, sympathy is useless; alike for all, shikata
ga nai.

1 The Japanese seem to have no nerves ; or, at least, their
nervous system is much less sensitive than ours.

JAPANESE TRAITS

It is possibly this combination or union of Stoicism
and Epicureanism that makes the real and complete
enjoyment of life. The following paragraph pictures
graphically the contrasting characteristics of Japanese
and American women: ’‘It is said that the habitual
serenity of Japanese women is due to their freedom
from small worries. The fashion of their dress never
varies, so they are saved much anxiety of mind on
that subject. Housekeeping is simplified by the ab-
sence of draperies and a crowd of ornaments to gather
dust, and the custom of leaving footwear at the en-
trance keeps out much mud and dirt. With all our
boasted civilization, we may well learn from the
Orientals how to prevent the little foxes of petty
anxieties from spoiling the vines of our domestic
comfort. If American housekeepers could eliminate
from their lives some of the unnecessary care of
things, it would probably smooth their brows and tone
down the sharpened expression of their features.”

The Japanese are, by instinct, a very unselfish and
generous people. These two seemingly synonymous
adjectives are purposely used; for the Japanese
possess, not only the negative and passive -s-irtue of
unselfishness, but also its positive and active expres-
sion in generosity; they are not merely careless
and thoughtless of self, but they are careful and
thoughtful of others. In fact, their philanthropic
instincts are so strong that neither excessive wealth
nor extreme pauperism is prevalent. These two

traits had their origin, probably, in a contempt for

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

mere money-making and the lack of a strong desire
for wealth. The merchant, engaged in trade, — that
is, in money-making pursuits, — was ranked below
tlie soldier, the farmer, and the artisan. The typical
Japanese believed that “the love of money is the
root of all evil,” and was not actuated by “the
accursed greed for gold ” {auri sacra fames'). No
sordid views of life on a cash basis were held by the
Japanese, and not even the materialism of modern
life has yet destroyed their generous and philan-
thropic instincts. They are as truly altruistic as
Occidentals are egoistic.

The modern characteristic expressed by the term
“practical” does not belong to the Japanese, who
are rather visionary in disposition. This trait is un-
doubtedly an effect of the old distaste for money-
making pursuits, and renders the Japanese people,
on the whole, incapable of attending strictly and
carefully to the minutiae of business. They do not,
indeed, appear to possess the mental and moral quali-
ties which go to make a successful merchant or busi-
ness man.^ This is the testimony both of those who
have studied their psychological. natures and of those
who have had actual business experience with them.
The former say that unpracticality and a distaste for
money-making are natural elements of the Japanese
character, as is evidenced by the fact that, in ancient
society, the merchant was assigned to the fourth
class — below the soldier, the farmer, the artisan.

1 See Baron Shibusawa’s opinion, pp. 40-43.

the emperor of japan and the prince imperial

JAPANESE TRAITS

“The temperament, the training, and the necessary
' materials are, for the most part, lacking ” ; and these
cannot, in spite of the impressionableness of the
Japanese nature, be readily acquired and developed.
Business men, moreover, who have had actual deal-
ings with the Japanese, complain of dishonesty,^
“pettiness, constant shilly-shallying,” and unbusi-
ness-like habits ; and call them “ good-natured, artistic,
and all that, but muddle-pated folks when it comes
to matters of business.”

One illustration of their natural incapacity for
business life is found in the fact that they had no
idea of time. They did not understand the value,
according to our standards, of the minutes, and were
much given to what we call a “waste of time.”
They were not accustomed to reckon time minute-ly,
or to take into notice any period less than an hour,
and considered it nine o’clock until it was ten o’clock.
Moreover, the hour of the old “time-table” was 120
minutes long.^ Besides, the Japanese are too digni-

1 But “ tlie peasantry is, in tlie main, honest.”

^ See “Japanese Calendars,” Transactions Asiatic Society of
Japan, vol. xxx. part i.

The Land of Approximate Time.

Here ’s to the Land of Approximate Time !

Where nerves are a factor unknown.

Where acting as balm are manners calm.

And seeds of sweet patience are sown.

Where every clock runs as it happens to please,

And they never agree on their strikes ;

Where even the sun often joins in the fun,

.iVnd rises whenever he likes. — Jingles from Japan.

84 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

fied to be in a hurry ; so that, if they miss one train,
they do not fume and fret because they have to wait
even several hours for the next train, but take it all
calmly and patiently. And as clocks and watches
are still somewhat of a luxury to the common people,
we must not expect them to come up at once to
our ideas of strict punctuality. But in school and
office and business they are learning habits of
promptness and coming to realize that “time is
money ” ; so that recent years have shown a marked
improvement.

In the character of the Japanese are blended the
two inharmonious elements of humility and conceit.
Their language, customs, and manners are permeated
with the idea of self-abasement, “in honor prefer-
ring one another”; but their minds are filled with
excessive vanity, individual and national. They call
their own country “Great Japan,” and have always
had a strong faith in the reality of its greatness. The
precocity and conceit of Japanese youth are very no-
ticeable. A schoolboy of fourteen is always ready
to express with confidence and positiveness his
criticisms on Occidental and Oriental politics, phi-
losophy, and religion. Young Japan, whether indi-
vidually or collectively, is now in the Sophomore
class of the World’s University. Japan is self-
assertive, self-confident, and independent. But the
marvellous achievements in the transformation of
Japan during the past half-century are some excuse
for the development of vanity; and the future,

JAPANESE TRAITS

with its responsibilities, surely demands a measure
of self-confidence.

The Japanese are commonly criticised as being
imitative rather than initiative or inventive; and
it must be acknowledged that a study of their history
bears out this criticism. The old civilization was
very largely borrowed from the Chinese, perhaps
through the Koreans; and in modern times we
have witnessed a similar adoption and imitation of
Occidental civilization. But it must also be borne
in mind that in few cases was there servile imitation ;
for, in almost every instance, there was an adapta-
tion to the peculiar needs of Japan. And yet even
this assimilation might show that the Japanese have
“great talent, but little genius” (Munzinger), or
“little creative power” (Rein). However, there
have been indications of late years that the Japanese
mind is developing inventive power. Originality is
making itself known in many really remarkable in-
ventions, especially along mechanical lines. Rifles,
repeating pistols, smokeless gunpowder, guncotton,
and bicycle boats are a few illustrations of Japanese
inventions. Moreover, many of the Japanese inven-
tors have secured letters patent in England, Ger-
many, France, Austria, and the United States. In
scientific discoveries, too, the Japanese are coming
forward.

The Japanese have also been frequently accused
of fickleness, and during the past fifty years have cer-
tainly furnished numerous reasons for such a charge.

86 A HA2STDB00K OF MODERN JAPAN

They have seemed to shift about with “every wind
of doctrine,” and, like the Athenians in Paul’s day,
have been often attracted by new things. But Den-
ing’s defence against this accusation is worthy of
notice, and seems quite reasonable. He claims that
“this peculiarity is accidental, not inherent”; that
there was “no lack of permanence in their laws, in-
stitutions, and pursuits in the days of their isola-
tion ”; that in recent times “their attention has been
attracted by such a multitude of [new] things . . .
that they have found great difficulty in making a
judicious selection”; and the rapid changes “have
not been usually dictated by mere fickleness, but
have resulted from the wish to prove all things.”
Chamberlain, likewise, refers to so-called “charac-
teristic traits” that are “characteristic merely of the
stage through which the nation is now passing.”
And certainly a growing steadfastness of purpose
and action is perceptible in many phases of Japanese
life.

The Japanese are pre-eminently an sesthetic people.
In all sections, among all classes, art reigns supreme.
It permeates everything, great or small. “ Whatever
these people fashion, from the toy of an hour to the
triumphs of all time, is touched by a taste unknown
elsewhere.” ^

The national spirit is excessively strong in Japan,
and has been made powerful by centuries of develop-
ment. Every Japanese is born, lives, and dies for

1 For particulars on this point, see chapter on " Aesthetic Japan.”

Osaka castle

JAPANESE TRAITS

his country. Loyalty is the highest virtue; and
Yamato-damashii (Japan spirit) is a synonym too
often of narrow and inordinate patriotism. But
the vision of the Japanese is broadening, and they
are learning that cosmopolitanism is not necessarily
antagonistic to patriotism. They used to harp on
“The Japan of the Japanese”; later they began to
talk about “The Japan of Asia”; but now they wax
eloquent over “The Japan of the World.”

Filial piety is the second virtue in the Japanese
etliics, and is often carried to a silly extreme. The
old custom of inhjd made it possible for parents,
even while they were still able-bodied, to retire from
active work and become an incubus on the eldest
son, perhaps just starting out in his life career.
But now there is a law that no one can. become inlcyo
l)efore he is sixty years of age. And yet filial piety
can easily nullify the law 1

Professor George T. Ladd, who has made a special
study of the Japanese from the psychological point of
view, sums up their “ character ” as of the “ senti-
mental temperament.”^ The following are sugges-
tive passages : —

“ This distinctive Japanese temperament is that which
Lotze has so happily called the ‘ sentimental tempera-
ment.’ It is the temperament characteristic of youth,
predominatingly, in all races. It is, as a temperament,
characteristic of all ages, of both sexes, and of all classes
of population, among the Japanese. But, of course, in

^ See “ Scribner’s Monthly ” for January, 1895.

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Japan as everywhere, the different ages, sexes, and
classes of society, differ in respect to the purity of this
temperamental distinction. Many important individual
exceptions, or examples of other temperaments, also
occur.

“ The distinguishing mark of the sentimental tempera-
ment is great susceptibility to variety of influences —
especially on the side of feeling, and independent of
clear logical analysis or fixed and well-comprehended
principles — with a tendency to a will that is impulsive
and liable to collapse. Such susceptibility is likely to
be accompanied by unusual difficulty in giving due
weight to those practical considerations, which lead to
compromises in politics, to steadiness in labor, to patience
in developing the details of science and philosophy, and
to the establishment of a firm connection between the
higher life of thought and feeling and the details of
daily conduct. On the other hand, it is the artistic
temperament, the temperament which makes one ‘ in-
teresting,’ the ‘clever’ mind, the temperament which
has a suggestion of genius at its command. . . .

“Japan is the laud of much natural scenery that is
pre-eminently interesting and picturesque. It is the
land of beautiful green mountains and of luxurious and
highly variegated flora. It is the laud that lends itself
to art, to sentiment, to reverie and brooding over the
mysteries of nature and of life. But it is also the land
of volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, and typhoons ; the
land under whose thin fair crust, or weird and gro-
tesque superficial beauty, and in whose air and sur-
rounding waters, the mightiest destructive forces of
nature slumber and mutter, and betimes break forth
with amazing destructive effect. As is the land, so —
in many striking respects — are the people that dwell
in it. The superficial observer, especially if he himself

JAPANESE TRAITS

be a victim of the unmixed sentimental temperament,
may find everything interesting, sesthetically pleasing,
promising continued kindness of feeling, and unwearied
delightful politeness of address. But the more profound
student will take note of the clear indications, that
beneath this thin, fair crust, there are smouldering fires
of national sentiment, uncontrolled by solid moral prin-
ciple, and unguided by sound, practical judgment. As
yet, however, we are confident in the larger hope for the
future of this most ‘ interesting ’ of Oriental races.”

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Rein’s “Japan,” “The Gist of Japan” (Peery), “Japan
and its Regeneration” (Cary), “The Soul of the Far East”
(Lowell), “Feudal and Modern Japan” (Knapp), “Lotos-
Time in Japan” (Finck), and Hearn’s works discuss the sub-
ject of Japanese characteristics with intelligence from various
points of view. The most interesting and instructive Japanese
■wr-iter on the subject is Nitobe in his “ Bushido, the Soul of
Japan.” Dening’s paper in vol. xix. Transactions Asiatic
Society of Japan is very valuable. “The Evolution of the
Japanese ” (Gulick) should also be carefully studied, especially
as he differs from Lowell and others, who contend that Ori-
entals in general, and Japanese in particular, have no “ soul,”
or distinct personality.

CHAPTER VII

HISTORY (OLD JAPAN)

Outline of Topics : Outline of mythology and history ; sources
of material; earlier periods; Japanese and Graeco-Roman mythol-
ogy ; prehistoric period ; continental influences ; capitals ; Imperi-
alism ; Fujiwara Epoch; Taira and Minamoto ; Ho jo tyranny;
Ashikaga Period ; Nobunaga and Hideyoshi ; lyeyasu ; Tokugawa
Dynasty. — Bibliography.

The mythology and history of Japan may be
outlined in the following manner: — •

A. Sources of material.

1. Oral tradition.

2. Kojiki [711 a. d.].

3. Nihougi [720 a. d.].

B. Chronology.

I. Old Japan.

1. “ Divine Ages.” Creation of world ; Izanagi and
Izanami; Sun-goddess and brother; Ninigi; Princes
Fire-Shine and Fire-Fade ; Jimmu.

2. Prehistoric Period [660 b. c.—lOO (?) a. d.]. Jimmu
Tenno; “ Sujin, the Civilizer”; Yaraato-Dake ; Em-
press Jingu; Invasion of Korea; Ojin, deified as
Hachiman, the Japanese Mars ; Take-no-uchi. Native
elements of civilization. Chinese literature.

3. Imperialistic Period [400 (?)-888 a. d.]. Continental
influences (on language and literature, learning, gov-
ernment, manners and customs, and religion) ; Bud-
dhism ; Shotoku Taishi ; practice of abdication ; Nara

HISTORY (OLD JAPAN)

Epoch; capital settled at Kyoto; Sugawara ; Fuji-
wara family established in regency (888 a. d.).

4. Civil Strife [888-1603 a. d.] . Fujiwara bureaucracy ;
Taira supremacy (1156-1185) ; wars of red and white
flags ; Yoritomo and Yoshitsuue ; Minamoto suprem-
acy (1185-1199) ; first Shogunate ; Hojo tyranny
(1199-1333) ; Tartar armada ; Kusunoki and Nitta ;
Ashikaga supremacy (1333-1573) ; “ War of the
Chrysanthemums”; tribute to China; fine arts
and architecture ; cha-no-yu ; Portuguese ; Francis
Xavier; spread of Christianity; Nobunaga, perse-
cutor of Buddhists (1573-1582) ; Hideyoshi, “Na-
poleon of Japan ” (1585-1598) ; persecution of
Christianity ; invasion of Korea ; lyeyasu ; battle
of Sekigahara (1600 a. d.).

5. Tokugawa Feudalism [1603-1868 a. d.]. lyeyasu
Shogun (1603) ; capital Yedo, girdled by friendly
fiefs; perfection of feudalism ; Dutch; Will Adams;
English ; extermination of Christianity ; seclusion
and crystallization (1638-1853); Confucian influences.

II. New Japan.

5 (continued). Perry’s Expedition ; treaties with for-
eign nations ; internal strife ; Richardson affair ;
Shimonoseki affair ; resignation of Shogun ; abolition
of Shogunate ; Revolutionary War ; New Imperialism ;
Imperial capital Yedo, renamed Tokyo; Meiji Era.

6. New Empire [1868- ]. Opening of ports and

cities ; “ Charter Oath ” ; telegraphs, light-houses,
postal system, mint, dockyard, etc. ; outcasts ac-
knowledged as human beings ; abolition of feudalism ;
first rail way, newspaper, and church ; Imperial Univer-
sity ; Yokohama Missionary Conference ; Gregorian
calendar; anti-Christian edicts removed; Saga rebel-
lion; Formosan Expedition ; assembly of governors;
Senate ; treaty with Korea ; Satsuma rebellion ; bi-

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

metallism ; Loo Choo annexed ; new codes ; prefectural
assemblies; Bank of Japan; Osaka Missionary Con-
ference; new nobility; Japan Mail Steamship Com-
pany; Privy Council; Prince Haru made Crown
Prince ; anti-foreign reaction ; promulgation of Con-
stitution ; first Diet ; Gifu earthquake ; war with
China; Formosa; tariff revision; gold standard;
freedom of press and public meetings ; opening of
Japan by new treaties ; war with China ; Tokyo
Missionary Conference; Anglo- Japanese Alliance.

The student of Japanese history is confronted, at
the outset, with a serious difficulty. In ancient
times the Japanese had no literary script, so that
all events had to he handed down from generation
to generation by oral tradition. The art of writing
was introduced into Japan, from China probably, in
the latter part of the third century A. D. ; but it was
not used for recording events until the beginning of
the fifth century. All these early records, more-
over, were destroyed by fire ; so that the only “ reli-
ance for information about . . . antiquity ” has to
be placed in the Kojiki,^ or “Records of Ancient
Matters,” and the Nihongi,'^ or “Chronicles of
Japan.” The former, completed in 711 A. d., is
written in a purer Japanese style; the latter, finished
in 720 A. D., is “much more tinctured with Chinese
philosophy ” ; though differing in some details, they

1 Chamberlain’s Englisli version is found in Transactions Asiatic
Society of Japan, vol. x., Supplement.

2 Aston’s English version is found in Transactions Japan Society,
London, Supplement.

FOUR GATES : PALACE, TOKYO ; PALACE, KYOTO ;
SAKURADA, t6ky5 ; KUO CASTLE, KYOTO

HISTORY (OLD JAPAN)

are practically concordant, and supply the data upon
which the Japanese have constructed their “history.”
It is thus evident that the accounts of the period
before Christ must he largely mythological, and the
records of the first four centuries of the Christian
era must be a thorough mixture of fact and fiction,
which it is difficult carefully to separate.

According to Japanese chronologj% the Empire of
Japan was founded by Jimmu Tenno in 660 B. C.
This was when Assyria, under Sardanapalus, was at
the height of its power ; not long after the ten tribes
of Israel had been carried into captivity, and soon
after the reign of the good Ilezekiah in Judah ; before
INIedia had risen into prominence; a century later
than Lycurgus, and a few decades before Draco ; and
during the period of the Roman kingdom. Rut
according to a foreign scholar who has sifted the
material at hand, the first absolutely authentic date
in Japanese history is 461 A. D.,^ — just the time
Avhen the Saxons were settling in England. If,
therefore, the Japanese are given the benefit of more
than a century, there yet remains a millennium which
falls under the sacrificial knife of the historical critic.
Rut while we cannot accept unchallenged the details
of about a thousand years, and cannot withhold sur-
prise that even the Constitution of New Japan
maintains the “ exploded religious fiction ” of the
foundation of the empire, we must acknowledge that
the Imperial family of Japan has formed the oldest

1 See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xvi. pp. 39-75.

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

continuous dynasty in the world, and can probably
boast an “ unbroken line ” of eighteen or twenty
centuries.

1. '‘'‘Divine Ages.”

2. Prehistoric Period [660 B. C.-400 (?) A. D.].

Dr. Murray, in “The Story of Japan,” following
the illustrious example of Arnold in Roman history,
treats these more or less mythological periods in
a reasonable way. He says: “Yet the events of
the earlier period[s] . . . are capable, with due care
and inspection, of furnishing important lessons and
disclosing many facts in regard to the lives and
characteristics of the primitive Japanese.” These
facts concerning the native elements of civilization
pertain to the mode of government, which was
feudal; to food, clothing, houses, arms, and imple-
ments; to plants and domestic and wild animals; to
modes of travel ; to reading and writing, as being un-
known; to various mannera and customs; to super-
stitions; and to “religious notions,” which found
expression in Shinto, itself not strictly a “religion,”
but only a cult without a moral code. “Morals
were invented by the Chinese because they were an
immoral people; but in Japan there was no necessity
for any system of morals, as every Japanese acted
rightly if he only consulted his own heart”! So
asserts a Shinto apologist. And from the fact that
so many myths cluster around Izumo, it is a natural
inference that one migration of the ancestors of the

HISTORY (OLD JAPAN)

Japanese from Korea landed in that province, while
the legends relating to Izanagi and Izanami, the first
male and female deities, since they find local habita-
tion in Kyushiu, seem to indicate another migration
(Korean or Malay?) to that locality. These differ-
ent migrations are also supposed to account for the
two distinct types of Japanese.

The story of the creation of the world bears con-
siderable resemblance to that related in Ovid’s Meta-
morphoses; and this is only one of many points of
remarkable similarity between the mythology of Japan
and the Grmco-Roman mythology.^ And one famous
incident in the career of the Sun-Goddess is evi-
dently a myth of a solar eclipse.

Although the Emperor Jimmu cannot be accepted
as a truly historical personage, neither can he be
entirely ignored, for he is still an important “ char-
acter ” in Japanese “ history ” and continues to claim
in his honor two national holidays (February 11 and
April 3). And, just as Jimmu may be considered
the Cyrus, or founder, of the Japanese Empire, so
Siijin, “the Civilizer,” may be called its Darius, or
organizer. The Prince Yamato-Dake is a popular
hero, whose wonderful exploits are still sung in prose
and poetry. As for the Empress Jingu, or Jingu,
although she is not included in the official list^ of

1 There are, indeed, many striking resemblances between “ things
Japanese” of various kinds and the corresponding ‘‘things Grteco-
Eoman.” See “Japanesque Elements in ‘The Last Days of Pom-
peii ’ ” in the “ Arena ” for October, 1896.

2 See Appendix, where will also be found a list of the year-
periods, or eras.

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

the rulers of the empire, she is considered a great
heroine, and is especially famous for her successful
invasion of Korea, assigned to about 200 A. d. And
it is her son, Ojin, who, deified as Hachiman, is still
“worshipped” as god of war; while Take-no-uchi is
renowned for having served as Prime IMinister to
five Emperors and one Empress (Jingu). It was
during this period that the Chinese language and
literature, together with the art of writing, were in-
troduced into Japan through Korea.

3. Imperialistic Period [400( ?)-888 A. D.].

The continental influences form an important fac-
tor in the equation of Japanese civilization. The
Japanese “have been from the beginning of their
history a receptive people,” and are indebted to
Korea and China for the beginnings of language,
literature, education, art, mental and moral philoso-
phy (Confucianism), religion (Buddhism), and many
social ideas. The conversion of the nation to Bud-
dhism took place in the sixth and seventh centuries,
and was largely due to the powerful influence of the
Prime IMinister of the Empress Suiko. He is best
known by his posthumous title of Shotoku Taishi,
and is also famous for having compiled “the first
written law[s] in Japan.”

For a long period, on account of superstitions, the
capital was frequently removed, so that Japan is said
to have had “no less than sixty capitals.” But dur-
ing most of the eighth century the court was located

STATESMEN OF XFAV JAPAN
PKINCE SANJO AND COL’NT KATSU

HISTORY (OLD JAPAN)

at Nara, which gave its name to that epoch ; and in
794 A. D. the capital was permanently established at
Kyoto.

At first the government of Japan was an absolute
monarchy, not only in name, but also in fact; for
the authority of the Emperor was recognized and
maintained, comparatively unimpaired, throughout
the realm. But the decay of the Imperial power
began quite early in “the Middle Ages of Japan,”
as Dr. Murray calls the period from about 700 to
1184 A. D. The Emperors themselves, wearied with
the restrained and dignified life which, as “ descend-
ants of the gods,” they were obliged by etiquette to
endure, preferred to abdicate; and in retirement
“often wielded a greater influence and exerted a
more active part in tbe administration of affairs.”
This practice of abdication frequently brought a
youth, or even an infant, to the throne, and naturally
transferred the real power to the subordinate admin-
istrative officers. This was the way in which gra-
datim, the “duarchy, ” as it is sometimes called, was
developed, and in which seriatim families and even
individuals became prominent.

4. Civil Strife [888-1603 A. D.].

Although actual warfare did not begin for a long
period, the date of the appointment of a Fujiwara as
Regent practically ended Imperialism and was the
beginning of jealousy and strife. And yet tbe Fuji-
wara Epoch was the “Elizabethan Age” of classical

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

literature. But after that family had for about 400
years “monopolized nearly all the important offices
in the government,” and from 888 had held the
regency in hereditary tenure, it was finally deposed
by the so-called “military families.”

The first of these was the Taira, who, after only
a short period of power (1156-1185) through Kiyo-
mori, were utterly overthrown in the “ wars of the
red and white flags,” and practically annihilated in
the great naval battle of Dan-no-ura. Next came
the Minamoto, represented by Yoritomo,' whose au-
thority was further enhanced when the Emperor
bestowed on him the highest military title, Sci-i-
Tai-Shogvn. And from this time (1192) till 1868
the emperors were practical nonentities, and subor-
dinates actually governed the empire. The Japan-
ese Merovingians, however, were never deprived of
their titular honor by their “Mayors of the Palace.”
But the successors of Yoritomo in the office of
Shogun were young and sensual, and gladly relin-
quished the executive duties to their guardians of
the Hojo family, who, as regents, ruled “ with
resistless authority” and “unexampled cruelty and
rapacity,” but yet deserve credit for defeating (in
1281) an invading force of Tartars sent by Kublai
Khan. The great patriots, Kusunoki and Nithi,
with the aid of Ashikaga, finally overthrew the Hojo
domination in 1333 ; but the Ashikaga rule succeeded
and continued till 1573.

1 His younger brother, Yoshitsune, was a popular hero.

HISTORY (OLD JAPAN)

During the fourteenth centurj" occurred the Japan-
ese “ War of the Roses,” or the “ War of the Chrysan-
themums,” which was a conflict between two rival
branches of the Imperial family. It resulted in the
defeat of the “Southern Court” by the “Northern
Court,” and the reunion of the Imperial authority in
the person of the Emperor Komatsu II. It was an
Ashikaga Shogun who encouraged the quaint tea-
ceremonial, called cha-no-yti ; it was the same family
who fostered fine arts, especially painting and archi-
tecture; it was an Ashikaga who paid tribute to
China; it was “in almost the worst period of the
Ashikaga anarchy” that, in 1542, “the Portuguese
made their first appearance in Japan”; and it was
only five years later when Francis Xavier arrived
there to begin his missionary labors, from which
Christianity spread rapidly, until the converts were
numbered by the millions.^

The next few decades of Japanese history are
crowded with civil strife, and include the three
great men, Nohunaga, Hideyoshi, and lyeyasu,
each of whom in turn seized the supreme power.
The first-named persecuted Buddhism and was favor-
able to Christianity; the other two interdicted the
latter. Hideyoshi, who “rose from obscurity solely
by his own talents,” has been called “the Napoleon
of Japan.” He is generally known by his title of
Taiko; and he extended his name abroad by an in-
vasion of Korea, which was not, however, a complete
* See “The Religions of Japan ” (GriflBs), chap. xi.

100 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

success. He is regarded by many as “the greatest
soldier, if not the greatest man, whom Japan has
produced.” If this statement can be successfully
challenged, the palm will certainly be awarded to
Tyeyasu, who, by the victory of Sekigahara in 1600,
became the virtual ruler of the empire.

5. Tohugawa Feudalism [1603-1868 A. D.].

lyeyasu founded a dynasty (Tokugawa) of Shoguns,
who, for more than 260 years, ruled at Yedo, sur-
rounded by faithful vassals, and who at least gave
the empire a long period of peace. He brought
Japanese feudalism to its perfection of organization.
His successors destroyed Christianity by means of
a fearful persecution; prohibited commercial inter-
course, except with the Chinese and the Dutch, ^
and allowed it with these only to a limited extent,
and thus crystallized Japanese civilization and in-
stitutions. It may be true that “ Japan reached the
acme of her ancient greatness during the Tokugawa
Dynasty ” ; but it is also true that by this policy of
insulation and seclusion she was put back two and a
half centuries in the matter of progress in civilization.

The long years of peace under the Tokugawas
were also years of literary development. Chinese
history, literature, and philosophy were ardently
studied; Confucianism wielded a mighty influence;
but Japanese history and literature were not neg-
lected. The Mito clan especially was the centre of

1 Previously Portuguese, English, and others had enjoyed the
privilege.

HISTORY (OLD JAPAN)

101

intellectual industry, and produced, among a large
number of works, the Dai Nihon Shi (History of
Great Japan), which is even to-day the standard.
The study of Japanese history revealed the fact that
the governmental authority had been originally cen-
tred in the Emperor, and not divided with any subor-
dinate ; and the study of Confucian political science
led to the same idea of an absolute monarchy.
Thus the spirit of Imperialism grew, encouraged,
perhaps, by clan jealousies and fostered by anti-
foreign opinions, until “the last of the Shoguns”
resigned his position, and the Emperor was restored
to his original sole authority. Then the leaders of
the Restoration abandoned their anti-foreign slogan,
which had been only a pretext, and by a complete
but wise volte-face, began to turn their country into
the path of modern civilization, to make up for the
lost centuries. But the story of this wonderful trans-
formation belongs to the next chapter.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Griffis, in his “Japan in History, Folk-lore, and Art,”
gives interesting glimpses of Japanese history ; and many other
works on Japan present a brief treatment of this subject.
There is an official “ History of the Empire of Japan,” originally
prepared for the World’s Columbian Exposition. Hildreth’s
“Japan as it Was and Is” is especially valuable for the period
of seclusion. Knapp’s “Feudal and Modern Japan” is in-
structive in its contrasts. The Transactions of the Asiatic
Society of Japan abound in valuable material. For a single
volume on this subject, Murray’s “Japan” in the series of
“ The Stories of the Nations ” is the best.

CHAPTER VIII

HISTORY (NEW JAPAN)

Outline of Topics: Birth of New Japan. — Nineteenth Cen-
tury Japan; calendars; six periods: (I) Period of Seclusion, chro-
nology and description ; (II) Period of Treaty-making, chronology
and description; (III) Period of Civil Commotions, chronology and
description ; (IV) Period of Reconstruction, chronology and de-
scription, especially the “Charter Oath”; (V) Period of Internal
Development, chronology and description ; (VI) Period of Consti-
tutional Government, chronology and description ; summary of
general progress. — Bibliography.

JULY 14, 1853, was the birthday of New Japan.
It was the day when Commodore Perry and his
suite first landed on the shore of Yedo Bay at
Kurihama, near Uraga, and when Japanese author-
ities received, in contravention of their own laws, an
official communication from Millard Fillmore, Presi-
dent of the United States.

It may be true that, even if Perry had not come,
Japan would have been eventually opened, because
internal public opinion was shaping itself against the
policy of seclusion ; but we care little for what “ might
have been.” It is, of course, true that Perry did not
f uUy carry out the purpose of his expedition until the
following year, when he negotiated a treaty of friend-
ship ; but the reception of the President’s letter was
the crucial point ; it was the beginning of the end of

HISTORY (NEW JAPAN)

103

old Japan. The rest followed in due course of time.
When Japanese authorities broke their own laws,
the downfall of the old system was inevitable. Mark
those words in the receipt — “ in opposition to the
Japanese law.” That was a clear confession that tlie
old policy of seclusion and its prohibitions could no
longer be strictly maintained. A precedent was thus
established, of which other nations were not at all
slow to avail themselves.

But although New Japan was not born until the
second half of the nineteenth century, it suits the
purpose of this book a little better, even at the ex-
pense of pof5sible repetition, to take a survey in this
chapter of that entire century, in order that the real
progress of Japan may thereby be more clearly re-
vealed in all its marvellous strides.

Of course, the employment of the Gregorian calen-
dar in Japan is of comparatively recent occurrence, so
that it would be quite proper to divide up the century
according to the old Japanese custom of periods, or
eras,^ of varying length. This system was introduced
from China and has prevailed since 645 A. d. A new
era was always chosen “ whenever it was deemed
necessary to commemorate an auspicious or ward off a
malign event.” It is interesting, by the way, to notice
that, immediately after Commodore Perry’s arrival
(1853), the name of the period was changed for a
good omen ! Hereafter these eras will correspond
with the reigns of the emperors.

i For lists of eras and emperors, see Appendix.

104 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

But it is really more intelligible to divide the his-
tory of the century into six periods of well-determined
duration. Each one of these periods, moreover, may
be accurately named in accord with the distinguishing
characteristic of that period. It must, however, be
clearly understood that these distinctions are not all
absolute, but rather relative. It is also possible, with-
out an undue stretch of the imagination, to trace, m
the order of the periods, the general progress that has
marked the history of New Japan. These periods are
as follows : —

I. Seclusion (1801-1853).

II. Treaty-making (1854-1858).

III. Civil Commotions (1858-1868).

IV. Reconstruction (1868-1878).

V. Internal Development (1879-1889).

VI. Constitutional Government (1889-1900).’

It is of special interest for Americans to notice that
the third and fourth periods are almost contemporane-
ous with the periods of Civil War and Reconstruction
in the United States.

We now take up each period in detail.

I. Period of Seclusion (1801-1853),

CHROXOLOGT.

1804. Resanoff, Russian Embassy.

1807. The “Eclipse” of Boston at Nagasaki.

1808. The British frigate “ Phaethon ” at Nagasaki.
1811-18i3. Golownin’s captivity in Yezo.

1818. Captain Gordon (British) in Yedo Bay.

1 Or [VIL Cosmopolitanism (1899- )].

HISTORY (NEW JAPAN)

105

1825-1829. Dr. Von Siebold (Dutch) in Yedo.

1827. lieechey (British) in “ Blossom ” at Loo Choo
Islands.

18.37. The “Morrison” Expedition in Yedo Bay.

1844. Letter^ from King William II. of Holland.

1845. American whaler “ Mercator ” in Yedo Bay.
British frigate “ Saramang ” at Nagasaki.

1846. Dr. Bettelheim in Loo Choo Islands.

Wreck of American whaler “Lawrence” on Kurile
Islands.

1848. (United States) Commodore Biddle’s Expedition

in Yedo Bay.

Wreck of American whaler “ Ladoga ” off Mat-
sumai, Yezo.

Ronald McDonald landed in Japan.

1849. United States “Preble” in Nagasaki harbor.
British “Mariner” in Yedo Bay.

1853. Shogun lyeyoshi died.

Commodore Perry in Yedo Bay.

It needs only a few words to summarize this period
which includes the final days of the two-edged policy
of exclusion and inclusion, which forbade not only
foreigners to enter, but also Japanese to leave, the
country. It would not even allow Japanese ship-
wrecked on other shores to be brought back to their
native laud, as several futile attempts mentioned
above attest. Nagasaki was the only place where for-
eign trade was allowed, and there only in a slight
degree with Chinese and Dutch. The events of this
period are almost all vain attempts to open Japan.
Two important events concern the Loo Choo Islands,
1 Recommending to open Japan to foreign intercourse.

106 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

then independent, and later visited also by Commo-
dore Perry on liis way from China to Japan. Ronald
McDonald was an Oregon boy, who, “ voluntarily
left adrift, got into Yezo, and thence to Nagasaki.”
He is reported to have puzzled the Japanese author-
ities by stating that in America “ the people are king
and the source of authority ” ! This period of seclu-
sion came to an end on July 14, 1853, when the
Japanese, contrary to their own laws, received from
Commodore Perry the letter from President Fillmore
to the Emperor of Japan.*

II. Period of Treaty-Making (1854-1858).

CHRONOLOGY.

1854. Perry’s treaty of peace and amity.

British treaty of peace and amity.

1855. Russian treaty of peace and amity.

Terrible earthquake.

1856. Fire in Yedo ; 100,000 lives lost.

Dutch treaty of peace and amity.

Townsend Harris, United States Consul, arrived.

1857. Harris in audience with the Shogun.

1858. Harris treaty of trade and commerce.

Elgin treaty of trade and commerce.

1 The following is what the Japanese themselves stated about
this event: “The letter of the President of the United States of
North America, and copy, are hereby received and delivered to the
Emperor. Many times it has been communicated that business
relating to foreign countries cannot be transacted here at Draga,
but in Nagasaki. Now, it has been observed that the Admiral, in
his quality of ambassador of the President, would be insulted by
it; the justice of this has been acknowledged; consequently, the
above-mentioned letter is hereby received, in opposition to the
Japanese law.”

HISTORY (HEW JAPAH)

107

This is the era which was opened by Commodore
Perry, and was almost entirely devoted to the per-
severing attempts of Perry, Harris, Curtins, Lord
Elgin, and others to negotiate treaties, first of friend-
sliip and amity, and afterwards of trade and com-
merce, vdth Japan. It is rather interesting that the
only events chronicled above, besides treaty-making,
are terrible catastrophes, which the superstitious con-
servatives believed to have been visited upon their
couutrj^ as a punishment for treating with the bar-
barians ! It is again a matter of peculiar pride to
Americans that the first treaty of friendship and
amity was negotiated by Perry ; that the first foreign
flag raised officially in Japan was the Stars and Stripes,
hoisted at Shimoda by Harris on September 4, 1856 ;
that Harris was the first accredited diplomatic agent
from a foreign country to Japan; that he also had the
honor of the first audience of a foreign representa-
tive with the Shogun, then supposed to be the
Emperor ; and that he negotiated the first treaty of
trade and commerce.

III. Period of Civil Commotions (1858-1868).

CHRONOLOGY.

1859. Yokohama, Nagasaki, Hakodate opened.

First Christian missionaries.

1860. Assassination of li. Prime Minister of the Shogun.

1861. Frequent attacks on foreigners.

1862. First foreign embassy. Richardson affair

1863. Bombardment of Kagoshima.

1864. Bombardment of Shimonoseki.

108 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

18G5. Imperial sanction of treaties. Tariff convention.

1866. Shogun lyemochi died; succeeded by Keiki.

1867. Emperor Komei died ; succeeded by Mutsuhito.

Keiki resigned. Reorganization of the Govern-
ment.

1868. Restoration, or Revolution.

This era has been so named because it was marked
by commotions, not merely between different factions
among the Japanese, but also between Japanese and
foreigners. The anti-foreign spirit that manifested
itself in numerous assaults and conspiracies was so
involved with internal dissensions that it is quite
difficult to distinguish them. The assassination of
li, the Shogun’s Prime Minister, who had the courage
and the foresight to sign the treaties, was the natural
sequence of the opening of three ports to foreign com-
merce. The conservative spirit, moreover, was still
so strong that the Shogun had to send an embassy,
the first one ever sent abroad officially by Japan, to
petition the treaty-powers to permit the postpone-
ment of the opening of other ports. The murder of
Richardson, an Englishman who rudely interrupted
the progress of the retinue of the Prince of Satsuma,
was the pretext for the bombardment of Kagoshima ;
and the firing on an American vessel that was passing
through the Straits of Shimonoseki was the excuse
for the bombardment of Shimonoseki. About the
middle of this period the Imperial sanction of the
treaties was obtained, and a tariff convention was
negotiated.

STATESMEN OF NEW JAPAN
OKUBO, SAIGO, KIDO, AND PPJNCE nVAKURA

HISTORY (NEW JAPAN)

109

The civil dissensions, however, continued ; the
great clan of Choshiu became engaged in actual war-
fare against the Shogun’s troops in Kyoto and were
proclaimed “ rebels,” against whom an Imperial army
was despatched; the young Shogun, lyemochi, died
and was succeeded by Keiki ; and the Emperor
Komei also died and was succeeded by his young son,
Mutsuhito, the present Emperor. Finally, the new
Shogun, observing the drift of political affairs and
the need of the times for a more centralized and
unified administration, resigned his position; and the
system of government was re-formed with the Emperor
in direct control. The new Emperor declared in a
manifesto : “ Henceforward we shall exercise supreme
authority, both in the internal and [the] external
affairs of the country. Consequently the title of
Emperor should be substituted for that of Tycoon
[Shogun], which has hitherto been employed in the
treaties.” Of this manifesto, one writer says : “ Ap-
pended were the seal of Dai Nippon, and the signa-
ture, iMutsuhito, this being the first occasion in
Japanese history on which the name of an Emperor
had appeared during his lifetime.” ^

But the effect of the reorganization of the gov-
ernment seemed to the adherents of the former
Shogun to work so much injustice to them that they
rose in arms against the Sat-Cho [Satsuma-Choshiu]
combination which was then influential at court.
This led, in 1867, to a civil war, which, after a severe

1 DLxon’s “ Land of the Morning,” p. 97.

110 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

struggle, culminated in 1868 in the complete triumph
of the Imperialists. This event is what is called by
some “ the Restoration,” and by others “ the Revolu-
tion.” This was, in fact, the climax of all the civil
commotions of the period ; the anti-foreign spirit
and policy were only secondary to the prime purpose
of overthrowing the usurpation of the Tokugawa
Shogunate and restoring the one legal Emperor to
his lawful authority. And thus fell, not only the
Tokugawa Dynasty, as had fallen other dynasties, of
Shoguns, but also the whole system of a Shogunate ;
and thus the Emperor of Japan became, not ruler in
name and fame only, but sovereign in act and fact.
Since 1868 Mutsuhito has been Emperor both de jure
and de facto.

IV. Period of Reconstruction (1868-1878).

CHRONOLOGY.

1868. Opening of Hyogo (Kobe) and Osaka.

1869. Opening of Yedo and Niigata.

Emperor’s audience of foreign ministers.

Yedo named Tokyo and made capital.

The “ Charter Oath ” of Japan.

1870. Light-houses, telegraphs.

1871. Postal system, mint, and dock.

Feudalism abolished.

Eta and hinin (outcasts) admitted to citizenship.
Colonization in Yezo [Hokkaido].

1872. First railway, newspaper, church, and Missionary

Conference.

Imperial University in Tokyo.

Iwakura Embassy to America and Europe.

HISTORY (HEW JAP AH)

111

1873. Adoption of Gregorian calendar.

Removal of anti-Christian edicts.

Empress gave audience td foreign ladies.

1874. Saga Rebellion. Formosan Expedition.

1875. Assembly of Governors. Senate.

Saghalien traded off for Kurile Islands

1876. Treaty with Korea.

1877. Satsuma Rebellion.

First National Exhibition in Tokyo.

1878. Bimetallism.

Promise to establish Prefectural Assemblies.

This period was one of laying the foundations of a
New Japan, to be constructed out of the old, and was
one of such kaleidoscopic changes and marvellous
transformations in society, business, and administra-
tion that it is almost blinding to the eye to attempt
to watch the work of reconstruction. There were
abortive but costly attempts, like the Saga and the
Satsuma rebellions, to check the progressive policy.
It was the great period of “ firsts,” of beginnings :
the first audiences of foreign ministers by the Em-
peror and of foreign ladies by the Empress ; the first
telegraph, mint, dock, railroad, postal system, news-
paper, exhibition, chiu'ch, etc. ; an assembly of pro-
vincial governors to confer together upon general
polic)', and a Senate.

The “ Charter Oath ” of Japan was not obtained
by coercion, but voluntarily taken : it is such an
important document that at least a summaiy may
be given : ^ —

^ lyenaga’s “ Constitutional Development of Japan,” p. 33.

112 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

“1. A deliberative assembly should be formed, and all
measures be decided by public opinion.

“ 2. The principles of social and political economics
should be diligently studied by both the superior and
[the] inferior classes of our people.

“ 3. Every one in the community shall be assisted
to persevere in carrying out his will for all good
purposes.

“4. All the old absurd usages of former times should
be disregarded, and the impartiality and justice dis-
played in the workings of nature be adopted as a basis
of action.

“ 6. Wisdom and ability should be sought after in all
quarters of the world for the purpose of firmly establish-
ing the foundations of the empire.”

Two years later feudalism was abolished by the
following laconic decree : “ The clans are abolished,
and prefectures are established in their places.” In
the same year the outcast eta and hi-nin (not-
human) were recognized as common people. Then
followed the despatch of the Iwakura Embassy to
America and Europe, where, although they failed in
their prime purpose of securing a revision of the
treaties on more nearly equal terms, they learned
most valuable lessons. Two immediate results thereof
were seen in the removal of the anti-Christian edicts
and the adoption of the Gregorian, or Christian, cal-
endar. And finally came the promise to establish
prefectural assemblies as training schools in local self-
government.

HISTORY (NEW JAPAN)

113

V. Period of Internal Development (1879-1889).

CHRONOLOGY,

1879. Annexation of the Loo Choo Islands,

Visit of General U. S. Grant.

1880. Promulgation of Penal Code and Code of Criminal

Procedure.

Establishment of prefectural assemblies.

1881. Announcement of Constitutional Government.

1882. Organization of political parties.

Bank of Japan (^Nippon Ginko).

1883. Missionary Conference, Osaka.

1884. New orders of nobility in European fashion.
English introduced into school curricula.

1885. Japan Mail Steamship Company (Ilippon Yusen

Kwaisha).

Cabinet reconstruction, known as “ The Great
Earthquake ” (political).

188G. Dissatisfaction of Radicals.

1887. “ Peace Preservation Act.”

1888. Establishment of Privy Council.

Eruption of Mount Bandai.

1889. Promulgation of the Constitution (February 11).
Establishment of local self-government.

Prince Haru proclaimed Crown Prince.

This period is not marked, perhaps, by so many
unusual events as the preceding one ; but it was a
period of rapid, though somewhat quiet, internal
development. We note in financial affairs the or-
ganization of the Bank of Japan, which has ever
since been a most important agent in maintaining
an economic equilibrium ; in business circles the

114 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

organization of the Japan IMail Steamship Company,
Avhich has been instrumental in expanding » Japanese
trade and commerce ; in society the reorganization
of the nobility; and in legal matters the promulga-
tion of new codes. Several political events are noted
in the chronology ; but they were mostly preparatory
to the next period. The promise to establish prefec-
tural assemblies was fulfilled, and these became pre-
para toiy schools in pohtical science ; and another
promise, that of a constitution, was made. The Cabi-
net was reconstructed, and political parties were
organized. The Radicals, however, became dissatis-
fied with the slowness of political progress, and made
such an agitation that, in 1887, many were expelled
from Tokyo by the so-called “ Peace Preservation
Act,” and those who refused to obey were im-
prisoned. But finally, in 1889, as the climax of
the internal development and political preparations,
came the establishment of local self-government and
the promulgation of the Constitution, which ushered
in the next period.

VI. Period of Constitutional Government (1889-1900).

CHRONOLOGY.

1889. Anti-foreign reaction.

1890. First National Election. First Imperial Diet.
Promulgation of Civil and Commercial Codes.

1891. Attack on the Czarowitz, now Emperor of Russia.
Gifu earthquake.

1892. Dispute between the two Houses of Diet.

1893. Dispute between the Diet and the Government.

HISTORY (NEW JAPAN)

115

1894. War with China.

1895. AVar with China. Acquisition of Formosa.

1896. Alliance between the Government and Liberals.
Tidal wave on northeastern coast of main island.

1897. Revised tariff. Gold standard.

Freedom of press and public meeting.

1898. Revised Civil Code. First “ Party Cabinet.”

1899. New treaties on terms of equality — Japan wide

open.

AVedding of Crown Prince Ham.

1900. Extension of electoral franchise.

War with China — Japan allied with Christendom.
General Missionary Conference, Tokyo.

This period included wars and other calamities, but
also some very fortunate events. It opened, strange
to say, with the “ anti-foreign reaction ” at its height.
This reaction was the natural result of the rapid
Occidentalizing that had been going on, and was
strengthened by the refusal of AA^estern nations to
revise the treaties which kept Japan in thraldom.
But the period closed with “ treaty revision ” accom-
plished, and Japan admitted, on terms of equality, to
alliance with AVestern nations.^ And in quelling the
“ Boxer ” disturbances in China and particularly in
raising the Siege of Peking, Japan played a most
important part. This period was chiefly occupied
with the experimental stage in constitutional gov-
ernment, when the relations between the two Houses
of the Diet, between the Diet and the Cabinet, be-
tween the Cabinet and political parties, ■were being

^ See Appendix for New Treaty.

116 A HANDBOOK OF MODEKN JAPAN

defined. This was also the period during which new
civil, commercial, and criminal codes were put into
operation ; the gold standard was adopted ; the re-
strictions on the freedom of the press and of public
meeting were almost entirely removed ; the tariff was
revised in the interests of Japan; and the electoral
franchise in elections for members of the House of
Representatives was largely extended.

It has already been suggested that the very order
of these periods indicates in general the progress of
Japan during those hundred years. The century
dawns, nay, even the second half of the century
opens, with Japan in seclusion. But Commodore
Periy breaks down that isolation; and Japan enters,
first merely into amity, but afterwaids into commer-
cial intercourse, with foreign nations. The break
up of the old foreign policy accelerates the break up
of the old national policy of govermnent, and civil
commotions culminate in the restoration of the Em-
peror to his lawful authority. Japan is then recon-
structed on new lines ; and a tremendous internal
development prepares the Japanese to be admitted
by their generous Emperor into a share of his inher-
ited prerogatives. And the century sets with Japan
among the great nations of Christendom, and with
the Japanese enjoying a constitutional government,
representative institutions, local self-government, free-
dom of the press and of public meeting, and reli-
gious liberty. If this is the record of Nineteenth
Century Japan, vEat of Twentieth Century Japan?

HISTORY (NEW JAPAN)

117

It certainly has a good start, in formal alliance with
Great Britain to maintain peace and justice in the
Far East.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The same as the preceding chapter, with the addition of
“ Tlie Intercourse between the United States and Japan ”
(Xitobe); “Matthew Galbraith Perry,” “Townsend Harris,”
and “ Verbeck of Japan ” (all by Griffis) ; “ Advance Japan ”
(Morris) ; and Perry’s Expedition (official report).

On the early history of New Japan there are many valuable
works by Alcock, Black, Dickson, Dixon (W. G.), House,
Lanman, Mounsey, Mossman, and others. See also Satow’s
translation of “ Kinse Shiriaku.” On the war with China
(1894, 1895), see “Heroic Japan” (Eastlake and Yamada); and
on the lessons and results of that war, see “The New Far
East” (Diosy).

CHAPTER IX

CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM

Outline of Tones: The “ Charter Oath ” of Japan; popular
agitation; promise of a national assembly; a red-letter year; the
“Magna Charta" of Japan; Imperial prerogatives ; personality of
Emperor and Empress ; Crown Prince and Princess ; Imperial
grandchildren; Privy Council; Imperial Cabinet; Departments
of State ; sundry comments ; House of Peers ; House of Commons ;
some “firsts”; rights and duties of subjects; criticisms of Jap-
anese politics ; popular rights ; personnel of two Houses ; cabinet
responsibility; political parties; persons and principles; constitu-
tional system satisfactory. — Bibliography.

WHEN the Revolution, or Restoration, of
1868 ended the usurpation, and over-
threw the despotism of the Shogun, the
joung Emperor, Mutsuhito, restored to his ancestral
rights as the actual sole ruler of the empire, took
solemn oath that “ a deliberative assembly should be
formed ; all measures be decided by public opinion ;
the uncivilized customs of former times should be
broken through ; the impartiality and justice displayed
in the workings of nature be adopted as a basis of
action ; and that intellect and learning should be
sought for throughout the world, in order to estab-
lish the foundations of the empire.” In that same
year an assembly of representatives of the clans was
called to meet in the capital, and was given the title

CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM

119

of Shugi-in (House of Commons). It consisted of
samurai (knights) from each clan ; and as they were
appointed by each daimyd (prince), the body was
a purely feudal, and not at all a popular, assembly.
In 1871 feudalism was abolished, and later a senate
was established ; but that was an advisory body, con-
sisting of officials appointed by the Emperor and
without legislative power. In 1875 the Emperor
convoked a council of the officers of the provincial
governments with a purpose stated as follows: “We
also call a council of the officials of our provinces, so
that the feelings of the people may be made known
and the public welfare attained. By these means we
shall gradually confer upon the nation a constitu-
tional form of government. The provincial officials
are summoned as the representatives of the people
in the various provinces, that they may express their
opinion on behalf of the people.”

But a body so constituted and rather conservative
could not satisfy the demands of the new age.
Itagaki (now Count) insisted that the government
should “guarantee the establishment of a popular
assembly,” and organized societies, or associations,
for popular agitation of the subject. Petitions and
memorials poured in upon the government, within
whose circles Okuma (now Count), Minister of
Finance, was most active in the same direction. In
the mean time (1878) provincial assemblies, the
members of which were chosen by popular election,
had been established as a preparatory measure.

120 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

It was on October 12, 1881, that the Emperor
issued his memorable proclamation that a National
Assembly should be opened in 1890. That procla-
mation read as follows: —

“ We therefore hereby declare that we shall, in the
23rd year of Meiji, establish a Parliament, in order to
carry into full effect the determination we have an-
nounced, and we charge our faithful subjects bearing
our commissions to make, in the mean time, all necessary
preparations to that end. With regard to the limita-
tions upon the Imperial prerogative, and the constitution
of the Parliament, we shall decide hereafter, and shall
make proclamation in due time.”

From that time on there was progress, “steadily,
if slowly, in the direction of greater decentraliza-
tion and broader popular prerogative.”

The year 1889 was a red-letter year in the calendar
of Japan’s political progress. On February 11 was
promulgated that famous document^ which took
Japan forever out of the ranks of Oriental despotisms
and placed her among constitutional monarchies ;
and on April 1 the law of local self-government for
city, town, and village went into effect.

The Japanese Constitution has very appropriately
been called “the Magna Charta of Japanese liberty.”
It was not, however, like the famous English docu-
ment, extorted by force from an unwilling monarch
and a cruel tyrant, but was voluntarily granted by
a kind and loved ruler at the expense of his inherited

1 Drawn up by Count (now Marquis) Ito, Messrs. Kaneko and
Suyematsu (now Barons), and others.

CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM

121

and long-established rights. The present Emperor
holds the throne according to the native tradition,
perpetuated even in the language of the Constitu-
tion, by virtue of a “ lineal succession unbroken for
ages eternal.” But even though rigid criticism
compels us to reject as more or less mythological
the so-called “history” of about 1,000 years; and
although Mutsuhito, therefore, may not be really the
122d ruler of the line from the Japanese Romulus
(Jimmu), nevertheless he remains the representa-
tive of the oldest living dynasty in the world. If,
then, time is a factor in confirming the claims and
rights of a ruler, no king or emperor of the present
day has a better title. And yet this man, born and
bred in the atmosphere of Oriental absolutism and
despotism, “in consideration of the progressive ten-
dency of the course of human affairs, and in parallel
with the advance of civilization,” ^ voluntarily and
generously admits his people to a share in the ad-
ministration of public affairs.

That important document, which signs away such
strongly acquired and inherited prerogatives, at the
outset, however, seems far from generous. The
Emperor, “sacred and inviolate,” is “the head of
the empire,” combining in himself the rights of
sovereignty; but he “exercises them according to
the provisions of the Constitution.” It is only “in
consequence of an urgent necessity to maintain pub-
lic safety or to avert public calamities,” that the

1 This and following quotations are from the Constitution itself.

122 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Emperor, “when the Imperial Diet is not sittuig,”
may issue “Imperial Ordinances in place of law.”
But these ordinances must be approved by the Im-
perial Diet at its next session, or become “invalid
for the future.” To the Emperor is reserved the
function of issuing ordinances neeessary for carry-
ing out the laws passed by the Diet or for the
maintenance of public peace and order; but “no
Ordinance shall in any way alter any of the existing
laws.” The Emperor also determines the organiza-
tion of the various branches of the government,
appoints and dismisses all officials, and fixes their
salaries. Moreover, he has “ the supreme command
of the army and navy,” whose organization and
peace standing he determines ; “ deelares war, makes
peace, and concludes treaties ” ; “ confers titles of no-
bility, rank, orders, and other marks of honor”; and
“orders amnesty, pardon, commutation of punish-
ments and rehabilitation.”

Now it must be quite evident to the most easual
reader that, in carrying out this Constitution, pat-
terned after that of Germany, much depends upon
the Emperor and his personality. One, like Komei
(the father of the present Emperor), bigoted and in-
tent upon resisting any infringement, to the slightest
degree, upon his “divine rights,” could create a
great deal of friction in the administration of affairs.
But, fortunately for Japan and the world, iNIutsuhito
is not at all inclined to be narrow-minded, selfish,
and despotic, but is graciously pleased to be the

CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM

123

leader of his subjects in broader and better paths.
And although the Empress has no share in the
administration and wisely keeps “out of politics,”
her popularity enhances the interest felt in the
present reign. ^

It is, moreover, fortunate for Japan that the heir
apparent, Prince Haru, is also a man of most liberal
ideas and progressive tendencies. He has had a
broad education, by both public and private instruc-
tion, and a careful training for the career that lies
before him; and he will undoubtedly be found ready
to extend popular privileges just so far as conditions
warrant. If he lives to ascend the throne, he will
be the first Japanese Emperor who received any
education in public; for it was in the Gakushuin — or
Nobles’ School, as it is called in English — that he
completed the elementary course.^ After that, on
account of poor health, he was compelled to pursue
his studies under private tutors.

And that the Imperial line will, in all human
probability, remain “ unbroken ” for many years, is
rendered likely by the fact that the Crown Prince
and the Crown Princess Sada have been blessed with
two healthy sons. Prince Michi and Prince Atsu,
who are being brought up by professional “tutors,”
Count and Countess Kawamura, away from court
life, with such care as the needs of said Imperial line
demand.

1 See Scidmore’s “Jinrikisha Days iu Japan,” chaps, xi., xii.

2 See “ The Yankees of the East,” chap. iii.

124 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

But, to return from this digression to the subject
of the Constitution, another body recognized by that
document is the Privy Council {Sumitsu-In), ap-
pointed by the Emperor and consulted by him upon
certain matters of State. It consists of 1 President,
1 Vice-President, 25 Councillors, and 1 Secretarj^
with 5 assistants ; and it is composed of “ personages
who have rendered signal service to the State and
who are distinguished for their experience,” such as
ex-Ministers of State and others, whose “valuable
advice on matters of State ” would naturally be
sought. The matters coming within the cognizance
of the Privy Council are specified as follows :
Matters which come under its jurisdiction by the
Law of the Houses (of Parliament); drafts and
doubtful points relating to articles of the Constitu-
tion, and to laws and ordinances dependent to the
Constitution; proclamation of the law of siege and
certain Imperial ordinances; international treaties;
and matters specially called for. The Ministers of
State are, ex officio, members of the Privy Coun-
cil; but although it is “the Emperor’s highest
resort of counsel, it shall not interfere with the
Executive.”

The Cabinet includes tbe holders of 10 portfolios :
those of the Minister President, or Premier; the
Minister of Foreign Affairs; the Minister of Home
Affairs; the Minister of Finance; the Minister of
the Army, or War; the Minister of the Navj-; the
Minister of Justice; the Minister of Education;

departmExXts of state; navv; agriculture and

COMMERCE ; JUSTICE ; FOREIGN AFFAIRS

CONSTITUTIOIS'AL IMPERIALISM

125

the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce ; and the
Minister of Communications. There is one other
official who holds the title of Minister, but is not a
member of the Cabinet, that is, the Minister of the
Imperial Household. When the Cabinet is fully
organized, it contains 10 members; but occasionally
circumstances compel the Premier or some other
Minister to hold an extra portfolio, at least tempo-
rarily. Each department of state has its own sub-
ordinate officials, most of whom hold office under
civil-service rules and are not removable.

The titles of the departments are mostly self-
explanator}*, and correspond in general to similar
departments in Occidental countries; but in some
cases there are vital differences, especially in com-
parison with the United States Cabinet. In a pater-
nal government, like that of Japan, the Minister of
Home Affairs holds a much more important position
than our Secretar}^ of the Interior, for he has the
general oversight of the police system and the prefec-
tural governments; the Minister of Justice holds a
broader position than our Attorney-General; and the
IMinister of Communications has the oversight, not
of the postal system only, but also of telegraphs,
telephones, railways, and other modes of conveyance
and communication. In general, as will be ob-_
served, the Japanese Government owns many in-
stitutions which, in our country, are entrusted to
private enterprise.

The Premier receives a salary of 9,600 and

126 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

other ministers receive 6,000 yen, besides official
residence and sundry allowances. In most cases
the real work of each department is performed by the
subordinate officials, while the frequently changing ^
Ministers of State are only nominal heads of the de-
partments. The two portfolios of the Army and the
Navy, however, have been taken out of politics, and
are not subject to change whenever a ministry goes
out of office. Ministers of State, as well as govern-
mental delegates, specially appointed for the pur-
pose, “may, at any time, take seats and speak in
either House ” of the Imperial Diet.

The Imperial Diet of Japan consists of two Houses,
the House of Peers and the House of Commons.
The membership of the former comprises three
classes, — hereditar}q elective, and appointive. ^ The
members of the Imperial Family and of the orders of
Princes and Marquises possess the hereditary tenure.
From among those persons who have the titles of
Count, Baron, and Viscount a certain number are
chosen by election, for a term of seven years. The
Emperor has the power of appointing for life mem-
bership a limited number of persons, deserving on
account of meritorious services to the State or of
erudition. Finally, in each Fu and Ken one member
is elected from and among the highest tax -payers and
appointed by the Emperor, for a term of seven years.

The members of the House of Commons are always

1 For table of Cabinet changes, see Appendix.

2 The number is variable ; at present, it is 328. See Appendix.

CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM

127

elected by ballot in accordance with the Election
Law, by 'which they now number 376. Their term
of office is four years, unless they lose their seats
by dissolution of the Diet, as has often happened.
“ Those [persons] alone shall be eligible [as candi-
dates], that are male Japanese subjects, of not less
than full thirty years of age, and that in the Fu or
Ken in which they desire to be elected, have been
paying direct national taxes to an amount of not less
than 15 yen, for a period of not less than one year
previous to the date of making out the electoral list,
and that are still paying that amount of direct
national taxes.” ^ Certain officials, as well as mili-
tary and naval officers, are ineligible. A voter must
be full twenty-five years of age ; must have actually
resided in that Fv, or Ken for one year; and must
have been paying direct national taxes of not less
than 10 yen. The limits of an electoral district in-
clude a whole Fu or Ken, except that an incorporated
city forms one or more districts by itself. And
the number of the latter kind of districts has been
increased lately, so that urban populations might
have a more adequate representation. The plan of
unsigned uni-nominal ballots is employed. The
present number of eligible voters is a little over one
million.

The first election under the Constitution took
place (whether designedly or accidentally, I know
not), by a curious coincidence, on July J, 1890; and

1 The property qualification has since been abolished.

128 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

the first session of the Imperial Diet opened on
November 29, 1890. On December 2 the House of
Peers received the first bill ever presented to a
National Assembly in Japan; and on December 4
the first Budget (for 1891) was laid before the House
of Representatives by Count Matsukata, Minister of
Finance.

Some notice must be taken of the rights and duties
of subjects under the Japanese Constitution. All
such persons are eligible to civil and militarj’^ offices ;
amenable to service in the army and the navy, and
the duty of paying taxes, according to law; have the
liberty of abode, inviolate right of property, right of
trial by law, and freedom of speech, writing, publica-
tion, public meeting, association, and religious belief,
“ within the limits of law ” ; cannot be arrested,
detained, tried, or punished, “unless according to
law,” and can claim inviolate secrecy of correspond-
ence. Moreover, “the house of no Japanese subject
shall be entered or searched without his consent,”
except in due process of law. All subjects may also
present petitions, “ by observing the proper forms of
respect.” The freedom of religious behef is granted
“within limits not prejudicial to peace and order,
and not antagonistic to their duties as subjects.”
These “ rights ” are old to Anglo-Saxons, but new to
Japanese.

Now we often see and hear rather uncomplimentary
statements about the Imperial Diet, political parties,
cabinet ministers, and Japanese political affairs in

DIET BUILDINGS : HOUSE OF COMMONS AND HOUSE OF PEEKS

CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM

129

general, and are even told that Japan is only “play-
ing ” with parliamentary and representative institu-
tions, that her popular assemblies are mere “toys,”
her constitutional government is all a “farce,” and
her new civilization is nothing but a “bib.” Such
criticisms, however, result either from ignorance or
from a wrong point of view. It is undeniably true
that, viewed from the vantage-ground attained by
popular institutions and constitutional government
in many Occidental nations, Japan is still lagging
behind. It is not fair, however, to judge her by
our own standards ; the only just way is to estimate
carefully the exact difference between her former
and her present conditions. This the author has
tried to do elsewhere in a pamphlet^ on “Constitu-
tional Government in Japan,” in which he has given
a sketch of the workings of the Japanese Constitu-
tion during the first decade, or period, of its history.
From that he quotes the following conclusions : —

The progress made during the first decade of con-
stitutional government in Japan was considerable.
In the first place, popular rights were largely ex-
panded by the removal of most of the restrictions
on freedom of the press and public meeting; as
much extension of the electoral franchise as seems
warranted was accomplished; and public opinion, as
voiced in the newspapers and magazines, was wield-
ing an increased and constantly increasing influence.

* Published in the “Annals of the American Academy of Politi-
cal and Social Science.”

130 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

On this point the “Japan Times” says: “No one
who goes into the country and compares the present
degree of the people’s political education with what
it was ten years ago, can fail to be struck by the
immense progress achieved during that interval.”

In the second place, the character of the two
Houses of the Imperial Diet has greatly improved.
The inexperienced have given way to the experi-
enced, the ignorant to the intelligent; so that, after
six elections, the personnel of the House of Repre-
sentatives is of a much better quality, and the House
of Peers has been quickened by the infusion of
new blood. Experience, as usual, has been a good
teacher.

In the third place, the Cabinet, theoretically re-
sponsible to the Emperor because appointed by him
on his own solo authority, is practically responsible
to the Imperial Diet and must command the support
of a majority of that body. Hereafter it would seem
that dissolution of the Diet is not likely to occur as
often as dissolution of the Cabinet.

The one weak point in this situation is that,
although the principle of party cabinets is thus es-
tablished, its practical application is difficult of reali-
zation, simply because there are no true political
parties in Japan. There are many so-called “par-
ties,” which are really only factions, bound together
by personal, class, geographical, or mercantile ties,
and without distinctive principles. One “party”
is actually Count Okuma’s following; another is

CONSTITUTIONAL IMPERIALISM

131

Count Itagaki’s; another is called “the business
men’s party”; another is composed of politicians of
the Northeast; and another tries to maintain the old
clan alliances.^

But it is, nevertheless, true that “Japan is at
length passing out of the epoch of persons and en-
tering the era of principles,” when, of course, will
speedily come the development of parties. It is not,
perhaps, strange that the personality of the great
statesmen who made New Japan possible has been
felt for so long a time, nor that the able men of the
rising generation have begun to chafe a little under
the prolonged control of those older statesmen. But,
as the “Japan Times” says, “the conflict between
the old and the new elements of political power, the
so-called clan statesmen and the party politicians,
has been so far removed that the time is already in
sight when the country will see them working har-
moniously under the same banner and with the
same platform.” Such is apparently the case in the
Seiyukwai, INIarquis Ito’s new party, organized in
1900, the closing year of the first decade of Japanese
constitutionalism. And this problem of political
parties is the great one to be solved in the second
period of constitutional government in Japan.

We may, therefore, conclude that the working of
the new system of government has, on the whole,
been satisfactory. We must acknowledge, with the
“Japan Mail,” that “it would be altogether extrava-

1 See Appendix.

132 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

gant to expect that Japan’s new constitutional gar-
ments should fit her perfectly from the first. They
are too large for her. She has to grow into them,
and of course the process is destined to be more
or less awkward.” We must agree with Marquis
Ito, the author of the Constitution, not only that
there has been the experimental period, but also that
“ excellent results have thus far been obtained, when
it is remembered how sudden has been the transition
from feudalism to representative institutions.” We
ought, indeed, to bear in mind, that, when the Con-
stitution was promulgated, Japan was only eighteen
years out of feudalism and twenty-one years out of
military despotism ; so that, by both the Oriental and
the Occidental reckoning. New Japan had only just
come “of age” politically. She seems, therefore,
deserving of the greatest credit for the progress of
the first decade of constitutionalism.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

“ The Story of Japan ” (Murray), “Advance Japan ” (Morris),
and “The Yankees of the East” (Curtis), give some informa-
tion here and there about the government of Japan. But
especially helpful are Wigmore’s articles in the “ Nation ” and
“ Scribner’s Monthly,” lyenaga’s “ Constitutional Development
of Japan,” Knapp’s “ Feudal and Modern Japan,” Count
(now Marquis) Ito’s “ Commentaries on the Constitution of the
Empire of Japan,” and Lay’s “ History of Japanese Political
Parties ” (Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, voL xxx.
part iii.).

CHAPTER X

LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT

Outline of Topics : Local government under feudalism ;

periods of modern local self-government ; gradual development
therein ; prefectural assemblies ; candidates and electors ; standing
committee; sessions; business; speaking; petitions; how bills
become laws ; powers of prefectural assemblies, theoretical and
practical ; residents and citizens of cities, towns, and villages ;
rights and duties of citizens; administration in city, town, and
village; city council; town and village officials; city assembly;
assemblymen ; powers of city assembly ; town or village assembly ;
special provisions for towns and villages ; administration of terri-
tories; pacification of Formosa; colonial government; policy in
Formosa ; political progress in Japan. — Bibliography.

WE have already noted incidentally in pre-
ceding chapters some of the steps in the
development of local self-government in
Japan; and now we must treat that subject more
particularly. First it is well to observe in passing
that the steps from feudalism to local self-govern-
ment were not so difficult as might be imagined; for
under the feudal system local government by clans
had prevailed.^ And yet when feudalism was abol-
ished, the reconstruction of local government was
entered upon slowly and cautiously in order to mini-
mize jealousies and other obstacles.

1 See valuable papers by Simmons and Wigmore in Transactions
Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xix. pp. 37-270, and vol. xx.. Supple-
ment, part i., pp. 41-02.

134 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Wigmore, in his articles ^ on this subject, divides
the period from 1867 to 1889 into two parts (1867-
1878 and 1878-1889), and explains as follows: “The
former was occupied with testing the capacity of the
people for self-government; the latter with extend-
ing to them a larger and larger measure of power,
and in advancing towards a proper degree of decen-
tralization.” As he wrote in 1890, he was just at
the beginning of the third period, what he himself
calls “a new period,” during which local self-
government, under the new constitutional regime,
was to be still further expanded in the line of
popular privileges.

After the Shogunate fell, but before feudalism
was formally abolished, that is, from 1867 to 1871,
the chiefs of the clans were allowed to continue
their administration of local affairs under the title
of chi-hanji (local governor). But when feudalism
was formally abolished in 1871, these feudal lords
were retired on annuities ; their fiefs (263 in number)
were incorporated, regardless of former geographical
and feudal boundaries, and with regard for conven-
ience of administration by the central government,
into 72 Ken and 3 Fu ; and outsiders were largely
appointed to the position of governor in these new
local governments. The first attempts on the part
of the central government to consult local public
opinion were by means of meetings of the local offi-
cials; but the people were gradually allowed, in

1 See “Nation,” vol. li. (1890).

LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT

135

rather an informal and limited way, to have a voice
in certain matters. In 1878, however, as we have
seen, prefectural assemblies, the members of which
should be chosen by popular election, were estab-
lished; and just ten years later a law extending local
self-government to cities, towns, and villages was
enacted, to go into effect in 1889. And these two
ageneies of local self-government in Japan are worthy
of a little study.

The Japanese Kenkwai and Fukwai correspond, in
general, with an American State legislature, but
differ in many respects, because they are part of a
centralized national administration. They are “to
counsel about the budget of expenses to be met by
local taxation, and about the manner of collecting
such taxes.” The members are elected in each Ken
or Fu according to the population, at the rate of
1 member for each 20,000 people. Each electoral
district may also elect ydbi-in (reserve members),
twice the number of regular members. As their
name indicates, they are to take the places of regular
members who may for any reason be unable to serve.
It is, therefore, unlikely that there would ever be a
vacancy to be filled by a special election ; for each
member has two “ substitutes ” ready to step into his
vacant place ! The term of service covers 4 years ;
but half of the members retire every 2 years. Each
member receives an emolument of 1 yen per diem
during the session, and travelling expenses.

A candidate for representative in a prefectural as-

136 A HAISTDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

sembly must be over 25 years of age, a permanent
resident of that Ken or Fu, and be paying an annual
land-tax of more than 10 yen. Voters in such an
election must be over 20 years of age, permanent
residents of that Ken or Fn, and be paying annual
land-taxes of more than 5 yen. There are about
2,000,000 voters in all.

From among the members, the assembly elects a
“standing committee of from five to seven persons,”
who serve for a period of two years. They remain
in the capital throughout the year, to give advice
when the Governor asks it about the manner and
order of carrying out the enactments of the assembly
and about the payment of extraordinary expense. A
member of this committee receives “ from 30 yen to
80 yen per month, and travelling expenses.”

The ordinary annual session of an assembly opens
some time in November and continues for not more
than 30 days. But the Governor has power to call
a special session and to suspend an assembly ; while
the power to prorogue an assembly rests with the
Minister of State for Home Affairs.

Each session of an assembly is formally “ opened ”
by the Governor; and the business to come before
the assembly is presented in bills originating with
him and his subordinates. At any time, when a
member of the assembly wishes explanations concern-
ing any matter within the purview of the assembly,
the Governor or his representative must explain. In
fact, such officials may speak at any time, provided

LOCAL SELF-GO VEEJrMIiyT 137

they do not interrupt the speech of a member; but
they have no vote.

When a member wishes to address the assembly,
he rises, calls out Gichd ” (Chairman), and gives
the number of his seat. When the chairman has
recognized him by repeating that number, he “has
the floor.

If other matters, besides those included in the
“ original bill(s) ” of the Governor, seem to at least
two members to warrant discussion, they present
these matters in the form of petitions; and if the
assembly grants permission, these petitions may be
discussed, like bills.

No bill becomes a law until it has been signed by
the Governor. If the latter does not agree with a
bill, he may appeal to the Department of Home
Affairs, where it will be finally decided.

If we now endeavor to measure the extent and
limitations of the power of a Japanese prefectural
assembly, we may say that in theory a Kenkwai or
a Fukwai is by no means entirely independent of the
central government, nor does it possess absolute con-
trol of the matters of its own Ken or Fu. It will be
noticed that in aU cases the final ratification or de-
cision rests with the Governor or the Department of
Home Affairs. The latter also has the power in its
own hands of suspending an assembly at its discre-
tion. It would seem, then, that theoretically a

^ The sessions are generally very orderly ; no smoking or drink-
ing is allowed in the assembly-room.

138 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Fuhwai or a KenTcwai is pretty much under the con-
trol of the central government, and has very little
real power of its own. Its nature appears more like
that of an elective advisory hoard than of a legisla-
tive body.

But, in practice and in fact, a wise Governor,
though he is an appointive officer of the central gov-
ernment, does not often put himself in opposition to
public opinion, unless it be a case of the greatest
importance ; and the Department of Home Affairs is
loath to exercise authority unless it is absolutely
necessary. The central government holds the power
to control these assemblies if it should be necessary;
but it also respects public opinion, and allows local
self-government as far as possible.^

The extension of local self-government to cities,
towns, and villages {shi, cho^ and son) led to the in-
troduction into the Japanese language of several
special terms, like jumin (resident) and komin (citi-
zen), and to a careful distinction between the respec-
tive rights and duties of the two. The “residents ”

1 The principle of local self-government has been most signally
upheld in one instance by the Imperial Japanese government.
Recently the Governor of Gumma Prefecture, in the face of the
public opinion of that section, gave permission for the re-establish-
ment of the system of licensed immorality. Inasmuch as the
people of that prefecture have always taken great pride in the
fact that their section was an oasis in the desert, they raised a
great storm, and accused the Governor of having lent himself to
speculators. Whether or not this accusation was true, the Minister
of Home Affairs so far respected local opinion as to revoke the per-
mission granted by the Governor and to remove the latter from
office.

STATKSMKX OF NEW JAPAN
VISCOUNT KATSURA AND MARQUIS ITO

LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT

139

of a city [town or village] include “all those who
have their residence in the city [town or village],
without distinction of sex, age, color, nationality, or
condition in life. A “citizen,” however, must be
“an independent male person,” that is, one who has
completed his twenty-fifth year and has a household ;
he must be “ a subject of the empire and in the en-
joyment of his civil rights ” ; and for two years he
must have been a resident of the given local division,
must have contributed toward its common burdens,
and must have paid therein a “national land-tax of
2 or more yen in other direct national taxes.” The
rights of a citizen over and above his rights as a resi-
dent are simply but comprehensively stated. They
consist in the privilege of voting in the local elec-
tions, and of eligibility to the honorary offices.
There is, however, a slight qualification of this
seemingly universal citizen suffrage. Those whose
citizenship, for reasons to be given later, is sus-
pended, and “those who are in actual military or
naval service,” are disfranchised. Companies, how-
ever, and “other juristic persons” are entitled to the
suffrage on similar conditions with individuals.^

But when we come to consider the duties of a citi-
zen, we find peculiar conditions. The citizen of a
Japanese city, town, or village, is under obligation

1 Baron Kentaro Kaneko has been elected a member of the City
Council (of Tokyo) as representative of the first-class tax-payers
in Kojimachi Ku. It maybe added that the Nippon Yusen Kvraisha
(Japan Mail Steamship Company) is the only first-class tax-payer
in that ward, and the Baron secured the one vote.

140 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

to fill any honorary ofiBce to which he may be elected
or appointed; and except for certain specified rea-
sons he cannot decline official service without being
“ subjected to suspension of citizenship for from three
to six years, together with an additional levy, during
the same period, of from one-eighth to one-quarter
more than his ordinary share of contribution to
the city expenditure.” Here is compulsory “ public
spirit ” ! On the whole, citizenship seems to be re-
garded more as a duty than as a privilege ; and the
citizens best qualified to fill official positions of trust
would find it much more difficult than in America
to “keep out of politics.”

The administration of local affairs in city, to^\Ti,
or village is more or less centralized. In the cities
the origination and the administration of the local
laws devolves upon a “city council”; and in the
towns and the \illages, upon certain chiefs and their
deputies.

A city council consists of a mayor, his deputy,
and a certain number of honorarj^ councilmen. The
mayor is appointed directly bj' the Emperor from
among three candidates previously selected by the
city assembly, a body to be described later. The
deputy-mayor and councilmen are elected by the city
assembly. The councilmen hold office for four years,
but half of them retire every two years. In the case
of a very large city it is permissible to divide the
city into ITu (wards), each with its own chief and
deputy and even council and assembly. The func-

LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT

141

tions of a city council include the preparation of
business for the city assembly and the execution
of the decisions of the assembly; the administration
of the city revenue, and the carrying out of the
budget voted by the assembly ; and general superin-
tendence of city affairs.

In towns or villages these duties devolve upon
the mayors and deputies, who are elected by the town
or village assembly from among the local citizens.

The city assembly, already mentioned, is a popular
representative body. The number of members varies,
in proportion to the population, from thirty to sixty;
and the membership is divided into three classes,
elected by three classes of voters, according to the
amount of taxes paid by the electors to the city.
The object of this division, copied from the Prus-
sian system of local government, seems to be to give
the highest tax -payers a power and a representation
greater than what they might secure by mere propor-
tion of numbers.^

The assemblymen hold office for six years, are
eligible for re-election, and, like the councilmen,
draw no salary, but receive “compensation for the
actual expenses needed for the diseharge of their
duties.” The assemblymen go out in rotation every
two years.

The principal matters to be decided by the city
assembly, besides the election of certain city officials
by secret ballot, are as follows : the making and

1 See note at bottom of page 139.

142 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

altering of city by-laws and regulations ; the voting
of the budget and all matters involving expense ; the
modes of imposing and collecting all kinds of taxes ;
the incurring of a new liability or the relinquishment
of an acquired right; the modes of management of
city property and establishments; etc.

The constitution of a town or village assembly is
also based upon the population, according to a fixed
ratio. But in the grouping of electors according to
the amount of taxes paid, there are only two classes.
The rules, powers, and functions of a town or vil-
lage assembly correspond exactly to those of the city
assembly.

There are, in the case of towns and villages, two
provisions which are not necessary in the case of
cities. One provision prescribes a method by which
two or more towns or villages, by mutual agreement
and with the permission of the superintending au-
thority, may form a union for the common adminis-
tration of affairs that are common to them. The
other provision prescribes that, by a town or village
by-law, decided upon by the Gun council, “ a small
town or village may substitute for the town or vil-
lage assembly a general meeting of all citizens having
suffrage. ” This appears to be an imitation, in theory
at least, of the Anglo-Saxon town meeting and
village assembly.

The privileges of local self-government are ex-
tended to all parts of the empire except Hokkaido
and Formosa, which are administered as “ territories ”

STATESMEN OF NEW JAPAN
COUNT OKUMA, COUNT INOUYE, COUNT ITAGAKI,
COUNT MATSUKATA

LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT

143

by the central government. In Hokkaido, moreover,
a small measure of local administration has been
granted, and this will be enlarged as rapidly as
possible. But Japanese rule in Formosa is worthy
of special consideration, because it is illustrative of
what Japan can do in . bringing enemies under her
jurisdiction into harmony with her government.
Japanese colonial government in Formosa may be
called a success.

When Formosa^ was ceded by China to Japan in
1895, it was well understood that the Japanese had
no easy task in pacifying the Chinese, civilizing the
savages, and thus bringing the beautiful isle, with
its great resources, under cultivation and proper re-
straint. But, by a wise combination of military force
and civil government, Japan has achieved a remark-
able success.

At first, for a brief period, Formosan affairs were
under a separate department of State, that of Coloni-
zation; but when administrative economy and re-
form were demanded, this department was abolished,
and the Governor-General of Formosa, appointed by
the Emperor upon recommendation of the Cabinet,
was made directly responsible to the Cabinet. At
first, of course, mistakes were made, and a great deal
of incapacity and corruption manifested themselves
in official circles. But, by a gradual weeding out
of the incompetent and the dishonest, the civil ser-
vice has been greatly improved. Especially in deal-

1 “The Island of Formosa” (Davidson) is invaluable.

144 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

ing with opium smoking and foot-binding among
the Chinese has the Japanese government shown
remarkable tact. And it has also encouraged local
administration among the natives to the extent of
employing them in subordinate positions where they
can be trained for future usefulness.

The general policy of Japan in Formosa has been
stated succinctly by Count Kabayama: “Subjugate
it from one side by force of arms, and then confer
on the subjugated portion the benefits of civil gov-
ernment.” It is the expressed determination to
make Formosa, “body, soul, and spirit,” a part of
their empire; and reliable testimony shows that they
are making a success of their labors.^

Vfe have now noticed the chief features of local
self-government as applied in Japan to prefectures,
counties, cities, towns, and villages. Although there
are many enactments against which the democratic
ideas of Americans would revolt, the system is cer-
tainly well adapted to the present needs and capabili-
ties of Japan. It is an interesting fact that Japan’s
political institutions have been developed, since the
Restoration of 1868, from the top downward. In
Japan the people are conservative, and the govern-
ment is progressive; and the people are simply
under the necessit}’’ of growing up to political privi-
leges that are gradually bestowed upon them. And
we may feel assured that, as the people show them-
selves capable of exercising power, their privileges

^ See Appendix.

LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT

145

will be gradually extended. We should not find
fault with Japan, because in only a few years she
has not leaped into the enjoyment of political privi-
leges which the English and American people ob-
tained only after centuries of slow and often bloody
development; but we should congratulate Japan,
because by peaceful measures she has gradually re-
moved herself entirely out of the pale of Oriental
absolutism, beyond even despotic Russia, and may
be classed with her model, Germany.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Especially helpful are lyenaga’s “ Constitutional Develop-
ment of Japan,” Wigmore's articles in the “ Nation,” and several
papers in the Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan. See
also the author’s “Local Self-Government in Japan” in the
“ Political Science Quarterly ” for June, 1892, and “ A Japanese
State Legislature” in the “Nation” for February 27, 1890.
On the subject of Formosa, besides Davidson’s book already
mentioned, see chap. xiv. of Ransome’s “Japan in Transition ”
and pp. 1C7, 169, of Diosy’s “New Far East.”

CHAPTER XI

JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER

Outline of Topics: Standards of world power; conscription;
draft and exemption ; army ; arms and ammunition ; officers of the
army; navy; types of Japanese war-vessels; coal supply; “Blue-
jacket Spirit”; Japan as a sea power; growth of cosmopolitan
spirit; Anglo-Japanese Alliance, — natural, guarantee of peace,
confession of England’s weakness, admission of Japan’s strength ;
Japan’s responsibility ; meaning for Christianity ; the United States
a silent partner. — Bibliography.

IT is a sad commentary on the present standards
of civilization that a consideration of Japan as
a world power requires special attention to
military and naval affairs. It is rather a strange
coincidence that it was not until little Japan in 1894
showed that she could easily overcome immense China
that the “ Great Powers ” were willing to revise
their treaties with her on terms of equality and ad-
mit her to the comity of nations. And it is another
strange coincidence that it was the Boxer troubles
which gave Japan another opportunity to display the
efficiency of her military and naval organizations, and
win such laurels side by side with troops of the other
“ Powers,” that Great Britain, the mightiest of them
all, abandoned her time-honored policy of “ splendid
isolation ” and sought Japan’s assistance by means

JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER

147

of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. It is not, however,
to be imagined that Great Britain overlooked or ig-
nored Japan’s other elements of power ; but it is quite
evident that the latter’s military and naval efficiency
made a great impression on the former. Therefore
it is our duty, having considered Japan’s geographical,
industrial, commercial, social, historical, and political
features, to take up now her polemic ability.

The Japanese army and navy are created and sus-
tained, as to personnel, by a conscription system,
quite like that of Germany. Theoretically, “ all
males between the full ages of 17 and 40 years, who
are Japanese subjects, shall be liable to conscrip-
tion.” ^ This period is, moreover, divided up as
follows : (1) Active service with the colors, for 3
years in the army and 4 years in the navy, by those
who have “ attained the full age of 20 years ” ; so
that those who are between 17 and 20 are apparently
exempt except “ in time of war or other emergency ” ;
(2) First Reserve term, of 4 years in the army and
3 years in the navy, “by such as have completed
their service with the colors ” ; (3) Second Reserve
term of 5 years, “ by those who have completed tlieir
service in the First Reserves ” ; and (4) Service in
the Territorial Army for the remaining years by those
who have completed the preceding term. But the last
three services are merely nominal, as the First and
Second Reserves and the Territorial Army are ordi-
narily called out only for drill once a year and are

1 Quotations from Eogulations.

148 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

mobilized, in order, “ in time of war or of emergency.”
Therefore the actual service in barracks is generally
only 3 years.

A very thorough method" of drafting carries into
effect these provisions, and would make more than
200,000 young men annually hable to service. But,
as this is a much larger number than the government
could possibly care for, or would need in times of
peace, there is a “ sweeping system of exemptions ”
that brings the number of conscripts down within
practical limits. This system takes into account
physical conditions, educational courses, individual
and family necessities, official duties, business re-
quirements, etc. Even then the number of those
available who pass the examination is too hirge, so
that it is reduced by lot. Those who are finally en-
rolled are divided up among the various lines of
service according to physique, former occupation and
attainments. “ Conscripts for active naval service
shall be selected from youths belonging to the sea-
coast or insular districts.” The term of active service
is computed from December 1 of each year ; so that
the days just preceding or following that day are
busy ones for those who are either giving new con-
scripts a fine send-off or welcoming home those whose
terms have expired.

Japan is divided, for militaiy purposes, into seven
districts, each of which is occupied by a division. The
headquarters of these districts are located, respec-
tively, at Tokyo, Sendai, Nagoya, Osaka, Hiroshima,

MILITARY LEADERS OF NEW JAPAN

FIELD-MARSHAL OYAMA AND FIELD-MARSHAL Y'AMAGATA

JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER

149

Kumamoto, and Sapporo. There is also the Imperial
Guard, with headquarters, of course, at Tokyo : they
are to be distinguished from other soldiers by having
a red instead of a yellow band around the cap, and
are “ a picked corps,” who present a very fine appear-
ance. The war-footing of the Japanese army exceeds
500,000 men, and its peace-footing is almost 200,000 :
these figures take account only of combatants. The
discipline, coui-age, and endurance of tlie Japanese
army have been clearly exhibited side by side with
the troops of Occidental nations in China, and have
suffered naught by comparison. The army has been
called “ the most formidable mobile land force in the
Far East, indeed in the whole of Asia,” and “ the
best army in the world, for its size.” And the re-
markable manner in which the various parts of the
service cooperate and smoothly carry out the general
plans has won the admiration of capable critics.^

The guns for the artillery service used to be pur-
chased abroad, but are now chiefly manufactured in
Osaka. There is an excellent arsenal in the Koishi-
kawa District of Tokyo ; it is on part of the site of the
magnificent yasliiki (mansion) of the Prince of Mito,
whose beautiful garden still remains a delight to all
visitors. This arsenal is where the once famous
Murata rifle was formerly manufactured ; but that
has been superseded by the “30th Year” (of Meiji)
rifle ; and both of these are Japanese inventions.

^ For statistics and other information concerning the army and
the navy, see Appendix.

150 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

The arsenal is also turning out ammunition at the
ordinary rate of a million rounds a day.

According to the Constitution, the Emperor “has
the supreme command of the army and the navy ” ;
and under him come the Minister of War, the actual
Commander-in-Chief, the Chief of Staff, the generals
and other officers and officials in order. The Em-
peror is not expected to take command in person;
but often one of the Imperial Princes will act as
Commander-in-Chief in the field. There are now
only two living Field- ^Marshals, Marquis Yamagata
and Marquis Oyama. There are various schools for
educating and training the officers of the army and
the navy.

As Japan is entirely an insular nation, the impor-
tance of her navy cannot be over-estimated. Even
before the war with China, the Japanese navy had
been rapidly growing ; and it showed its marked ef-
ficiency in the battles of the Yalu and Wei-hai-wei
(1894, 1895). The post-bellum plans for expansion
have, moreover, emphasized the value to Japan of
sea-power; and the programme of naval expansion,
in spite of increased burdens of taxation, has met
comparatively little opposition. For purposes of ad-
ministration, the coast of Japan is divided into five
naval districts, each with one fort which is a first-
class naval station. These stations are Yokosuka,
Kure, Sasebo, Maizuru, and (to be established) Muro-
ran. The navy at present includes battleships, cruis-
ers, ships for coast defence, gunboats, torpedo boats,

JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER

151

torpedo catchers, and despatch ships. Of the first
four kinds there are two or three classes in each ;
and of battleships there are four first-class ones of
more than 15,000 tons each. The organization of the
navy is similar to that of the army : below the Em-
peror, who is nominally in supreme command, come
the Minister of the Navy, the actual Commander-
in-Chief, the Chief of Staff, the admirals, etc.

Attention should be called to two or three points
emphasized by Mr. Arthur Diosy.^ The first is that
“ Nelson’s own plan, as vahd to-day as it was in his
time,” has been carried out in the types of vessels
built for the Japanese fleet. “ The main idea prevail-
ing in their selection is the defence of the national
interests by offensive operations against the enemy’s
fleets,” but “ at no very great distance from the base
of operations at home.” The warships of Japan,
therefore, are not required to devote so much space
to the storage of coal and other supphes for long
voyages, and can utilize more space for guns and re-
serve ammunition, or can be built smaller and “ han-
dier.” It is in this way that “they are among the
swiftest of all the fighting ships afloat.”

The second point, which is related to the first, is
that Japan “ stands in the foremost rank as a naval
power,” not merely on account of the number and
fighting strength of her ships, the efficiency of their
officers and crews, and the perfection of the naval
organization, but also on account of the well-equipped

1 “ The New Far East,” chap. vii.

152 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

dockyards and arsenals in convenient locations, and
the abundant supply of excellent coal in easy reach.

The third point concerns what Diosy calls the
“Blue-jacket Spirit,” a “ scarcely definable something'’*
tliat is hard to describe in words, but that shines forth
in every word and deed of the officer, the sailor,
the marine, — the esprit de corps of the personnel of
the Japanese navy. This spirit he finds only in the
British, Japanese, and United States navies.

And we cannot refrain from quoting the same
writer’s paragraph of summary as follows : —

“ Japan possesses all the elements of Sea-Power :
swift, powerful ships, adapted to the work they are
intended for, numerous good harbors, excellent coal
in abundance, capital facilities for the repair of her
vessels, and the necessary plant, constantly augmented
and improved, for building new ones. Her naval or-
ganization is wise and efficient, her administrative ser-
vices are thorough and honest; her naval officers are
gallant, dashing, and scientifically trained, and the arma-
ment they control is of the latest and best pattern.
Strong in ships, strong in guns, Japan is stronger still in
the factor without which ships and guns are useless —
‘the Man behind the Gun.’ ” ^

Ten years ago it was improper to speak of Japan
as a world power ; it was then fitting to treat of her,
as Norman did in one chapter of his “ Real Japan,”
under the caption of “ Japan as an Eastern Power.”
But, as already pointed out, it was her overwhelming

1 “Any foreign power that should venture to attack Japan in
her own waters, would be strangely advised.” — Chambeelaix.

NAVAL LEADERS OF JAPAN
ADMIRAL KABAYAMA AND ADMIRAL ENOMOTO

JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER

153

defeat of China that at least expedited her formal
and nominal recognition in the comity of nations.
The new treaties which formulated this recognition
went into effect in 1899, from wliich date it may be
eminently proper to begin a seventh period,^ that of
“ Cosmopolitanism,” in the history of New Japan.
And by Japan’s successes in the second war with
China arising out of the Boxer troubles, she con-
firmed her claim to recognition as a world power ;
and this recognition was completed through the
Anglo- Japanese Alliance of 1902. Not many years
ago the ideal was still such a narrow theme as “ The
Japan of the Japanese” ; then the vision widened out
so as to include “ The Japan of Asia ” ; but now the
horizon is unlimited and extends to “ The Japan of
the World.” Indeed, the Japanese have outgrown
“Native Japan,” and even “Asiatic Japan,” into
“Cosmopolitan Japan.” They are interested, not
only in national, but also international, problems.

It has already been pointed out that the complete
recognition of Japan as a world power was mani-
fested in the Anglo-Japanese Alhance. This is the
greatest political event of 1902, so far as concerns
directly the future of the Orient and indirectly the
affairs of the Occident. This convention between
Great Britain and Japan caused profound surprise
and widespread rejoicing, and in Japan particularly
it was the occasion for numerous feasts, even in
various provincial localities, w’here more or less pro-

^ See p. 104.

154 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

fuse self-gratulation was the order of the day. But
it is now possible to take a calmer view of the sit-
uation and to make a more judicial estimate of the
importance of the alliance.

In the first place, it is well to remember that this
formal alliance is only the natural outcome of a
community of interests in the Far East, and is the
natural result of practical cooperation for some time
past. As Count Okuma put it, they (Great Britain
and Japan) have been allies in effect for some years ;
they are now allies in name. Indeed, for several
years past this alliance has existed in spirit, and it
has now merely become a public acknowledgment
of sympathy and similar aims in pohcy in the Far
East. This alliance, then, is not artificial or com-
pulsory, but natural, spontaneous, and voluntary.

The second point to notice is that the Anglo-
Japanese Alliance includes the greatest power each
of the Occident and of the Orient. This alliance is
also the combination of two of the greatest naval
powers, as well as two great military powers of the
world. It would seem likely, therefore, as a promi-
nent Japanese expressed it, “that there is no power
or combination of powers that could make head
against this union in the Far East ; the attempt would
be like spitting at a tiger,” The Anglo- Japanese
Alliance is, therefore, a guarantee, of the very first
quality, of peace in the Orient, and of just dealings
with China and Korea.

Another important point in connection with this

JAPAN AS A WORLD POWER

155

alliance is the fact that herein Great Britain has
abandoned, has broken to pieces, her traditional pol-
icy of “splendid isolation.” For many decades she
has not been in the habit of contracting alliances
with other powers in carrying out plans to advance
her own interests. The fact, therefore, that in this
case she has seen fit to depart from her usual policy
is a positive indication that the situation in the Far
East was one of imminent peril and demanded un-
usual precaution. It is a proof tliat Russian aggres-
sions were no mere phantoms, but were terribly real
and threatening.

And the fact that, when Great Britain broke her
policy of grand isolation, it was to enter into alliance
with an Oriental rather than an Occidental power,
is also one of great significance. It proves more
effectively than folios of verbal argument, and speaks
out more loudly than a thousand tongues could tell,
the present satisfactory status of Japan. The in-
significant, “ half-civilized ” country of a few years
ago is now “ on the same lotus-blossom ” with Great
Britain. That little island-empire of the Orient is
now but fifty years out of her own practically com-
plete isolation from the rest of the world; she is
only thirty years out of feudahsm ; she has been
only a little more than a decade in constitutionalism
and parliamentary government, and she has been only
a few years in the comity of nations by virtue of
treaties on terms of equality ; nevertheless, she has
beeome the political partner of that immense island-

156 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

empire which stretches in all directions, and encircles
the globe with the drum-beat of her garrisons. The
huge empire on whose possessions the sun never sets
has taken as its ally the small empire of the rising
sun I

This recognition of the status of New Japan has
been, of course, a matter of great pride and rejoicing
to that nation and therefore a source of encourage-
ment to continue steadfast in the paths of progress
along which she has been moving so rapidly.^ It
has likewise been recognized that this alliance im-
poses great responsibilities upon Japan, if she would
maintain her new position.^ These responsibilities
are along not only military, naval, pohtical, and
commercial lines, but also along social, moral, and
religious hues. The new alliance means that licen-
tiousness, dishonesty, and other vices should not be
tolerated, and that ignorance, superstition, and idol-
atry should not be allowed to thrive among a people
in alliance with such a progressively Christian nation
as Great Britain. In other words, this alliance should
hasten the spread of the Gospel in Japan.

But this alliance means much to Christianity, not
merely in Japan, but over all the Orient. For the

1 “ Japan, geographically to the mighty continent of Asia what
Great Britain is to the continent of Europe ; Japan, an island
people with all the strength, mental and physical, that is the heri-
tage of a nation cradled on the sea ; Japan, by the necessities of
her environment compelled to appreciate the importance of sea-
power ; Japan, in short, the Britain of the Orient. ” — Diosy.

2 The first alliance of a white nation and a yellow nation.

JAPAN AS A WOKLD POWER

157

prime objects of the alliance are the independence
of Korea and the integrity of the Chinese Empire ;
and the prime effect of the alliance is peace in the
Orient. This means that Russian aggressions in
China and Korea will be, already have been, con-
siderably checked, and that Anglo-Saxon and Jaj>
anese influences will be paramount in those countries.
And all this means that Christian missionary work
will be practically unhindered, unless it be by local
and spasmodic prejudice; and that the word will
have freer course and be glorified. The alliance
of the first nation of Christendom with a largely
Christianized nation like Japan cannot fail to Chris-
tianize the Far East.

Finally, one significant phase of the Anglo- Japanese
Alliance is the fact that, to all intents and purposes,
it includes the United States of America, which may
be called a “ silent partner.” It is well known that
the convention was sliown at Washington before it
was promulgated, and that it was heartily approved
by our government. Practically, therefore, it is, in
a ver}' broad sense, an Anglo-Japanese Alliance.
Certainly our interests in the Far East have been
and are identical with those of Great Britain and
J apan ; and all our “ moral influence,” at least,
should be exerted toward the purposes of that con-
vention. Indeed, the Anglo-Japanese Alliance should
mean the union of Great Britain and the United
States with Japan to maintain in the Orient the
“ open door,” not merely of trade and commerce,

158 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

but of all social, intellectual, moral, and religious
reforms; the open door, not of material civilization
only, but also of the gospel of Jesus ChristJ

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

“The Real Japan” (Norman), chaps, v., xiii. ; “Advance
'Japan” (Morris), chap, xiii.; “The New Far East” (Diosy),
especially chap, vii.; “Heroic Japan” (Eastlake and Yamada) ;
“The Awakening of the East” (Leroy-Beaulieu), chap, ix;
and “Japan in Transition” (Ransome), chap. xv.

1 Several paragraphs are here republished, by permission, from
“ The Standard,” Chicago.

CHAPTER XII

LEGAL JAPAN

Outline of Topics : Justice in Old Japan ; new codes ; list of
same ; crimes and punishments ; convicts ; police ; arrest ; trials ;
courts; judiciary; prisons; legalized prostitution; crusade against
social evil; rescue homes, etc. — Eegistration. — Taxation. — For-
eigners under Japanese law; restrictions upon them. — Leasing
land. — Mines. — Railways. — Banking,' insurance, etc. ; kinds of cor-
porations ; foreign associations ; Japanese corporations. — Foreign-
ers in business. — Bibliography.

The difference between Old Japan and New
Japan is quite clearly evident when one
comes to the study of law and jurispru-
dence. It would be very misleading to affirm that
the administration of justice was a farce ; and yet so-
called legal decisions were too often arbitrary and
tyrannical. The feudal lords were too much inclined
to visit summary and cruel punishment on slight pre-
text ; and altogether too few were the men like Ooka,
the justice and wisdom of whose decisions won for
him the title of “ Japanese Solomon.” As a matter
of fact, there was in Old Japan, as Wigmore has
abundantly shown, ^ “ a legal system, a body of clear
and consistent rules, a collection of statutes and of
binding precedents.” The chief characteristics of

1 See his voluminous work in Transactions Asiatic Society of
Japan, vol. xx.. Supplement.

IGO A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Japanese justice under the old regime, as indicated by
Wigmore, were the following : (1) Making justice “per-
sonal, not impersonal,” by balancing “ the benefits
and disadvantages of a given course, not for all time
in a fixed rule, but anew in each instance,” and thus
“to sacrifice legal principle to present expediency”;

(2) the feudal spirit, especially in criminal law, as
illustrated by the use of torture, humiliating forms
of procedure, and awfully severe punishments; and

(3) the attainment of justice, “ not so much by the
aid of the law as by mutual consent,” by means of
definite customs, applied, however, “ through arbitra-
tion and concession,” so that there was “ a imiversal
resort to arbitration and compromise as a primary
means of settling disputes,” and only a dernier ressort
to the process of law. These characteristics should
be noticed, not merely on account of their historical
value, but in explanation of certain traits still prom-
inent even in New Japan.

But Modern Japan is pretty well equipped with a
system of new codes, based on European models, yet
showing some modifications to suit Japan’s peculiar
needs. This codification along Western lines was
strongly opposed by the conservatives, who insisted
that national codes, “ interpreting national needs,”
should be naturally developed in due course of time.
But this opposition was overcome by the demands
for treaty revision and the recognition of Japan in
the comity of nations ; for Occidental powers would
not remove their extra-territorial jurisdiction and

LEGAL JAPAN

161

leave their nationals to the mercy of Japanese courts,
unless the laws were codified according to Western
models.

A list of the new codes is taken, with slight modi-
fications, from Chamberlain’s “ Things Japanese,”
which has been especially helpful in the preparation
of this chapter.

The new codes resulting from the legislative ac-
tivity of the present reign are : (1) the Criminal Code
and the Code of Criminal Procedure, drafted by
Monsieur Boissonade, on the basis of the Code
Napoleon, with modifications suggested by the old
Japanese Criminal Law ; these were published in
1880, and came mto force in 1882 ; the Code of
Criminal Procedure was, however, revised in 1890,
in order that it might be uniform with the Code of
Civil Procedure, according to the provisions of (2)
the Law of the Organization of the Judicial Courts,
promulgated in the month of February, 1890, and put
into force on November 1 of the same year ; (3) the
Code of Civil Procedure, which went into effect at
once; (4) the Civil Code, and (5) the Commercial
Code, which were put into force in 1898 ; and (6)
divers statutes on miscellaneous subjects.^

There are, according to the Japanese Criminal
Code, three kinds of crimes, of two degrees, major

^ These new codes are available in English, as follows : The
Civil Code, by Gubbins ; the Civil Code and the Commercial Code,
by Lbnholm and Terry ; the Commercial Code, the Criminal Code,
and the Code of Civil Procedure, in official translations.

1G2 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

and minor. The three kinds are: (1) against the
State or the Imperial Family, and in violation of the
public credit, policy, peace, health, etc. ; (2) against
person and property ; and (3) police offences. Major
crimes are punishable by (1) death by hanging ; (2)
deportation with or Avithout hard labor, for life or for
a term of years ; and ( 3) imprisonment on similar
terms. Minor crimes are punishable by fines and
confinement with or without hard labor. What are
called police offences are punishable by small fines
running from 5 sen to 2 yen^ and by detention for from
1 to 10 days without hard labor. In cases of cap-
ital punishment no public visitors, only the necessary
officials, are allowed to be present. Deportation is
usually made to the northern island of Yezo, to work
generally in the mines.

Convicts are easily recognizable by their “ crushed
strawberry ” uniforms, and are often seen in public ;
for convict labor, in the case both of individuals
and of gangs, is utilized by the authorities. In
fact, all prisoners, according to their abilities, are
required to labor nine hours each day in some
kind of employment, either inside or outside of the
prison.

The Japanese policeman is one of the most inter-
esting “ characters ” of his nation. He is the suc-
cessor of the samurai, who, in the old regime, took
upon themselves the duty of enforcing justice. He
possesses all the pomp and dignity of his knightly
predecessor; and he, too, carries a sword. All the

LEGAL JAPAN

163

people, from children up to grandfather, stand in
complete awe of him. And well may they be afraid ;
for in his dealings, at least with the common people,
he manifests no gentleness, but by his dictatorial
manners compels the utmost respect for himself and
the law. He seldom has to use force in making an
arrest, unless in the cases of the professional cruu-
inals; and he does not usually find it necessary to
use handcuffs, as a strong cord will serve his purpose
on ordinary occasions. He is more easily to be found,
when wanted, than the proverbial American police-
man. He is poorly paid, but richly faithful, and in
every sense of the words upholds the dignity of the
law. His figui’e clad in white or blue uniform, re-
spectively, for five and seven months of the year, is
familiar and welcome to foreigners, because to them
he is invariably kind and courteous.

When a person suspected of some crime or mis-
demeanor has been arrested by the pohce, he is taken
to the nearest detention station and put through a
preliminary investigation before the judge of the
local court. As this may be delayed, and bail al-
lowed or not at the discretion of the judge, accused
persons are sometimes kept in detention for a con-
siderable period. No counsel is allowed at this
secret preliminary examination before a kind of jus-
tice of peace. The latter, from the evidence, either
dismisses the prisoner, or imposes a suitable punish-
ment, or remands him for trial before the proper
court.

164 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

A trial in Japan, as in France, is of the “inquisi-
torial ” type, and is conducted by the judge (or judges)
alone. “All questions by counsel must be put
through him. Counsel do not so much defend their
clients as represent them.” Witnesses are sworn, so
to speak, by “ a solemn asseveration,” without “ any
religious sanction ” ; and this takes the form of a
written document “duly signed and sealed.” The
government is represented by the public procurator,
who seems to combine in one person the duties of
inspector, grand jury, and prosecuting attorney.
Hearsay evidence is admitted ; and circumstantial
evidence has no small influence.

Japanese courts are organized according to the
French system, with some modifications along Ger-
man lines. They are four in kind, from the Local
Court, through the District or Provincial Court,
and the Court of Appeal, up to the Supreme Court.
The local courts have jurisdiction over police of-
fences and some minor crimes ; the district courts
conduct preliminary investigations and have jurisdic-
tion over crimes ; the courts of appeal hear new trials ;
while the supreme court hears criminal appeals on
matters of law. Japanese courts are very solemn
places, with strict regulations as to costume, cere-
mony, and conduct.

The Japanese judiciary is, by this time, pretty
much weeded out of the old judges with antiquated
notions, and consists ver}’ largely of comparatively
young men, educated in the modern systems. A

COUKT BUILDINGS, TOKYO, AND THE MINT, OSAKA

LEGAL JAPAIT

165

graduate of the Law College of the Imperial Uni-
versity may attain a seat on the bench after three
years as a probationary judge, and one examination ;
other persons must pass two severe examinations.
The salary of an ordinary judge is small ; and just
after the Imperial Diet in 1901 had failed to pass a
bill for increase of their salaries, a large number went
on a strike! Judges are appointed for life on good
behavior.

The management of the Japanese prison system
will bear favorable comparison with that of any
W estern country ; for it has undergone considerable
improvement of recent years, and is quite up to date.
It is rather amusing to recall the fact that, before the
new treaties came into effect, by which foreigners
were to fall under Japanese jurisdiction, considerable
anxiety was manifested lest American criminals, for
instance, should suffer inconvenience in Japanese
jails! And it was a singular coincidence that the
first crime committed after the midnight when those
treaties went into effect was by an American, who
committed a triple murder in Yokoliama. But the
trial and treatment of Miller showed to the world
tliat Japanese law and prisons were entirely un-
worthy of the captious criticism that had been
passed upon them. With commodious buildings, ex-
tensive grounds, ventilated rooms, gardens and shops
for laborers, hospitals for the sick, bath privileges,
wholesome food, reading matter under certain limita-
tions, rewards for good behavior, part pay for labor.

166 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

the Japanese prison, especially the largest ones at
Tokyo, Yokohama, and other important cities, must
be acknowledged to hold high rank among the refor-
matory institutions of the world.

This is, perhaps, as appropriate a place as any to
introduce one of the peculiar legal institutions of
Japan, that is, the public brothel. As is well known,
the social evil is licensed, and therefore legalized, in
Japan ; it is not merely not condemned, hut actually
condoned. In Old Japan the young girl willing to
sell herself to a life of shame to relieve the poverty
and distress of her parents would be considered vir-
tuous, because filial piety was regarded as a higher
virtue than personal chastity. Nor would the parents
who accepted such relief be severely condemned,
because the welfare of the family was more important
than the condition of the individual. And even in
Modern Japan, in the eyes of the law, it is no crime
to visit a licensed house of ill-fame ; and visitors to
such places hand in their cards and have their names
and addresses registered, just as if they were attend-
ing an ordinary public function. Nay more, an ex-
President of the Imperial University, and one of the
leading philosophers and educators of the day, has
come out in public print and affirmed that, from the
standpoint of science and philosophy, he can see no
evil in prostitution per se. And when such licensed
brothels are allowed near Buddhist temples and
Shinto shrines, it would appear as if those cults
were really culpable not to protest. Indeed, when

LEGAL JAPAN

16T

the patriotic youth of New Japan, wishing to pay
homage at the most famous shrines of Ise, are com-
pelled to reach the spot by passing along a road
lined on both sides with legalized brothels, it looks
as if official encouragement to impurity was offered,
or at least temptation was presented, to the rising
generation.

But Christianity has always taught, in Japan as
elsewhere, that prostitution, whether licensed or un-
licensed, is a sin, and has sought by various means
to check this terrible evil. Fonnerly no girl was
able to escape from her awful slavery, no matter how
much she desired to free herself, except by permission
of the keeper ! But within the past few years a
campaign has been waged that has greatly weakened
the tyranny of the abominable system. A test case,
bitterly fought at every point, was carried up through
all the courts to the highest, and finally won by
those who contended that a girl could not be kept in
a brothel against her will. Another test case, carried
up to the Supreme Court, and decided in favor of
the keepers, to the effect that the financial obliga-
tions of the girls are valid in law, has given the
reform movement a temporary set-back. But, in
spite of all obstacles and opposition, the crusade
against the social evil has achieved a large measure
of success. About 12,000 girls have been set free ;
the number of applicants for admission, as well as of
unlicensed prostitutes, has diminished ; the number of
visitors has so largely decreased, that some brothels

168 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

have been compelled to go into bankruptcy and close
up the business ; public opinion has been aroused,
and the moral tone of society has been elevated and
purified.

W e must not fail to call attention to the fact that
the destructive work of this crusade has been sup-
plemented by the constructive work of establishing
“ rescue homes ” under the auspices of the Woman’s
Christian Temperance Union, the Salvation Army,
and other Christian organizations. There is also a
very large and successful Home for ex-Convicts,
conducted in Tokyo by Mr. Hara, a Christian min-
ister, often called the “Howard of Japan.” This
title might also be given to Mr. Tomeoka, another
Christian minister, who has made a special study
of penology and prison management, and is con-
ducting both a “ reform school ” and a “ school for
prison officials.”

Inasmuch as Japan is under a paternal government,
the system of registration is carefully and thor-
oughly employed. It is practically ubiquitous and
universal ; and it is carried to such an extreme as to
be vexatious to Anglo-Saxons, especially to Americans.
But to a Japanese the seki (register) is all important;
it is the certificate of his (or her) very existence,
age, status, occupation, home (permanent or tem-
porary), and almost of the character of the individual.
In case of change of residence, this biographical
sketch must be transferred from one locality to
another; and even in case of travel, or presence in

LEGAL JAPAN

169

a hotel for a single night only, the gnest must give
an account of himself to the proprietor according
to certain blanks supplied by the police. A for-
eigner is concerned with the following information
by Dr. Masujima, the eminent lawyer and jurist of
Tokyo : —

“ A foreign householder who intends to stay for more
than nine days at one place in Japan, must, within ten
days of his arrival, report to the police regarding him-
self and persons in his company, stating full particulars,
ages, profession or other occupation, the place from
which they last came, their home domicile, and the
relationship of those persons with him ; as well as the
full address of the house in which he lives, counter-
signed by the landlord, any changes in such information
to be treated in like manner from time to time.”

The subject of taxation is one w'hich may well be
mentioned in this chapter, although it is scarcely
profitable to devote much space thereto. In Old Japan
taxes were paid in kind, chiefly with rice ; hut in
New Japan they are payable only with cash. The
system of taxation is rather complicated and oppres-
sive ; and yet the people stoically endure their bur-
dens without indulging in the pastime of agrarian
riots. The land-tax of 3^ per cent of the assessed
value of the land in the case of rural lands and 5
per cent in the case of urban lands is a very impor-
tant source of revenue, and has lately been the cause
of great trouble in political circles. Other taxes are
the business tax, the income tax, the house tax, etc.

170 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

The last mentioned is the one which foreigners
claimed to be exempt from paying, but the Japanese
government claimed to have the authority to levy;
the question has been submitted to arbitration, and is
still sub judice. Under the new treaties Japan has
the right to levy duties on imports, and thereby
secures considerable revenue. In the list of articles
exempt from duties we find books, maps, charts,
bullion, coins, cotton, flax, hemp, jute, rice, wool,
plants, trees, shrubs, etc. ; and in the list of pro-
hibited articles opium and adulterations are most
prominent.^

Inasmuch as the status of foreigners under Japan-
ese law is a subject of growing practical importance,
we make extracts from an address delivered by Dr.
Masujima before the New York State Bar Associa-
tion in January, 1903: —

“The cases in which foreigners are restricted in the
enjoyment of private rights, are the ownership of land
or Japanese ships, the right to work mines, to own
shares in the Bank of Japan or the Yokohama Specie
Bank, to be members or brokers of exchanges, to engage
in emigration business, or to receive bounties for navi-
gation or ship building. Any company must, in order
to own Japanese ships, have its principal office in Japan,
and all members in case of a Gomei Kaisha, all unlim-
ited liability members in case of either a Goshi Kaisha
or Kabushiki Goshi Kaisha, and all directors in case
of a limited company, must be Japanese subjects.

^ See “ General View of Commerce and Industry in the Empire
of Japan.”

LEGAL JAPAN

171

Otherwise foreigners are as free as the Japanese to
own shares in any Japanese commercial companies
organized by themselves alone, or in combination with
the Japanese, or to engage in any manufacture or other
commercial operations.

“ Foreigners may hold a long lease of land to plant
trees or erect permanent structures, which may be
arranged for an indefinite term almost perpetual, such
as one thousand years, or as long as may be agreed
upon. Such a holding is called superficies, and it is
very much like a long English lease, the only dif-
ference being that trees or buildings do not, at the
end of the term, revert to the landlord, his right being
only that of pre-emption at current valuation. The
most advisable way for the enjoyment of the actual
and permanent holding of land is for a foreigner to
buy land himself through a Japanese, as bare trustee,
and to secure its superficies for the period of as long
a term as may be desirable for his purposes.

“ Although no foreigners may work mines individually,
they may be taken on mortgage, and a company regis-
tered as a Japanese organization is entitled to engage
in mining; the theory is that foreigners as members
merge themselves in the entity of a Japanese cor-
poration, although it may be composed of foreigners
exclusively.

“No railway or tramway business is allowed to be
carried on unless by a limited company and a con-
cession for such purpose has to be secured from the
proper authorities. No such railway can be pledged,
but it may be hypothecated. Japanese pledge corre-
sponds to English mortgage, differing therefrom in that
immediate transfer of possession and holding the pledged
property absolutely is essential. Hypothecation does
not carry possession nor the right of entry. This con-

172 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

ditioa of Japanese railway law has not satisfied cap-
italists as not affording sufficient security to induce
investment by them. There has been some attempt
to have this law altered, but it has not yet been
accomplished.

“Banking, insurance, shipping, and all other kinds
of commercial business may be carried on in Japan
by foreign companies by observing the treaties and
certain regulations, such as the registration of their
branch offices, their representatives or other matters
prescribed by law.

“ There are two kinds of civil corporations, the one
consisting of persons associated together, and the other
an estate of aggregate property somewhat like a trust
in English law, formed or established for the purpose
of religious worship, teaching, art, charity, education,
or any other object of public benefit, not aiming at the
making of a profit. Such a corporation can come in
existence only with the permission of the competent
authorities, while Japanese commercial corporations
may be formed without it.

“No foreign association of persons or trust property
is accorded the same rights and privileges as are enjoyed
by similar Japanese corporations; such a foreign cor-
poration has no standing whatsoever in the Japanese
courts, and the only way in which it could obtain
protection would be to appear in the individual names
of its members, just as used once to be the case in
partnership actions. Purely technical evidence must
be procured and filed before any legal proceeding can
be initiated, and the best interests of the corporation
might easily be jeopardized. Some foreign religious
societies have sought to get themselves incorporated
as Japanese corporations, but failed. Japan has no
State religion, and she is absolutely impartial in reli-

LEGAL JAPAN

173

gious matters. Any religious body so applying must be
and show itself to be a purely Japanese institution,
free from all control of any sort from its corresponding
religious bodies in foreign countries. Any legal con-
nection whatever between the home body and Japanese
organization is a bar to such purpose.^

“A Japanese corporation has almost as large privileges
as a Japanese subject. It can own land and exercise
other rights not accorded to individual foreigners. A
corporation so organized may contain in its ranks for-
eign members, but it must be of such a nature as not to
be under any danger of control of any kind from outside.
Even after incorporation, the charter will be forfeited
should the policy of the Japanese Government be at
any time prejudiced by the conduct of a corporation
so sanctioned.

“If foreigners wish to do business in combination with
the Japanese, the best way would be to form a Goshi
Kaisha or limited partnership, they themselves carry-
ing unlimited liability. To control a Kabushiki Kaisha,
or limited company, they should own more than half
the amount of capital, either by holding themselves or
through their own nominees, and shares should be tied
up so as not to allow their transfer without the consent
of the board of directors. The advantage of any busi-
ness being organized as a Japanese corporation consists,
as the law now stands, in owning land and having the
full rights of Japanese subjects.”

It should be added here that many prominent
Japanese continue to urge that foreigners be allowed
to own land, possibly under certain restrictions ; and

^ But missionaries, as individuals, are able to unite in org.anizing
a Japanese corporation.

174 A HAISTDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

that such a privilege is quite likely to be granted
before very long.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Suitable works of reference on this chapter are scarce.
“The Yankees of the East” (Curtis), chap, viii., and “The
Real Japan” (Norman), chaps, iii. and xi., furnish some mate-
rial. Dr. Masujima’s papers in the Transactions Asiatic Society
of Japan on “The Japanese Legal Seal” (vol. xvii.) and
“Modern Japanese Legal Institutions” (vol. xviii.) are quite
instructive ; and so is Longford’s ‘‘Summary of the Japanese
Penal Codes ” in vol. v. Some specific references have already
been made in footnotes.

CHAPTER XIII

THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN i

OuTLiKE OF Topics: Not Western “new woman,” but abstract,
legal new woman in Japan. — Woman in old regime; wife in old
regime; lack of “home”; woman anciently honored. — Legal status
in Old Japan, in New Japan ; independent person ; marriage ;
right of marriage ; husband and wife. — Divorce, — by arrange-
ment and judicial. — Concubinage; child of a concubine. — Pros-
pects of new woman ; openings for labor. — The “ New Great
Learning for Women.” — Enlarged educational advantages; new
schools. — Women in business. — The Empress and the Crown
Princess. — The woman question ; further needs ; women aud
Christianity. — Bibliography.

A NY intention of using the term “ new woman ”

Z- A in a jocose or satirical way is disclaimed at
the outset. It is not our purpose to refer at
all to such a creature as that called “new woman ”
in the Occident ; for it has not yet appeared to any
great extent among the Japanese. It may be true,
in some cases, that the modernized Japanese woman
is “without gentleness or refinement,” and may be
called a “parody of a man” or a “sickening sort of
person.” But, as the “Jiji Shimpo ” explains, “the
process of the new woman’s evolution may be disfig-
ured by some accident ” ; and “ the new woman stands

^ Portions of this chapter are reprinted by permission from the
“American Journal of Sociology,” March, 1903.

176 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

out with objectionable salience because her environ-
ment is so colorless.”

It is desired, in the first instance, to consider, not
the new woman in the concrete, in the flesh, but
the abstract, legal new woman that has been created
by the new Civil Code of Japan. In looking through
the translation of that document by Mr. Gubbins,
we have been deeply impressed with the possibilities
which lie before the women of New Japan through
the rights and privileges vouchsafed to them under
that code.

In Old Japan, as stated in a preceding chapter,^
the constitution of the family was practically that
of an empire, in which all other members thereof
were subject to the despotic authority of the master.
A Japanese woman was subject to the “three obedi-
ences as a maiden, to her father; as a wife, to her
husband and his parents ; ^ as a widow, to her oldest
son, whether real or only adopted. A daughter might
even be called upon, for the sake of her parents, to
sacrifice her honor and enter a brothel ; and she was
still considered virtuous, because personal chastity
was a lower virtue than filial piety.

A Japanese, like a Grecian, wife was to her hus-
band a faithful slave, “something better than his
dog, a little dearer than his horse ” ; she was both a
drudge and a plaything, to be cast aside as capriciously

1 Chap. iv. on “People, Houses, Food, Dress.”

® The Japanese mother-in-law is an awful tyrant ; but it is always
the wife’s mother-in-law.

THE HEW WOMAN IN JAPAN

177

as a child throws away a toy. She must tamely
submit to having concubines brought, perhaps, right
into the house at the will of her lord ; or she herself
might, under slight and flimsy pretexts, be divorced
and sent back to her parents. The following “ seven
reasons for divorce ” were laid down by a celebrated
Japanese moralist: disobedience to father-in-law or
mother-in-law; barrenness; lewdness; jealousy; lep-
rosy or any like foul disease; garrulousness and
prattling; stealing.

It is, therefore, a misnomer to speak of “Japan-
ese homes ” of the old regime, in the sense in which
we use that little word “home” with all its depth
and wealth of meaning and its associated thoughts of
“love ” and “sympathy.” Indeed, the word “home ”
cannot be perfectly translated into the Japanese lan-
guage, and is generally transferred bodily with the
pronunciation homu. And one of the far-reaching
results of Christian mission work in Japan has been
the introduction of the idea and the ideal of the
Christian home.

It should, however, be constantly kept in mind
that in the most ancient times women were highly
esteemed, and even “used to play an important part
on the political stage.” In Shinto the central object
of adoration is the sun, which is worshipped as a
goddess. There have been seated on the imperial
throne of Japan eight empresses, one of whom is
famous for her martial valor and military exploits.
It was when Buddhism became powerful that Hin-

178 A HANDBOOK OF MODERK JAPANT

doo and Chinese conceptions of woman’s position
moulded public opinion and thus eventually changed
the manners, customs, and laws of Japan so as to
relegate woman to an abnormally inferior position.
As only one striking example out of many possible
illustrations of the relative positions of man and
woman, we note that, in the case of the death of the
husband, the law prescribed mourning garments for
thirteen months and abstinence from impurity for
fifty days ; but, in the case of the death of the wife,
mourning garments for three months and abstinence
for twenty days were sufficient.

Mr. Gubbins in the introduction to Part II. of his
translation of the Civil Code, writes as follows : —

“The legal position of women in Japan before the
commencement of modern legislative reform is well illus-
trated by the fact that offences came under different
categories according to their commission by the wife
against the husband, or by the husband against the wife,
and by the curious anomaly that, while the husband
stood in the first degree of relationship to his wife, the
latter stood to him only in the second.^ The disabilities
under which a woman formerly labored shut her out
from the exercise of almost all rights. She could not
inherit or own property in her own name, she could not
become the head of a family, she could not adopt, and
she could not be the guardian of her child. The maxim,
midier est finis familiae, was as true in Japan as in Rome,
though its Cbservance may have been less strict, owing
to the greater frequency of adoption.

* Since 1882 they have been upon the same basis.

THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN

179

“In no respect has modern progress in Japan made
greater strides than in the improvement of the position
of women. Though she still labors under certain dis-
abilities, a woman can now become the head of a family
and exercise authority as such ; she can inherit and
own property and manage it herself; she can exercise
parental authority ; if single, or a widow, she can adopt ;
she is one of the parties to adoption effected by her hus-
band, and her consent in addition to that of her husband
is necessary to the adoption of her child by another per-
son; she can act as guardian or curator; and she has a
voice in family councils.”^

^Moreover, although it is true that for the per-
formance of certain acts (Art. 14) a wife must ob-
tain her husband’s permission, and that a wife’s acts
may be annulled by her husband (Art. 120), yet it
is explicitly stated that “a wife who has been per-
mitted to engage in one or more businesses possesses
in regard thereto the capacity of an independent
person.”

But let us look a little more particularly into the
provisions relating to marriage, divorce, etc. The
marriageable age is 17 full years for men and 15
full years for women. Marriage takes effect when
notice of the fact is given to a registrar, by both
parties with two witnesses. From this it will appear
that the ceremony is a “purely social function, having
no connection whatsoever with law beyond the some-
what remote contingency of its being adducible as

1 These are composed of a large circle of relatives, and exercise
autocratic influence in most important questions.

180 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

evidence of a marriage having taken place.” And
here is where some Japanese Christians make an
unfortunate and sometimes serious mistake, in think-
ing that the ceremony by a minister of the gospel is
sufficient and registration is a matter of convenience.
Without registration a marriage is not legal.

The right of marriage is not free, except to the
head of a family.^ All other persons, whatever their
ages, can marry only with the consent of the head
of his or her family. Men under 30 and women
under 25 cannot marry without the consent of the
parents; and minors in some cases must obtain the
consent of the guardian or even of a family council.

In Art. 790 it is stipulated that “a husband and
wife are mutually bound to support one another.”
A husband manages the property of his wife, unless
he is unable to do so, when she manages it herself.
“With regard to daily household matters, a wife is
regarded as her husband’s agent.”

There are two ways of effecting divorce : either by
arrangement, which is effected in a similar way to
marriage — that is, by simply having the registra-
tion of marriage cancelled — or by judicial divorce,
which may be granted on several grounds specified
in the Code. But divorce by arrangement cannot
be effected by persons under 25 years of age, without
consent of the person or persons by whose consent

1 The word “ family ” is here and hereinafter used in a technical
sense, peculiar to Japan, of a group of the same surname. In Old
Japan the family was the social unit.

THE EMPRESS OF JAPAN AND THE PRINCESS IMPERIAL

THE NEW WOIVIAN IN JAPAN

181

marriage was effected. And if the persons who
effect this kind of divorce fail to determine who is
to have the custody of the children, they belong to
the father ; but “ in cases where the father leaves the
family owing to divorce, the custody of the children
belongs to the mother,” evidently because she re-
mains in the family. In other words, children are
chattels of the family.

The grounds on which judicial divorce is granted
include bigamy, adultery on the part of the wife, the
husband’s receiving a criminal sentence for an offence
against morality, cruel treatment or grave insult
such as to render living together unbearable, deser-
tion with evil intent, cruel treatment or gross insult
of or by lineal ascendants.

The new Civil Code indirectly sanctions concu-
binage by stipulating (in Art. 827) that “an ille-
gitimate child may be recognized by the father or
mother” by giving notice to a registrar. Such a
child is called shoshi, but is not legitimized. It is,
however, stipulated (in Art. 728) that between a
wife and a shoshi “ the same relationship as that be-
tween parent and child is established.” That seems
clearly enough to mean that a wife must accept a
concubine’s child as if it were her own, in case the
father “ recognizes ” it. This would appear to be
little, if any, advance .over the old regime., where
“the wife of the father,” as she was technically
called, frequently had to accept as her own child
that of a concubine.

182 A HANDBOOK OF MODEEN JAPAN

Mr. Gubbins makes the following explanation of
shoshi : —

“ This term illustrates the transitionary phase through
which Japanese law is passing. Japanese dictionaries
define sAosAi as the child of a concubine, and this, so long
as concubinage was sanctioned by law, and the question
of legitimacy never arose, was the accepted meaning of
the term. The law of Japan, which, in the course of its
development on western lines, has come to accept the
principle of legitimacy, and to admit of the legitimiza-
tion of children by the subsequent marriage of their
parents, now recognizes an intermediate stage between
legitimacy and illegitimacy.”

Such is the general outline of the legal status of
woman according to the new Civil Code. It will
undoubtedly be most interesting to watch the gradual
evolution of a new woman in Japan as the outcome
of this legislation. It remains to be seen how far
the social status of woman will be improved. It is
not at all likely that her actual position will be im-
mediately advanced in any great degree. It is prob-
able that custom will continue, for a while at least,
to wield a mightier influence than the Code; and
that, as Mr. Gubbins remarks, “the present transi-
tional condition of Japanese society may favor a rule
being honored more in the breach than in the ob-
servance.” But it will probably not be long before
here and there certain women will claim the rights
accorded by law ^ and will find a corresponding im-

1 “ A Japanese judge has ruled in a certain case that the wife is
not obliged ‘ to obey the unreasonable demands of her husband.’

THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN

183

provement in their social condition; and thus the
general position of the Japanese woman will grad-
ually he advanced.

And, as a matter of fact, the status of woman in
Japan is improving in practice no less than in theory,
especially in the new openings for work that render
her more or less independent of male support. For
instance, although the work of weaving, formerly
carried on by women in the homes, is now largely
transferred to factories, with modern machinery,
there is an increasing demand for female hands.
This is also true in cotton mills, match factories,
tobacco shops, and many other such places of work.
Telephone exchanges, post-offices, railway ticket
offices, printing offices, also find girls and women
deft and skilful. In hospitals and schools, too, the
Japanese young woman is finding her sphere. She
is likewise showing her skill and taste in both artistic
and literary employments. But in Japan, as else-
where, this drift into industrial and other occupations
is producing a scarcity of servants for housework.

Just as Kaibara’s “Onna Daigaku ” (Great Learn-
ing for Women) was the standard for female edu-
cation under the old regivie, so New Japan most

In this particular instance the man of the house had told the wife
to perform some disagreeable manual labor for him ; she refused,
and he promptly divorced her. The wife appealed, and her plea
was upheld by the court. A very important precedent has been
established, and this decision may lead to a revolution in Japanese
domestic life, in which, thanks to the courage of one woman and
the enlightening effect of American ideals, the Japanese wife need
no longer be her husband’s slave.” — Congregational Work.

184 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

appropriately has a “Shin [New] Onna-Daigaku,” by
Mr. Fukuzawa, the famous educator and writer.
The following summary thereof is from the “ Japan
Mail —

“The ‘ Sekai -no-Nihon ’ reviews at some length Mr.
Fukuzawa’s series of articles entitled ‘ Shin Onna-Dai-
gaku,’ which have now appeared in book form. We
give in a brief form the gist of the reviewer’s remarks.
Mr. Fukuzawa’s object in writing so much on the sub-
ject of women’s position in modern times is to endeavor
to create a new standard for women. Hitherto the
teaching of Kaibara Ekiken’s ‘ Onna Daigaku ’ has
been accepted in all quarters. According to it woman
occupies a subordinate position, and must on no account
assert her independence or claim equality with man.
While showing the untenableness of all such theories,
Mr. Fukuzawa does not rush to an opposite extreme.
He defines woman’s position in a remarkably common-
sense way. He would not have women attempt to
imitate men. They have their own spheres and should
keep to them. When discussing the education of girls
he insists on the necessity of making a special point of
giving them a thorough drilling in household duties.
They should have a knowledge of cooking ; they should
be taught how to make the most of money, how to man-
age servants, &c. Next to these things he attaches great
importance to their being instructed in the laws of
health. Among other subjects botany is to be recom-
mended as specially suited to the female mind. He
further argues that women should be taught Economy
and Law. He thinks that a knowledge of these subjects
will tend to develop their general intelligence, and save
them from becoming the creatures of emotion. In olden
times a woman carried a dagger in her girdle to be used

THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN

185

as a last resource. In modern times a thoroughly en-
lightened mind will be her best protection against the
dangers to which she is exposed. With the tendency to
conceit which is said to be engendered by the kind of
education recommended, Mr. Fukuzawa deals in his
treatise, arguing that this tendency can be rendered
harmless by instruction in the kind of demeanor that
best becomes a woman. . . . Marriage according to the
old methods Mr. Fukuzawa condemns, and the practice
of having the father-in-law or mother-in-law living wdth
the married couple should, he thinks, be discontinued.
Marriage should be regarded in a serious light, and the
duties and responsibilities it involves should be duly
considered. [Mothers should take pleasure in instruct-
ing their children, and should know enough to gain their
respect. The whole system recommended is based on
Western life and thought. This new Gospel for woman
preached by a man who has spent his whole life in advo-
cating reform, as one of his last messages to the nation,
is, says the ‘ Sekai-no-Nihon,’ very striking and likely
to effect great good.” ^

Within the past decade or so the educational ad-
vantages for Japanese girls have very largely in-
creased ; and the number of girls and young women
availing themselves of these advantages has grown
encouragingly. There has been a marked increase
in the number of female pupils in public and private,
including mission, schools of all grades; and there
have been new institutions organized especially for

1 It is interesting to note that after a marriage ceremony at one
of the shrines at Nikko, the bridegroom and the bride were pre-
sented with a copy of Mr. Fukuzawa’s work.

186 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN *

young women, concerning two of whicli it is neces-
sary to speak more particularly.

One is a kind of English normal school in charge
of Miss Um4 Tsuda, herself a type of the best kind
of “new woman” in Japan. She was the youngest
of the first group of Japanese girls sent over to the
United States in 1871 to be educated; and ever since
her return to Japan she has been trying to elevate
the condition of her sisters. Her school is intended
primarily to train young women to be eflBcient
teachers, particularly of English. Another impor-
tant institution is the University for Women, opened
in 1901 in Tokyo, the first of its kind started in
the first year of the new century, as a harbinger
that the Twentieth Century in Japan will be largely
the women’s century.^

What the new woman in Japan is able to accom-
plish in business lines is well illustrated in the fol-
lowing paragraphs : ^ —

“Mrs. Asa Hirooka, of Osaka, is well known in business
circles as the actual guiding spirit and organizer of the
famous banking firm of Kajima. A daughter of the
INIitsui family, she was married at the age of 17 to Mr.
Shingoro Hirooka of Osaka a few years previous to the
restoration. The Hirooka family was one of those cele-
brated banking agents of the feudal barons who flour-
ished at Osaka during the Tokugawa regime^ and, like
many of the rest, had its affairs thrown into disorder
and was itself reduced to a precarious condition by the
political convulsion of three decades ago. The Kajimaya,

1 See Appendix. * Chicago Daily Record.

THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN

187

under which style the Hirooka family conducted its busi-
ness, would certainly have shared the same melancholy
fate that overtook so many of its compeers had it not been
for the resolute character and business capacity of Mrs.
Asa, who assumed the sole direction of affairs, introducing
sweeping changes in the organization of the firm, and in
a remarkably short space of time succeeded in starting it
on a career of fresh and increasing prosperity.

“ About twenty years ago Moji, the present flourishing
centre of the coal business, had scarcely come into exist-
ence; in other words, few people had yet commenced to
turn their attention to the development of coal-mining.
In this venture she encountered innumerable difficulties.
In the first place, she had to overcome the determined
opposition of the other members of the family. Their
position was, in fact, so strong and persistent that she
had to engage in the undertaking entirely on her own
account and responsibility. She had thus to start afresh
with little capital, except her owu personal credit, and
many were the hardships and disadvantages against
which she had to struggle. But there is always a way
where there is a will, and our fair but indomitable miner
was ultimately rewarded with signal success, and suc-
ceeded in adding largely to the capital of the firm and
in establishing her reputation as a resourceful organizer
and a unique business woman.

“ All the collieries in her possession have one after
another been disposed of at profitable prices, and just at
present she is devoting her whole attention to the expan-
sion of the banking business of the firm. An eminently
successful financier and business organizer, she is by no
means indifferent to interests of a higher sort. Her-
self well educated, she takes a keen interest in educa-
tional matters, especially those relating to her own sex,
being one of the principal supporters of Mr. Naruse’s

188 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

scheme for a university for girls. By way of giving
practical encouragement to the movement in favor of
female education, she already employs some educated
girls as clerks at her banks, and intends to place a new
department which is about to be opened at those banks
almost exclusively in the hands of female clerks.”

This chapter would, of course, be incomplete
without at least a few words about the noble first
lady of the land. She was brought up in the old-
fashioned way, but she is in hearty sympathy with
the ideals of New Japan. As she has no children
of her own, she has adopted the entire nation and
completely won their love ; she is, indeed, the mother
of millions. She is especially interested in educa-
tional and benevolent institutions ; she is the active
patron of the Peeresses’ School, the University for
Women, 1 the Red Cross Society, and other philan-
thropic enterprises. In times of calamity her purse
is always opened for a liberal contribution to the
suffering. 2

Another lady of special interest is Princess Sada,
the young wife of the Crown Prince. She was born
in 1884, and was educated in the Peeresses’ School
until her betrothal, when she was placed under pri-
vate tutor's. She was manled on May 10, 1900,

r “ H. M. the Empress gave a donation of 2,000 yen to the Women’s
University established by Mr. Jinzo Naruse. Prince Iwakura and
Marquis Hachisuka will call at the Imperial Palace in a day or
two in order to express the gratitude of the university for this
munificent donation." — Japan Times.

^ Her birthday on May 28 is annually observed by Christian
women in special services.

THE NEW WOMAN IN JAPAN

189

and is the mother of two healthy sons. The young
couple are said to live a happy and congenial life.

In conclusion, we make one more quotation, from
Miss Bacon’s “Japanese Girls and Women,” as
follows : —

“The woman question in Japan is at the present
moment a matter of much consideration. There seems
to be an uneasy feeling in the minds of even the more
conservative men that some change in the status of
women is inevitable, if the nation Avishes to keep the
pace it has set for itself. The Japanese women of the
past and of the present are exactly suited to the posi-
tion accorded them in society, and any attempt to alter
them without changing their status only results in
making square pegs for round holes. If the pegs here-
after are to be cut square, the holes must be enlarged
and squared to fit them. The Japanese woman stands
in no need of alteration unless her place in life is
somehow enlarged, nor, on the other hand, can she fill
a larger place without additional training. The men
of new Japan, to whom the opinions and customs of
the western world are becoming daily more familiar,
while they shrink aghast, in many cases, at the thought
that their women may ever become like the forward,
self-assertive, half-masculine women of the West, show
a growing tendency to dissatisfaction with the small-
ness and narrowness of the lives of their wives and
daughters — a growing belief that better-educated women
would make better homes, and that the ideal home of
Europe and America is the product of a more advanced
civilization than that of Japan. Reluctantly in many
cases, but still almost universally, it is admitted that
in the interest of the homes, and for the sake of future
generations, something must be done to carry the women

190 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

forward into a position more in harmony with what the
nation is reaching for in other directions. This desire
shows itself in individual efforts to improve by more ad-
vanced education daughters of exceptional promise, and
in general efforts for the improvement of the condition
of women.”

Miss Bacon, in her book, traces very clearly the
progress that has been made in the condition of
woman, and shows how “better laws, broader edu-
cation for the women, [and] a change in public
opinion ” are still necessary. And she affirms that
“ we can feel pretty sure that, when the people have
become used to these [recent] changes [of the new
Civil Code], other and more binding laws will be
enacted, for the drift of enlightened public opinion
seems to be in favor of securing better and more
firmly established homes.”

The following is also worthy of quotation : “ It is
not possible to understand the actual progress made
in Japan in improving the condition of women, with-
out some consideration of the effect that Christian
thought and Christian lives have had on the thought
and lives of the modern Japanese.”

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

“The Real Japan,” chap. viii. ; “Out of the Far East”
(Hearn), pp. 85-125; “The Yankees of the East,” chaps,
ix., xix. ; “ An American Missionary in Japan ” (Gordon),
chap. XV.; “Japan and her People,” vol. i. pp. 178-191; “A
Japanese Interior ” (Miss Bacon) ; and, last and best, Miss
Bacon’s “Japanese Girls and Women,” revised edition, illus-
trated.

CHAPTER XIV

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Outline of Topics : Japanese syllabary ; i-ro-ha arrangement ;
arrangement of fifty-sounds; modern inventions. — Chinese ideo-
graphs; Kata-kana ; Hira-gana; Kana-majiri a.nd Kana-tsuki ; vari-
ety in pronunciation. — Japanese elocution. — Japanese syntax;
logic in linguistics ; a sample sentence ; kind of language ; topsy-
turvy practices. — Ancient literature; poetry; naga-uta and tanka;
hokku ; a poem a picture. — Characteristics of Japanese poetry. —
Modern literature : newspapers ; press laws ; English journals ;
Japanese journals; magazines and periodicals; books; what the
Japanese read; their literary taste; foreign books; linguistic re-
forms, theory and practice. — Bibliography.

The Japanese language belongs, philologi-
cally, to the Altaic family, and is of the
agglutinative type. Practically, it is musi-
cal and easy to pronounce, but, on account of its
loner and involved sentences, difficult to learn. Its
alphabet is not phonetic, but syllabic, and very simple
and regular. It comprises 73 characters, of which
5 are duplicates of the same sounds, so that there
are really only 68 distinct sounds. As many of the
sounds, moreover, are only slight modifications of
other sounds, they are represented by the same char-
acters, with certain diacritical signs attached (as in
the case of ha, ba, and There are, consequently,

in common use only 48 distinct characters, which are

192 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

arranged in such an order as to form a stanza of
poetry ^ as follows : —

Iro wa nioedo
Chirinuru wo —

Waga yo tare zo
Tsune naran?

Ui no oku-yama
Kyo koete,

Asaki yume miji,

£i mo sezu.

Which means, being interpreted by Professor B. H.
Chamberlain : —

“Though gay in hue, [the blossoms] flutter down,
Alas ! Who then, in this world of ours, may continue
forever? Crossing to-day the uttermost limits of phe-
nomenal existence, I shall see no more fleeting dreams,
neither be any longer intoxicated.” In other words,
“all is transitory in this fleeting world. Let us escape
from its illusions and vanities.”

Another arrangement, based on the five vowels and
their combination with certain consonants, gives fifty
sounds, of which, however, two or three are really
duplicates. This table of fifty sounds (joju-on) is as
follows : —

shi

chi

(w)i

tsu

(w)u

(y)e

(w)e

1 Arranged by the famous Buddhist priest. Kobo Daishi.

2 Read from top to bottom and from left to right.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

193

Those in italics are duplicates ; and (w')i and (w')e,
though written with different characters from i and e,
have practically the same pronunciation.

It will be seen that both of these arrangements are
more or less artificial; at least, they appear to be
mnemonic contrivances, and are certainly very con-
venient, because they are flexible. For instance, the
demands of modern times and European languages
for a V sound has led the Japanese to represent it by
the simple device of attaching the common dia-
critical mark to the to series. By a similar device
they might utilize the r series for I and the s series
for th !

The Japanese characters, not difficult or complex
in formation, are modifications and simplifications of
Chinese ideographs. There had been in Japan no
written language until after the introduction of
Chinese civilization in the sixth century A. D., when
Chinese words and characters were absorbed by the
wholesale. Later, two systems of contracting the
complex and cumbersome Chinese ideographs were
invented, and are still used to some extent, indeed
almost entirely by the uneducated class.

The oldest and simplest modification is called
Kata-hana (side-letters), and consisted merely in
taking part of a Chinese ideograph. But, as these
characters were separate, and did not easily run to-
gether, they have not been used much, “except in
dictionaries, books intended for the learned, or to
spell foreign names.”

194 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

The next modification was a contraction of Chinese
characters into a running, or grass, hand, and is
therefore called Hira-gana (plain-letters). These
are all that the ignorant, especially the women, can
read.

But a Japanese who aspires to the smallest degree
of education must be familiar with many Chinese
characters ; and a pupil is, in fact, instructed in that
language and literature from the primary school up
through the university. Some books are written en-
tirely in Chinese, and, of course, can be read only by
the best educated. But the commonest method for
newspapers and books which are not intended for a
limited circulation among the erudite only, is the use
of a mixture of Chinese and Japanese characters, of
which the root forms are Chinese, and the connec-
tives, agglutinative particles, and grammatical end-
ings are Japanese; this is called Kana-majiri. For
even more general circulation the Chinese characters
will be explained by Japanese characters at the side;
this is called Kana-tsuTci.

This practice of mixing the characters of the two
languages leads to some variety in pronunciation.
That is to say, a word written with Chinese ideo-
graphs may be read with the Japonicized Chinese
pronunciation or with that of the pure Japanese
word of which it is the equivalent. For instance,
the Chinese characters which make up the word
meaning “Japan” are usually pronounced Nippon,
or Nihon, by the Japanese, but may also be read, in

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

195

pure Japanese, as Hi-no-moto. It is practically the
same as when we are allowed to read “etc.” either
as cetera ” or as “ and-so-forth ” (or “i. e.,” either
as “id esi” or as “that is”).

In connection with this topic of reading, we
may as well touch on the elocutionary element in
reading by Japanese. Their style of reading, as
amusing to us as ours is to them, may be called
“sing-song”: they rise and fall by monotones, and,
going very rapidly without attention to the beginning
or the end of a sentence, catch breath now and then
by a peculiar sucking sound. They seem to make no
attempt to read “with expression,” as we call it; and,
when they come to study English, are a great trial
for a while to the foreign teacher !

The peculiarities of Japanese syntax have been so
attractively discussed by Mr. Percival Lowell,^ that
any other writer on that subject must at the outset
acknowledge his indebtedness to that author. It will
be unnecessary in this chapter to go into details ; it
will be sufficient to mention several of the points in
which Japanese and English syntax are different.
For instance, a Japanese noun knows no distinction
(in form) of gender and number; a Japanese adjec-
tive or adverb has no terminational comparison; a
Japanese verb is proof to the distinctions of number
and person. In the Japanese language the connec-
tives which correspond to our prepositions are placed
after their nouns; the verbs always come last; our
1 See “The Soul of the Far East," pp. 78-109.

196 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

personal and possessive pronouns are supplanted by
honorific expressions; and the definite article, the
relative pronoun, and the pure temporal conjunc-
tion are lacking. To illustrate the first point, it is
enough to say that a teacher once asked a young
Japanese pupil, “Have you any brothers?” and
received this answer: “There are four men; but
they are all women.” In the question, the generic
term kyddai, which may be applied to both sexes,
although strictly it should be limited to the male
sex, was employed; in the reply, the generic term
for “man” was used in the first clause, and the
proper specification was added in the second clause.
What he literally replied was this : “ There are [= I
have] four [such] persons; but they are all women.”
And, in Japanese, “man,” whether singular, dual, or
plural, whether single or married, may be simply
hito ; and yet the idea of “ men ” may also be ex-
pressed by doubling the word into hito-bito; while
that of “ women ” is expressed by suffixing domo or
tachi to onna and making onna-tachi, onna-domo.

With reference to language in general, a most
patriotic Japanese once proved, to his own satis-
faction, “the wickedness of foreign nations, not
only in act but in speech,” and illustrated by
the fact that the Europeans, for instance, put the
verb before the noun, and said, “see the moon.”
But the Japanese said “moon see,” because, “if
the moon was not there first, you could not see it
afterwards ”I

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

197

Some of the peculiarities of Japanese sentences are
illustrated in the following : “ The man whom I met
yesterday went to Tokyo by the nine o’clock train
this morning,” if translated literally from Japan-
ese, would read: “My yesterday-on met man-as-
for, this morning’s ninth-hour’s train-by Tokyo-to
went.”

In short, the Japanese language is an involved,
complicated, impersonal, neutral, obscure, but withal
a pretty, musical, logical, and polite tongue. Cham-
berlain says: “Japanese is probably — all things con-
sidered — the most difficult language on the face of
the earth.”

A Japanese book begins where an English book
ends; it is read from top to bottom in lines running
from right to left; and the “foot-notes” are at
the top of the page, while the reader’s mark is
inserted at the bottom. Books are always arranged
on a shelf or elsewhere, with the first volume at the
right hand, or in horizontal piles. The Japanese
call our style of writing “ crab- writing, ” because it
“goes backward” and across the page like a craw-
fish; and the individual just quoted, claimed to be
able to judge of the hearts of foreigners by their
writing, “which was crooked”! Inversion appears
again in such expressions as “east-north,” “west-
south,” instead of “northeast,” “southwest.” The
address of a letter runs as follows : “ America, United
States, Illinois State, Chicago City, Hyde Park Dis-
trict, Washington Avenue, 0000 No., Smith, John,

198 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Mr. ” In dates the order of year, month, day, is fol-
lowed. The word for roof {yane) means literally
“house-root,” because a Japanese house is constructed
to fit the roof, which is made first. But, as words are
only the expression of thought, this contrariety must
he traced back to the thoughts and ideas of Japanese,
who, in so many other things, seem to us as “ topsy-
turvy ” as we seem to them.

Japanese literature of the old regime was written
partly in classical Chinese, partly in pure Japanese,
and comprised mostly mythology, history, law, poetry,
romance, drama, and Buddhist and Confucian phi-
losophy. As we cannot go into details on this sub-
ject, so tempting, we shall confine ourselves to a few
comments on Japanese poetry, which is more original
and less Chinese than prose. The Japanese are very
much addicted to writing poetry; like Silas Wegg,
they drop off into poetry on every possible occasion.
They are, in one sense, “ born ” poets, and, in an-
other sense, made poets: poeta Japonicus et nascitur
et Jit, — “ The Japanese poet is both born and
made.” There are certain rigid forms, and only a
few, for verse; and all fairly educated Japanese
know those forms. In school, moreover, they are
carefully taught the theory and the practice of
versification.

Occasionally a Japanese poem will be rather long,
and is then called naga-uta (long poem) ; but usually
it is only a “tiny ode” of 31 syllables, arranged in 5
lines of respectively 5, 7, 5, 7, and 7 syllables. The

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

199

following is a specimen of such an uta^ or tanka, from
the famous “Hundred Poems —

Kokoro-ate ni “ If it were my wish

Orobaya oran White chrysanthemum to cull : —

Hatsu-shimo no Puzzled by the frost

Oki-madowaseru Of the early autumn time,
Shiragiku no haua. I perchance might pluck the flower.” ^

There is also an abbreviated form called hokku,
which contains only the 17 syllables of the first 3
lines of the tanka. The following is an example : —

Kare-eda ni
U no tomari keri
Aki no kure.

“ On an autumn evening a crow perches on a withered
branch.”

The quaintness and simplicity of Japanese thought
and expression appear very clearly in their poetry.
It has been truly said that a Japanese poem is a
picture or even only the outline of a picture to he
filled in by the imagination. It may be merely an
exclamation, without any logical assertion, like the
following, written a thousand years ago: —

Shira-kumo ni
Hane uchi-kawashi
Tobu kari no
Kazu sae miyuru
Aki no yo no tsuki.

“ The moon on an autumn
night, making visible the
very number of wild geese
flying past with wings inter-
crossed in white clouds.” *

1 Translation by Prof. Clay MacCauley, Transactions Asiatic
Society of Japan, vol. xxvii.

2 From Chamberlain’s “Things Japanese.”

200 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Japanese poetry lias no rhyme, no parallelism, no
alliteration, no accent; it is almost all lyrical, and
abounds in acrostics, anagrams, and palindromes.
Its chief subjects are taken from nature, and a poem
may be evoked by the simplest thing. Although
Japanese poetry is difficult to understand, it is in-
teresting to study.

Japanese literature of the new regime is too varied
to enumerate, as it covers, in both original and trans-
lated work, about all the fields of modern thought,
as well as the fields of the old regime, just mentioned.

The development of newspapers is, perhaps, one of
the most interesting phases of the progress of New
Japan. The year 1902 was the thirtieth anniver-
sary of the establishment of Japanese journalism.
Before that time small sheets, each like a modern
“ extra, ” were issued to give account of a murder or
an important event, and were hawked about by street-
criers. But the “Nisshin Shinjishi,'’ started in 1872
by an Englishman named Black, was the first attempt
at a real newspaper.^ Now there are probably more
than 1,000 papers, magazines, etc., published in the
empire. The newspapers are issued daily, and cost
from 25 to 50 sen per month. Most of the metro-
politan papers indulge in wood-cuts, even cartoons.

At first the press laws were rigorous and the

1 It is, however, only fair to state that Joseph Heco, who was
probably the first naturalized Japanese citizen of the United States,
claims the same honor for his “ Kaigai Shimbun,” published in 1864
to give a summary of foreign news. See his “Narrative of a Jap-
anese,” vol. ii. pp. 53, 59.

EDUCATORS AND SCIENTISTS OF JAPAN
BARON ISHIGUEO, VISCOUNT MORI, MR. FUKUZAWA,
DR. KITASATO

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

201

official censors zealous; so that a Japanese editor
must weigh carefully his utterances, and even then
was likel}’, in a time of great political excitement, to
bring upon his paper the ban of either temporary or
total suspension. Some of the papers tried to cir-
cumvent the laws by having an extra edition issued
under a different name, so that when one was sus-
pended the other might continue; and sometimes a
paper had nominal editors, or dummies, to suffer the
punishment of imprisonment, while the real editors,
or criminals, remained at their desks! It might be
added, in this connection, that a public speaker also
was liable to interruption by the police if he was
considered by them to be uttering sentiments subver-
sive of peace and order. Perfect freedom of speech
and liberty of the press do not now, and cannot yet, ex-
ist in Japan; but the restrictions have been gradually
withdrawn, and are now comparatively small.

Newspapers in foreign languages, most of them in
English, are issued in Yokohama, Kobe, Nagasaki,
and Tokyo. Of all these, the “Japan Mail,” of
Yokohama, is facile princeps, for it does not deal
in captious criticisms of the mistakes and sins of
the Japanese, but is keenly sympathetic with their
desire for improvement and progress in all lines.
The “Japan Times,” of Tokyo, is owned, managed,
and edited by Japanese, and is a valuable paper.
Deserving also of mention are the “Japan Daily
Advertiser,” of Yokohama, and the “Herald” and
the “ Chronicle ” of Kobe.

202 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

It is rather a difficult task to select from the ver-
nacular newspapers the few most worthy of mention ;
hut two from Osaka and six from Tokyo Avill suffice.
The “ Osaka Asahi Shimbun ” is said to have the
largest circulation in the whole country; and the
“ Osaka Mainichi Shimbun ” is well known. In T5kyo
the most prominent journals are the “ Jiji Shimpo,”
the “Nichi Nichi Shimbun,” the “Kokumin Shim-
bun,” the “Mainichi Shimbun,” and the “Hochi
Shimbun.” Another Tokyo paper of very large
circulation is the “Yorozu Choho.” Almost all
the newspapers of Japan are morning papers; but,
as they generally go to press early in the evening
of the preceding day, the “ news ” is not the latest.
But very important events will always be published
in “extras ” at any hour.^

There are also magazines galore of every kind.
Some of them prove rather short-lived ; but most of
them find a constituency, as each one seems to have
its own field. Probably the largest and most suc-
cessful magazine is named “ Taiyo ” (Sun), which
issues monthly about 250 pages of Japanese matter,
with 24 pages of English matter, and is finely il-
lustrated. Its leading articles by well-known writers
cover a great variety of topics. The “Kokumin-
no-Tomo” (Nation’s Friend) is another excellent
magazine, famous for the admirable style of its
contributions. The “ Rikugo Zasshi ” (Cosmos) is
philosophical and religious. There are a great
1 See also Norman’s “ Real Japan,” chap. ii.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

203

many Shinto, Buddhist, and Christian weekly and
monthly periodicals, which are published primarily
for the edification of the believers.

“ Of making many books there is no end ” in Japan.
Composition is apparently such an easy task, and
publishing is so cheap, that every person inspired
with an idea is tempted to rush into print. And
those who are not so fortunate as to be rich in “ ori-
ginal ” ideas, have an inexhaustible field in the trans-
lation of books from English and other Occidental
languages; indeed, a fair living may be made in
that way.

Japanese taste in reading is illustrated by a table
accompanying a recent official report from the Impe-
rial Library at T5kyo. During a period of 24 days
covered by the report, the readers numbered 7,770,
and the books called for were classified as follows : —

Japanese and European

Chinese works. works.

Theology and religion 635 14

Philosophy and education 2,368 145

Literature and languages 8,038 998

History, biography, geography, travel . . 9,768 460

Law, politics, sociology, economy, statistics 6,577 304

Mathematics, natural philosophy, medicine . 9,506 388

Engineering, military arts, industries . . . 4,943 205

Miscellaneous books 4,840 530

The table will interest American readers as show-
ing how large is the number of European works
included. It may be added that the Japanese are
decidedly a reading people. Even the “jinrikisha
man,” waiting on the street-corner for a customer,

204 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

is generally to be seen reading a newspaper, maga-
zine, or book.

The leading firm of booksellers in Japan recently
asked a large number of eminent Japanese men of
letters, of science, of business, etc., to name their
favorite European or American books. The 73 an-
swers received have been published in a Japan-
ese periodical, and are interesting as displaying
the literary tastes of Japanese readers of foreign
literature.

The most popular work is Darwin’s “Origin of
Species,” which received 26 votes; next come
Goethe’s “Faust,” the “Encyclopaedia Britannica,”
and Hugo’s “Les Miserables,” in the order named.
Among English men of letters, Byron and Tennyson
are the most popular. The names of Stevenson,
Hardy, Meredith, “Mark Twain,” and other recent
writers are rarely met with, while that of Kipling
occurs not even once. Among continental writer’s,
Tolstoi, Schopenhauer, Heine, and Zola are fre-
quently mentioned; and Nietsche’s “ Zarathustra ”
is characterized more than once as the greatest work
in the last decade of the nineteenth century.^

Some interesting information with reference to
the demand for foreign works in Japan has been made
public in the “Japan Times” by a Japanese importer
of foreign books, and several items therefrom are of
interest.

Works relating to architecture and building, chem-

1 Reprinted, by permiBsion, from “ The Dial,” Chicago.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

205

istry, electricity and magnetism, engineering and me-
chanics, manufactures and industrial arts, metallurgy
and mining, together with dictionaries and encyclo-
pedias, enjoy the largest demand. In chemistry,
Remsen is one of the popular authors ; in metallurgy,
Phillips’s work heads the list; in electricity and
magnetism, Thomson’s works find the largest num-
ber of purchasers ; and there is an active demand for
Taggart’s “Cotton Spinning.” The favorite diction-
ary is “Nuttall’s Standard Dictionary,” of which the
firm above named has already sold between 200,000
and 300,000 copies! Next comes “Webster’s Con-
densed Dictionary*,” and even “Webster’s Un-
abridged ” sells at the rate of from 50 to 60 copies
per month. The “Students’ Standard Dictionary ”
also sells well.

Works on scientific subjects, especially new publi-
cations, are in great demand, and show the eagerness
of Japanese students to become acquainted with the
results of the latest investigations. In astronomy,
Newcomb and Holden’s popular treatise comes first.
In pedagogics, Herbart is the most popular author at
present. In history, Fisher’s “Universal History”
heads the list; in general, works on modern history
are in greater demand than those of earlier periods.
The greater demand for language books, among which
the Otto series stands first, may be due to the near
approach of the date of mixed residence. Mathe-
matical books are only in fair request.

In medicine, German books have practically driven

206 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

from the field works in other languages. In politics
and diplomacy, however, French works are preferred;
Walker’s “ Political Economy,” Jevons’s “Money,”
and Bastiat’s “ Science of Finance ” have a large
sale. In law, German works are beginning to pre-
dominate. Taine’s “ English Literature ” heads the
list in works of that class, and is used as a text-book
or work of reference in several higher institutions of
learning. Of books on Japan, GriflBs’s “Mikado’s
E mpire ” maintains its ground as the favorite. W orks
on antiquities and ethnology, elocution and oratory,
theology and religion, are said to be practically de-
void of demand; but philosophical works find good
sale, with Herbert Spencer in the van.

Fifty years ago a foreign book had to be smuggled
into Japan and studied secretly; and many an earnest
scholar paid with his life the penalty for desiring a
broad education through books. Fifty years ago,
Dutch books were about the only ones, except
Chinese, that got into the empire even by smug-
gling. Now information is eagerly sought from all
quarters of the globe ; and books in many languages
are readable by Japanese.^

It is generally supposed that languages, like poets,
are “bom, not made,” and that the changes in a
language come, not artificially, but naturally. Inter-
esting, therefore, is the spectacle of an attempt to
effect a tremendous reform in a language, many cen-
turies old, by legislative enactment. The nation

1 Reprinted, by permission, from “ The Dial,” Chicago.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

207

which is making this apparently foolish and useless
attempt is Japan, which has already often startled
the world by its marvellous reforms. And if its
wonderful success in legislative reforms in other lines
are any criterion in this case, it will succeed in ef-
fecting much-needed reform in its language. At the
sixteenth session of the Imperial Diet, a sum of money
was appropriated for a “ linguistic commission.” This
was appointed in the spring of this year, has held
several meetings, and has already arrived at some
decisions. It has been decided, for instance, that “ a
phonographic script ” is to be employed ; but the much
discussed question, whether it shall be the common
Japanese Tcana (syllabic characters) or Roman letters,
is still on the docket. It is also proposed to reduce
the number of Chinese ideographs in common use.
Moreover, the differences between the written and the
spoken language are to be abolished ; and the formal
epistolary stjde is to be reformed. It has also been
decided that the whole system of Japanese etymology
must be “carefully revised.” Even the “problem of
local dialects ” is to be attacked, and “ a standard
dialect fixed.” It is noticeable that the commission
is not afflicted with trepidity, but is proceeding with
the utmost courage to attack the most difficult prob-
lems. It is composed of some of the most practical
as well as the most scholarly men of the empire, and
its work will be watched with the deepest interest,
both at home and abroad. And the great changes
already effected in the Japanese language since the

208 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

country was opened are some warrant for believing
that this commission will achieve a measure of
success.^

And yet we understand that legislative enactment
alone cannot make these reforms perfectly effective ;
but we are gratified that intelligent public opinion
will support these reforms, not only theoretically, but
also practically. For the full fruition of such reforms
must be attained through the schools and the public
press ; and the latter has already begun to work along
these very lines. It is, indeed, well for Japan that
her leaders realize the necessity of breaking loose from
her thraldom to Chinese letters, literature, thought,
and ideals.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Rein’s “Japan”; “Advance Japan” (Morris), chap. xi. ;
Knapp’s “ Feudal and Modern Japan,” vol. ii. chaps, i.-iii. ;
and “Japan in Hi.story, Folk-lore and Art” (Griffis), pp. 76-91,
104-107. For special study of the language, Imbrie’s “ English-
Japanese Etymology,” Chamberlain’s “ Hand-book of Colloquial
Japanese” and “ Moji no Shirube”®; Aston’s “Grammar of
the Japanese Written Language”; and Brinkley’s Dictionary.
On the literature, Aston’s “History of Japanese Literature,”
entire ; see also Chamberlain’s “ Japanese Epigrams ” in
Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxx. part ii.

1 Reprinted, by permission, from “ The Dial,” Chicago.

* Or “ Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing.”

CHAPTER XV

EDUCATION

Outline of Topics : Old-style education ; study of Dutch ;
modern education ; branches of curricula ; three kinds of schools ;
school age ; the Imperial Rescript ; kindergartens ; elementary
schools ; middle schools ; higher schools ; universities ; normal
schools ; agricultural schools ; teclinical schools ; commercial
schools ; foreign language schools ; art and music ; eleemosy-
nary institutions ; female education ; professional schools ; private
schools ; mission schools ; foreign instructors and study abroad ;
teachers’ associations; libraries; scientific study; defects of Jap-
anese education. — Bibliography.

The old-style education was at first Buddhist,
afterwards Confucian, in method and mat-
ter. It comprised chiefly instruction in the
Japanese and the Chinese languages, literature, and
history, and was mostly confined to the samurai
(knights), or military class. Female education con-
sisted mainly of reading and writing Japanese, the
elaborate rules of etiquette, and “polite accomplish-
ments ” in music and art. All instruction was given
pretty much by the Chinese system of lectures ; and
a “ memoriter ” method of learning hampered original
investigation. Especially in the domain of Japanese
history, so called, on which rested the political in-
stitutions, skepticism was practically synonymous
w'ith treason.

210 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

According to a J apanese authority, “ the first book
published [in Japan] on foreign subjects ” was by the
famous scholar Arai Hakuseki [1657-1725] under the
title “Seiyo Kibun ” (Notes of the Western Ocean).
Early in the eighteenth century a few scholars were
officially commissioned to study Dutch; and many
others secretly engaged in the same pursuit. It was
almost entirely through the Dutch that, during the
period of seclusion, the Japanese obtained their
knowledge of Western countries and peoples, of
history and science, especially of medical science.
Several Dutch scholars also studied Japan and the
J apanese.

But since the opening of Japan new ideas have
gradually come to prevail; and especially since the
Restoration of 1868, education, like all other insti-
tutions of Japan, has had the methodical and progres-
sive spirit of Western civilization infused into it.
Foreigners, especially Americans, were called in to
remodel the whole system and to instruct in the new
education. Thus in the various provinces the system
of education was graded and made harmonious for
the entire empire. Kindergartens have been estab-
lished in many localities, and are especially valuable,
because most mothers are incompetent to give satis-
factory home instruction. Six is the age at which a
child may enter the “ elementary school ” for a course
of eight years; next comes the “middle school ” for
five years ; then the “ higher school ” for two or three
years, and, finally, the Imperial Universities at Tokyo

EDUCATION

211

and Kyoto, each with its various colleges. There are
also normal schools, “common” and “higher,” for
the training of teachers, and a great many technical
and professional schools, public and private. IVIis-
sionary schools of all grades are doing an excellent
work, and in many particulars supplying a great need.
Co-education prevails only in the elementary schools ;
and the higher education of woman has been sadly
neglected, but better provision for it is gradually being
made. The first year of the new century was marked
by the establishment at Tokyo of the first University
for Women. ^ The Crown Prince Haru attended the
“Nobles’ School,” and, if he lives to ascend the
throne, will be the first Japanese Emperor educated
in a public school; and the Crown Princess Sada
attended the Peeresses’ School.

The principal branches taught in the elementary
schools are reading, writing, arithmetic (Japanese
and foreign), composition, grammar, geography, his-
tory, physical exercise, morals (Confucian), and
English; those in the middle and higher schools
are Japanese and Chinese history, composition, lan-
guage and literature, general history, mathematics,
sciences, philosophy, morals, physical exercise, Eng-
lish, French, and German; in the universities the
lines of study are varied and specialized. The
Japanese learn both to translate, write, and speak
the modern langiiages, and in the university may
study Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit.

^ See “ Chautauquan ” for April, 1902.

212 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

If we classify Japanese schools according to man-
agement, there are three kinds: those respectively
under the central government, local authorities, and
private auspices. Those of the first class are under
the supervision of the Department of Education, are
mainly special schools and higher institutions of learn-
ing, and are supported by appropriations voted by the
Imperial Diet in the annual budget. Those of the
second class are mainly elementary, middle and nor-
mal schools, are under the supervision of the local
authorities, and are supported by local taxes, some-
times supplemented by national aid. Those of the
third class are supported chiefly by tuition fees, but
may also be assisted by individual beneficence.^

The school age for children is from six to fourteen,
and covers the period of the elementary school ; while
the period of compulsory attendance is from six to
ten years of age. During the latter period education
is free ; and in any case tuition fees are arranged to
suit the financial ability of the payer. Corporal
punishment is not allowed in any school.

The inspiring motive of education in Japan is
found in an Imperial Rescript, which the Emperor
issued in October, 1890. A copy of this is kept,
often hanging framed, in every school, and on
special occasions it is read aloud, while all the
scholars reverently listen with bowed heads. It
reads as follows : ^ —

1 For a statistical table of schools in the empire, see Appendix.

® Official translation, from Cary’s "Japan and its Regeneration.”

EDUCATION

213

“ Our Ancestors founded the State on a vast basis,
•while their virtues were deeply implanted ; and Our sub-
jects, by their unanimity in their great loyalty and filial
affection, have in all ages shown them in perfection.
Such is the essential beauty of Our national polity, and
such, too, is the true spring of Our educational system.
You, Our beloved subjects, be filial to your parents, affec-
tionate to your brothers, be loving husbands and wives,
and truthful to your friends. Conduct yourselves with
modesty, and be benevolent to alL Develop your intel-
lectual faculties and perfect your moral powers by gain-
ing knowledge and by acquiring a profession. Further,
promote the public interests and advance the public
affairs ; ever respect the national Constitution and obey
the laws of the country ; and in case of emergency,
courageously sacrifice yourselves to the public good.
Thus offer every support to Our Imperial dynasty,
which shall be as lasting as the universe. You will
then not only be Our most loyal subjects, but will be
enabled to exhibit the noble character of your ancestors.

“ Such are the testaments left us by Our ancestors,
which must be observed alike by their descendants and
subjects. These precepts are perfect throughout all
ages and of universal application. It is Our desire to
bear them in Our heart in common with you. Our sub-
jects, to the end that we may constantly possess these
virtues.”

There are between 200 and 300 kindergartens,
public and private, in Japan; and they are con-
ducted, so far as outward forms are concerned, very
much as in America and Europe. The common
means of training are games, singing, conversation,
and handiwork. But the Christian kindergartens

214 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

are the only ones that carry out to full fruition
the real spirit, as expressed in Froebel’s own words:
“ My system is based upon religion and leads up to
religion.” The Christian kindergartens are quite
popular and successful.

The Japanese elementary school, like the Ameri-
can grammar school, covers a period of eight years,
which is, however, divided into two parts of four
years each. The lower portion is called the “com-
mon elementary school, ” and the upper portion is the
“higher elementary school.” In many a small vil-
lage only the former is maintained, and the latter is
often carried on by the co-operation of several vil-
lages ; but in large places both exist, either separately
or conjointly. Under certain circumstances a sup-
plementary course may be established in elementary
schools {Sho GaJcko). English may be begun in the
higher elementary school, and it is required in every
middle school.

Each prefecture must maintain at least one middle
school {Chu Gakko), and three prefectures have as
many as seven each. This institution corresponds
practically to an American high school; but its
course of study covers five years, besides the op-
portunity of a supplementary year. Candidates for
admission must be over twelve years of age, and
possess attainments equal to those who have com-
pleted the second year of the higher elementary
school. Thus two years of these schools lap over
each other. The number of middle schools, in spite

imperial university buildings, TOKYO

EDUCATION

215

of annual increase, is still inadequate to accommodate
all the applicants.

There are in Japan seven “ higher schools ” (^Koto
Gakko)^ located at Tokyo, Sendai, Kyoto, Kanazawa,
Kumamoto, Okayama, and Yamaguchi. These bear
numbers in the order given above, and are often called
by the name “High School,” because the word Koto
means simply “liigh grade.” If the reader, for in-
stance, sees elsewhere a reference to the “ Third High
School,” it wdll refer to the Koto Gakko at Kyoto.
The word “ Higher ” is, therefore, used in this book
to avoid confusion. These schools are clearing-houses,
or preparatory schools, for the universities, and have
also their own complete departments.

At present there are only two public universities
in Japan, — at Tokyo and Kyoto. The former con-
tains six colleges (Law, Medicine, Engineering,
Literature, Science, and Agriculture) ; and the latter
consists of only four colleges (Law, Medicine, Sci-
ence, and Engineering), but others will be added
gradually. There are also just two great private
universities, both in Tokyo: the Keio-gijiku, founded
by the late Mr. Fukuzawa, the “great commoner,”
and the “grand old man” of Japan; and the Waseda,
founded by that veteran statesman, Count Okuma.
There is no Christian institution of university grade,
although it is confidently expected that the Dbshisha,
at Kyoto, will soon be elevated again to that rank.
The Japanese universities have very good accommo-
dations and equipment, with strong faculties, and are

216 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

doing work worthy to be compared with that of Oc-
cidental universities. One of the most unique phases
of university work in Japan is the fact that the Im-
perial University in Tokyo maintains a chair of seis-
mology, or, in other words, supports a most important
“professor of earthquakes” !

Common normal schools number over fifty; there
must be at least one in each prefecture, and in four
cases there are two or three each. Besides these
and above these is a “higher normal school,” or
normal college, in Tokyo, with an elementary school
and a middle school for practice work. There is
also in Tokyo a “higher female normal school,” with
a kindergarten, an elementary scliool, and a high
school for practice work. But these provisions are
inadequate to supply the increasing demand for
teachers in public schools.

Inasmuch as Japan is an agricultural country
and is rich in forests, agricultural and dendrologi-
cal schools are a necessity, in order that the people
may be able to make the most out of their re-
sources. The Sapporo Agricultural College, founded
by Americans in 1872, is the best of its kind, and
furnishes a broader course of study than its name
implies.

And, in order that the industrial life of New Japan
may be elevated, and both capital and labor may
profit by the latest inventions and improvements,
manual training and other technical schools have
been started and are very popular.

EDUCATION

217

In view of tlie fact that the Japanese are not fitted
by natural temperament for a mercantile life, and yet
the geographical position of Japan is so well adapted
to a commercial career, the need of thorough instruc-
tion in modern methods of business has been keenly
felt, and is being supplied by business colleges, of
which the Higher Commercial School in Tokyo is
most useful and prosperous.

Formerly an adjunct of the above-mentioned insti-
tution, but now an independent organization, is the
Foreign Language School, Tokyo. Besides this,
several foreign languages are taught in the middle
and higher schools and the universities; and there
are also a great many private schools and classes
for instruction in one or more foreign languages.
English is, of course, the most popular and most
useful.

The Tokyo Fine Arts School is the best of its
kind, and gives instruction in painting (both Japan-
ese and European), designing, sculpture, and “in-
dustrial arts,” like engraving, puddling, casting,
lacquer, etc. The Tokyo Academy of Music is a
type of its kind, and gives instruction in vocal and
instrumental music and musical composition. It has
accomplished wonders along those lines.

The education of the blind, the deaf, and the dumb
is not neglected in Japan; there are ten schools for
the benefit of these unfortunates; and the govern-
ment institution in Tokyo is the most important.
Charity schools and orphan asylums are also carried

218 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

on, chiefly under Christian auspices, in very poor
districts in large cities.

During the early years of New Japan female edu-
cation was almost entirely in the hands of the Chris-
tian missionaries, who alone seemed to realize the
necessity of a better education and training for the
future mothers of the nation. But thinking Japan-
ese have come to realize, with Count Okuma, that
all countries which have attempted “to work with
the male sex as the single standard” have “fallen
signally behind in the march of progress”; and that
“Japan by raising woman to her proper place should
provide herself with a double standard.” Thus it
has come about that educational privileges for girls
and young ladies are increasing.

Law schools, medical schools, theological semi-
naries, and other professional schools are numerous ;
on these lines private enterprise is very active,
because the public institutions are inadequate.

There used to be a great dearth of good private
institutions of learning, and this lack was partly
due to the fact that private enterprise in this direc-
tion received little encouragement, and public spirit
was lacking on the part of those who might have
assisted in this way. But recently both the ad-
vantages of private schools and the opportunities
thus afforded to men of means have come to be
appreciated.

In this connection a few words should be written
concerning mission schools, which will also be con-

EDUCATION

219

sidered in the chapter on Christianity. In spite of
limitations both from within and from without, these
institutions, having their “ups and downs,” never-
theless maintained themselves and have won popular
favor against a strong prejudice. They have always
insisted upon a high mental and moral standard, and
have without doubt aroused the public schools to raise
their standards and ideals. Whatever may be said
for or against mission schools as evangelizing agen-
cies, it is generally acknowledged that, as educa-
tional institutions, they have been models of correct
pedagogical principles and exemplars of high morality.

It is also interesting to note that, after a period
during which the Japanese thought that they could
teach foreign languages as well as foreigners, there
is an increasing demand for foreign instructors.
Within the past two years several young men from
America have been engaged as teachers of English
in middle schools; and such opportunities are in-
creasing. Moreover, a larger number of students
than ever are annually sent abroad by the govern-
ment, or go abroad at their own expense, to finish
their education. Thus narrow prejudices are dissi-
pated and minds are broadened.

Another means for improving the educational sys-
tem of Japan is to be found in teachers’ associations,
educational societies, and summer institutes. The
first two are local ; the last are national. The educa-
tional societies are for the purpose of increasing the
general interest in education in the different locali-

220 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

ties; the teachers’ associations are, as in America,
for the improvement of methods of instruction ; and
the summer institutes are for the same purpose on a
broader scale.

What was written about private schools may be re-
peated concerning libraries. No Japanese Carnegie
has yet appeared ; only a few men, like Mr. Ohashi,
of Tokyo, and Baron Kodama, Governor-General of
Formosa, have endowed libraries as memorials. The
largest public library is the Imperial Library ^ in
Tokyo, with over 400,000 volumes, of which more
than 50,000 volumes are in European languages.

It is in the domain of science that the Japanese
have achieved, perhaps, their greatest intellectual
successes. Their work in original investigation is
always painstaking, and in many cases it has at-
tained an international reputation. The names of
Dr. Kitasato, associated with the famous Dr. Koch
in his researches, and Dr. Aoyama, the hero of the
pest in China, are well known; and now comes Dr.
Ishigami, who claims to have discovered the germ
of smallpox.

The chief defects in the Japanese educational
system are on three lines: dependence on Chinese
ideographs, vague instruction in ethics, and en-
couragement of cramming. The removal of these
hindrances to progress is engaging the attention of
thoughtful educators, but is a slow and gradual
process.

^ This has recently secured the famous Max Miiller Library.

EDUCATION

221

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

“The Wee Ones of Japan” (Mrs. Bramhall), pp. 97-108;
“ A Japanese Boy ” (Shigemi) ; “Japanese Girls and AVoinen ”
and “ A Japanese Interior” (Miss Bacon), all give interesting
accounts of school life in both Old and New Japan. The
Department of Education issues annually in English, for free
distribution on application, a “Report,” which contains the
latest statistics and other information. “ The Educational
Conquest of the Far East” (Lewis) is an excellent discussion
of educational conditions and problems of the day in China
and Japan.

CHAPTER XVI

ESTHETIC JAPAN

Outline of Topics : Japan’s debt to art. — Wide diffusion of
aesthetic ideals. — Chinese origin of Japanese art. — Painting the
key-note. — Considered a form of poetry. — Characteristics. —
Color prints. — Sculpture. — Keramics. — Metal work. — Cloisonne.
Lacquer. — Embroidery. — Music. — Poetry. — Dancing. — Drama.
Tea ceremonies. — Flower arrangement. — Landscape gardening. —
Unity of the arts. — Bibliography.

IT has been said with a great deal of truth that
no other country in the world owes so much
to its art as Japan. As Huish puts it, “ Japan
would never have attracted the extraordinary notice
which she so rapidly did had it not been for her art.
. . . Her art manufactures have penetrated the length
and breadth of the world.” Yet it is a curious fact,
to which Chamberlain calls attention, that the Jap-
anese have “ no genuinely native word ” for either
art or nature. The expression “ fine art ” is com-
monly represented by the word bi-jutsu, a Chinese
compound meaning literally “ beauty-craft.” So in-
timately are lesthetic ideals bound up with the whole
course of Japanese hfe and modes of thought, that
art is not, as in the Western world, a mere sporadic
efflorescence, but the inevitable expression of the
spirit of the Eastern civilization, and needing there-

ESTHETIC JAPAN

223

fore no distinctive term to denote it as a thing set
apart and existing by itself.

While this is true, it is also true that Japan
furnishes no exception to Mr. Whistler’s dictum that
“there never was an art-loving nation.” The ex-
planation of this seeming paradox is one which needs
to be home in mind. The aesthetic ideals crystallized
in the works of the countless generations of artists
who for more than a thousand yeai-s have held to
them firmly as their guiding principles, have become
so much the intellectual heritage of the people as a
whole that it is most natural that the foreign observer,
noting the aesthetic impress upon everything about
him, should look upon the Japanese as a nation of
artists. To an extent not known elsewhere the Jap-
anese mechanic is indeed an art-isan. And there is a
measure of truth in Percival Lowell’s assertion that
there are “ no mechanical arts in Japan simply because
all such have been raised to the position of fine arts.” ^
From the Japanese point of view, however, differ-
ences in degree of artistic perception are as pronounced
among the Japanese as among other peoples. In
Japan, as in all other lands, artistic inspiration is
given to but few among the many ; artists having
creative genius tower high above their fellows ; and
the little touches that excite the wonder and admira-
tion of the outside world are seen to be in large
degree the outcome of conventional notions rather
than the expression of individual feeling.

1 “ The Soul of the Far East,” p. 121.

224 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

The art of Japan like most other elements in her
civilization is of Chinese origin. Concurrently with
the introduction by way of the Middle Kingdom of
that stream of abstract idealism known as Northern
Buddhism, China became the fountain head whence
until comparatively recent times a succession of
aesthetic ideas spread over Japan.^ Modern Chinese
art is justly held to possess little merit, but in the
days when it exerted its dominating influence upon
the Japanese mind it had attained a very high stand-
ard of excellence, and in particular some of the Chinese
painters were among the greatest the world has ever
known. With the exception of a few original modi-
fications, the product of temperament and historical
situation, everything in Japanese art has come from
China ; yet the generic ideas have been so worked
over and transformed in the process that the result-
ant is distinctly not Chinese but Japanese. The in-
fluence of Buddhism has been very great ; it would
indeed, be difiicult to overestimate it.^ Most of
the earlier artists were Buddliist priests, and, until
the revival of Shinto as the State religion, during the
present reign. Buddhism was directly and indirectly
one of the principal promoters and patrons of the arts.

1 While it is possible and even probable that this movement
may have begun before the formal introduction of Buddhism from
Korea in the year 552, our present knowledge of the history of art
in Japan anterior to that event is not sufficient to warrant any
definite assertion respecting it.

* See “ The Ideals of the East,” by Kakasu Okakura. London,
1903.

PAINTING BY YASUNOBU : IIEUOX AND LOTUS

ESTHETIC JAPAN

225

Foremost among the arts of Japan, both relatively
and as the key which is necessary to understanding
and appreciation of the others, is painting. It is an
art differing in many respects from that of the
European schools of painting, but not less worthy of
serious consideration, and in certain qualities it ranks
supreme. To those who have seen the masterpieces
preserved among the temple treasures, or hidden in
the collections of Japanese noblemen, and have felt
their grandeur and charm, this will seem far short of
over-statement. In the West, however, there is little
opportunity to gauge the achievements of tlie great
Japanese painters,^ and it is even possible to spend
a lifetime in Japan and remain in ignorance thereof.

Japanese critics have always considered painting
to be a form of poetry. The painter therefore strives
to represent the soul of tilings rather than their vis-
ible forms. Not that he scorns realism, indeed he is
often minutely realistic in a way that is unapproach-
able ; but realism with him is only incidental, his
main purpose being to produce a poem in form and
color. To this end all irrelevant details are neces-

1 Tlie principal collections of Japanese paintings in America are
the Fenollosa collection in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and
that of Mr. Charles L. Freer, of Detroit. A few fine works are
owned by Mr. Henry O. Havemeyer, Mr. Howard Mansfield, and
Mr. C. D. Weldon, of New York ; Mr. Denman Ross, Mr. Quincy A.
Shaw, and Mrs. John Gardner, of Boston ; Mr. Charles J. Morse, of
Uniontown, Pa. ; and Mr. Frederick W. Gookin, of Chicago. In Eng-
land the most notable collections are those of the British Museum
and Mr. Arthur Morrison, of Loughton. There are also a number
of private collections in France and Germany.

226 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

sarily omitted. Nothing is given that in any way
interferes with the central thought. Reduced thus
to its simplest elements, his art calls for the utmost
harmony in all that enters into it, and first of all for
perfect composition of line, mass, and vacant space.
Scarcely less important is color arrangement, includ-
ing the balancing of light and dark as factors in the
result. A high degree of technical skill is also requi-
site, for the poetry would be lost should the execution
seem labored. The greatest works are, in appearance
at least, spontaneous to an astonishing degree. Won-
derful indeed are the possibilities of a single brush
stroke in the hands of a master. The effects pro-
duced range from almost microscopic realism to the
broadest impressionism, the latter quality being pre-
dominant in the works of some of the most eminent
artists.

So far as it is possible to sum them up in a brief
statement, the distinguishing characteristics of Jap-
anese painting are these : —

1. Excellence of composition.

2. Subtlety and beauty of line.

3. Remarkable command of the brush, and directness
of method in its use.

4. Simplicity of treatment, and rigid exclusion of non-
essentials.

5. Absence of chiaroscuro, and the employment of
notan, or contrast between light and dark.

6. Skilful generalization of forms.

7. Poetical conception.

8. High development of the sense of harmony in color.

ESTHETIC JAPAN

227

Any such summing up is, however, necessarily im-
perfect. It is not feasible to give here any account
of the various schools and artists, and the reader
desirinc more extended information is referred to the

sources indicated in the bibliography appended to
this chapter. Before leaving this branch of the sub-
ject, mention should be made of calligraphy, which,
although justly regarded in Japan as an art, is not so
much a separate art as the art of painting applied to
writing the Chinese ideographs. It wiU not appear
strange, therefore, that masterly writing should be
esteemed equally with painting.

An art closely allied to painting is that of chromo-
xylography, or color printing from engraved wood
blocks. Nothing could be simpler than the method
employed, the sheets of paper being laid face down
on the block which has been previously inked with
a brush, and pressure is then applied by rubbing the
back of the sheets with a pad held in the hand of
the printer. Nevertheless no greater triumphs of the
printer’s art have ever been achieved than the beautiful
color prints of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
after designs by Harunobu, Koriusai, Shunsho, Kyo-
naga, Toyokuni, Utamaro, Hokusai, and other noted
artists of the Popular school. Though still in use, this
process is largely being superseded by the cheaper,
if less artistic, processes of lithography, collotype, etc.

In glyptic art the triumphs of the Japanese liave
been little less than in that of painting. The most
remarkable specimens are the ancient figures in bronze

228 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

and in wood which are preserved in the temples. The
Daihatsu, or gigantic bronze statue of Buddha, at Kara
will serve as an example, having been illustrated so
often that all the world is famihar with its appearance.

The objects upon which the art of the Japanese
sculptors has been exercised are many. Particularly
in the carving of the masks used m the No dances,
and the little ornaments called netsuke, the skill and
artistic qualities displayed are often of the highest
order. It would be difficult to overpraise the best
work of such artists in this line, as Deme Jikan,
Minko, Tomotada, Miwa, and many others. As in
the case of painting, the method used by the carver
must be direct and masterly to satisfy Japanese taste.
Only clean, strong strokes will pass muster. There
must be no niggling nor retouching. Visitors to the
shrines at Nikko will be impressed by this quality in
the remarkable works to be found there by the famous
seventeenth-century sculptor Hidari Jingoro, that is
to say, “ Left-handed Jingoro.”

One of the most ancient of the arts of Japan is
that of the potter. It is also one of the most profit-
able for study. The principles which have been
enumerated as applicable to painting will be found
carefully embodied in the fabrication and ornamenta-
tion of keramic wares, the variety of which is endless.
In some instances these wares are known by the
names of the makers, as Ninsei, Kenzan, Kozan,
Seifu, and others; but in general they are desig-
nated by the names of the provinces wherein they

PAINTING BY HO-ITSU : VIEW OF FUJI-SAN

ESTHETIC JAPAN

229

are made. Thus we have the wares of Satsuma, Ilizen,
Arita, Imari, Kaga, Kyoto, Owai’i, Bizen, Iga, Ota,
Soma, Izumo, and many more. Occasionally the name
of a particular locality is used, as for instance that of
Seto in Owari. Here it was that Shirozaemon, called
“ the Father of Pottery,” established himself in the
thirteenth century ; and such was the repute of the
products of his kiln that Seto-mono, or Seto ware,
became a generic name in Japan for all keramic pro-
ductions, quite as in English we use the teiin “ china ”
for all kinds of porcelain wherever made.

Unfortunately the Japanese potter of to-day is
largely under the influence of foreign markets, to
the great degradation of his art. Tlie condition is
well portrayed by Huish, who says : “ The wealthy
‘red-hairs’ who came to him from the West could see
no beauties in the objects that had given the greatest
pleasure to tlie men of refinement of his own country ;
and in oixler that the potter might participate in the
overflow of silver dollars -with which the foreigners
were blessed, he was obliged to put aside those prin-
ciples which he and his father before him had looked
upon as the fundamental ones of their craft, and pro-
duce wares totally at variance with his preconceived
ideas of the right.”

Many and distinctive are the arts of the Japanese
metal-workers. They are widely renowned for their
skill in compounding numerous alloys, for inla3'ing
one metal upon another, for clever manipulation of
refractoiy materials such as wrought iron of exceeding

230 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

toughness which they nevertheless carve and chase
almost as though it were wax, for casting in bronze
and iron by the cii’e perdue process, and especially
for the manufacture of armor, both offensive (such as
swords and spears) and defensive (such as helmets
And coats of mail). Japanese swords excel even the
famous blades of Damascus and Toledo, and the
names of the swordsmiths Munichika, Masamune,
Muramasa, and others, are now of international rep-
utation. The blades which were made by these
men are not only of extraordinary excellence, but are
also veritable works of art and highly prized as
such by connoisseurs. Equally celebrated in different
lines are the works of the Miochin and Goto families ;
and among the metal-workers of to-day are many
worthy successors of these giants of the past.

The art of enamelling upon metal is, with some
exceptions, comparatively a new one in Japan, but
is now very popular. The wares are known to the
Japanese as Shippo-yaki, and in general, in the West,
as cloisonnd. The centres of the enamel-workers
are Tokyo, Kyoto, and Nagoya, and the best-known
makers are Namikawa, of Tokyo, the inventor of the
“ cloison-less ” enamel, and his namesake of Kyoto.

One of the most distinctive of the arts of Japan
is that of lacquering, and the Japanese product far
excels that of any other makers. The lac, Avhich is
a varnish made from the poisonous sap of a tree of
the sumac (rhus) family, is applied in thin layers
on a carefully prepared ground, usually of wood, and

ESTHETIC JAPAN

231

after being dried in a moist oven or steam-chest, is
carefully rubbed down and polished. This is repeated
with each layer. Various substances, metallic and
other, are mixed with the lac or apphed to its surface
before it is dry, and it may be carved and inlaid in
different ways. This is a bare outline of a process
which is long and tedious and which has many varia-
tions. Extended accounts with many interesting de-
tails will be found in Rein’s “ Industries of Japan,”
in the ninth volume of the Transactions of the Asiatic
Society of Japan, and in Volume VII. of Captain
Brinkley’s “ Japan.”

Embroidery, like the designing for brocades and
other fabrics, is an art which follows closely the
analogies of the art of painting, and is governed by
the same aesthetic principles. The embroiderers in
Japan are not women but men, and in their work they
often display remarkable taste and ability as designers,
as weU as craftsmanship of the liighest order.

To Occidental ears Japanese music, set, as it always
is, in a minor key and abounding in discords, seems
unworthy of the name of music. To characterize it
as merely “ strummings and squealings ” because it
does not conform to om* ideas, is, however, an unfair
aspersion. The fact is that it is based upon a scale
wliich differs from that which we use, one of its
peculiarities being the introduction of a semi-tone
above the tonic. In the Japanese mind music is so
closely related to the sister arts of poetry and dancing
that neither can weU be treated separately. As

232 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Captain Brinldey tells us : “ There is no Japanese
music that will not serve as accompaniment for the
Japanese stanza, and the stanza, in turn, adapts itself
perfectly to the fashion of the Japanese dance. The
law of the unities seems to have prescribed that the
cadence of the stanza should melt into the lilt of
the song, and that the measure of the song should
be worked out by the ‘ woven paces and waving
hands’ of the dance. The affinity between them is
so close that it is difficult to tell where one begins
and the other ends.”

Japanese poetry is also conspicuously different from
that of the Occident. It is a form of word painting
in brief lyrics, and “ it is primarily an expression of
emotion.” The odes which all Japanese learn to
compose are verbal melodies which can be neither
transposed nor translated. Owing to the nature of
the Japanese language, there are no accented syllables,
nor is there any quantity, nor any rhyme. This is
well explained by Aston in his “ History of Japanese
Literature.” He says : —

“ As every syllable ends in a vowel, and as there are
only five vowels, there could only be five rhymes, the
constant reiteration of which would be intolerably mo-
notonous. . . . The only thing in the mechanism of Jap-
anese poetry which distinguishes it from prose is the
alternation of phrases of five and seven syllables each.
It is, in fact, a species of blank verse.”

The art of dancing, wliich consists mainly in
rhythmic posturings, often of great beauty, and re-

ESTHETIC JAPAN

233

quiring not only physical training of the most rigor-
ous character but a high degree of skill, is in turn
intimately associated with the histrionic art. For an
account of the early dances and their gradual merg-
ing into the classical drama or dance known as JVo
(litei-ally, “accomplishment”), the reader is referred
to the third volume of Captain Brinkley’s “ Japan :
Its History, Arts, and Literature.” Few foreigners
ever learn to appreciate Japanese dancing. Its pri-
mary purpose is mimetic. “ The mechanics of the
dance,” says Brinkley, “are as nothing to the Jap-
anese spectator compared with the music of its motion,
and he interprets the staccato and legato of its passages
w'ith discrimination amounting almost to instinct.
In exceptional cases the foreigner’s perception may
he similarly subtle,” but as he must generally be
unable to apprehend the esoterics of the dance, he is
“ like one watching a drama where an unknown plot
is acted in an unintelligible language.”

As to the Japanese drama proper, it differs from
our own chief!}' in the stage setting and accessories,
and in the greater importance given to the mimetic
side of the performance.

An art essentially Japanese is that of flower arrange-
ment. In its origin it is closely related to the
Cha-no-yu^ or Tea Ceremonial, which developed into
a cult during the Shogunate of Ashikaga Yoshimasa
in the fifteenth century. This cult, which was
founded on the four cardinal virtues of urbanity,
courtesy, purity, and imperturbability, has been a

234 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

mighty force in holding the Japanese true to a high
standard in matters of taste, by combining “ aesthetic
eclecticism of the most fastidious nature with the
severest canons of simplicity and austerity.” The
end has been achieved not so much by the elaborate
code as through what it stands for; the ceremony
being in reality a gathering of connoisseurs to view
works of art, each of which to win favor must meet
the requirements of the most exacting taste. Out
of the aesthetic necessity of making fitting disposition
of the flowers introduced into the tea-room, grew the
art of Ike-hana, or flower arrangement. This has
gradually come to have an elaborate code of its owm,
and several distinct “ schools ” have arisen. In a
general way it may be said that the art consists
in arranging flowers with regard to harmonious com-
position of line, while keeping in mind certain poetic
analogies which must not be violated, and the ap-
pearance of vitality and natural growdh. Here, again,
the principles of composition in painting find their
application.

Still another application is found in landscape gar-
dening, which in the hands of the Japanese is also
a fine art. This too has its different “ schools ” and
its special code of rules, formulated during the many
centuries of development at the hands of successive
generations of artists.

Japan is, in truth, a shining example of the essen-
tial unity of all the arts, and illustrates admirably
the truth of the old saying, Natura artis magister

ESTHETIC JAPAN

235

(Nature the mistress of art). Unfortunately, what
has been said in this chapter applies more to Old
Japan than to the Japan of to-day. iModern Japan,
whether rightly or wrongly, is becoming tired of being
praised for aesthetic excellence, and is more anxious
to be appraised and appreciated for its material, social,
commercial, and political “ progress.” To the cul-
tivated Japanese, who regard art as the highest out-
come and flowering of civilization, this tendency is
not encouraging. And as to the future of Japanese
art, its perpetuation must come from excluding rather
than attempting to amalgamate Western ideas. In
the impressive words of Okakura, the outcome will
be “ victory from witliin, or a mighty death without.”

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Painting; “ The Pictorial Arts of Japan” (Anderson) ; “Cata-
logue of Japanese and Chinese Paintings in the British Mu-
seum ” (Anderson) ; “ The Painters of Japan ” (Morrison).
Prints: “ An Outline of the History of Ukiyo-ye ” (Fenollosa) ;
“ Geschichte des Japanischen Farbenholzschnitts” (Seidlitz) ;
“Japanese Illustration” (Strange); “Japanese Wood En-
gravings ” (Anderson) ; “ Japanese Wood-cutting and Wood-
cut Printing ” (Tokuno).

Pottery; “Catalogue of the Morse Collection of Japanese
Pottery, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston” (Morse); “Japan:
Its History, Art, and Literature ” (Brinkley) ; “Keramic Art
of Japan ” (Audsley and Bowes) ; “ L’Art Japonais ” (Gonse).
Glyptic Art: “ Histoire de I’Art du Japan,” published by the
Japanese Commission for the Paris Exposition of 1900.
This work contains much information about all the arts, not
available elsewhere.

Metal Work — Lacquer: “The Industries of Japan” (Rein);
“ Notes on Shippo ” (Bowes) ; “ Ornamental Arts of Japan ”

236 A HAISTDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

(Audsley) ; “L’Art Japonais” (Gonse) ; “Japan and its
Art” (Huisli).

Music : “ The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan ”
(Piggott) ; “ Miyako-Dori ” (Bevan).

Poetry: “ History of Japanese Literature ” (Aston); “Classical
Poetry of the Japanese ” (Chamberlain) ; “ Japanese Odes ”
(Dickins).

Drama: “Artistic Japan,” vol. v. (edited by S. Bing).

Flower Arrangement : “The Flowers of Japan and the Art of
Floral Arrangement ” (Conder).

Landscape-Gardening: “Landscape-Gardening in Japan”

(Conder).

General : “ An Artist’s Letters from Japan ” (La Farge) ; “ Jin-
rikisha Days in Japan ” (Scidmore).

CHAPTER XVIP

DISESTABLISHMENT OF SHINTO

OcTUNB OF Topics : Religion in Japan ; Shinto ; a “ natural
religion”; simple services; religious patriotism; perfunctory wor-
ship ; Shinto doomed “ as a religion ” ; secularization of Ise slirines ;
element of embarrassment to Christians; “worship” (?) of Em-
peror’s portrait; diflBculties in translation of Christian terms;
method of reforms in Japan; future of Shinto. — Bibliography.

T is a curious fact that Japan cannot boast of an

indigenous religion, or of much original mental

or moral philosophy. “ Shinto ” (The Gods’
Way), purely Japanese in its origin, is only a cult,
a system of worship, not a religion, or even a phi-
losophy. Buddhism and Confucianism came in from
China, perhaps through Korea, and Christianity en-
tered from Europe and America.

Shinto is a system in which the deification and
worship of heroes, emperors, family ancestors, and
forces of nature play an important part. It has no
dogmas, no sacred books, no moral code, “ no philos-
ophy, no code of ethics, no metaphysics ” ; it sums up
its theory of human duty in the following injunction :
“Follow your natural impulses and obey the laws of

' A large portion of this chapter is reprinted, by permission,
from “ The Standard,” Chicago.

238 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

the State.” ^ It requires of its adherents nothing
except worship at certain temples or shrines on
stated days. A “ pure Shinto ” temple is an ex-
ceedingly plain affair, in front of which, at a little
distance, is invariably set a torii, or arch. Without
idols, the temple contains, as emblems of Shinto,
strips of paper hanging from a wand, together with
a mirror. The form of ordinary worship is simple :
it consists of washing the face, or hands, or both,
with holy water; of ringing a bell, or clapping the
hands, to call the god’s attention; of casting in a
coin as an offering; of standing with clasped hands
during a short prayer, and of making a farewell bow.
This ceremony is sufficient to “ cover a multitude of
sins ” ! At the regular festivals there are special and
elaborate services, at which the priests (often lay-
men) officiate. Pilgrimages to holy spots, usually
“high places,” are important in Shinto.

But Shintb seems destined to decay as naturally as
it developed. According to the best authorities, it
was, in the original and purest form, ancestor-
worship combined with the worship of nature. That
is to say, it arose from the natural reverence paid to
ancestors, whether individual or national, and from

1 “Shinto signifies character in the highest sense, — courage,
courtesy, honor, and, above all things, loyalty. The spirit of
Shinto is the spirit of filial piety [Lat. pietas], the zest of duty,
the readiness to surrender life for a principle. ... It is the docility
of the child ; it is the sweetness of the .Japanese woman. ... It is
religion — but religion transmuted into hereditary moral impulse —
religion transmuted into ethical instinct. It is the whole emotional
life of the race, — the Soul of Japan.” — IIeakx.

DISESTABLISHMENT OF SHINTO

239

the awe inspired by the wonderful and frequently
horrible forces of nature. In time these two ele-
ments became more or less confused, so that eventu-
ally, in some cases, national ancestors were identified
with heavenly bodies, and the sun, for instance, wor-
shipped as a goddess, was called the special ancestor
of the Japanese nation. It seems proper, therefore,
to call Shinto, so far as the word “religion” is ap-
plicable to it, a “ natural religion ” in more senses
than one of the word “natural.”^

It has just been intimated that the word “religion ”
is not in all points applicable to Shinto. It has, for
instance, no dogmas or creed, except the very simple
and general injunction: “Follow your own natural
impulses and obey the laws of the State.” Dr.
Nitobe says, in his book entitled “Bushido”: “The
tenets of Shintoism cover the two predominating
features of the emotional life of our race — patri-
otism and loyalty.” Its services are very simple,

1 “ Shinto is the Japanese conception of the cosmos. It is a com-
bination of the worship of nature and of their own ancestors. . . .
To the Japanese eye, the universe itself took on the paternal look.
Awe of their parents, which these people could comprehend, lent
explanation to dread of nature, which they could not. Quite co-
gently, to their minds, the thunder and the typhoon, the sunshine
and the earthquake, were the work not only of anthropomorphic
beings, but of beings ancestrally related to themselves. In short,
Shinto ... is simply the patriarchal principle projected without
perspective into the past, dilating with distance into deity.”

“ Shinto is so Japanese it will not down. It is the faith of these
people’s birthright, not of their adoption. Its folk-lore is what
they learned at the knee of the race-mother, not what they were
taught fronj abroad. Buddhist they are by virtue of belief ; Shintd
by virtue of being.” — Lowell, ‘‘The Soul of the Far East.”

240 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

and consist of the presentation of offerings and tho
recital of formal addresses, which are partly praises
and partly prayers. In one ritual, that of purifica-
tion, it is true that there may be seen signs of moral
instruction ; but this is now a mere formal ceremony,
performed, perhaps, only twice a year in some, not
all, of the principal Shinto shrines. Certainly, in
the sense that Christianity, with its creeds, whether
simple or complex, its moral doctrines, its spiritual
teachings, its outlook into the future life, its re-
straining and uplifting influence upon the individual
and society, is called a religion, Shinto has no right
to that appellation.

But as a system of national as well as of individ-
ual worship, including prayers to the deified an-
cestors or national heroes or to the personified and
deified powers of nature, Shinto is properly a re-
ligion. And there can be no doubt that, in the
eyes of the great mass of the people, it has all the
force of a religion. One needs to stand but a few
minutes in front of a Shinto shrine to observe that
the mode of worship is practically the same as that
before a Buddhist temple. This does not refer to
the regular public ceremonies at stated times, but
to the brief ordinary \dsits of the common people to
the shrines and temples as they may be passing by.
In their hearts there is apparently as much “wor-
ship ” and “reverence ” in one case as in the other.
And this superstitious attitude of the people toward
Shinto has been utilized on more than one occasion

DISESTABLISHMENT OF SHINTO 241

in political measures, so that Shinto has often b^en
nothing but a political engine. “ In its lower forms
[it] is blind obedience to governmental and priestly
dictates.” It has thus been unfairly used as a test
of so-called patriotism, a kind of ecclesiastical patri-
otism, founded on mythology and superstition. Thus
Shinto has been, as Sir Ernest Satow called it, “in
a certain sense, a state religion, since its temples are
maintained out of the imperial and local revenues,
and the attendance of the principal officials is re-
quired by court etiquette at certain annual festivals
which are celebrated at the palace.” Similarly, local
officials are required to be present and “worship”
on certain occasions at local shrines. As Dr. Griffis
has remarked, “To those Japanese whose first idea
of duty is loyalty to the Emperor, Shinto thus be-
comes a system of patriotism exalted to the rank of
a religion.”

But the relation of the educated classes toward
Shinto is quite different. A knowledge of science
has shown the foolishness of personifying and deify-
ing the forces of nature and of worshipping foxes,
badgers, and other animals. Moreover, the scientific
study of the Japanese annals has revealed the ab-
surdities of much that had been accepted as real
history, and has shown that the so-called historical
foundation of Shinto is a mass of myths and legends.
The well-educated Japanese do not believe the non-
sense of the “ Kojiki ” upon which the claim that the
Emperor should be worshipped is based ; but few, if

242 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

any, dare to give public expression to their own pri-
vate opinions, for they love life and reputation more
than liberty of speech. And many of those who
really know better not only will employ the old fic-
tions in word of mouth or on the written page, but
will even visit shrines and go perfunctorily through
the forms of worship.

Now it is quite evident that, ever since the opening
of Japan and the consequent spread of popular edu-
cation, the diffusion of scientific knowledge, and the
propagation of Christianity, Shinto as a religion has
been doomed. Not merely monotheism, but also
science, ridiculed the Shinto doctrine of myriads of
gods ; and even atheism and agnosticism, so heartily
welcomed in Japan, would not lend any support to
the superstitions of Shinto. Ever since the Restora-
tion of 1868, which was, of course, a revival of pure
political Shinto, frequent attempts have been made
to have Shinto declared, in actual fact, by special
enactment, the State religion of Japan. But reli-
gious Shinto has been suffering a gradual decline, as
Dr. Griffis shows in “The Religions of Japan.” For
a little while the council that had charge of Shinto
matters “ held equal authority with the great council
of the government. Pretty soon the first step down-
ward was taken, and from a supreme council it was
made one of the ten departments of the government.
In less than a year followed another retrograde move-
ment, and the department was called a board. Finally,
in 1877, the board became a bureau.” And, in the

DISESTABLISHMENT OF SHINTO 243

closing year of the nineteenth century, another step
downward was taken by making a complete official
demarcation between Shinto shrines and Buddhist
temples. Hereafter Buddhist and Christian matters
come under the charge of the Bureau of Religions;
while Shinto affairs are entirely secularized and set
apart under a Bureau of Shrines. This is the final
step in the official disestablishment of Shinto. It
is one of the greatest triumphs of civilization and
Christianity in Japan, for it has evidently been made
necessary by the spread of the gospel; and this move
is fraught with deep significance, wdth great promise
and encouragement.

Even before this official action had been taken, the
necessity for completely secularizing Shinto had been
fully recognized within its own circles. In 1899
the officials of the Great Shrine at Ise, in which are
preserved the mirror, the sword, and the jewel, the
three sacred treasures of Shint5, took the proper
legal steps to become a secular organization. They
asserted that Shinto is “merely a mechanism for
keeping generations in touch with generations, and
preserving the continuity of the nation’s veneration
for its ancestors.” Shinto could never hope “to
stand as a religion,” but it might stand “as the
embodiment of a national sentiment.” According to
the editor of the “Japan Mail,” the leaders of ShintS
have “shown great astuteness” in taking that step;
and others have even suggested that they have very
shrewdly laid a most dangerous trap for Christians

244 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

by attempting to deprive them of a valid reason for
not participating in Shinto ceremonies.

And there is no doubt that there still remains an
element of embarrassment to Christians. !Xominally
and theoretically, Shinto is no longer a rebgion ; it is
“ merely a cult embodying the principle of veneration
for ancestors, and having for its chief function the
performance of rites in memory of the [so-called]
divine ancestors of the empire’s sovereigns.” But
the common people will continue to regard Shinto
in the light of a religion, and to worship and pray at
the shrines. Until, therefore, the masses are edu-
cated up to a knowledge of the distinctions between
“human” and “divine,” “secular” and “religious,”
“reverence” and “worship,” they wiU continue to
bow their heads, clap their hands, and mumble
their prayers at Shinto shrines. Christians, of
course, ought not to indulge in such practices ; but,
because such things are done by those who do not
know better, should they refrain entirely from par-
ticipating in national celebrations and patriotic cere-
monies ? Or should they, regardless of what others
may be doing, take part in whatever way their con-
sciences will allow? Is this a case in which Paul’s
instructions about eating meat and things offered to
idols would be applicable ?

This is really much the same question that
arose some years ago with reference to bowing be-
fore the Emperor’s portrait. To that ceremony the
common word for “ worship ” \reihai or liairei] was

DISESTABLISHMENT OF SHINTO 245

applied; and therefore many Christians conscien-
tiously refused to perform it. Now, those Japanese
words are composed of rez, a very common term in-
dicating any polite act, and hai, which in its original
ideographic form was written with a picture of two
hands clasped, and therefore naturally indicates
worship. But this word hai is an integral part of
such words as haiken (a very polite expression for
“please let me see”), haishaku (“please lend”),
haikei (the humble phrase at the beginning of a
letter). In all these cases the word hai expresses
a humble request to a superior, originally made with
clasped- hands and bowed head. These words are
in daily use by Christians, including missionaries,
without conscientious scruples, because they are ap-
parently cases of what rhetoricians call “ fossil meta-
phors.” It would appear, then, that 7iaz, which
gives reihai its significance of “worship,” may have
shades of meaning, just as we speak, not only of the
“ worship of the one, true God, ” but also of “ hero-
worship.” It is, in fact, a question of terms in a
language and among a people where such fine dis-
tinctions are not drawn between the secular and the
religious, the common and the uncommon, the holy
and the unholy. In a country where each person
must humble himself before others and must express
that humility in words and deeds that to Occidentals
suggest Uriah Heep, and where profound bows are
the most ordinary occurrence, bowing to the Em-
peror’s portrait is scarcely “worship.” It is no

246 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

more “ worship ” or “ idolatry ” than, baring the head
when the United States flag was raised at San Juan
de Porto Rico, or when the British sing “ God Save
the King,” or than standing with bared and bowed
heads before an open grave. To repeat, the whole
question is largely one of terms in a language under-
going great transitions and modifications through
contact with Occidental thought and speech.

In this connection the whole subject of trans-
lation comes up. What Japanese words, for in-
stance, shall be used for “God,” “spirit,” “love,”
“home,” “worship,” “personal,” and many other
terms? The ideas included in such words do not
exist in the Japanese mind, and therefore there
are no absolutely equivalent terms. Either old
words of lower concepts must be used, or words
must be coined; in either case the full idea of the
original is not transferred to the Japanese mind
without considerable explanation. But this is a
digression.

This disestablishment of Shinto is another instance
of the peculiar method by which reforms, whether
political, social, or moral, are usually accomplished
in Japan. In Occidental nations political reforms
have been initiated by the people, by the power of
public opinion ; and popular rights have been wrested
by the ruled from the unwilling rulers, whether feudal
barons or monarchs. But in Japan all the political
and social reforms of the last few decades have been
imposed by the ruling classes upon the indifferent

CHKHKV m.OSSOMS

DISESTABLISHMENT OF SHINTO 247

people. It is probably true that the great mass of the
Japanese care very little, if any, whether their gov-
ernment is an absolute or a constitutional monarchy ;
know scarcely anything about the cabinet, the Im-
perial Diet, the new codes, and such things ; and are
contented with the old customs, costumes, ceremo-
nies, and religions. They are not like that Irishman
who, when he was asked, immediately upon landing
in New York, to which party he belonged, promptly
replied, “I’m agin the government.” The common
people of Japan go to the other extreme and are
always “for the government”; that is, they favor
the established order, whatever it may be, and do
not want any disturbance. Or it may, perhaps, be
nearer the truth to say that they keep “ the noiseless
tenor of their way, ” regardless of what changes may
be transpiring in social and political Japan. But,
although they are natural conservatives, they are,
nevertheless, able to adapt themselves gradually to
the new order of things, as soon as these are firmly
established. Now this disestablishment of Shinto
has not come about, as idolatry has often been over-
thrown in the isles of the sea, in accordance with
the demands of the people, who had learned better
from the teachings of Christianity and modern
science; but it has been carried out somewhat as a
political measure by the government, and the people
must still be educated up to an understanding of the
new status of Shinto.

But, although Shinto will continue for some time

248 A HAJSIDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

to be considered a religion by the mass of the people,
and thus the full results of disestablishment cannot
be immediately realized ; yet this official removal of
Shinto from the position of a religion is one of the
most important reforms of this great reform era in
Japan, When Constantine disestablished the religions
of Greece and Rome by establishing Christianity as
the religion of his empire, the worship of Zeus (or
Jupiter), of Aphrodite (or Venus), and of the other
deities of Olympus, did not cease at once; nor, on
the other hand, did the efforts of Julian succeed in
reviving the old idolatry. Shinto will linger and
continue to attract thousands of worshippers to its
shrines; but it is doomed to die as perished the
Greek and Roman religions. Amaterasu, the sun-
goddess, will yet have her votaries in Japan as had
Apollo in Greece and Rome; but the rays of the
Sun of Righteousness will dispel the darkness of
this myth. The farmers will continue to make their
offerings and their petitions at the shrines of Inari
Sama, the rice-god, and will attempt to propitiate
the wrath of the god of thunder and lightning; but
they will gradually learn of the Almighty, who send-
eth seed-time and harvest, lightning and thunder, rain
and sunshine. The sailors and fishermen will con-
tinue their worship at the shrines of their special
deities, until they know of Him who maketh the seas
to be calm and the winds to be still. Therefore, al-
though the Japanese government has pronounced the
sentence of death upon the Shinto religion, the exe-

DISESTABLISHMENT OF SHINTO

249

cution of that sentence will be a very gradual and
prolonged affair. In the mean time it behooves the
disciples of Jesus Christ to be unremitting in their
labors of teaching the Japanese people to substitute
for “the Way of the Gods” the religion of Him who
said, “I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life.”

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

See Rein’s “ Japan,” Peery’s “ Gist of Japan,” Cary’s “ Japan
and its Regeneration,” Knapp’s “ Feudal and Modern Japan,”
and Lowell’s “ Soul of the Far East,” pp. 162-193. But espe-
cially valuable are “ The Religions of Japan ” (Griffis), “ Occult
Japan ” (Lowell), Hearn’s works, and papers by Sir Ernest Satow
and Dr. Florenz in Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vols.
ii., iii. (App.), vii., ix., xxvii. These references are, of course,
on the general subject of Shinto rather than the special topic of
this chapter.

CHAPTER XVIII

CONFUCIANISM, BUSHIDO, BUDDHISM

Outline of Topics: Confucianism; “Five Eelations”; Bu-
shido; influences of Confucianism and Bushido. — Buddhism; gen-
eral view ; chief sects ; Tendai sect ; Shingon sect ; Zen sect ;
Jodo sect ; Shin sect ; Nichiren sect ; New Buddhism ; influences of
Buddhism ; corruption of Buddhism ; control of cemeteries ; mixed
sects. — Eelations of Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism. — Ee-
ligious toleration. — Bibliography.

HE philosophical teachings of Confucius

were very popular in Japan among the edu-

cated classes, who, caring little for religion^

were content to supplement Shinto with Confu-
cianism. Its moral code undoubtedly proved bene-
ficial to Japan in many respects ; but now it is
practically superseded by the doctrines of Western
atheistic, agnostic, and materialistic philosophy.

The “five relations” (^orm), around which clus-
tered the Confucian ethical code, were those of
Father and Son, Ruler and Ruled, Husband and
Wife, Elder and Younger Brothers, and Friends. In
China, “ filial piety,” the great virtue of the first
relation, was the foundation of the whole system;
but in Japanese Confucianism this was relegated
to the second place, and “ loyalty,” the great virtue
of the second relation, was put first. The scope

CONFUCIANISM, BUSHIDO, BUDDHISM 251

of this relation, moreover, was quite wide; it in-
cluded not only the relation between the sovereign
and his subjects, but also that between a lord and
his retainers, and even that between any master and
servants. The virtue of the third relation was known
as “distinction,” which practically meant that each
should know and keep his or her own place; that
of the fourth relation was “order,” which insisted
upon the primacy of seniority in age ; and between
friends the typical virtue was “faith,” or “trust,”
or “confidence.”

The word Bushido means, literally, “The Warrior’s
Way,” which was the code of ethics that prevailed
in Feudal Japan, and whose influence is still felt,
although waning, in Modern Japan. It was the
moral code of Japanese chivalr}% of the knight and
of the gentleman. It has not inaptly been styled
“ Japonicized Confucianism,” for it was chiefly Con-
fucian in its constitution. But it gathered elements
from Shinto and Buddhism: from the latter it re-
ceived fatalism (Stoicism) ; and from the former it
received loyalty and patriotism, which meant prac-
tically the same thing. It ignored personal chastity
(except in women) ; it encouraged suicide and re-
venge ; but it emphasized justice, coumge, benevo-
lence, pohteness, veracity, honor, and self-control.
One of its most powerful prineiples was giri (right
reason), which is difficult to translate or define,
but comes pretty close to what we call “ duty ” or
“the right.” This still maintains a potent influence

252 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

in New Japan, and often accounts for erratic pro-
cedures. Indeed, so-called peculiarities of the Jap-
anese cannot be understood without a knowledge
of Bushido, which has been analyzed in a flattering
manner in Dr. Nitobe’s book, entitled “ Bushido,
the Soul of Japan.”

Inasmuch as the influence of Confucianism in
Japan was chiefly manifested through Bushido, to
be correct, we ought to speak of their joint influ-
ences. But since Busliido, as we have just seen,
was largely Confucianism, slightly modified to suit
the needs of the Japanese spirit (Yamato-damaskii),
we shall, for convenience, follow other writers in
using the term “ Confucianism.” Rein testifies that
in Japan “ widely diffused religious indifference and
formal atheism are the consequences ” of the pursuit
of Confucianism. Chamberlain says that “during
the two hundred years that followed, the whole
intellect of the country was moulded by Confucian
ideas.” Griffis bears similarly strong testimony, and
emphasizes the fact that “all Japanese social, official,
intellectual, and literary life was permeated with the
new spirit of Confucian thought. It is not strange,
therefore, that when Japan was opened to the world,
and Occidental learning and literature poured in,
the materialism and the agnosticism of the West met
with a sympathetic reception.

Buddhism is the accepted faith of the great mass
of the Japanese people. It was introduced into
Japan from Korea, in the sixth century a. d., and

GROUP OF PILGRIMS, AXD BUDDHIST PRIESTS

CONFUCIANISM, BUSHIDO, BUDDHISM 253

spread rapidly. It is now divided in Japan into
eight sects, with various sub-sects, which bring the
grand total up to about thirty-five. These sects
vary, some in doctrines and others in rituals, and
are even quite hostile to each other. The Shin sect
deserves, perhaps, a special mention, because it o)>
poses celibacy and asceticism, does not restrict the
diet, worships only one Buddha, and preaches salva-
tion by faith. It is often called “ the Protestantism
of Buddhism.” Buddhist temples are usually mag-
nificent structures, and the ritual is elaborate ; but,
in spite of the assistance of Colonel Olcott, Sir
Edwin Arnold, and others, it is fast losing ground.
It has degenerated and become idolatry and super-
stition. It keeps hold of the ignorant masses, and
even of intelligent persons, chiefly because it has
control of funeral rites and cemeteries. It has been
said that a Japanese is a Shintoist in life and a
Buddhist at death; and it is also true that he may
be during life, at one and the same time, a devotee
of both. Buddhism may suffice for a people who
are crushed under an Oriental despotism ; but Chris-
tianity alone is the religion of liberty and progress.

, Buddha may he “the light of Asia,” but Jesus
Christ is “ the light of the world.”

Nanjo, the historian of Japanese Buddhism, has
wTitten a “History of the Twelve Japanese Buddhist
Sects ” ; but as some of these are now defunct, it is
sufficient to notice here only eight principal sects, as
follows: Tendai, Sliingon, Zen, Jodo, Shin, Nichi-

254 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

ren, Ji, Yuzu Nembutsu. Moreover, as the last two
of these are comparatively insignificant, the mere
mention of their names is enough, but a little more
should be said concerning each of the other six.

1. The Tendai sect is the oldest, but now ranks

among the lowest. It belongs to the school which
“ sought to define truth and to find salvation in knowl-
edge ” : but as the truth was often too abstruse for

the mass, it must be dealt out, by means of pious

devices, according to the ability of the learner; so

that the disciples of this sect have been called the

Jesuits of Buddhism.

2. To the same school belongs the Shingon sect,
which is only a year younger than the former sect and
now ranks third in the list. It was founded by the
celebrated priest Kobo Daishi ; and its doctrines also
are quite abstruse. This is the sect which is respon-
sible for that mixing of Shinto and Buddhism that
prevailed for so many centuries by the adoption of
Shinto deities into the Buddhist pantheon. These
believers are sometimes called the Gnostics of
Buddhism.

3. The Zen sect represents the school which teaches
that “ abstract contemplation leads to a knowledge of
saving truth.” “ Look carefully within, and there you
will find the Buddha.” This sect arose probably “ out
of a reaction against the multiplication of idols,” and
was “ a return to simpler forms of worship and con-
duct ” ; therefore its disciples have been called “ the
Quakers of Japanese Buddhism.” Others call them

CONFUCIANISM, BUSHIDO, BUDDHISM 255

“ the Japanese Quietists ” or “the Japanese Mystics.”
This is now the largest Buddhist sect.

4. A third school, teaching that salvation was to be
obtained only through the works of another, has been
represented by two sects, the Jodo and the Shin. The
former, which now ranks fourth, was founded upon a
very simple doctrine, with an easy rule of life, that is,
the fi’equent repetition of the invocation Namu Amida
Butsic, “ Hail to Amida the Buddha.” These Bud-
dhists use a double rosary.

5. The Shin sect,^ which sprung out of the Jodo
sect, is that of the Japanese Reformers or Protestants.
In numerical strength it is second to the Zen sect, but
in real power and influence it is facile princeps. Its
priests are allowed to marry, and to eat flesh and fish.
It teaches that morality is as important as faith; or,
in quite familiar words, that “ faith without works is
dead.” It is monotheistic, as it worships only one
Buddha. It alone of all Buddliist sects provides a
way of salvation for women. It upholds a high
standard of education, carries on vigorous missions
in China and Korea, and has priests even in
America.

6. The sect founded by the priest Nichiren and
named for him is not large, but very radical and
influential. In their controversial and uncompro-
mising attitude toward other rebgions or even other
sects of Buddhism, the disciples of the “ flery Nichi-

1 See Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vols. xiv. and xvii.,
papers on “ Shinshiu ” by Troup.

256 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

ren ” have been called “ the Jesuits of Buddhism.”
Their invocation is Namu Myoho Renge Kyo (Hail
to the Doctrine of the Lotus of the Wonderful
Law). Their doctrine is complete pantheism ; as
Dr. Griffis expresses it, Nichiren “ was destined to
bring religion, not only down to men, but even
down to the beasts and the mud.”

Of all these sects, the only one which has been
appreciably influenced by contact with Western civil-
ization and conflict with Christianity is the Shin sect.
One t}'pe of New Buddhism tries to ally itself with
the doctrines of scientific evolution. Another type
has learned lessons from Christian activity in Japan,
and is putting forth its energies in the direction of
philanthropic and educational institutions ; so that it
has its hospitals, magazines, schools, and, to balance
the Young Men’s Christian Association, its Young
IMen’s Buddhist Association, with summer schools,
etc. The New Buddliism will die hard.

The influence of Buddhism upon the Japanese
people must not be underestimated, especially be-
cause it is still manifest, to a high degree, even in
New Japan. Chamberlain says : ^ “All education
was for centuries in Buddhist hands, as was the
care of the poor and sick ; Buddhism introduced
art, introduced medicine, moulded the folk-lore of
the country, created its dramatic poetry, deeply in-
fluenced politics and every sphere of social and
intellectual activity. In a word, Buddliism was the

1 “ Things Japanese.'

CONFUCIANISM, BUSHIDO, BUDDHISM 257

teacher under whose iastruction the Japanese nation
grew up.” Or, as Griffis outlines it,^ the Bud-
dhist missionaries were purveyors of civilization,
ministers of art, wielded a mighty influence in mili-
tary and political affairs, transformed the manners
and customs, inspired a tremendous development in
education and literature ; but Buddliism was “ kind
to the brute and cruel to man,” neglected charity
and philanthropy, degraded woman, and left upon
the Japanese character the blight of a merciless faffil-
ism and an awful pessimism.^ It created “ habits of
gentleness and courtesy ” and a “ spirit of hopeless
resignation.” To sum up, “ in a word. Buddhism is
law, but not gospel.”

At present. Buddhism in Japan is exceedingly cor-
rupt, is losing its hold upon the educated, but retains
a tremendous influence over tlie great mass of the
people. The majority of the priests are ignorant,
illiterate, and immoral, “blind leaders of the blind.”
The newspapers of the day are unsparing in their
denunciation of the immoralities of the priesthood.
The following is only one of many such testimonies

1 “ The Religions of Japan.”

2 “Emotionally its tenets do not at bottom satisfy iis Occi-
dentals, flirt with them as we may. Passivity is not our passion,
preach it as we are prone to do each to his neighbor. Scientifi-
cally, pessimism is foolishness, and impersonality a stage in devel-
opment from which we are emerging, not one into which we shall
ever relapse. As a dogma it is unfortunate, doing its devotee in
the deeper sense no good, but it becomes positively faulty when it
leads to practical ignoring of the mine and thine, and does other
people harm.” — Low’ell.

258 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

by ex -priests : “ Sometliing that did trouble me was
the growing conviction that Buddhism was dead,
that it had reached the extremity of corruption.
Strife and scandal were rife everywhere. The chief
priests . . . were grasping after worldly place and
prosperity. Of the immorality of the priests it makes
me blush to speak. It is not a rare thing to see men
with shaven heads and attired in black garments
wandering about in prostitute quarters, or to find
women living in temples, or to discover fish-bones
thrown among the graves. . . . The religion has no
rallying power left, no inner life. ... It has con-
tributed much to our civilization in the past, but
it is now exhausted.”

One element of the strong hold which Buddhism
had and has upon the people, even upon the educated
classes, is the fact that so many cemeteries have been
and are connected Avith Buddhist temples. It used
to be a frequent saying that a Japanese was a Shin-
toist in life and a Buddhist in death ; because, though
he may never have espoused Buddhism, he might
be laid away in his grave according to Buddhist cere-
monies in a Buddhist temple and a Buddhist grave-
yard. But this control of the cemeteries seems to
be passing out of Buddhist hands into the care of the
local civil authorities. And this secularization, if
it may be so called, of the graveyards not only abol-
ishes the Buddhist monopoly, but also takes away
from the priests the golden opportunity of extorting
immense fees. The Buddhist control of cemeteries

CONFUCIANISM, BUSHIDO, BUDDHISM 259

has often been a source of great embarrassment to
Christians, who were frequently compelled to bury
their dead under Buddhist auspices. But there have
lately been cases where no objection was made to
the burial of Christians with Christian rites in a
Buddhist graveyard.

This is, perhaps, the most suitable place to devote
just a few words to those sects which are compara-
tively modern in their origin, and are so composite in
their doctrine that they cannot be classed under either
Shinto or Buddhism. Indeed, they even show traces,
though perhaps slight, of Christian teaching ; and
they all agree in the one doctrine of faith healing.
These are Remmorirkyo (Doctrine of the Lotus-
Gate),^ Kurozumi-hjd (Doctrine of Kurozumi, name
of founder),^ and Tenrikyo (Doctrine of Heavenly
Reason).^ The first and the last were founded by
ignorant peasant women, and win adherents mostly
among the lowest classes. The first seems more
Buddhist than Shinto ; the second seems more Shinto
than Buddhist; while the third is the one which
shows most plainly traces of Christian influence.
In Kurozumi-kyo^ the Sun-goddess is the chief object
of devotion, because the founder was healed by wor-
shipping the rising sun. Tenrikyo is growing rapidly,
and is exclusive and intolerant.

* See papers in vol. xxix., Transactions Asiatic Society of .Japan,
by Lloyd and Greene.

* See Cary’s article in “Andover Review,’’ .Tune, 1889.

* See Greene’s paper in vol. xxiii.. Transactions Asiatic Society
of Japan.

260 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

The eclecticism of the Japanese in intellectual
matters may be explained by calling attention to
one phase of their attitude toward the three cults
of Old Japan. There was in general a feeling of
“ with malice toward none, with charity for aU ” ; for
the three, to a greater or less degree, overlapped or
supplemented each other.^ Sliinto, as we have seen,
was only a national cult; Confucianism was a phi-
losophy of the relations between man and man ; while
Buddliism was a true religion, with ideas about sin
and salvation. As another has summed up the scope
of these three “ ways,” “ Sliintoism furnishes the
object of worship, Confucianism offers the rules of
life, and Buddhism supplies the way of future salva-
tion.” It was, therefore, possible for a person to be
a disciple of two, or even all, of these “ doctrines ” at
one and the same time. He “ had constantly before
his eyes the emblems of each of these religions. In
nearly every Samurai’s house were the moral books
of Confucius, the black lacquered wooden tablets,
inscribed in gold with the Buddhist names of his
ancestors, while on the god-shelf stood the idols and
symbols of Shinto.”

Therefore there are to-day probably thousands of
Japanese who would readily accept Christianity by
simply adding the image of Jesus to their present
collection, and giving it equal honor with those of
Buddha and their ancestors. They might easily
incorporate Jehovah in their pantheon ; but they find
1 See Lowell’s “ Soul of the Far East," pp. 168, 169.

CONFUCIANISM, BUSHIDO, BUDDHISM 261

difficulty in appreciating the intolerance of Christians
in having “ no other gods besides ” Jehovah.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The references for this chapter are in general the same as
those for the preceding chapter, except that, in place of the
special papers on Shinto, should be substituted special papers
on Confucianism by Knox and Haga in Transactions Asiatic
Society of Japan, vol. xx. pp. 1-192; on Buddhism, by Lloyd in
Transactions Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxii. pp. 337-006;
and Nitobe’s “ Bushido, the Soul of Japan.”

CHAPTER XIX

JAPANESE CHRISTENDOM

Outline of Topics : Mediajval Christianity ; Modern Chris-
tianity; missionaries; Japanese Christians; Christian literature;
kinds and methods of work ; churches and chapels ; Sunday-
schools ; Christian education ; Christian philanthropy ; Young Men’s
Christian Association and Young Women’s Christian Association ;
temperance and the social evil ; interdenominational institutions ;
Japonicized Christianity ; Christianity and business ; Sabbath ;
Christianity and the press ; Christianity and Christians in politics ;
simple Christianity ; status of Christianity. — Bibliography.

The great Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier,
was the one w’ho introduced Christianity
into Japan, in 1549; and the labors of
himself and his successors were so faithful and suc-
cessful, that at the beginning of the next century
there were about 1,000,000 Christians in Japan.
But political complications, internal and external,
and religious jealousies, brought on a terrible perse-
cution, in which the Church was practically extin-
guished. In 1638 the following edict was issued: —

“ So long as the sun shall continue to warm the earth,
let no Christian be so bold as to come to Japan ; and let
all know that the King of Spain himself, or the Chris-
tian’s God, or the great God of all, if he dare violate this
command, shall pay for it with his head.”

JAPANESE CHRISTENDOM

263

And, all over the Empire, on special bulletin-
boards, notices were published to the effect that
this edict must be strictly enforced.^ And yet, in
spite of the shrewd measures employed to detect
Christians, by compelling suspected persons, for in-
stance, to trample on the cross or be crucified, in
some sections the knowledge of the Gospel was
handed down in secret from one generation to an-
other; so that, when these edicts were removed in
1873, to a few here and there Christianity was not a
strange doctrine. ^

Just as soon as it was possible, under the treaties
of 1858, for foreigners to reside in Japan, even under
restrictions, missionaries began to enter (1859), and
are now numbered by the hundreds. This count in-
cludes both single and married men, the wives (for in
some cases the wife is worth more than the husband),
and single ladies.

The work of the Greek Church has been carried
on, until a few years ago, so far as foreigners are
concerned, by only one man, and even now has only
four single men connected with the mission ; but the
remarkable personality of Bishop Nicolai and his tact
in utilizing Japanese workers have made a profound
impression and have neutralized the prejudice arising
out of political animosity to Russia.

1 “ The wicked sect called Christian is strictly prohibited. Sus-
pected persons are to be reported to the respective officials, and
rewards will be given ” (1868).

* See also Murray’s “ Story of Japan,” pp. 172-179, 240-268.

264 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

The Roman Catholic missionaries, both male and
female, have been carrying on their work with the
usual devotion and self-sacrifice in a quiet and un-
ostentatious manner, and are overcoming to a large
extent the inherited prejudice against the Catholic
Christians of Old Japan. The present workers are
mostly French, and number more than 200; they are
scattered all over the empire, even in small places.

The principal Protestant denominations repre-
sented by missionaries in Japan are the Baptists,
Congregationalists, Disciples, Episcopalians, Friends,
Lutherans, Methodists, Presbyterians (including Re-
formed), Salvation Army, and Universalists. There
are in all over thirty different Protestant organi-
zations at work in Japan, of all sorts and shades
of belief; and there are several Independents, or
free lances. The Protestant missionaries represent
High Church, Low Church, and No-Church (Ply-
mouth Brethren et al.'); two regular Baptist societies
(but only one Japanese Church), besides Disciples
and Christians; six branches of the Presbyterian
family, but all uniting in one Japanese Church; six
branches of the Methodist family, now at work, with
good prospects for success, to effect a similar union
of their Japanese churches; three kinds of Episco-
palians, with one Japanese Church; Seventh-Day Ad-
ventists; Dowie’s followers; Faith Mission; Christian
Alliance; Scandinavian Alliance; German Liberals;
the Young Men’s Christian Association; the Women’s
Christian Temperance Union; the Young People’s So-

JAPANESE CHRISTENDOM

265

ciety of Christian Endeavor ; — in short, the entire
alphabet for a complete vocabulary of Christian
activity. And the Mormons, too, have recently sent
emissaries to Japan.

The missionaries have been, and are, a mighty
force in New Japan, not merely through their
preaching of the Gospel, but also through their
practising of the Christian virtues; not only by
their teaching of all-sided truth and wisdom, but
also by their touching, their social contact with the
people; not only by their logic, but also by their
lives. They are vivid and impressive object-lessons
of the ideal Cliristian life, — “ living epistles, known
and read of all men.” They are, in general, well-
educated men and women, a noble company, re-
spected and loved by the Japanese.

The Japanese Christians are not strong numeri-
cally ; but they exercise an influence entirely out of
proportion to their mere numbers. There are less
than 150,000 nominal Christians of all kinds, who
may represent a Christian community of, perhaps,
twice that number. But, in spite of their faults
and failings, due to the fact that they are less than
fifty years removed from anti-Christian influences
of the worst types, and are still surrounded by vari-
ous hindrances,^ they are also a noble body of men
and women, loved and honored by fellow-Japanese
and foreignei’s.

The Christian literature of Japan is truly volumi-
^ See Uchimura’s “ Diary of a Japanese Convert.”

2G6 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

nous, and is an important factor in moulding and ele-
vating public opinion. The Bible has been translated
into the Japanese language, and is widely circulated;
it is published in many forms by the Bible societies.
Until a few years ago, it was almost impossible to
induce a non-Christian bookseller to keep the Bible
on hand; for its presence in his store might preju-
dice him in the eyes of the public, and, besides, it
was not easily salable. But such prejudice has
died away, and a demand for the Bible has sprung
up, so that it has become to the book-dealer a profit-
able article of his stock. Commentaries on the hooks
of the Bible and theological treatises are numerous,
and tracts are counted by the millions.^ Christian
magazines and books are published and obtain cir-
culation. The Methodist Publishing House and
several Japanese companies find the publication of
Christian literature a profitable venture. There are
daily newspapers, owned and edited by Christians,
who use their columns to teach Christian ideals. And
in 1902 was issued a popular novel, called “Ichijiku ”
(The Fig Tree), which is Christian in tone and
teaching.

The work of foreign missionaries and native Chris-
tians in Japan may be divided into four kinds: evan-
gelistic, educational, publication, and philanthropic.
It is, however, very difficult and extremely unwise
to attempt always to make and to maintain these dis-
tinctions ; for these classes of work often overlap and
1 There is now a “Japan Tract Society.”

JAPANESE CHRISTENDOM

267

supplement each other. The work, as a whole, is
carried on much as it is in the West, except that the
measures and methods must be more or less adapted
to the peculiar conditions in Japan. ^ Thus Chris-
tianity is represented there by certain institutions,
which, according to various circumstances, are flour-
ishing in a greater or less degree in different locali-
ties, but which, as a whole, are exerting a tremendous
influence upon the nation and are creating the ideals
for Twentieth Century Japan.

There are hundreds of churches and chapels, but
they are seldom indicated by spires and steeples point-
ing upward as signs of the doctrine which leads man-
kind onward and upward. For that reason they are
not generally discovered by the “globe-trotter,” who
tries to do Japan in a month or less, and is not usually
looking for such things, but yet goes back to report
Christianity a failure in Japan. Nevertheless, the
churches and chapels are there, — perhaps in out-of-
the-way places, on narrow side-streets, or even on
the principal thoroughfares, and they may be only
ordinary Japanese houses; but the work is going
on there, quietly and unostentatiously. There is also
a “gospel ship” (Fukuin Maru), cruising about the
long-neglected islands of the Inland Sea.

1 It is unfortunate that there are any missionaries, with more
zeal than knowledge, who seem to forget those wise words of Paul,
the courageous, but tactful, and therefore successful, preacher, in
1 Corinthians ix. 22. But most of the missionaries, or the best of
them, always bear in mind Christ’s own instructions in Matthew
X. IG.

268 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

In the churches and chapels, or in other build-
ings, or even in the private houses of foreigners
and Japanese, are about 1,000 Sunday-schools, where
the children are being instructed in the simplest truths
of the Bible. They may not understand at once much
of what they hear; but they gradually come to better
and better ideas, and when they reach years of un-
derstanding, many of them fully accept the truths
learned in Sunday-school.^

But the duty of the Christian propagandist is not
completed by the conversion of unbelievers ; it extends
also to the training of these converts into a useful
body of Christian citizens. It is unwise to rely en-
tirely upon public education by a system so well
organized even as that of Japan. If private schools
under Christian auspices are useful in America, they
are an absolute necessity in Japan. It is dangerous
to leave Christian boys and girls under the irreligious
and often immoral influences of public institutions.
As “ an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure,”
it is supremely important to keep Christian Japanese
youth under positive Christian instruction and in-
fluences during that impressible period. And it is
also necessary to train up a strong body of Christian

1 It is no small matter for encouragement to Christian workers
in Japan that it is now possible to find among Japanese Christians
three generations of believers ; so that the words of Paul in 2 Tim-
otliy i. 6 may be applied here : “ Having been reminded of the un-
feigned faith that is in thee ; which dwelt first in thy grandmother
Lois and thy mother Eunice.” The future of Christianity in Japan
is insured when it begins to be inherited.

GOSPEL SHIP “FUKUIN MARU,” AND Y.M.C.A. SUMMER SCHOOL,
DOSHISHI, KYOTO

JAPANESE CHRISTENDOM

269

pastors and laymen, who shall be the leaders in the
self-supporting Japanese church that is the goal of
all missionary effort. Therefore the work of Chris-
tianity in Japan includes a system of education, with
kindergartens and elementary schools, academies and
colleges, universities and theological seminaries, and
with a strong emphasis on the education and train-
ing of the girls and women. ^

But Christianity in Japan is also philanthropic, as
it should be, and therein exposes clearly what Bud-
dhism left undone. The latter was, as has already
been said, proportionately “kind to the brute and
cruel to man ” ; for it allowed humanity to suffer
while it regarded animals as “sacred.” Christianity,
however, has not only its Society for the Prevention
of Cruelty to Animals, but also its “ Homes,” asylums,
hospitals, refuges, — for the poor, the neglected, the
widow, the fatherless, the sick, the insane, the out-
cast, the Magdalene, and the worst criminal. All
such institutions it is carrying on in Japan; and
most of them never existed there until Christians
introduced them or Christian teaching inspired them.
This may be predicated even of the Red Cross So-
ciety; for although the branch in Japan was first
organized as an independent association, yet the very
fact that the need of such a society was felt was due
largely to Christian influence. Revenge and “no
quarter” were the doctrines of Old Japan; but
New Japan, aroused by the example of Christian
^ See “An American Missionary in Japan,” pp. 259-262.

270 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

nations, and inspired by the teachings of the Bible,
now heartily supports the Red Cross Society, a Chris-
tian institution with a distinctively Christian banner.

When the forces that have made for true civiliza-
tion and for righteousness are figured out, it will be
found that the work of the Young Men’s Christian
Association has been a very important factor. In
Japan, as elsewhere, that work is unusually success-
ful in gaining sympathy and forming a common plat-
form on which all Christians may unite in valuable
work. It has there both city and student associa-
tions, of which the latter are more numerous and
powerful, but the former are increasing in number
and influence. The work there is varied, as in
other lands, and is constantly broadening out. The
visits of Mr. John R. Mott have been peculiarly ben-
eficial to the student class. In two special phases the
work of the Young Men’s Christian Association in
Japan has been most helpful, — in the establishment
of Christian boarding-houses for young men in pub-
lic schools, and in securing for public high schools
and colleges Christian young men from America as
teachers of English. And it is a matter of great re-
joicing to all interested in the welfare of the girls in
the public schools, and shops and factories,^ of the
large cities of Japan that Young Women’s Christian
Association work is to be started.

The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union and

1 There are said to be 17,530 women employed in the factories
and workshops of Tokyo alone.

JAPANESE CHRISTENDOM

271

other Christian temperance organizations are fight-
ing the same battles in Japan as in America. The
old religions never made any attempt to check the
tobacco, liquor, and social evils ; they seemed to as-
sume such to be inevitable. Even now the leadership
in these social and moral reforms is almost solely in
the hands of Christians. By their untiring efforts
the public sentiment against these evils is rapidly
growing, and various organizations, by public meet-
ings and pages of literature, are trying to lift the
people out of these “habits.” A bill prohibiting the
sale of tobacco to minors was made a law by the Diet,
and one prohibiting the sale of liquor to minors is
being pushed. By the indefatigable labors of a
Methodist missionary, the Women’s Christian Tem-
perance Union, and the Salvation Army, some 12,000
girls have been enabled to free themselves from their
slavery in the brothels ; some of these wicked resorts
had to close up ; and public sentiment was so vehe-
mently aroused against this evil that the number of
visitors to houses of ill-fame considerably decreased.^
And it is Christian teaching that has disestablished
concubinage and is constantly working to purify the
family life of Japan.

The Young People’s Society of Christian En-
deavor, the Scripture Union, and the Evangelical
Alliance are other examples of interdenominational
institutions which are doing much to minimize sec-
tarianism and remind Japanese Christians that, in

1 See Appendix.

272 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

spite of minor differences, they ought to be and are
really “one.”

Indeed, the Japanese converts are naturally much
less sectarian than the missionaries, and can change
their denominational afBliations without difficulty.
The Japanese Protestants are coming nearer and
nearer together by minimizing their differences and
emphasizing their correspondences. For instance,
the innate courtesy of Japanese Baptists makes
them loath to insist on “ close communion ” ; while
with the Presbyterians and other Pedobaptists, “in-
fant baptism ” is unpopular. The Methodists, in
their plan for a single church of all their branches,
had to choose an ambiguous term for the title, instead
of “Bishop,” of their chief official. The Friends
cannot emphasize their anti-military doctrine among
a people liable to conscription; and though High-
Church Episcopal missionaries may be exclusive,
their Japanese believers enjoy co-operation with other
Christians. There will eventually be developed a
“ Japonicized Christianity.”

Christianity has already made an impression upon
the commercial life of New Japan. The tremendous
development of industry, trade, and commerce has
required new business standards, and especially
does it demand honesty and integrit}'. It is not
infrequent, therefore, for companies and corpora-
tions to seek out young men trained in Christian
schools, because they are most likely to be actuated
by high ideals. The Sabbath, too, although Sunday

JAPANESE CHRISTENDOM

273

is more a holiday than a holy day, is also proving to
be a boon in business and labor circles, and is coming
gradually to be observed more strictly. Christian
socialism, too, is not without its influence in
J apan.

There are a few Japanese newspapers which are
owned, managed, and edited by Christians, and are
working, in their way, to uphold Christian institu-
tions. They are also striving to introduce into
J apanese journalism higher ideals. There is a still
larger number of papers, whose managers and editors,
though not professedly Christian, favor Christianity,
especially in its social and moral aspects, and have,
for instance, given a hearty support to the crusade
against the social evil. The influence of Christianity
may also be seen in the elevation of the tone of the
Japanese press.

The impress of Christianity has also been felt
even in the political institutions of New Japan.
The principle of constitutionalism found no encour-
agement in the philosophy of Old Japan, but is the
fruit of Christian civilization. The doctrine of re-
ligious liberty, acknowledged in the Constitution, is
of Christian origin. The old idea of impersonality,
which recognized no value in the individual, but
called him or her a “thing,” could not live long after
the Christian teachings of individual worth, rights,
and responsibility, and personal salvation became
prevalent. These points illustrate some indirect,
but important, results of Christianity in Japan.

274 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

There are also influential Christian men in public
life. Every Diet contains a disproportionately large
number of Christians, who may be counted upon on
every occasion to stand up for right principles, and
most of whom are very influential. Speaker Kataoka
and Messrs. Ebara, Shimada, and Nemoto may be
named merely as examples of Japanese Christian
men in politics. In army and navy circles, on the
bench and at the bar, in business, and in many
other high positions, Christian men are among the
most prominent, and are found even in “Caesar’s
household.”

Christianity is bound to become a greater power in
Japan, but it will be a Christianity modified by native
ideas and influences. It is the tendency of the Jap-
anese less to originate than to imitate ; to adopt, but
also to adapt and to simplify. They are not inclined
to metaphysical and theological discussions, and they
care little for Occidental and accidental denomi-
nations differentiated by hair-splitting distinctions
embodied in verbose creeds. They are, therefore,
desirous of uniting Japanese believers upon a simple
statement of the fundamental and essential truths of
Christianity. They need less of dogmas and rituals,
and more of the spirit of Christ in their lives. The
people are superstitious and sensual, and need intel-
lectual and moral training. Superstition can be dissi-
pated by science, and sensuality can be conquered
only by spirituality. The great mass of the people
are still sunk in comparative ignorance and supersti-

JAPANESE CHRISTENDOM

275

tion, but are gradually being elevated by the spread
of knowledge. But the Japanese public-school edu-
cation is one-sided and imperfect, without a lofty and
inspiring standard of morality. Christian education
supplies all needs by developing a well-rounded and
balanced intellect, and furnishing the highest and
purest ideals of life. Theology is not wanted or
needed in Japan so much as a practical and spirit-
ual Christianity.

The condition of Christianity in Japan at the
present time is quite like that of Christianity in
the Roman Empire in the days of Constantine, who,
himself a nominal Christian, “ established ” Christian-
ity as the official faith of his empire. And yet, as
Uhlhorn says,^ “the ancient religion was still deeply
rooted in the manners and customs, in the domestic
and the public life.” And this situation Uhlhorn
represents by the following illustration : —

“ In this new city on the Bosphorus, Constantine set
up a colossal statue of himself. It was an ancient statue
of Apollo. Its head was struck off and a head of Con-
stantine was substituted. Also, inside the statue was
placed a piece of what was supposed to be the holy cross.
This is a kind of mirror of the age. A heathen body
with a Christian head and Christian life at the heart.”

This is a fair illustration of the condition of affairs
in Japan at the beginning of the twentieth century.
There is a heathen body, for the great mass of the
Japanese (many millions) still cling to the old faiths.

1 “ Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism.”

276 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

But there is a Christian head, because the leaders of
New Japan are favorable to Christianity and its in-
stitutions, and are reconstructing the nation largely
on Christian lines and with Christian ideals. And
there is Christian life at the heart, for it is that life,
as shown in the preceding pages, which is inspiring
Japan with new ideas and ideals. And when we
take into consideration how much Christianity has
done for Japan in less than fifty years, we feel quite
warranted in prophesying that within this twentieth
century Japan will become practically a Christian
nation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Those specially interested should not fail to consult “The
Gist of Japan ” (Peery) ; “ An American Missionary in Japan ”
(Gordon); “Japan and its Regeneration” (Cary); “The
Religions of Japan,” “ Verbeck of Japan,” and “A Maker
of the New Orient ” (all by Griffis). The “ Proceedings ” of
the Osaka and the Tokyo Missionary Conferences, and Ritter’s
” History of Protestant Missions in Japan ” are very valuable.
“In Far Formosa” (Mackay) tells of wonderful pioneer work
there. For current news, the “ Japan Evangelist,” a monthly
magazine published by the Methodist Publishing House, Tokyo,
is the best.

CHAPTER XX

TWENTIETH CENTURY JAPAN

Outline op Topics : Japan in 1801 and 1901 ; eras ; Emperor
and Court; Shogun. — Sealed and wide-open Japan. — Travel and
barriers. — Social changes. — Samurai. — Ideals of 1801 and 1901.

— Costume. — Architecture. — Diet. — Education. — Newspapers.

— Manufactures. — Status of woman. — Christianity. — Permanent
transformations. — Prophecy.

IN order to understand as clearly as possible the
progress made by New Japan during the past
fifty years, it will be profitable to institute some
comparisons between conditions then and now. As
a matter of fact the greater part of this wonderful
advancement was achieved during the last third of
the nineteenth century ; but it suits our purpose better
to compare 1801 and 1901, the first years of the two
centuries. Thus can we appreciate fully with how
much difference in conditions and prospects Japan
has entered upon the twentieth century than she en-
tered upon the nineteenth century.

By the Japanese calendar, the year 1801 was the
first of the Kyowa Era, a short and uneventful period ;
but the year 1901 was the thirty-fourth of the Meiji
Era, or Period of Enliglitened Rule, — a most ap-
propriate name for the first era of the New Empire.

278 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

The Emperor in 1801 had been known before his
ascension of the throne as Prince Kanin Kanehito
(from whom the present Prince Kanin has descended) ;
but he is now known by his posthumous title of
Kokaku. He is said to have been “ a sovereign of
great sagacity ” ; but he was, as we know, only a
nominal ruler, like the faineant kings of France,
while the actual authority was held, and the real
power was exercised, by a Mayor of the Palace, a
Shogun of the Tokugawa family. The Emperor was
“ powerless and lived in splendid poverty.”

The Imperial Court was organized in Kyoto “ with
all pomp and circumstance ; it had its Ministers,
Vice-Ministers, and subordinate officials; it had its
five principal, as well as more than a hundred ordi-
nary, Court nobles ; but the sovereign’s actual power
did not extend beyond the direction of matters re-
lating to rank and etiquette, the classification of
shrine-keepers, priests and priestesses, and profes-
sionals of various kinds, — in a word, actual functions
of no material importance whatever.” In an absolute
empire Kokaku was Emperor in name and fame only.

“ He was practically confined in sacred seclusion ;
his person must neither touch the earth nor be polluted
by contact with common mortals. The most scrupu-
lous care was exercised about his dress, food, even
the very dishes themselves ; he was, to the common
people, a real invisible deity. It is reported that the
Emperors of the olden days must sit motionless upon
the throne for a certain number of hours each day, in

TWENTIETH CENTURY JAPAN

279

order that the empire might have peace. Their per-
sons were sacred, so that nobody was permitted to lay
hands thereon ; therefore their hair and nails might
have grown to an unseemly length, had they not been
clandestinely trimmed during sleeping hours. The
dishes from which they had partaken of food were
forthwith dashed in pieces, in order that nobody else
might ever use them. And the very rice that they
ate was picked over kernel by kernel, in order that no
broken or imperfect grain might find lodgment in the
Imperial stomach.” It is also said that no one was
allowed to speak the name of the Emperor or to
write in full the characters of his name ; in the latter
case, for clearness, at least one stroke must be
omitted from each character.

But the present Emperor, whose name is Mutsuhito,
is an entirely different personage. He does not live
in seclusion, but frequently shows himself in public
to his subjects, who can now look upon his face -ndth-
out fear of being smitten udth death. He is, none
the less, revered and loved by all the people, and is
the real ruler of the land. He has, however, volun-
tarily surrendered to the people some of his preroga-
tives, so that the Japanese to-day enjoy constitutional
government, parliamentary and representative in-
stitutions, and local self-government. And in 1901 the
Empire, instead of being divided up, as in 1801, into
about 300 feudal fiefs, in each of which a Daimyo was
more or less a law unto himself, is divided into
about 50 Prefectures, Imperial Cities and Territo-

280 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

ries, in each of which the people have more or less a
voice in the administration.

The Empress, too, although she was brought up
and educated in the old-fashioned way, has yet
adopted modem ideas with great ease. She does not
have shaven eyebrows and blackened teeth, like her
predecessor of 1801. She often appears in pubhc,
and is a generous patron of female education, the
Red Cross Society, and artistic and philanthropic
enterprises.

The Shogun of 1801 was lyenari, who exercised
that authority for about half a century. He lived in
glory and splendor in Yedo (now Tokyo) with his
vassals around him. Theoretically he was only
Generahssimo under the Emperor, and, as a matter
of policy, kept up the practice of occasional visits to
Kyoto, where he humbled himself before his nominal
superior; but, as the highest administrative officer,
he was mler in act and fact. Very appropriately
has he been called “ the Emperor’s vassal jailer.”
During his Shogunate “ the mihtary class remained
perfectly tranquil, and the feudal system attained
its highest stage of efficiency.”

In 1901 there was no Shogun ; the last of the Toku-
gawa dynasty abdicated in 1867, and has spent most
of his life since then in retirement in Mito and
Shizuoka. He is now living quietly in Tokyo, with-
out much regard, apparently, to the new-fangled ways
of these times, except that he is reported to ride a
bicycle !

MILITAKV UEVIKW, HIMEJI

TWENTIETH CENTURY JAPAN

281

In 1801 Japan was still a sealed country, but not
hermetically, because there was one chink at Nagasaki,
where occasional intercourse was allowed with the
Chinese and the Dutch. Not only were foreigners
forbidden to enter, but natives were also forbidden to
leave, this “ holy land.” Already, however, efforts
were being made spasmodically to break down the
policy of seclusion, with its two phases of exclusion
and inclusion.

In 1901, however, thousands of foreigners of many
nationalities travelled and resided in Japan ; and thou-
sands of Japanese were travelling and residing in many
parts of the globe. Foreign vessels, flying many dif-
ferent flags, freely entered the harbors of Japan; and
Japanese ships conducted freight and passenger ser-
vices to Asia, Australasia, America, and Europe.
The figures of the small amount of the foreign
trade of Nagasaki in 1801 are not at hand ; but the
exports and imports of Japan for 1901 amounted re-
spectively to 252,349,543 yen and 255,810,645 yen.

A Japanese of 1801 would have travelled, if he
were one of the common people, by foot, and, if he
were of sufficient rank or wealth, by norimono, or
Icago., or on horseback. The Japanese of 1901 miglit
continue to travel by foot, and, in mountainous dis-
tricts, might still use the kayo; but they might also
travel hj jinrikisha, horse-car, stage, steam-car, steam-
boat, horse and carriage, electric car, and bicycle.
The letter of 1801 was despatched by courier or re-
lays of couriers; that of 1901 by mail, and com-

282 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

munication by telegraph and telephone was becoming
more and more common. There were over 3,600
miles of railway, 9,500 miles of telegraph, and, in
Tokyo alone, over 6,000 telephones. An electric rail-
way was actually disturbing and desecrating the hal-
lowed precincts of Kyoto, once sacred to the Emperor.
And even His Majesty’s Palace in Tokyo had been
put into telephonic and telegraphic communication
with the rest of the city and even of the world.

Nor was travel throughout the empire itself free and
unimpeded to all in 1801. The country was split up
into feudal fiefs, of wliich each lord was intensely
jealous of other lords and had to act on the defensive.
Every traveller was under considerable surveillance,
and had to be able to give a strict account of himself;
and many “ barriers ” were erected where travellers
were challenged by guards. The large places where
the lords lived were walled towns, entered by gates
carefully guarded by sentinels. In Kyoto and Yedo
the palaces of the Emperor and the Shogim were
protected by moats and gateway. But in 1901 those
historic castles and gateways had mostly crumbled
into ruins or been destroyed in war, or demolished
by the hands of coolies working under the direction
of the Board of Public Works or the Bureau of Street
Improvements.

We cannot refrain from referring more particularly
to the great change that has been effected in the
whole constitution of Japanese society. In 1801,
below the Court nobles and the feudal lords, there

TWENTIETH CENTURY JAPAN

283

were four classes of society, — the knight, the farmer,
the mechanic, and the merchant, besides the outcasts.
In 1901, below the nobihty, there were only two
classes, — the gentry and the common people ; and
the distinction between these tw’o is one of name
only. In official records and on certain occasions
the registration of the nominal rank is necessary;
but in actual life few questions are asked about a
man’s standing, and merit finds its reward.

In 1801 the samurai (knight) was the heau ideal
of the Japanese. His courage was unimpeachable ;
he was the model, not only of a warrior, but also of
a gentleman, and before him the common people
had to bow their heads to the ground. But now the
sword which was his “ soul ” is a curio, the bow and
arrows are also curiosities, and the panoply either
hangs rusty in a storehouse or is offered for sale by
a dealer in second-hand goods. The samurai is now
only an historical character;- and when feudalism
was abolished, many an individual of that class fell
into a pauper’s grave, or, forced into unaccustomed
manual labor, learned the culinary art, and entered
service in the despised foreigner’s kitchen !

Indeed, although the soldier is still highly honored,
and deeds worthy of the best of the old samurai are
stiU performed,^ the merchant, formerly despised be-
cause he bartered for profit, has risen in esteem and
become one of the most important factors in Japanese
society and civilization. The age of 1801 was feudal
1 See “Heroic Japan" (Eastlake and Yamada).

284 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

and aesthetic ; the age of 1901, democratic and com-
mercial. In 1801, the swords ; in 1901, the soroban
(abacus): in 1801, the castle ; in 1901, the counting-
house : in 1801, hushi (knights) ; in 1901 budgets.

In 1801 the Japanese wore nothing but their own
national costume, with strictly prescribed uniforms
for every occasion. In hot weather a scarcity or
utter lack of clothing was the prevailing style. In
1901 the latter style, though no longer conventional,
prevailed under certain limitations, — when and where
the police were not strict constructionists of the law 1
And in 1901 there was a great variety of styles, rang-
ing from pure native to pure foreign, with all kinds
of fits and misfits and ludicrous combinations.

Japanese houses of 1801 and 1901 show some
differences. The native style has been more or less
modified by foreign architecture. Glass, of courae, is
largely taking the place of paper for doors and win-
dows; cai’peted floors are often preferred to matted
floors ; stoves, chairs, tables, lamps, and bedsteads
are coming more and more into use ; and brick and
stone are more largely employed in the construction
of residences, offices, and stores.

The diet of the Japanese has also changed con-
siderably within 100 years. Whereas in 1801 they
were practically vegetarians, in 1901 they had learned
to eat and drink anything and everything. Foreign
cooking had become very popular and also cheap ; in
many Japanese families foreign food was eaten at
least once a day.

bllllvlsmw A IX X’AVAL liKVlEW, KOBE

TWENTIETH CENTURY JAPAN

285

A Japanese student of 1801 was compelled to study
at night by the dull light of a pith wick floating in
vegetable oil, or by the fitful flame of fifty fireflies
imprisoned in a small bamboo cage. The student of
1901 burned midnight oil from Russia or America,
or studied by the aid of gas or electric light. The
studies in 1801 were confined to Japanese and Chinese
classics. It was considered practically a crime to seek
learning outside of Japan and China, but in 1901 the
studies included the whole range of Oriental and Oc-
cidental learning ; and one school in Tokyo tried to
attract students by assuming the name “ School of
One Hundred Branches.” And Avhile in 1801 Dutch
books were read only by a very select few, and mostly
in secret at the risk of one’s life, in 1901 it was pos-
sible to find readers of Dutch, English, French, Ger-
man, Russian, Italian, Spanish, Latin, Greek, Hebrew,
Sanskrit, and other books. In 1801 education was
practically confined to the priestly and mihtary
classes, but in 1901 there were no such limitations,
and elementary education was maile free.

In 1801 there were no newspapers in Japan ; in
1901 papers and magazines galore, printed in almost
all parts of the empire. Indeed, in 1801, books
were either copied laboriously by hand or printed
from wood-cuts ; but in 1901 all the modern improve-
ments in printing were utilized. Moreover, fonts of
type of many languages might be found ; and in fact,
anything needed in the printing line could be manu-
factured at the Tsukiji Type Foundry, Tokyo.

286 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

The mention of this foundry suggests also the
immense number of manufacturing plants that -were
to be found in Japan in 1901 against none in 1801.
Cotton, woollen, and paper mills, iron foundries,
electrical apparatus manufactories, engine works,
steamships, docks are only a few examples of the
development along this line. And in Tokyo the
grounds which in 1801 were entirely devoted to
the sesthetic gardens of the Prince of Mito are now
partially given over to the practical but sooty pur-
poses of an arsenal.

There is a great difference also between the Jap-
anese woman of 1801 and her descendant of 1901.
The former had practically no rights that her hus-
band was bound to respect ; she must be respectfully
obedient to her husband and his parents, and she
could be divorced at will. But, according to the new
codes which went into effect in 1899, “a woman
can now become the head of a family and exercise
authority as such ; she can inherit and own property
and manage it herself ; she can exercise parental
authority; she can act as guardian or executor and
has a voice in family councils.” Thus her legal and
social status has greatly improved.

In 1801 Christianity was under the ban of a strict
prohibition, publicly advertised on the official bulletin-
boards ; and although believers in secret were trans-
mitting the faith which had been secretly handed
down to them, it was supposed that “the corrupt
sect ” had been wiped out. But in 1901 there were

TWENTIETH CENTURY JAPAN

287

more than 120,000 enrolled believers, who represented
a Christian community of about twice that num-
ber. Christian preachers and churches were all over
the empire, and a Gospel ship was cruising about
in the Inland Sea. According to the Constitution,
religious belief is free ; so that Christianity was be-
coming more and more a power in the land and wield-
ing in society an influence that cannot be measured.
And in 1901 Japanese troops, in alliance with those
of nations of Christendom, had rescued Christian
missionaries and Cliinese converts from the fury of
mobs and soldiery, and Christian missionaries, driven
out of China, had found safe and comfortable places
of refuge in Japan.

Such comparisons might be carried out with regard
to many other items and in greater detail ; but these
will, perhaps, suffice as illustrations of the extent to
which Japan was transformed during the nineteenth
century. In some points, of course, especially in
modem inventions, there has been no greater change
than in Occidental nations during the same period.
But it should be carefully borne in mind that these
transformations, in geographical, agricultural, mineral,
industrial, commercial, manufacturing, social, eco-
nomic, political, legal, educational, moral, and religious
affairs, so far as they have gone, are not temporary
or superficial, but permanent and thorough ; there is
to be no retrogression. Japan has deliberately and
firmly started out, not only to march along with the
other so-called civilized nations, but also to contribute

288 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

toward further progress in civilization. The only
question is, What will be the record of Twentieth
Century Japan?

The full answer to this question we must pass
on to the man who one hundred years hence may
write on “Japan in 1901 and 2001,” But though
we do not lay claim to any special gift of prophecy,
we venture to indulge in some general predictions
which no one, to-day at least, can challenge. We
feel sure, for instance, that Twentieth Century Japan
will keep apace with the progress of the world in
material civilization. We doubt not that during this
centur}’- the Japanese people, becoming better fitted,
■udll gradually be admitted to a greater share in the
administration of the government, local and national.
We feel quite certain that the social conditions of
Japan will be greatly ameliorated, and education be-
come very widely diffused, so that an immense
intellectual improvement will be attained during the
next hundred years. We also dare to predict that
by 2001 Shinto will have entirely disappeared as a
religion. Buddhism will have lost its hold upon the
people, and Japan will have become practically a
Christian nation.

CHAPTER XXI

THE MISSION OF JAPAN

Outline op Topics ; Aims and ambitions of Japan. — Grand
park. — Commercial centre. — Advantageous position. — Leader in
civilization. — Example of civilized nation. — Transmitter of West-
ern civilization. — Japan and Korea. — Japan and China. — Fuchow,
Yangtse Valley, and Manchuria. — Japanese leaders of Chinese. —
Dr. Hirth on China and Japan. — Japanese invasion of China. —
Siam and Japan. — The United States a Pacific Power. — A com-
plete Anglo-Japanese Alliance. — Russia and Japan. — Two streams
of civilization. — New Japan egotistic. — Prospects of Japan. —
Confidence in Japan.

IT is now appropriate to inquire what is appar-
ently the mission of Japan in the world. Since
even much less powerful nations have played
most important parts on the stage of the world’s
history, it is simply inconceivable that Japan should
have attained in so brief a period such an eminent
position as a world-power without having some special
mission to perform and some contribution to make to
the sum total of what is called civilization. And in
considering this topic of the mission of Japan, it may
be well to ascertain what are the aims and aspirations
of the Japanese, because it is usually along these lines
that a nation, as well as an individual, achieves suc-
cess. Let us then permit Japanese themselves to
answer largely our queries concerning the role which

290 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

is to be theirs “in the great world-drama that con-
tinues unendingly, like a Chinese play, in the Far
East.” And the opinions which are now to be pre-
sented, even though the individuals themselves are
not, in every case, the most prominent pei’sonages
that might have been selected, nevertheless fairly
represent Japanese public opinion,

One^ says: “Japan is especially favored by nature
with beauty and picturesqueness of scenery and a
healthful climate, and has been appropriately called
the ‘Paradise of the East.’ We shall turn this
country into a grand park of the nations, and draw
pleasure-seekers from all parts of the world. We
shall build magnificent hotels and establish excel-
lent clubs, in most splendid style, to receive the
royal visitors of Europe and the millionaires of
America.” And while the objection has been raised
that this is not “a very lofty role for Japan,” it is
claimed that “it is seen to be about the role that
France, the great nation of artists, is content to play
in Europe — making herself infinitely beautiful and
infinitely charming.” And certainly to minister ar-
tistically to the enjoyment of residents and visitors
by making the country as pleasant and delightful
as possible is an aim that accords well with the
naturally aesthetic tastes of the Japanese people.
Therefore, concerning success in this endeavor there
cannot be the slightest doubt.

That role is not, however, purely aesthetic, be-

1 Mr. K. Takaliaslii, President of the Bank of Japan.

THE MISSION OF JAPAN

291

cause it contemplates the mercenary advantages to
be reaped from the expected throngs of pleasure -
seekers, and is, therefore, also practical. And the
same person makes another suggestion, wholly prac-
tical and pecuniary, as follows : —

‘•Japan is geographically situated in an advantageous
position, as at the centre of the world’s commercial
routes. China will be the future market of the world,
and Japan will receive the mercantile vessels fitted to
be despatched to all parts of the earth. Japan should
provide herself with extensive docks at the various
ports of the island on the route of the mercantile
vessels, to give them shelter and, if needed, necessary
repairs and cleaning, and eventually supply fuel and
water.”

We have already referred, in the closing para-
graphs of the first chapter, to the physiographical
advantages of Japan, but we are impelled to dwell
more at length on the subject. Another Japanese^
has emphasized the point with the following sug-
gestions : —

“ To all appearances, the seas about Japan and China
will be the future theatre of the Far East. The Phil-
ippines have been reduced to a province of the United
States. China, separated from us only by a very narrow
strip of water, is offering every promise of becoming
a great resource open to the world of the twentieth
century. The Siberia railway has been opened to traffic ;
and the construction of a canal across Central America

1 Rear-Admiral Kimotsuki in the “ Taiyo ” (Sun). See also chap,
xiii. of “Japan in Transition ” (Ransome).

292 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

is expected to be finished before long. ... As for
fuel, our supply of coal from the mines of Hokkaido
and Kytishiu is so abundant that the surplus not re-
quired for our own consumption is exported largely
into various parts of the East, where no productive
coal mines have been found except a very few ones of
poor quality. . . .

“ Taking all these [things] into account, it is not too
much to say that the future situation of Japan will be
that of a central station of various water passages, — a
situation most conducive to the good of our country;
and that, numerous as the attractive places of his-
torical interest and natural beauty are, it is chiefly
from our excellently advantageous position, a connect-
ing link common to the three chains of water passage
to and from Europe, America, and Asia, that we shall
be able to obtain the largest share of the riches of the
nations of the world.”

With reference to the success of Japan in such a
purpose as this, there can be very little doubt; for
the natural advantages are so great that they require
comparatively little improvement.

But, besides this aim of commercial prosperity,
there is a higher ambition. One writer ^ says: —

“Japan’s mission at this juncture would be to act
as the leader to the Asiatic countries in introducing
modern civilization : China and Korea, for instance,
can learn about civilization much faster and easier
than from the countries in Europe and America, for
they have common systems of letters and to a certain
extent of ideas.”

1 Editorial in the “Taiyo” (Sun).

THE MISSION OF JAPAN

293

Prof. K. Ukita^ makes the following suggestion:

“It is the mission of Japan to set up an example of
a civilized and independent national state for her Asiatic
neighbors, and then to make a confederation of all the
Asiatic nations on the basis of international law; just
as it is the mission of the United States of America
to form one vast pan-American Union of all the re-
publics of the new hemisphere, and thus to hasten on
the progress toward the organization of the whole
world.”

Again we quote from the editor of the “ Taiyo ”
(Sun), as follows: —

“ It is our duty to transmit the essence of Occidental
civilization to our neighbors, as better success may
be realized by so doing than by introducing there the
new institutions directly from the West. The present
state of things in China does not allow her to appreciate
fully the ideas of Westerners, more so because their
fundamental conception of morals is at variance with
that of Occidentals. But Japan has every facility to
win the confidence of China, in consideration of its
geographical situation and of its literary affinity. The
valor, discipline, and order of our army have already
gained the confidence and respect of the Chinese, and
it now remains for us to guide them to higher pos-
sibilities with enlightened thoughts and ideas. Such
a work cannot be accomplished in a day ; it will require
years of perseverance and toil.”

Now, it may be profitable to ascertain to what ex-
tent J apan is fulfilling her self-appointed but natural

^ Formerly of the Dushisha. From the “Taiyo.”

294 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

mission to uplift her neighbors and kindred in Eastern
Asia. In Korea, for instance, what is the scope of
Japanese influence? In that peninsula there are
about 16,000 Japanese, by whom almost all the im-
portant enterprises of the country are managed. Of
the foreign trade of Korea, by far the largest per cent
of both exports and imports is in connection with
Japan; while the trade of Russia with Korea is posi-
tively insignificant.^ The principal articles of export
to Japan are agricultural products, while the imports
from Japan are chiefly manufactured goods. At every
open port of Korea there is a Japanese post and tele-
graph office, through which alone can communication
be had with foreign countries. As Korea is almost
wholly destitute of shipping, her coasting trade is
chiefly carried on by Japanese vessels, which also
furnish almost all the means of trade and travel
abroad. In railways, too, the Japanese have largest
control ; and their banks are strong and prosperous.
Fisheries and mining likewise furnish employment
for Japanese, who also carry on numerous miscel-
laneous business enterprises.

When we pass on to China, we find most astonish-
ing results, a full treatment of w’hich would require
a volume, so that we must be content with a few
typical examples. In Fuchow, for instance, in the
six years since a Japanese consul first landed there,
the number of Japanese residents has increased from
8 to 70, and the number of Formosan natives, now

1 For important statistics, see Appendix.

THE MISSION OF JAPAN

295

naturalized Japanese, who are staying there, is more
than 160. The Osaka Shosen Kwaisha^ has a branch
office in Fuchow; and the Formosan Bank has sent
there a special commissioner. In Amoy also, on ac-
count of its proximity to Formosa, Japanese influence
is growing.

The great increase of Japanese enterprise on the
Yangtse River during recent years deserves a para-
graph by itself. There are several Japanese lines of
steamers, besides special vessels for the coal and iron
trade. “ Side by side with this development of car-
rying facilities many Japanese, in the capacity of
merchants, Government employes or projectors, may
be seen travelling in the Yangtse Valley; and further
the number of persons engaged in the translation of
Japanese books into Chinese has increased in an ex-
traordinar}’ degree. . . . Nothing is more remarkable
than the popularity enjoyed by Japanese things and
Japanese subjects.”

In view of the complications with Russia, it is
well to call attention to the fact that Northern China,
especially Manchuria, is most important to Japan
from the commercial point of view. The trade with
Niuchwang alone is from 10,000,000 to 13,000,000
yen per year, and that with all Manchuria amounts
to about 20,000,000 yen annually. It is perfectly
natural, therefore, that Japan should object to con-
tinued Russian occupation, from which she has al-
ready suffered by direct and indirect interference,

1 Osaka Merchant Steamship Company.

296 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

and that she should demand a fair field with “ open
doors.”

From such instances, of which more might be
cited, it is apparent that Japan is doing her duty
in the way of helping China to the benefits of ma-
terial civilization. But her influence is being ex-
erted for good on higher planes. For, as the editor
of the “Japan Mail” observes, “every Japanese sub-
ject employed in China in whatever capacity will be
a centre for diffusing the light of liberalism”; and
“the Chinese are apparently to be led along their
new path by the Japanese,” who “have some degree
of distant kinship with the Chinese.”

The words of Dr. Hirth will add weight because
he is, perhaps, the most eminent Chinese scholar in
the country and holds the professorship of Chinese in
Columbia University, New York City. He spoke as
follows : ^ —

“No capable observer of events in China since the
Imperial Court returned to Peking can doubt that the
government has decided to adopt the policy of Japan,
which is to take the methods of western civilization
for their models. In directing the new movement in
China, Japan is taking the lead over other foreign
nations, and this, it is asserted, is due to her superior
command of the language.

“ Moreover, every educated Japanese is imbued with
the ideas prevalent in Chinese literature, religious and
political, and hence he has a different standing in the

1 "The Political and Commercial Reasons for the Study of
Chinese.”

THE MISSION OF JAPAN

297

eyes of the Chinese from that of Americans and Euro-
peans. China has thus placed the work of educating
the rising generation in the hands of the Japanese as
being less likely to destroy the old knowledge while
familiarizing the students with the advantages of the
new.

“A National University has been established by the
Emperor at Peking, which it is calculated will be the
model for educational institutions all over the country.
Eecently a Japanese professor has been selected to draft
a new code of laws for the empire. The reason why a
Japanese was selected for this work in preference to an
equally learned German, American, or Englishman, is
because men who are both willing and capable of making
due allowance for traditional prejudices will never arise
from a country where the study of Chinese institutions is
so much in its infancy as with all of us, except Japan.”

The present peaceable invasion of China by Jap-
anese, “not this time with guns for weapons, but
with ideas and educational influences,” is along these
seven lines : ^ —

“ 1. The Agricultural College, established some years
ago at Wuchang by the Viceroy Chang Chih-tung, and
managed for some time by an expert American, has now
been given over to Japanese management.

“2. The military school in Hangchau is taught wholly
by Japanese.

“3. A large amount of translation work is done by
the Japanese.

“4. Many Chinese students have been sent by Chang
Chih-tung during recent years to be educated in Japanese
schools for Chinese government service.

1 “ Chinese Recorder.” See also Appendix.

298 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

“ 5. ]\Iore than one large and influential Chinese news-
paper is owned and edited by Japanese, one of which is
an especially strong advocate of closer union between the
two great nations of the East.

“6. Nearly 100 Japanese students are in attendance
at school in Shanghai, studying Chinese and English with
a view to positions of usefulness in China.

“ 7. A large and increasing number of translation socie-
ties are being organized in Shanghai, the principal object
of which is to get into circulation books on Western
learning. The significant fact is that the large majority
of them are translated from the Japanese rather than
European languages, because, as they say, the Japanese
have already selected the best, and they wish to profit
by their experience. Books on Political Economy,
General Science, Agriculture, Pedagogics, Ancient and
Current History are now commonly on sale in Chinese
bookstores, most of which are advertised as having been
adapted from the Japanese.”

There is yet another country which is feeling the
influence of Japan; and that is Siam. No doubt
much of this increased interest in “things Japanese”
may be attributed to the recent visit of the Siamese
Crown Prince to Japan. He is having a Japanese
building constructed for himself ; and the king is to
have a Japanese garden and house added to the
grounds of his palace. The trade between Japan and
Siam is not }'et very extensive;^ but it is capable
of considerable expansion. Siamese boys and girls
have begun to resort to Japan for educational advan-

I Japan exports chiefly matches, lamps, and coal, and imports
principally rice and cotton-seed.

THE MISSION OF JAPAN

299

tages; so that, in more senses than one, Japan is
coming to be the teacher and leader of Siam.

But there is another phase of the Far Eastern
situation that demands close attention. The United
States has definite and direct interests of several
kinds in Japan, Korea, China, and Siam; and she
must maintain these at all hazards. Through the
possession of Hawaii, Guam, and particularly the
Philippines, she has become a Pacific Power, more
than ever concerned, and directly, in Oriental poli-
tics. The advent of the United States into that field
was hailed with joy by the Japanese, who have the
utmost confidence in our international policy.

In view of the fact, therefore, that the United
States, by virtue of providential necessity, must
be reckoned as a factor in Oriental politics, and
cannot herself ignore such responsibilities, there is
only one course open, only one policy to be pur-
sued. It is most clearly our duty as a nation (pas-
sively, if possible, but actively, if necessary) to
support the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in its efforts
in behalf of the nations of Eastern Asia. The union
of the greatest nations of Europe, America, and Asia
in a complete Anglo-Japanese Alliance would make
a “ triple alliance ” practically invincible.

There are two rival interests contending for mas-
tery on the other shore of the Pacific Ocean, — Russia
and Japan. Toward the former we must feel grati-
tude for her attitude toward us when our Union was
in utmost peril; but that sentiment is overbalanced

300 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

by other considerations. Toward the latter we have
an imperative duty, as toward a protege^ because it
was America who started Japan on her present career
and must acknowledge the responsibility to assist her
in every laudable purpose. And certainly her aims
in the Far East coincide with ours and with the
dictates of civilization. The supremacy of Japan
in Eastern Asia means far more for America and
American institutions than does the domination of
Russia. Japan to-day enjoys rights unknown in
Russia: social freedom, political privileges, repre-
sentative institutions, local self-government, intel-
lectual liberty, freedom of assembly and of the
press, and religious liberty. Japan is already far
in advance of Russia and, in many respects abreast
of Germany, in civilization. And, as “Japan holds
the key of the Far Eastern position,” she is our
natural ally. Dai Nippon banzai — “ Long live Great
Japan.”

But let us now revert again to the Japanese writer
quoted near the close of the first chapter. With a
reminder of the ever westward course of empire, he
pens a paragraph so bold and suggestive that it is
worth transcribing : ^ —

“ Two streams of civilization flowed in opposite direc-
tions when mankind descended from their primitive homes
on the table-land of Iran or America. That towards the
west passed through Babylon, Phoenicia, Greece, Rome,
Germany, England, and culminated in America, while

1 Uchimura’s “Japan and the Japanese.”

IMPERIAL DOCKYARD, YOKOSUKA

THE MISSION OF JAPAN

301

that through the east travelled through India, Thibet,
and China, culminating in the IManchoo Court of Peking.
The moral world is also a magnet with its two opposite
poles on the opposite banks of the Pacific, the demo-
cratic, aggressive, inductive America, and the imperial,
conservative, and deductive China. There have been con-
stant attempts for the union of these magnetic currents.
. . . Grander tasks await the young Japan, who has the
best of Europe and the best of Asia at her command.
At her touch the circuit is completed, and the healthy
fluid shall overflow the earth ! ”

In fact, it seems not improbable that the nation
which, having from ancient times imbibed and assim-
ilated the elements of Oriental civilization, has been
swallowing and digesting Occidental civilization, may
produce a new and strong tissue. It is, therefore,
argued with no little force that “to reconcile the
East with the West: to be. the advocate of the East,
and the harbinger of the AVest: this we believe to
be the mission which Japan is called upon to fulfil.”

To most persons, undoubtedly, this conception of
the future of Japan appears to be teeming with na-
tional vanity. And, indeed, it cannot be denied that
New Japan is extremely egotistic. She views with
evident self-gratulation the astonishing progress she
has made, and believes herself capable of even more
wonderful transformations. And surely, when we
contemplate the history of the past fifty years, and
consider the remarkable facility with which J apan has
metamorphosed herself, we need not wonder that she
is confident or even boastful. To those conversant

302 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

with this people, their capabilities, and possibilities,
the above forecast of Japan’s future seems to photo-
graph, with some exaggerations, the natural and not
altogether improper self-confidence and reliance of an
able, growing, and independent nation, which has
shown an inexplicable power of assimilating the
various and diverse elements of civilization. Even
a foreigner has so much confidence in the grand
future of Japan that lie expressed himself in the
“Atlantic Monthly” (June, 1892) in the following
strong language : —

“ In bringing to pass the fusion of eastern and western
types, which . . . shall create in both hemispheres a
far more rounded civilization than either has ever known,
Japan has the inestimable privilege of becoming our
most alert pioneer. Through her temperament, her in-
dividuality, her deeper insight into the secrets of the
East, her ready divining of the powers of the West, . . .
it may be decreed in the secret council chambers of des-
tiny that on her shores shall be first created that new
latter-day type of civilized man which shall prevail
throughout the world for the next thousand years.”

But while we may not, perhaps, be fully warranted
in such sanguine expectations, we cannot help being
impressed Avith the fact that the prospects of Japan
are unusually bright. She slept for 250 years while
the Occident was moving rapidly onward in the path
of civilization, and she must now hasten to catch up.
But she can avoid the pitfalls into Avhich the others,
now and then, here and there, have fallen, and by
which they have been delayed. She can profit by

THE MISSION OF JAPAN 303

the mistakes, by the costly experiences, of those
who preceded her along the rough road. She must
move quickly to make up for lost time, but not too
rapidly; she must “make haste slowly.” She can
never go back, except to ruin and death. She has
stepped into the path of progress forever. She must
discard all things, whether manners, customs, letters,
political forms, superstitions, moulds of thought, or
anything else which tends to retard her onward move-
ments. But it is sincerely to be hoped that even the
demands of modern progress \\dll allow her to retain
much of that grace and charm, of that quaint sim-
plicity, of that light-hearted and merry nature, all of
which characterize the Japanese.

We believe in Japan. We are confident that she
has powers, both patent and latent, which will enable
her to achieve still greater successes than she has
yet accomplished. We have had our “blue spells,”
when, for this or that reason, we felt discouraged
over the apparent failure of some movement ’for re-
form; but in most instances we have eventually
seen success crown the effort. With reference to
political affairs F. V. Dickins has well expressed it:
“There is a silent strength underlying the sound
and fury of Japanese politics which will enable the
country to weather much worse storms than any that
threaten it.”^ Therefore we reiterate that we have
confidence in the future of Japan and the Japanese.
We repeat that their achievements up to date are a

1 “ Life of Sir Harry Parkes.”

304 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

guarantee of continued success in the future. We
dare prophesy that they will yet display wonderful
transformations in their development. We feel per-
fectly warranted in applying Vergil’s line, —

Hos successus alit ; possunt, quia posse videntur,
which Conington translates into two verses, —

“ These bring success their zeal to fan,

They can because they think they can.”

APPENDIX

Provinces and Prefectures

The following list gives in detail the divisions
of Japan into Provinces {Kuni), according to
‘ ‘ Circuits ” : —

Go-Kinai (Five Home Provinces). Yamashiro, Yamato,
Kawachi, Izumi (or Senshiu), Settsu (or Sesshiu).
Tokaido (Eastern Sea Road). Iga, Ise, Shima, Owari,
Mikawa, Totomi, Suruga, Kai, Izu, Sagami, Musashi,
Awa (or Boshiu), Kazusa, Shimosa, Hitachi.

Tosando (Eastern ]\Iountain Road). Orai, Mino, Hida,
Shinano(or Shinshiu), Kozuke (or Joshiu), Shimozuke,
Iwaki, Iwashiro, Rikuzen, Rikuchu, Mutsu, Uzen,
Ugo.

Hokurikudo (North Land Road). Wakasa, Echizen,
Kaga, Noto, Etchu, Echigo, Sado Island.

Su7iindd (Mountain Shade Road). Tamba, Tango,
Tajima, Inaba, Hoki, Izumo, Iwami, Oki Islands.
Sanyddo (Mountain Sunlight Road). Harima (or Ban-
shiu), Mimasaka, Bizen, Bitchu, Bingo, Aki, Suwd,
Nagata (or Choshiu).

Nankaido (Southern Sea Road). Kii (or Kishiu), Awaji
Island, Awa, Sanuki, lyo, Tosa (or Toshiu), of which
the last four are in the island of Shikoku.

Saikaidd (Western Sea Road). Chikuzen, Chikugo,
Buzen, Bungo, Hizen, Higo, Hyuga, Osumi, Satsuma
(or Sasshiu), Iki Island, Tsushima Island, of which
all except the last two are on the island of Kyushiu.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLE OF JAPAN i

308 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

^ From Cbamborlain^a ** Things Japaneso.

APPENDIX

309

Hokkaido (Northern Sea Road). Oshima, Shiribeshi,
Iburi, Ishikari, Hitaka, Tokachi, Teshiwo, Kushiro,
Nemuro, Kitami (all on the island of Yezo), and Chi-
shima, or the Kurile Islands.

Ryukyu (Loo Choo) Islands. This group constituted
one, the 85th, Kiuii.

The following is the list of Japanese Prefectures {Ken
and Fu) ; —

The Fu number three : Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka.

The Ken number forty -three : Kanagawa, Saitama,
Chiba, Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gumma, Nagano, Yamanashi,
Shizuoka, Aichi, Miye, Gifu, Shiga, Fukui, Ishikawa,
Toyama, Niigata, Pukushima, Miyagi, Yamagata,
Akita, Iwate, Aomori, Nara, Wakayama, Hyogo,
Okayama, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, Shimane, Tottori,
Tokushima, Kagawa, Ehime, K6chi, Nagasaki, Saga,
Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Oita, Miyazaki, Kagoshima, and
Okinawa (Ryukyu Islands).

Hokkaido and Formosa are at present administered as
“ territories ” by the Imperial Government, although
the former has recently been granted a small measure of
local self-government.

Tables of Japanese Money, Weight, and
Measuke 1

Length {Sashi). Japanese Weights and Measures.

As the use of the Japanese weights and measures is
becoming more and more frequent in reports and books
from the Far East, the following tables will be found
useful to all persons who wish to ascertain the equiva-
lents of the Japanese terms in similar terms in use in
the United States and in England: —

1 From “Japan and America.'

310 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

LONG MEASURE (SASHI)

1 Mo (0.0001 Shaku)
1 liin (10 Mo) . .

1 Bu (10 Rin) . .

1 Sun (10 Bu) . .

1 Shaku (10 Sun) .

1 Ken (6 Shaku)

1 Jo (10 Shaku) . .

1 Cho (60 Ken) . .

1 Ri (36 Cho) . . .

1 Kai-Ri (Marine Ri)

.... 0.000099 foot.
. . . . 0.00099 foot.
.... 1.4317 lines.
. . . . 1.1931 inches.

. . . 11.9305 inches.
. . . . 1.9884 yards.
. . . . 3.3140 yards.

5.4229 chains (1-15 m.).
. 2.4403 miles (2} m.).
. . . . 1.1507 miles.

DRY GOODS MEASURE (KUJIRA-JAKU)

1 Sun (0.1 Shaku)
1 Shaku (10 San)

1 Tan ....
IHiki . . . .

1.4913 inches.
14.9130 inches,
(about) 11 yards,
(about) 22 yards.

WEIGHT (EAKARI)

1 Mo

1 Rln (10 Mo) . . .
1 Kun (10 Rin) . . .
1 Momme (10 Fun) . .
1 Kin (160 Momme)

1 Kwan (1,000 Momme)

0.000008 pound (avoirdupois).
0.000083 pound “

5.7972 grains “

. 2.12 drams “

1.3251 pounds “

8.2817 pounds “

CAPACITY (MASU)

1 Shaku (10 Sai) 0.00397 gallon.

1 Go (10 Shaku) 1.2706 gills; 0.0199 peck.

1 Sho (10 Go) 1.5881 quarts; 0.1985 peck.

1 To (10 Sho) 3.9703 gallons; 1.0951 pecks.

1 Koku (10 To) 39.7033 gallons ; 4.9629 bushels.

SUPERFICIAL MEASURE (TANBETSU)

1 Square Shaku ....
1 T$ubo (36 Square Shaku)
1 Se (30 Tsubo) ....
1 Tan (10 Se) ....
1 Cho (10 Tan) ....
1 Square Ki

. about 1 square foot.

. 3.9538 square yards,

about 119 square yards.
. . . . 0.2451 acre.

. . . . 2.4507 acres.
. 5.9552 square miles.

MONEY

1 yen $0.4935

1 sen one-half cent.

OK HO TS K

^OSMOIWC L

J?SHVSKIKoT** •

^ Hat .C L
^Hasba ; I.

^uiuvpi' I-

CHISHIMA

(KURILESt
(TO HOKKAIDO)
SCALE

OKnMiki«Hi*A(

)|Ctlaiia»kl

WtMkI

HtHVI

^ 8iWA<mii>A
OAll ItlUUIA
’AIAI. «IOBA

• Ml»>

[sdlMk*

OGASAWARA

(BONIN ISLANDS)

(TO TOKYO F-UJ

SCAt.B

UTI^

TuBIkHIHA^

C'lsta/i

^Oil-KMiCJlaA

A»A»iia^

' TuioaiiMA

•■•HtMA

H I.M A

(RYUKYU)

SCALE

MILKM

MltAS' UIIU

KtLOMKTliES

^ Aa|r

^ngoni Hay
<unn»klt

/ Tirviiiwi

ff7V> a

’9»ruga

^XtKIIIIA

totomi-Wada

8hi<k0UDu'

(«(Twkl

y.fsnkv

FORMOSA

OKINAWA

MhacuuiM^

OLOSS/f/fr:

OKKI{;iAL MAP

OF THE

EMPIRE OF JAPAN

A0C0RDI5U TO

SIX GRAND DIVISIONS OF TERRITORY

ADOrrPX» P»B TAB

STATISTir.A L TAHI.KS.

Varna. San. Zan - Hountaln.
Tako. Dako. Iflno - Peak
Kawo. Oa^a - Rlror
Sakl. Zakl. MUakl - Cape.
Xada — Sea. K« - Lake.
Vra. Hama - Sho'V. Be;ieh-
Ishlina. Jlcna,TO - Island.

APPENDIX

311

Money, Weight, and Measxire of Various Countries
in Terms of those of Japanese

MONEY

English poand (20 shillings) 9.763 yen.

Shilling (12 pennies) 0.4881 “

Penny (4 farthings) 0.0407 “

Hong Kong dollar 0.949 “

American dollar (100 cents) 2.006 “

Cent 0.02 »

German mark 0.478 “

French franc 0.387 "

Chinese tael 1.298 “

Manila dollar 0.985 “

Mexican dollar 0.965 “

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LENGTH

Mile (1,460 yards)
Yard (3 feet) . .
Foot (12 inches) .
Inch

14 ch6 and 49 hen.
. . . 3 shahu.

. . . 1 shahu.

, 8 bu and 4 rin.

GERMAN, FRENCH, AUSTRIAN, AND ITALIAN LENGTH

Metre 3 shahu and 3 sun.

Centimetre (1-100 metre) 3 6u and 3 rin.

Millimetre (1-1000 metre) • . . 3 rin and 3 m6.

ENGLISH CAPACITY

Gallon (liquid)

Bushel (wheat)

AMERICAN CAPACITY

Gallon (liquid)

Bushel (wheat)

Weight

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN

(HEAVYWEIGHTS)

Ton (20 hundredweight, or 2,240 pounds)

Short ton (2,000 pounds)

Hundredweight (112 pounds) . . . . ,
Pound (16 ounces)

about 270 hman and 946 momme.

Ounce about 8 momme.

312 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

LIGHT WEIGHT

Pound 99 momme and 5 bu.

Ounce 8 momme and 3 bu.

Grain 1 rin and 7 mi.

Acre

Area

AMERICAN AND ENGLISH
4 (an and 24 ho.

Arable Land in Japan *

The “Nichi Nichi Shimbun ” argues that the real
question for the Japanese to consider is development of
agriculture, not a paltry lightening of the fiscal burden
now imposed on agriculturists. When the area of cul-
tivated land in the various countries of the world is
compared with the total areas of those countries, start-
ling figures result.

Ratio of Area of Cultivated Land to Total Area of
Countrf

Belgium ....

53.9

Austria

. 36.7

Prussia

50.3

Spain

. 35.7

France

60.2

Holland

. 27.3

Germany ....

43.4

England . . . .

Denmark ....

42.5

Portugal . . . .

. 24.9

Italy

39.9

European Russia . .

. 16.4

Hungary ....

37.7

Japan

Japanese habitually plead that their extraordinarily low
place on this list is the result, not of want of industry,
but of natural obstacles, much of the surface of their
islands consisting of mountains and hills which cannot
be made arable. The “ Nichi Nichi ” alleges that such
an excuse is merely partial, and that a little energy and
resolution would soon change the situation. At any
rate, the opposition offered by politicians to the present
^ From the “ Japan Mail."

APPENDIX

313

land tax is not in the genuine interests of agriculture,
but in the interests of political popularity.

Mr. Megata, an official of the Finance Department and
an expert statistician, has figured out that in 1901 more
than 15,000,000 acres were in cultivation.

The actual yield of rice for 1902 has now been definitely
ascertained, and is indicated in the following table : —

Tsab.

1893 . . .

1894 . . .

1895 . . .

1896 . . .

1897 . . .

1898 . . .

1899 . . .

1900 . . .

1901 . . .

1902 . . .
Average year

Yield ik Koku.
. 37,267,418
. 41,859,047
. 39,960,798
. 36,240,351
. 33,039,290
. 47,387,666
. 39,698,258
. 41,466,734
. 46,914,943
. 36,999,348
. 40,856,217

The figure for the average year is obtained by taking
the seven-year period 1895-1901 and omitting the
exceptional years, 1898 and 1897.

Fruit-Growing in Japan ^

Fruits originally cultivated, and probably native in
Japan, include the orange, pear, peach, sour plum,
almond, grape, persimmon, loquat, pomegranate, ginko
or salisburia, and fig. The mikun, or Japanese sweet
orange, is smaller, sweeter, and less juicy than the
oranges raised in America, and the thin membrane sepa-
rating the sections of the fruit is tougher ; it has a very
pleasant flavor, and is much used for food by both natives
and foreigners. It is cultivated all through the warmer
regions of Japan, and is the most plentiful of the fruits
raised there, being found in the markets from early
autumn until late the following spring. The persimmon
1 From a Report by U. S. Consul-General Bellows, Yokohama.

314 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

comes next to the orange in the number produced, and
is a favorite with the natives, but its season is com-
paratively short. It closely resembles the persimmon
of America’s Southern States. The sour plum is ex-
tensively cultivated and yields a good crop, but the other
fruits named above, though more or less widely grown,
are produced in much smaller quantities — the fig being
most abundant and most valued of the less important
fruits. The government has introduced peaches, pears,
and grapes from Europe and America, and has found
the soil and climate well adapted to their production, so
that these are now cultivated in addition to the native
varieties of the same fruits. Of the fruits wholly un-
known in Japan until introduced from abroad, the
apple has proved most successful, and it has become a
chief product of some districts in the Hokkaido, or
northern island. The apples are of fine appearance
and excellent flavor, and the trees yield a profit very
encouraging to the cultivator, so that the area of their
production is being increased. The natives eat fruit
chiefly fresh, and its use as a table diet is not general,
although increasing. The processes of drying and can-
ning fruits are beginning to come into use, but only as
a means of preserving the fruit for home consumption,
not for export.

Factories in Japan ^

No. OF
Factobies.

Aqoeeoatb
Hobsb Powbb.

No. of Factobies
without Motob
Powbb.

1894

2,409

41,031

61,252

3,756

1895

2,758

3,037

4,396

189G

64,429

4,603

1897

2,910

63,434

4,377

1898

2,964

79,016

4,131

1899

2,305

76,885

4,394

1900

2,388

95,392

4,896

1 From the “Japan Times.'

APPENDIX

315

Factories with Motor Power

No. OP
Facto Bias.

Hobsb Powkb.

No. OP
Opeeativbs.

Silk reeling

J 1,046
j 1,722

9,362

6,631

112,887 1
102,071

Cotton and silk spinning

1 117

j 112

12,523

20,463

56,417

80,107

Ships, machines, etc. . . .

( 155

1 198

2,577

4,190

16,654

18,131

tVeaving

( 25

3,005

7,924

1 56

2,596

9,588

Cement

( 251

I 37

1,099

1,825

2,712

3,554

Printing

( 30

) 15

246

531

3,233

5,224

Paper-mills

1 “
1 18

3,097

3,398

1,761

2,909

Factories without Motor Power

No. OP Factobies.

No. OP Opkeatitbs.

Silk reeling

( 6.36
j 496

17,614

14,077

Cotton and silk spinning . . .

1 21

542

Ships, machines, etc

( 188
i 99

4,512

3,195

IVeaving

( 1,025

28.900

j 1,245

34,965

Cement

( 136

5,099

j 119

2,870

Printing

( 103
j 95

2,784

2,617

1 The first figures in each group represent the end of 189G,
and the second figures the end of 1900.

316 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Clearing-Houses of Japan

The following table shows the development of the
clearing-business in Japan : —

First Half-Year

Totai, of Checks akd Bills Cleabed.

Tokyo.

Yen.

Osaka.

Yen.

1893

70,000,000

31,300,000

1894

78,500,100

32,600,000

1895

131,600,000

34,500,000

1896

184,800,000

65,700,000

1897

250,300,000

72,200,000

1898

383,400,000

97,300,000

1899

433,800,000

161,600,000

1900

675,400,000

255,500,000

1901

565,000,000

263,700,000

1902

614,700,000

298,700,000

1903

756,100,000

395,900,000

Ship-Building in Japan ^

Recent orders which have been placed in the hands of
the Nagasaki Dockyard and Engine Works and the
Kawasaki Dockyard Company, Limited, by the Nippon
Yusen Kaisha and the Osaka Shosen Kaisha, serve to
remind the resident of the rapid development of the
ship-building industry in this country, while at the same
time affording evidence of the growth of the country’s
mercantile marine. The order placed with the first-
named yard is for four large steamers of 6,000, 5,400,
2,500, and 1,900 tons, respectively, the largest vessels
being intended for the Japan Mail Steamship Company’s
European and Australian lines. Nor is the Osaka
Shosen Kaisha in a different position. This enterpris-
ing company also has found it necessary to order new
vessels, and has found it economical to order them in

1 From a Report by U. S. Consul Lyon, Kobe.

APPENDIX

317

Japan instead of from abroad. The fact is "w^orthy of
note, for it is the first time in the history of the country
that orders for eight ocean-going steamers have been in
hand at one time. This may, we trust, be held to
indicate that the shipping and ship-building industries
are in a healthy and prosperous state.

The contrast between the condition of the local ship-
building trade now and that of a few years back is a
striking one. Perhaps the first real impetus given to
jjrivate ship-building here was due to the enterprise of
the late Mr. E. C. Kirby, at whose yard at Onohama —
the plant of which was subsequently removed to Kure
— one large cruiser and several smaller gxinboats and
steamers were successfully launched. Since then, the
yards at Kawasaki, Osaka, Ishikawajima, Uraga, and
Nagasaki have taken up the work vigorously, and demon-
strated beyond possibility of cavil their ability to turn
out ocean-goiug craft, and large river steamers of the
highest standard. With the productions of Osaka and
Kobe ship-building establishments trading regularly on
the Yangtze, and 6,000-ton liners from the Nagasaki
Shipbuilding Engine Works, making record voyages
between Seattle and the Orient, and others running
regularly between home ports and London, there is no
longer room for surprise in viewing Japan-built steamers.
There is no doubt that with the opening up of additional
lines in the China and Japan seas, sufficient work for
local ship-builders will be forthcoming for some years to
come, and it is therefore unlikely that they will enter
into serious competition in the near future with ship-
building yards in Shanghai, Hongkong, and Singapore.
The home demand seems likely to engage their activities
for some years yet, though the presence of a 700-ton
steamer for the Shanghai customs on the stocks at
Kawasaki may be held to belie the prediction. . . . Al-
though Japanese ship-builders may have quite enough to

318 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

do in the near future to meet the home demand, a young
rival has entered the lists against the great ship-building
concerns of the West ; and this in itself is no small
credit to the nation, which is already able to plume itself
upon having accomplished more in a generation than any
other people in Asia or in the South Seas, and as much,
relatively, as the American and English peoples whose
homes are on the Pacific slope.

The Osaka Exhibition ^

Considering that only thirty years ago Japan had no
such institution as a factory, and knew nothing what-
ever of iron foundries or machine shops, the Japanese-
made machinery display at the exhibition at Osaka is
astonishing. There we find silk-weaving and mat-mak-
ing machines, electrical motors and generators, gas and
oil engines, locomotives, electrical fittings, tools, belt-
ings, match-making machine, lemonade-making machine,
distilling machine, fire-brigade appliances, rice-cleaning
machines, huge steam navvy, oil tanks, soap-making
machines, printing machines, massive hoisting engine,
tea-refining machinery, heavy mining machinery, and
many other smaller machines, all of Japanese manu-
facture, admirably made, and well adapted to the
purposes designed.

In general manufactures the empire makes a good
showing in certain lines. Straw braid, in all conceivable
styles and uses ; shihori, a beautiful dyed stuff, making
pretty dress material; woollen serges and woven silks,
particularly a delicate fabric of mixed silk and cotton
(the output of this fabric already totals $1,500,000 per
annum) ; cheap and good cotton blankets, Japanese towels,
artistic designs in tiles and roofing materials, drainpipes,
fireproof bricks. In drinkables, also of home manu-

1 From "Japan and America,” by Walter J. Ballard.

APPEIO)IX

319

facture, there is beer by the carload; sake, the famous
native drink, enough to quench the thirst of an army.

One of the best exhibits is in clocks ; some of them
very handsome and very cheap, made by one or other of
the twelve Japanese clock companies. The porcelain
exhibition is good, consisting of beautiful vases, artistic
porcelain trays, basins, teacups, etc. The exhibit of
Japanese-made shoes is quite creditable. Other native
manufactures exhibited are bamboo furniture, whatnots,
over-mantels, fire screens, shell buttons, paper lanterns,
fine silken rugs, shawls, paper, camphor, oils, soap, all
kinds of sauces and relishes, silks of every hue and de-
scription, silk lace, gold and silver thread, linen, duck,
tent cloths, ivory work, bronzes, lacquer and silver work,
surgical instruments, pianos, organs, and other musical
instruments, bicycles, gymnastic and athletic goods,
microscopes, cameras, barometers, and almost every kind
of educational apparatus.

The natural products of the country are exhibited to
good advantage. Rice, tobacco (manufactured and
unmanufactured), silkworms, various varieties of silk
cocoons, tea, huge oranges, sugar, furs, woods, pearls,
coral, fish (dried and salted). l\Iushrooms are a special
exhibit of one prefecture, tea of another, and so on. The
whole section of the agricultural experiment station is
complete and admirable in every way.

In the foreign section we find weaving-machines (only
introduced last October, and already largely sold),
German shoe-making and cigarette-making machines,
and searchlights from Nuremberg, match and matchbox-
making machines, rifles, wire samples, chemicals, per-
fumes, British-made electrical appliances, timber, paints,
varnishes, gas and oil engines, steam-engines (British),
a turbo-alternator (electric) from Newcastle-on-Tyne,
rubber and steel goods from England, Maxim’s famous
guns, fountain pens, typewriters, Indian cotton, Ameri-

320 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

can bone goods, American motor cars and bicycles, meat
extracts, American provisions, American lighting and
heating apparatus for railway carriages and street cars,
refrigerator cars, Boston pile-sinking outfits. New York
pumps, marine gasolene engine, and sewing-machines.

Canada also makes a good exhibit of the cereals and
food products of the Dominion, with the Canadian system
of cold storage, and of pulp woods, furniture, and iron
work.

Cost of Living in Japan

How Labor ers Live

The following tables are from “ The Labor World ”
for July 1, 1898. The editor sent a form to be filled
out by the laborers themselves, to get accurate statistics
of their lives and work. A few samples throw light
upon the inner life of Japanese laborers : —

No. 1. — House, two rooms ; a family, — man (30), wife (23), mother (53),
two sisters (14 and 11); occupation, blacksmith.

Working days in a month 26

Working hours in a day 12

Daily wages S0.52

Monthly income 13.83

Monthly expenses 13.65

House rent, one month 0.96

Rice 5.76

Fuel and light 1.08

Vegetables 0.87

Fish 0.96

Sake (rice beer) 0.24

Soy (Japanese sauce) 0.73

Tobacco 0.20

Hair cutting and dressing 0.83

Bath 0.88

Pin money 0.25

Sundries 0.89

No. 55. — House, two rooms, with kitchen; a family, — man (27), wife
(25), boy (6), girl (2) ; business, iron worker.

Daily wages $0.25

Overtime income for one month 1.50

Monthly income 8.28

APPENDIX

321

Monthly expense 9.44

House rent 0.75

Rice 3.25

Fuel and light 0.41

Vegetables 0.60

Fish 0.60

Soy and miso 0.23

Tobacco 0.25

Hair cutting and dressing 0.18

Bath 0.20

Pin raone}’ 0.60

Sundries, including interest on debt 2.37

Increase in Living Expense

The following interesting comparison between the

cost of living in 1889 and 1899 is from “ The Miyako ” :

(Calculated monthly expenditure of a family of six members — a mar-
ried couple, a parent, two children, and one servant — living with strict
economy.)

18.S9. 1899.

yen, yen.

House rent (a house containing the furnished rooms of 6,

4J, and 2 mats, respectively 2.50 5.00

Cleaned rice (at the rate of 2 sho per day) 4.50 7.00

(ItoSsho (Ssho5g5
per yen.) per yen)

Soy 0.45 0.75

Salt and mtso (including IJ ^0 of salt and some mijo) . 0.40 0.70

Oils (3 sho of kerosene and 5 go of vegetable oil) . . . 0.45 0.69

Sugar 0.60 0.90

Milk (1 go per daj') 0.90 1.10

Newspaper (only 1) 0.25 0.35

School expenses (for 2 children) 0.80 0.90

Stationery expenditure (for the children) 0.60 0.90

Hair dressing 0.34 0.69

Price of bath (every other day for the family) .... 0.90 1.50

Vegetables 0.90 1.50

Fish food (9 messes for the family) 1.08 1.80

Beef (6 messes for the family, about § of 1 pound . . 0.60 1.20

Tsuhudani and other auxiliary foods (6 messes) . . . 0.24 0.42

Tea 0.40 0.50

Fuel J^OO 1.80

Total 17.21 28.20

Security money for rent 7.00 15.00

These include necessaries, but if other petty expenses
are taken into calculation, a family of 6 members as

322 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

mentioned above will require a monthly income of at
least 35 yen on which to maintain themselves decently.

Wages of Japanese Workmen

Following is an official table of the wages of day
laborers of the whole empire for the year 1900 : —

OCCTTPATIONB. AVERAGE. OCCUPATIONS. AvBEAOK.

Carpenter $0,270 Maker of fancy goods . . $0,210

Plasterer 0.270 Founder 0.2-35

Stonemason 0.365 Pulley-driver 0.190

Sawyer 0.265 Lacquer-ware maker . . 0.235

Roofer 0.255 Lacquer-sap gatherer . . 0.180

Tile-roofer 0.295 Oil-presser 0.180

Brickmason 0.315 Paper-maker 0.160

Floor-mat maker .... 0.235 Tobacco-cutter .... 0.215

Furniture maker .... 0.265 Compositor 0.175

Paper-hanger 0.250 Pressman 0.170

Joiner 0.259 Ship-carpenter .... 0.280

Tub-maker 0.225 Gardener 0.260

Wooden clogmaker . . . 0.200 Peasant (male) .... 0.150

Shoemaker 0.235 Peasant (female) .... 0.095

Saddler 0.235 Sericulturist (male) . . . 0.165

Cartwright 0.235 Sericulturist (female) . . 0.095

Tailor for Japanese clothes 0.195 Silk-spinner (female) . . 0.100

Tailor for foreign clothes . 0.280 Weaver (male) .... 0.165

Maker of cloth bags, cases, Weaver (female) .... 0.100

etc 0.220 Confectioner 0.160

Dyer 0.145 Fisherman 0.190

Cotton-carder 0.185 Coolie 0.165

Blacksmith 0.240

Employes Engaged by the Month

In salre brewery .... $5,465 Servant (male) . . . . Sl-36

In soy brewery .... 3.110 Ser^mnt (female) .... 0.78

Peasant Engaged by the Year

Male $16.06 Female $8.53

Railways in Japan

The report on railway development shows that since
the government constructed its first line of eighteen
miles from Yokohama to Tokyo in 1872, a great trunk

APPENDIX

323

line of 1,200 miles has been built, and the total mileage
in the country increased to 4,115, which in 1900 handled
113,000,000 passengers and 14,000,000 tons of freight.
Of the total mileage 2,967 miles are owned by private
corporations and 1,148 by the government, which was
the pioneer in the movement to give the country modern
land transportation. No private construction was done
until 1883, when the government had 181 miles of rail-
way under operation, and it was not until 1889 that
private enterprise began to lead the governmental effort.
The state railways now in operation cost, according to
the report, the sura of 85,573,511 yen, while the private
systems represent an expenditure for construction to date
of 191,230,291 yen. The government now has under
construction lines that will cost 21,683,789 yen, and the
private corporations have work that will cost 6,283,139
yen.

The report thus classifies the capital of the private
railroads: Stocks, 181,267,472 yen; bonds, 11,017,800
yen; other liability, 9,930,784 yen; miscellaneous, 8,070,-
901 yen.

According to the reports made on the railways at the
end of the year 1900, the gross earnings of both state
and private railways for that year were 44,934,394 yew,
the gross expenditure 20,732,764 yen, and the net profit
24,200,130 yen.

At the end of 1901 the state had 1,017 miles of new
line under construction and the private companies had
817 miles projected, so the increase of this and the suc-
ceeding year will be large. The people of the country
opposed the construction of the first line from Yoko-
hama to Tokyo as a dangerous thing, and it was sev-
eral years before public opposition to the innovation was
entirely removed. Bond issues for railway construction
were opposed, but the government insisted on its policy
and finally won general support. At the end of 1901

324 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

on all lines there were 1,350 locomotives, 4,529 passenger
coaches, and 19,820 freight cars in use.

Postal Savixgs in Japan'

The following is a brief survey of the working of
Japan’s Postal Savings System during the past eight-
and-twenty years.

It must be admitted at the outset that the system of
postal savings in Japan cannot boast of any particularly
brilliant record. The study of it reveals, however, a
state of things which is not without some encouraging
features. We give below the amounts of the deposits
and some other items for every third year since the
inauguration of the institution : —

Teab.

Deposits at the End
OP THE Teab.
Yen.

No. OP Depositoes.

Amount pee
Depositoe.
Yen.

1875

15,000

1,800

1878

286,000

14,100

1881

821,000

38,900

1884

5.260,000

141,200

1887

18,213,000

568.800

1890

19,197,000

813,700

1893

26,155,000

1,060,200

1896

28,251,000

1,273.300

1899

23,455,000

1,397,600

1902

28,536,000

2,707,500

The sudden drop between the years 1896 and 1902 is
owing to the fact that the extraordinarily high interest
offered by the ordinary banks during that period of
monetary stringency diverted deposits from the Post
Offices. The gradual fall in the general rates of interest
since then has already begun to turn the tide back in
favor of the Post Offices, as shown by the figures for
last year. W’^hat is particularly satisfactory is the iu-

I From the “ Japan Times.”

APPENDIX

325

crease in the number of depositors, the increase in this
respect being far more remarkable than the increase in
the amount of the deposits, as shown by the decreasing
amount per depositor. This means, if it means any-
thing, that the advantages offered by the Postal Savings
Bank are more and more extensively appreciated by the
poorer classes.

The amount of deposits at the Postal Savings Bank
seems to be steadily increasing since the end of last year,
for IVIr. jVIatsunaga of the Communications Department,
writing in the March number of the “ Ginko Tsushin-
lloku,” tells us that it is already nearly 30,000,000 yen.
Not altogether unsatisfactory as is this result of the offi-
cial efforts to encourage the saving habit among the people,
it must be noted that we are in this respect far behind
some of the European countries. Consulting the statistics
for the year 1898, we find the postal savings reached in
that year to £120,000,000 in England, £33,000,000 in
France, £21,000,000 in Belgium, £4,800,000 in Austria,
£1,000,000 in Hungary, £2,700,000 in Holland, and
£3,400,000 in Sweden. In spite of the great improve-
ment effected in the system of late years, especially in
the way of simplifying the official procedure connected
with the acceptance and repayment of the deposits, much
still remains to be done in order to bring the facilities
provided by it within easy reach of the people by in-
creasing the number of the Post Offices authorized to
receive deposits throughout the country.

While speaking of savings, it may not be uninterest-
ing to mention a few figures on the state of the deposits
at the ordinary banks. We do not happen to have at
hand the statistics covering all the banking concerns in
the country. The “ Ginko Tsushin-Roku,” however, sup-
plies us with reliable statistics up to February, 1902, so
far as the principal banking centres are concerned. We
find, then, that the total amount of deposits at the banks

326 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

belonging to the clearing-houses of Tokyo, Osaka, Kyoto,
Nagoya, Yokohama, and Kobe, stood at the end of Feb-
ruary at 308,289,000 yew, made up as follows : —

Tokyo .
Osaka .
Yokohama
Kobe . .
Kyoto .
Nagoya .

Yen.

119,208,000

75.821.000

49.280.000

23.423.000

22.016.000

17,878,000

The above figures do not include the deposits at the
Bank of Japan, which usually amount to from fifty to
sixty million yen. We may approximately estimate the
maximum limit of the loanable capital in our money
market at any one moment at about 500,000,000 yen.

The Oil Indcstkt in Japan ^

Japan’s oil industry has a brilliant future before it.
The use of kerosene in the country has grown at a won-
derfully rapid pace. In the first year of Meiji the
amount of oil imported was 639 koku. In 1901 it had
reached 1,300,000 koku. The value of the oil imported
in 1868 was only 7,236 yen ; that imported in 1901 was
14 million yeii. The following table shows the rate at
which the import of kerosene into Japan increased : —

Teaes.

Koku.

Value.

Yen.

1868

639

7,236

1872

8,936

160,608

1877

53,645

605..598

1882

413,644

2.320,905

1887

421,177

1,871,428

1892

653.785

3,328,398

1897

1,221.164

7,667,350

1900

1,356,846

14,162,652

1901

1,379,927

14,943,400

1 From the “Japan Mail.'

APPENDIX

327

Notwithstanding the large supply that has come from
abroad, of late years the demand for the Echigo oil has
gone on increasing, as shown in the subjoined table,
which covers seven years.

TeaB3.

Koku OF Crude
Petroleum.

Valce.

Yen.

1895

158,334

526,976

1896

207,470

619,333

1897

257,614

668,677

1898

355,006

670,308

1899

544,583

1,450,904

1900

836,628

2,142,003

1901

1,115,807

2,345,916

It is calculated that about 5/10 of the total quantity of
this crude petroleum was used for lighting purposes.
It would seem, then, that Echigo supplied 3/10 of the
total amount of oil used for lighting in Japan during
the seven years, and that the remaining 7/10 came from
abroad. Taking the year 1901, the value of the crude
petroleum being 2,345,916 yen, it is estimated that when
refined this amount of petroleum would fetch not less
than 4 million yen. But the fact remains that the pro-
portion of oil imported is still very large, so that there
is room for a further great development of the business.
As to the limits of the Japanese supply of oil, it seems
impossible to obtain any trustworthy information.
Echigo is by no means worked out : new fields are con-
stantly being discovered in that province. Then petro-
leum has been found in Hokkaido and in the Yamagata
and Shizuoka prefectures. So that among Japan’s
modern industries her oil trade may be pronounced to
be full of promise. How the quality of the Japanese
oil compares with the American and Russian brands, we
are not told by the Jiji., but from other sources we gather
that when properly refined Japanese petroleum is equal
to the best American and Russian oils.

328 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

NATIONAL

The following table 1 shows the national development in population,
the past 30 years.

Yeab.

Population,
(in Thousand.)

State

Expenditube.

Yen.

Tbadb.

Yen.

1872

33,210

57,730,025

43,204,462

1873

33,300

62,678,601

49,742,8-30

1874

3.3,625

82,269,528

42,779,120

1875

33,997

69,203,242

48,586,7-38

1876

34,338

59,308,956

51,676,296

1877

(unknown)

48.428,324

50,769,424

1878

60,911.336

58,862,974

1879

35,768

60,317,578

61,128,772

1880

35,929

63,140.896

65,021,987

1881

36,358

71,460,321

62,250,133

1882

36,700

73,480,667

67,168,344

1883

37,017

83,106,859

64,712.861

1884

37,451

76,663,108

6-3,544,112

1885

37,868

61,115,313

66,503,659

1886

38,507

83,223,960

84,044,745

1887

39,069

79,453,036

96,711,932

1888

39,607

81,504,024

131.160,744

1889

40,072

79,713,671

136,164.472

1890

40,453

82,125,403

138,332,086

1891

40,718

83,558,891

142,454.540

1892

41,089

76,734,740

162,428,833

1893

41,388

84,581,872

177,970.036

1894

41,813

78,128,643

2-30,028,141

1895

42,270

85,317,179

265,372,756

1896

42,706

168,856,509

289,517,2-34

1897

43,228

223,678,844

382,435,848

1898

43,763

219,757,568

443,255,909

1899

44,260

254,165,537

4-35,331,802

1900

292,726,996

491,691,839

1901

266,856,824

508,166,187

1902

275,751,194

Note. — In expenditure, the figures from 1873 up to 1898 are taken
from the settled account, and those of 1899, 1900, and 1901 from the actual
account. 1902 is from the Budget. In railways, the figures show the
mileages of the lines belonging to the government as well as those belong-
ing to private firms opened to traffic at the end of the respective years.
The tonnage of vessels shown in the table is that of steamers. Before

* From the “ Toyo Keiaai Shimpo” (Oriental Economist).

APPENDIX

329

DEVELOPMENT.

finance, trade, railway, vessels, telegraphs, savings, and currency, within

Railway.

Miles.

Vessels.

Ton.

Teleoraphic

Lines.

Ki.

Savings.

Yen.

Money in
CmCITLATION.
Yen.

22,. 364

1.32,611,498

26,988

806

159,423,361

26,120

1,758

157,660,8.30

42,304

1,8.33

15,224

154,931,596

40,248

2,156

41,845

163,692,344

49,105

2,876

100,138

175,4.32,023

43,899

3,512

286,289

221,994,874

42,763

3.842

494,114

215,912,239

41,215

4,489

662,091

203,994,171

122

41,044

5.078

821,938

195,742,688

170

42,107

5,477

1,058,225

186.370,681

244

45,350

5,871

2,298,502

182,625,317

262

49,845

6,122

5,260,484

177,078,053

353

59,613

6,283

9,050,255

181,433,916

430

63,314

6,353

15,462,054

198,557,838

593

72,322

6,818

18,417,022

200,157,163

912

81,066

7,588

20,142,169

207.825,609

1,136

88,816

8,191

19,976,419

220,748,343

1,3.39

93,812

9,250

19,197,942

205,408,438

1,716

95,588

9,113

26,424,174

210,872,584

1,870

102,301

9,920

30,031,483

■ 219,848,.385

1,938

110,205

10,2-30

32,199.954

244,847,437

2,118

169,414

11,.502

32,772,652

256,088,534

2,290

213,221

12,212

41,143,695

291,605,016

2,507

227,841

15,431

46,693,884

307,461,803

2,948

426,624

18,360

51,550,.5.36

.330,470,142

3,120

464,246

20,561

52,5.32,992

285,589,098

3,638

498,376

24,342

68,829,712

332.702,090

3,855

534,239

27,390

72,897,286

318,280,814

4,026

* * * *

306,315,006

1896, the figures represented the aggregate amount of both registered and
unregistered tonnage, while from that year up to 1902, the figures only
represented registered tonnage. In savings, the figures show the total
amount saved in the post offices as well in the savings banks at the end of
the respective years. The figures from 1890 to 1900 indicate, however, the
amounts of the postal saviugs only.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOREIGN TRADE OF JAPAN i
From the official statistics we give a table of Japan’s foreign trade each j’car from 1868 to 1901.

330 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

i From tbo “ Taiyo ” (Sun).

APPENDIX

331

The Wealth of Japa^t

The following estimate gives an idea of the wmalth of
Japan and its distribution : —

Land 7,000 millions yen.

Mines 500 “ “

Live-stock 80 “ “

Buildings 1,900 “ “

Furniture 400 “ “

Railroads 350 “ “

Warships and merchant-ships .... 230 “ “

Specie 200 “ “

Miscellaneous 300 “ “

Goods and other products 800 “ “

Total

11,080

On the position Japanese occupy as regards the ac-
quisition of wealth Mr. Kure Bunso, the well-known
statistician, writes in the “ Shakaigaku Zasshi ” as follows :
There are only two men in Japan who pay an income
tax on over 250,000 yen. There are only 13 men in the
whole country who pay on 39,000 yen, being in the pro-
portion of 4 persons to every 100,000 inhabitants ; only
G7 who pay on 24,000 yen, being in the proportion of 2
persons to every 10,000 inhabitants ; 96 persons who
pay on 17,000 yen, being in the proportion of 2.8 persons
to every 10,000 inhabitants ; those who pay on 11,000
yen number 140, being in the proportion of 4 persons to
every 10,000 inhabitants. Out of every 1,000 inhabitants
there are only 7 persons who make 2,700 yen a year.
Thus it is seen that when compared with the French
and the English the Japanese are extremely poor. The
Germans seem to be rich to the Japanese, though when
compared with the French and English they are poor.
General Grant, when in Japan nearly twenty years ago,
remarked that Japan was fortunate in having such an
equality among all classes of the people. He said that

332 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

the gulf between the rich and the poor did not exist here.
Equality may be all very well in its way, but, says Mr.
Kure, a state of equality in which most of the people
hardly have enough to live on is anything but desirable.'

The new building of the Mitsui Company in Tokyo is
constructed upon steel frames, and is the only one of
its kind in the East. The Mitsui Bank is the oldest
banking establishment in Japan, more than 200 years
old. The building area is 2,600 square yards on a site
covering 2} acres.

Japanese Year Periods

It should be borne in mind that the Japanese year
periods do not regularly correspond with the reigns of
the Emperors, because “a new one was chosen whenever
it was deemed necessary to commemorate an auspicious
or ward off a malign event.” But hereafter the era will
correspond with the reign of an Emperor. The names
of some of these eras are quite famous, like the Eliza-
bethan or the Victorian Era in English history. As the
first era was a time of great reforms, it is known as
the Taikwa Reformation; the Engi Era, in the tenth
century, is celebrated for important legislation ; the
Genroku Era, in the seventeenth century, was “ a period
of great activity in various arts ” ; and the Tempo Era,
of recent days, was “the last brilliant period of feudal-
ism before its fall.” This name was also given to the
large 8 ?'m piece coined in that era. The Wado Era,
in the fourteenth century, was so named on account of
the discovery of copper ; and the second era, Hakuchi,
commemorates a “white pheasant,” presented to the
Emperor.

1 From the “Japan Mail.'

APPENDIX

333

LIST OF JAPANESE YEAR PERIODS.i

Naub.

Japanese

Eea.2

Chbistian

Eea.

Name.

Japanese

£ba.

Christian

Era.

Taikwa . .

1305

645

Tengen . .

1638

978

Hakuchi

1310

650

Eikwan . .

1643

983

(Blank) . .

1315-1331

655-671

Kwanna . .

1645

985

Sujaku . .

1332

672

Eien . . .

1647

987

Hakuho . .

1332

672

Eiso . . .

1649

989

Shucho . .

1346

686

Shdriaku . .

1650

990

(Blank) . .

1347-1360

687-700

Chdtoku . .

1655

995

Daiho [Taiho]

1361

701

CJhdhd . . .

1659

999

Keiun . .

1364

704

Kwankd . .

1664

1004

W ado , .

1368

708

Chdwa . . .

1672

1012

Reiki . . .

1375

715

Kwannin . .

1677

1017

Yord . . .

1377

717

Ji-an . . .

1681

1021

Jinki . . .

1384

724

Manju . . .

1684

1024

Tembio . .

1389

729

Chdgen . .

1688

1028

Tembio sbobo

1409

749

Clidriaku . .

1697

1037

Tembio hoji

1417

757

Chdkiu . .

1700

1040

Tembio jingo

1425

765

Kwantoku

1704

1044

Jingo keiun

1427

767

Eijd . . .

1706

1046

Iir.ki . . .

1430

770

Tengi . . .

1713

10.53

Tend . . .

1441

781

Kdliei . . .

1718

1058

Enriaku . .

1442

782

Jiriaku . .

1725

1065

Daido . .

1466

806

Enkiu . . .

1729

1069

Kdnin . .

1470

810

Jdhd . . .

1734

1074

Tenchd . .

1484

824

Jdriaku . .

1737

1077

Jdwa . . .

1494

834

Eilio . . .

1741

1081

Kajd . . .

1508

848

Otoku . . .

1744

1084

Ninjii . .

1511

851

Kwanji . .

1747

1087

Saikd . .

1514

854

Kalid . . .

1754

1094

Tenan . .

1517

857

Eicbd . . .

1756

1096

Jdgwan . .

1519

859

.lotoku . . .

1757

1097

Gwangid

1537

877

Kowa . . .

1759

1099

Ninna . .

1545

885

Cbdji . . .

1764

1104

Kwampei .

1549

889

Kajd . .

1766

1106

Shdtai . .

1558

898

Tennin . .

1768

1108

Engi . . .

1561

901

Tenei . . .

1770

1110

Enchd . .

1583

923

Eikiu . . .

1773

1113

Jdhei . . .

1591

931

Genei . . .

1778

1118

Tengid . .

1598

938

Hdan . . .

1780

1120

Tenriaku

1607

947

Tenji . . .

1784

1124

Tentoku. .

1617

957

Daiji . . .

1786

1126

Owa . . .

1621

961

Tenjo . . .

1791

1131

Kohd . . .

1624

964

Chdjd . . .

1792

1132

Anna • .

1628

968

Hoen . . .

1795

1135

Tenroku

1630

970

Eiji . . .

1801

1141

Ten-en . .

1633

973

Kdji . . .

1802

1142

Jdgen . .

1636

976

Tenyo . . .

1804

1144

^ From official sources.

Begiiiniiig 6C0 B. C.

334 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

KaH£.

Japaksse

Era.

Christian

Era.

Name.

Japanese

Era.

Christian

Era.

Kiu-an . . .

1805

1145

Sho-o .

1948

1288

Nimbio . . .

1811

1151

Einin .

1953

1293

Kiuju . . .

1814

1154

Shoan .

1959

1299

Hoijen . . .

181G

1156

Kengen

1962

1.302

Heiji . . .

1819

1159

Kagen .

1963

1303

Eiriaku . . .

1820

1160

Tokuji .

1966

1306

Oho ....

1821

1161

Enkio .

1968

1308

Cliokwan . .

1823

1163

Ocbo

1971

1.311

P2imaa . . .

1825

1165

Showa .

1972

1312

Ninan . . .

1826

1166

Bumpo .

1977

1317

Ka-o ....

1829

1169

Gen-6 .

1979

1319

Jo-an ....

1831

1171

Genko .

1981

1321

Angen . . .

1835

1175

Shochu

1984

1.324

Jisho ....

1837

1177

Kariaku

1986

1-326

Yowa . . .

1841

1181

Gentoku

1989

1329

Ju-ei ....

1842

1182

Shokio (Genko 1

1992

1.332

Genriaku . .

1844

1184

Kenimu

1994

1.3.34

Bunii . . .

1845

1185

Rekio .

1998

1338 1

Kenkiu . . .

1850

1190

Koei

2002

1342 1

Shoji ....

1859

1199

Jowa

2005

1345 1

Kennin . . .

1861

1201

Kwano .

2010

1350 1

Geiikiu . . .

1864

1204

Bunna .

2012

13521

Kenei . . .

1866

1206

Embun .

2016

13561

.Ibgen . . .

1867

1207

Koan .

2021

13611

Kenriaku . .

1871

1211

.Toji . .

2022

13621

Kempo . . .

1873

1213

Oan . .

2028

1.3681

Jokiu . . .

1879

1219

Eiwa

2035

1.375 1

J6-0 ....

1882

1222

Koreki .

2039

13791

Gennin . . .

1884

1224

Eitoku .

2041

13811

Karoku . . .

1885

1225

Shitoku

2044

13841

Ante! . . .

1887

1227

Kakei .

2047

1387 1

Kwanffi . . .

1889

1229

Koo . .

2049

13891

.To-ei . . .

1892

1232

Engen .

1996

1336 2

Tempuku . .

1893

1233

Kokoku

2000

13402

Bunriaku . .

1894

1234

Shohei .

2006

1346 2

Katei ....

1895

1235

Kentoku

2030

1370 2

Kiakunin . .

1898

1238

Bunchu

2032

13722

En-o ....

1899

12.39

Tenju .

2035

13752

Ninji . . .

1900

1240

Koiva .

2041

13812

Kwancren . .

1903

1243

Genchu

2044

13842

Hbji ....

1907

1247

Meitoku

2050

1390

Kencho . . .

1909

1249

0-ei . .

2054

1394

Ko"en . . .

1916

1256

Shocho

2088

1428

Shoka . . .

1917

1257

Eikio .

2089

1429

Shogen . . .

1919

1259

Kakitsu

2101

1441

Bunb ....

1920

1260

Bunan .

2104

1444

KOclio . . .

1921

1261

Hotoku

2109

1449

Biinei . . .

1924

1264

Kotoku

2112

1452

Kenji ....

1935

1275

Ko.slio .

2115

1455

Koan ....

1938

1278

Choroku

2117

1457

^ Northern Dynaety.

2 Southern Dynasty.

APPENDIX

335

Name.

Japanese

Eba.

Chbistian

Eba.

Name.

Japanese

Eba.

Chbistian

Eba.

Kwansho

2120

1460

Tenna .

2341

1681

Bunsho . .

2126

1466

Jokio .

2344

1684

Onin . . .

2127

1467

Genroku

2348

1688

Bummei

2129

1469

Ho-ei .

2364

1704

Choko

2147

1487

Shot oka

2371

1711

Entoku . .

2149

1489

Kiolio .

2376

1716

Mei-o . .

2152

1492

Gem bun

2396

1736

Bunki . .

2161

1501

Kwampo

2401

1741

Eisho . .

2164

1504

Enkio .

2404

1744

Dai-ei . .

2181

1521

Kwannen

2408

1748

Koroku . .

2188

1528

Iloreki .

2411

1751

Tenibun

2192

1532

Meiwa .

2424

1764

Koji . . .

2215

1555

Anei

2432

1772

Eiroku . .

2218

1558

Temmei

2441

1781

Gcnki . .

2230

1570

Kwansei

2449

1789

Tensho . .

2233

1573

Kiowa .

2461

1801

Bnnroku

2252

1592

Bunkwa

2464

1804

Keicho . .

2256

1596

Bunsei .

2478

1818

Genna . .

2275

1615

Tempo .

2490

1830

Kwanei . .

2284

1624

Kokwa

2504

1844

Slidhu . .

2304

1644

Ka^ei

2508

1848

Kei-an . .

2308

1648

Ansei .

2514

1854

•lo-o . . .

2312

1652

Manen .

2520

1860

Meireki . .

2315

1655

Biinkiu

2521

1861

Manji . .

2318

1658

Genji .

2524

1864

Kwambun .

2321

1661

Kei-o .

2525

1865

Einpu . .

2333

1673

Meiji

2528

1868

The names of these periods are made by the various combinations of
C8 Chinese words of good omen.

There are, moreover, other expressions which more
closely resemble such common Occidental phrases as the
Victorian Era, the Elizabethan Era, the Age of Pericles,
except that in the impersonal Orient such expressions
are named more often from places. In Japanese histor}^,
for instance, it is very common to read of the Nara
Epoch, the Heian Epoch, the Muromachi Period, the
Kamakura Period, the Yedo Era, the Tokyo Period
(Modern Japan). Personal names are applied, however,
in such cases as the Ilojo Era, the Ashikaga Period,
the Tokugawa Era, the Fujiwara Period.

336 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Chronological Table of

1. Jimmu (660-585 b. c.)

2. Suizei (581-549)

3. Annei (548-511)

4. Itoku (510-477)

5. Kosho (475-393)

6. Koan (392-291)

7. Korei (290-215)

8. Kogen (214-158)

9. Kaikwa (157-98)

10. Sujin (97-30)

11. Suinin (29 B. C.-70 A. D.,

12. Keiko (71-130 a. d.)

13. Seimu (131-190)

14. Chuai (192-200)

[15. Jingo 1 (201-269)]

16. Ojin (270-310)

17. Nintoku (313-399)

18. Richfu (400-405)

19. Hanzei (406-411)

20. Ingyo (412-453)

21 . Anko (454-456)

22. Yuryaku (457-479)

23. Seine! (480-484)

24. Kenso (485-487)

25. Ninken (488-498)

26. Muretsu (499-506)

27. Keitai (507-531)

28. Ankan (534-535)

29. Scnkwa (536-539)

30. Kimraei (540-571)

31. Bidatau (572-585)

32. Yomei (586-587)

33. Sujun (588-592)

34. Suiko (593-628)

35. Joraei (629-641)

36. Kogyoku (642-645)

37. Kotoku (645-654)

38. Saimei (655-661)

39. Tenchi (668-671)

40. Kobun (672)

41. Temmu (673-686)

42. (690-696)

43. Mommu (697-707)

* Empresses in Italics,
lists.

Emperors and Empresses.^

44. Gemmyo (708-715)

45. CeJMlro (715-723)

46. Shomu (724-748)

47. Koken (749-758)

48. Junnin (758-764)

49. Shotoku (765-770)

50. Konin (770-781)

51. Kwammu (782-806)

52. Heizei (806-809)

53. Saga (810-82.3)

54. Junna (824-833)

55. Nimmyo (834-850)

56. Montoku (851-858)

67. Seiwa (859-876)

58. Yozei (877-884)

59. Koko (885-887)

60. Uda (888-897)

61. Daigo (898-930)

62. Shujaku (931-946)

63. Murakami (947-967)

64. Keizei (968-969)

65. Enyn (970-984)

66. Kwazan (985-986)

67. Ichijo (987-1011)

68. Sanjo (1012-1016)

69. Go-Ichijo 2 (1017-1036)

70. Go-Shujaku (1037-1045)

71. Go-Reizei (1046-1068)

72. Go-Sanjo (1069-1073)

73. Shirakawa (1073-1086)

74. Horikawa (1087-1107)

75. Toba (1108-1123)

76. Shutoku (1124-1141)

77. Konoj’e (1142-1155)

78. Go-Shirakawa (1156-1158)

79. Nijo (1159-1165)

80. Rokujo (1166-1168)

81. Takakura (1169-1180)

82. Antoku (1181-1185)

83. Go-Toba (1186-1198)

84. Tsucbimikado (1199-1210)

85. Juntoku (1211-1221)

86. Chuky6 (1222)

Bracketed names (Nos. 15 and 99) are omitted Irom some
‘ Go is a prefix signifying the second of the name.

APPENDIX

337

87. Go-Horikawa (1222-1232)

88. SLijo (1233-1242)

89. Go-Saga (1243-1246)

90. Go-Fukakusa (1247-1259)

91. Kanievama (1260-1274)

92. Go-Ud'a (1275-1287)

93. Fushimi (1288-1298)

94. (jo-Fushimi (1299-1301)

95. Go-Xijo (1302-1307)

96. Hanazono (1308-1318)

97. Go-Uaigo (1319-1338)

98. Go-Murakami (1339-1367)

[99. Chokei (1.368-1383)]

100. Go-Karaeyaraa (1383-1392)

101. Go-Komatsu (1392-1412)

102. Shoko (1413-1428)

103. Go-Hanazono (1429-1464)

104. Go-Tsuchimikado (1465-1500)

105. Go-Kashiwabara (1501-1526)

106. Go-Xara (1527-1557)

107. Ogimachi (1558-1586)

108. Go-Yozei (1587-1611)

109. Go-Mizuno-o (1612-1629)

110. JfydiAo (1630-1643)

111. Go-Komyo (1644-1654)

112. Go-Saiin (1655-1663)

113. Beignen (1663-1686)

114. Higashiyama ( 1687-1709)

115. Xakano-mikado (1710-1735)

116. Sakuramachi (17S6-1746)

117. Momozono (1747-1762)

118. Go-Sakuramachi (1763-1770)

119. Go-Momozono (1771-1779)

120. Kokaku (1780-1817)

121. Xinko (1817-1846)

122. Komei (1847-1867)

123. Mutsuhito (1867- )

N. B. — Xos. 36 and 38 were the
same empress ; likewise Nos. 47 and
49.

We append also a list of the
sovereigns of the “ Xorthem Ckjurt”
during the separation, as follows :

1. Kogon (1332-1335)

2. Komyo (1336-1348)

3. Shuko (1349-1.352)

4. Go-Kogon (1352-1371)

5. Go-Enyu (1.372-1.382)

6. Go-Komatsu (1383-1392)

In 1392 Go-Komatsu became em-
I peror over the reunited empire.

Ministerial Changes in Japan ‘

The following table shows the cabinet changes that
have taken place since constitutional government was
instituted : — »

Paaxisa.

Tek* of Office.

Yas. Mos.

Kuroda

Apr. ’88-Oct '89

1 o

Yamai;ata

Dec. ’89-Apr. ’91

1 4

Matsukata

May '91-July ’92

1 2

Ito

Aug. ’92-Aug. ’96

4 0

Matsukata

Sept. ’96-Dec. ’97

1 3

Ito

Jan. ’98-June ’98

0 5

Okuma-Itagaki ....

June ’98-Oct. ’98

0 4

Y amagata

Nov. ’98 Sept. ’00

1 10

Ito

Oct. ’00-May ’01

0 7

Katsura

June ’01-

In connection with this table, we wish to call attention
to the fact that the average duration of the ten Minis-

340 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

ture. He organized the first local society, and devoted
himself constantly to the attainment of his end of bring-
ing about parliamentary institutions in the country.
We thus have Kochi, and later on rlizen, working for
the extension of the power of the people, while the
government was in the main conducted by Satsuma
and Chdshu men.

The agitation for popular representation, although
checked for a time by the Satsuma Rebellion, gained
strength in 1879 and 1880, and the government became
convinced that the question could not longer be post-
poned. On the 12th of October, 1881, the Emperor
promulgated the famous ordinance in which the promise
was given that a parliament should actually be established
in 1890. As a preparatory measure, Ito, in company
with a number of junior officials, was despatched to
Europe early in 1882 to study the political systems of
the West. The promise of a parliament served to give
a more definite purpose to the various political associa-
tions, and the year 1882 saw the formal organization of
the three parties which, under various names, have con-
tinued almost uninterruptedly to occupy the field until
the present time. The Jiyu-td was the first organized,
although not the first to be properly registered as a
political association.

It is noticeable that the utterances of the various
political parties when they first came into existence
present in the main no features of a distinctive nature.
All put forth excellent doctrines, but usually of extreme
vagueness. The same characteristic has been noticeable
throughout their history except when some temporary
question of urgency has arisen. This is no doubt the
reason why the grouping has constantly changed, one
merging into another, and secessions occurring without
apparent cause. 1883 and the following years saw a fall-
ing oS in the interest in political parties, — doubtless a

APPENDIX

341

natural result of the over excitement which had just
preceded, and of the apparent certainty of a parliament
after 1890. The interest in politics and in parties
revived, however, as the date assigned for the granting
of the constitution approached.

Since the opening of the first Diet, the efforts of the
parties have in general been directed towards the secur-
ing of control of the administration, — the establishment
of parliamentary government. Except during the period
of the war with China, when all party differences were
for the time set aside, the parties have all been in more or
less constant opposition to the government. Until within
the last year or two, however, no party has possessed for
any considerable length of time an absolute majority of
the membership of the Lower House, sufficient to enable
it to control the votes of that body. Political parties
liave now become a distinct power in the land which no
statesman can afford entirely to neglect. From small
and unruly beginnings, they have gradually progressed
in influence and in organization. As by degrees they
have been getting rid of their unruly and dangerous
elements, and learning to a greater extent the lesson of
responsibility, they have more and more gained the
popular confidence. Possessing practically the power
of the purse, — for in the Diet the House of Representa-
tives has the first say as to the details of the budget
presented by the government, — they have always to be
reckoned with. . . .

That there have been no distinct and well-defined
party issues may be traced to the fact that feudalism
gave place so suddenly to a modern state of society.
The leaders of thought and those who have taken up
the work of national rejuvenation have all been men of
progressive tendencies. That the parties have fre-
quently opposed the government in cases where opposi-
tion for its own sake has been the only recognizable

342 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

principle cannot be denied. It must be remembered
that they have all along been struggling for a share in
the administration. The political parties have well
illustrated the intensely democratic character of the
Japanese people side by side with marked reverence for
the Emperor. The desire for equality and the revolt
against the controlling influence of a narrow coterie has
all along been exhibited. . . .

I ^ may perhaps take this opportunity to mention two
characteristics of Japanese political parties which have
impressed themselves upon me in the course of my own,
as yet comparatively slight, study of the politics of this
country. As in so many other aspects of Japanese life,
so also in politics, I think we can see a curious blending
of Old Japan with the very latest and most advanced
which the West has to offer. It was a remark of the
most influential, if not the greatest, English political
philosopher of the nineteenth century, John Stuart Mill,
that, even if we could be assured that an autocrat, an
all-powerful individual ruler, would govern more wisely
than a popular government, we ought, nevertheless, to
prefer the popular government for the educative effect
which the effort to govern produces upon the people.

Now it will be found that there has been very much
conscious or unconscious following of this idea in the
progress of popular government in Japan. In marked
contrast to the history of popular government in the
West, where parliaments have been forced on the
government from below for the protection of popular
rights, popular representation has been granted from
above in this country, and the people have grown up to
it, or are in process of growing. The truth of this is
not affected by the fact that contest between rival clans
has been an ever controlling factor in the domestic
politics of the country since Restoration days. The
1 Professor Griffin, in discussion of Mr. Lay’s paper.

APPENDIX

343

agitation of the parties has been not so much directed
against the measures of the government as against the
fact that the government is not controlled by the repre-
sentatives of the people.

The element of Old Japan in the political parties is
seen in the nature of political allegiance. What holds
the parties together is men rather than measures. In
Old Japan personal allegiance to one’s feudal lord was
one of the strongest feelings of the individual, and
sufficed to give a distinct character to the life of the
time. The most important elements of feudalism, tlie
political and economic organization of the society which
was founded upon it, have passed away, but the senti-
mental part remains in the personal allegiance of men
to their party leaders of to-day. What would the Seiyu-
kai be without Marquis Ito, or the Progressive party
without Count Okuma ? No doubt other leaders would
be forthcoming if these were not present, the names of
the parties might be retained, but the membership would
almost certainly undergo enormous changes.

Army Statistics of Japan ^

Surgeon-Major Koike, in a lecture delivered before
the Medical Union in the salon of the Musical College
in Uyeno, gave some interesting figures relating to the
casualties in the North-China campaign as compared
with the China-Japan war of 1894-1895. These will be
most easily understood by putting them into tabular
form.

Total number of patients in the North-China campaign . 22,080
Total number of deaths out of the above aggregate . . . 1,137

(This, of course, is exclusive of those killed in the
field; it shows only the sick and wounded.)

1 From the “Japan Times.'

344 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Nobtu-China

Campaign.

China-Japah

Wab.

Percentage of deaths

5.1

8.1

Number of sick to each wounded man . .

5.5

4.1

Number of deaths from sickness to each death
from wounds

2.3

9.7

Percentage of deaths among wounded men .

3.2

3.9

Percentage of deaths among diseased men .

4.2

8.4

Return of the Hiroshima Reserve Hospital

Noeth-Chisa

Cahpaion.

Percentage of deaths among wounded men . . .2.1

Percentage of deaths among sick men 3.3

Comparative Figures {General)

Total percentage of deaths among wounded men :

Satsnma Rebellion 17.0

China-Japan War 9.7

North-China Campaign 4.6

Comparative Figures Shoxving the Percentage of Sick
during the Occupation of Peking in the Winter

Russian troops . . . 8.75 (typhoid, dysentery, syphilis).

French troops . . . 5.42 (typhoid, syphilis).

German troops . . . 5.33 (typhoid, syphilis, dysentery).

British troops . . . 5.22 (sunstroke, diarrhoea, dysentery, and

typhoid).

American troops . . 4.18 (dysentery, sunstroke, and syphilis).

Japanese troops . . . 2.51 (kakke and typhoid).

Establishment of Officers in the Japanese Army

Field-marshals _ 2

(Marquis Yamagata, Marquis Oyama).

Full generals 3

(Viscount Nozu, Viscount Sakuma, Count Katsura).

Lieutenant-generals 21

hlajor-generals 48

Colonels 96

Lieutenant-colonels

Majors ■iSl

Captains 1,397

Lieutenants 1,500

Second lieutenants 1,302

APPENDIX

345

Japanese Naval IxcEEiiENT ^

Writing about naval increment, the “NicM Nichi
Shimbun ” notes the increase of the Japanese Navy
during receut years as follows : —

1894

1896

1897

1898

1899

1900

1901

Total Tos-sagb.
. 57,900

. 79,000

. 100,000
. 134,000
. 154,000
. 204,000
. 232,000

In the immediate future, the total tonnage will be raised
to the post-bellum figure of 250,000 tons. Everybody
agrees that Japan must not rest there. She lias to keep
up with the rapid additions made by other countries to
their naval forces. That is not a matter of serious
difficulty so far as ships are concerned : they can alwa3*s
be bought with monej'. But the men to man them is
another problem. After the Restoration any number of
recruits were obtainable for the armj’, as was natural
in a country where a military feudalism had existed for
centuries. The navy, however, could not be so easily
supplied, maritime enterprise having been effectually
checked under the Tokugawa rule. Difficulties about
seamen may now be said to have been overcome. But
that is not true of officers. Our contemporary here gives
the following table : —

NcnBBK OF OfFTCEBS A5D ToTAL FOECE,

Mes Actually Skevixo. Iscludino Reseeves.

1895 14,463 17,140

1900 28,308 32,981

This shows an increment of only 100 per cent, whereas
the increase of tonnage in the same time was 400 per
cent. The great difficulty is to get a supply of officers

1 From the “Japan Mail.”

346 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

for tlie lower ranks — midsliipmen and lieutenants.
The only college for educating these officers is at Eda-
jima, where not more than 600 cadets can be accommo-
dated. There, then, a change must be effected. It will
probably take the form of organizing another naval col-
lege at Yokosuka, and making arrangements that the
preliminary education of candidates shall be effected in
the middle schools.

Japan’s Mercantile Marine’

The “ Tokyo Keizai ” publishes some interesting statis-
tics bearing on the development of our mercantile marine.
It was 1870 or thereabouts that the Japanese began to
turn their attention to the carrying trade in the modern
sense of the term, but its growth was slow until the
Chinese War of 1894-1895. The following table gives the
figures for the eleven years from 1892 to 1902 inclusive :

Tear.

1892

1893

1894

1895

1896

1897

1898

1899

1900

1901

1902

Tons.

214.000

325.000

320.000

380.000

417.000

486.000

648.000

796.000

803.000

917.000

934.000

From the comparative statistics published by our con-
temporary, it is noticed that, while in 1892 our mer-
cantile fleet was the thirteenth in the world in point of
tonnage, it had risen by 1901 to the eighth position.
It is interesting to observe that it is rapidly coming up
to the same relative status as that occupied by our naval
’ From the “ Japan Times.”

APPENDIX

347

fleet whose position is the seventh among the navies of
the worlds

Treaty of Commerce and Navigation between
Japan and the United States of America^

Signed at Washington, 22nd day of the 11th month, 27th year of Meiji.
Ratifications exchanged at that City, 21st day of the 3rd month, 28th year
of Meiji.

His Majesty the Emperor of Japan and the President
of the United States of America being equally desirous
of maintaining the relations of good understanding which
happily exist between them, by extending and increasing
the intercourse between their respective States, and
being convinced that this object cannot better be accom-
plished than by revising the Treaties hitherto existing
between the two countries, have resolved to complete
such a revision, based upon principles of equity and
mutual benefit, and, for that purpose, have named as
their Plenipotentiaries, that is to say : His Majesty the
Emperor of Japan, Jushii Shinichiro Kurino, of the
Order of the Sacred Treasure of the Fourth Class, and
the President of the United States of America, Walter
Q. Gresham, Secretary of State of the United States ;
wlio, after having communicated to each other their full
powers, found to be in good and due form, have agreed
upon and concluded the following Articles : —

Art. I. — The subjects or citizens of each of the two
High Contracting Parties shall have full liberty to
enter, travel, or reside in any part of the territories of
the other Contracting Party, and shall enjoy full and
perfect protection tor their persons and property.

They shall have free access to the Courts of Justice

^ See also Elgar’s paper on “ Japanese Shipping ” in the
Transactions Japan Society, London.

348 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

in pursuit and defence of their rights ; they shall be
at liberty equally with native subjects or citizens to
choose and employ lawyers, advocates, and representa-
tives to pursue and defend their rights before such
Courts, and in all other matters connected with the ad-
ministration of justice they shall enjoy all the rights
and privileges enjoyed by native subjects or citizens.

In whatever relates to rights of residence and travel ;
to the possession of goods and effects of any kind ; to
the succession to personal estate, by will or otherwise,
and the disposal of property of any sort and in any
manner whatsoever which they may lawfully acquire, the
subjects or citizens of each Contracting Party shall
enjoy in the territories of the other the same privileges,
liberties, and rights, and shall be subject to no higher
imposts or charges in those respects than native sub-
jects or citizens, or subjects or citizens of the most
favoured nation. The subjects or citizens of each of the
Contracting Parties shall enjoy in the territories of
the other entire liberty of conscience, and, subject to the
laws, ordinances, and regulations, shall enjoy the right
of private or public exercise of their worship, and also
the right of burying their respective countrymen accord-
ing to their religious customs, in such suitable and con-
venient places as may be established and maintained for
that purpose.

They shall not be compelled, under any pretext what-
soever, to pay any charges or taxes other or higher than
those that are, or may be, paid by native subjects or
citizens, or subjects or citizens of the most favoured
nation.

The subjects or citizens of either of the Contracting
Parties residing in the territories of the other shall be
exempted from all compulsory military service whatso-
ever, whether in the army, navy, national guard, or
militia; from all contribution imposed in lieu of personal

APPENDIX

349

service ; and from all forced loans or military exactions
or contributions.

Art. II. — There shall be reciprocal freedom of com-
merce and navigation between the territories of the two
High Contracting Parties.

The subjects or citizens of each of the Contracting
Parties may trade in any part of the territories of the
other by wholesale or retail in all kinds of produce,
manufactures, and merchandize of lawful commerce,
either in person or by agents, singly or in partnerships
with foreigners or native subjects or citizens ; and they
may there own or hire and occupy houses, manufactories,
warehouses, shops, and premises which may be neces-
sary for them, and lease land for residential and com-
mercial purposes, conforming themselves to the laws,
police and customs regulations of the country like native
subjects or citizens.

They shall have liberty freely to come with their
ships and cargoes to all places, ports, and rivers in the
territories of the other, which are or may be opened to
foreign commerce, and shall enjoy, respectively, the
same treatment in matters of commerce and navigation
as native subjects or citizens, or subjects or citizens of
the most favoured nation without having to pay taxes,
imposts, or duties, of whatever nature or under whatever
denomination levied in the name or for the profit of the
Government, public functionaries, private individuals,
corporations, or establishments of any kind, other or
greater than those paid by native subjects or citizens
or subjects or citizens of the most favoured nation.

It is, however, understood that the stipulations con-
tained in this and the preceding Article do not in any
way affect the laws, ordinances, and regulations with
regard to trade, the immigration of labourers, police and
public security which are in force or wliich may here-
after be enacted in either of the two countries.

350 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Art. III. — The dwellings, manufactories, warehouses,
and shops of the subjects or citizens of each of the High
Contracting Parties in the territories of the other, and
all premises appertaining thereto destined for purposes
of residence or commerce, shall be respected.

It shall not be allowable to proceed to make a search
of, or a domiciliary visit to, such dwellings and premises,
or to examine or inspect books, papers, or accounts,
except under the conditions and with the forms pre-
scribed by the laws, ordinances, and regulations for
subjects or citizens of the country.

Art. IV. — No other or higher duties shall be imposed
on the importation into the territories of the United
States of any article, the produce or manufacture of the
territories of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, from
whatever place arriving ; and no other or higher duties
shall be imposed on the importation into the territories
of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan of any article, the
produce or manufacture of the United States, from what-
ever place arriving than on the like article produced or
manufactured in any other foreign country ; nor shall any
prohibition be maintained or imposed on the importation
of any article, the produce or manufacture of the terri-
tories of either of the High Contracting Parties, into the
territories of the other, from whatever place arriving,
which shall not equally extend to the importation of the
like article, being the produce or manufacture of any
other country. This last provision is not applicable to
the sanitary and other prohibitions occasioned by the
necessity of protecting the safety of persons, or of cattle,
or plants useful to agriculture.

Art. V. — No other or higher duties or charges shall
be imposed in the territories of either of the High Con-
tracting Parties on the exportation of any article to the
territories of the other than such as are, or may be, pay-
able on the exportation of the like article to any other

APPENDIX

351

foreign country ; nor shall any prohibition be imposed
on the exportation of any article from the territories of
either of the two High Contracting Parties to the terri-
tories of the other which shall not equally extend to the
exportation of the like article to any other country.

Art. YT. — The subjects or citizens of each of the
High Contracting Parties shall enjoy in the territories
of the other exemption from all transit duties, and a
perfect equality of treatment with native subjects or
citizens in all that relates to warehousing, bounties, and
drawbacks.

Art. YII. — All articles which are or may be legally
imported into the ports of the territories of His Majesty
the Emperor of Japan in Japanese vessels may likewise
be imported into those ports in vessels of the United
States, without being liable to any other or higher duties
or charges of whatever denomination than if such articles
were imported in Japanese vessels ; and, reciprocally,
all articles which are, or may be, legally imported into
the ports of the territories of the United States in vessels
of the United States may likewise be imported into
those ports in Japanese vessels, without being liable to
any other or higher duties or charges of whatever de-
nomination than if such articles were imported in vessels
of the United States. Such reciprocal equality of treat-
ment shall take effect without distinction, whether such
articles come directly from the place of origin or from
any other place.

In the same manner, there shall be perfect equality
of treatment in regard to exportation, so that the same
export duties shall be paid, and the same bounties and
drawbacks allowed, in the territories of either of the
High Contracting Parties on the exportation of any
article which is or may be legally exported therefrom,
whether such exportation shall take place in Japanese
vessels or in vessels of the United States, and whatever

352 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

may be the place of destination, whether a port of either
of the High Contracting Parties or of any third Power.

Art. VIII. — No duties of tonnage, harbour, pilotage,
lighthouse, quarantine, or other similar or corresponding
duties of whatever nature, or under whatever denomina-
tion levied in the name or for the profit of Government,
public functionaries, private individuals, corporations,
or establishments of any kind, shall be imposed in the
ports of the territories of either country upon the vessels
of the other country which shall not equally and under
the same conditions be imposed in the like cases on
national vessels in general or vessels of the most favoured
nation. Such equality of treatment shall apply recipro-
cally to the respective vessels, from whatever port or
place they may arrive, and whatever may be their place
of destination.

Art. IX. — In all that regards the stationing, loading,
and unloading of vessels in the ports, basins, docks,
roadsteads, harbours, or rivers of the territories of the
two countries, no privilege shall be granted to national
vessels which shall not be equally granted to vessels of
the other country ; the intention of the High Contracting
Parties being that in this respect also the respective ves-
sels shall be treated on the footing of perfect equality.

Art. X. — The coasting trade of both the High Con-
tracting Parties is excepted from the provisions of the
present Treaty, and shall be regulated according to
the laws, ordinances, and regulations of Japan and of the
United States, respectively. It is, however, understood
that Japanese subjects in the territories of the United
States and citizens of the United States in the territories
of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan shall enjoy in this
respect the rights which are, or may be, granted under
such laws, ordinances, and regulations to the subjects
or citizens of any other country.

A Japanese vessel laden in a foreign country with

APPEKDIX

353

cargo destined, for two or more ports in the territories
of the United States and a vessel of the United States
laden in a foreign country with cargo destined for two
or more ports in the territories of His Majesty the
Emperor of Japan, may discharge a portion of her cargo
at one port, and continue her voyage to the other port
or ports of destination where foreign trade is permitted,
for the purpose of landing the remainder of her original
cargo there, subject always to the laws and custom-house
regulations of the two countries.

The Japanese Government, however, agrees to allow
vessels of the United States to continue, as heretofore,
for the period of the duration of this Treaty, to carry
cargo between the existing open ports of the Empire,
excepting to or from the ports of Osaka, Niigata, and
Ebisuminato.

Art. XI. — Any ship-of-war or merchant vessel of
either of the High Contracting Parties which may be
compelled by stress of weather, or by reason of any
other distress, to take shelter in a port of the other,
shall be at liberty to refit therein, to procure all neces-
sary supplies, and to put to sea again, without paying
any dues other than such as would be payable by national
vessels. In case, however, the master of a merchant
vessel should be under the necessity of disposing of a
part of his cargo in order to defray the expenses, she
shall be bound to conform to the regulations and tariffs
of the place to which he may have come.

If any ship-of-war or merchant vessel of one of the
High Contracting Parties should run aground or be
wrecked upon the coasts of the other, the local authori-
ties shall inform the Consul-General, Consul, Vice-Consul,
or Consular Agent of the district of occurrence, or, if
there be no such Consular officers, they shall inform the
Consul-General, Consul, Vice-Consul, or Consular Agent
of the nearest district.

354 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

All proceedings relative to the salvage of Japanese
vessels wrecked or cast on shore in the territorial waters
of the United States shall take place in accordance with
the laws of the United States; and, reciprocally, all
measures of salvage relative to vessels of the United
States wrecked or cast on shore in the territorial waters of
His Majesty the Emperor of Japan shall take place in
accordance with the laws, ordinances, and regulations of
Japan.

Such stranded or wrecked ship or vessel, and all parts
thereof, and all furnitures and appurtenances belonging
thereunto, and all goods and merchandize saved there-
from, including those which may have been cast into the
sea, or the proceeds thereof, if sold, as well as all papers
found on board such stranded or wrecked ship or vessel,
shall be given up to the owners or their agents, when
claimed by them. If such owners or agents are not on
the spot, the same shall be delivered to the respective
Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consuls, or Consular
Agents upon being claimed by them within the period
fixed by the laws, ordinances, and regulations of the
country, and such Consular oflBcers, owners, or agents
shall pay only the expenses incurred in the preservation
of the property, together with the salvage or other ex-
penses which would have been payable in the case of a
wreck of a national vessel.

The goods and merchandize saved from the wreck
shall be exempt from all the duties of the Customs un-
less cleared for consumption, in which case they shall
pay the ordinary duties.

When a ship or vessel belonging to the subjects or
citizens of one of the High Contracting Parties is
stranded or wrecked in the territories of the other, the
respective Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consuls, and
Consular Agents shall be authorized, in case the owner
or master, or other agent of the owner, is not present, to

APPENDIX

355

lend their ofidcial assistance in order to afford the
necessary assistance to the subjects or citizens of the re-
spective States. The same rule shall apply in case the
owner, master, or other agent is present, but requires
such assistance to be given.

Art. XII. — All vessels which, according to Japanese
law, are to be deemed Japanese vessels, and all vessels
which, according to United States law, are to be deemed
vessels of the United States, shall, for the purposes of
this Treaty, be deemed Japanese vessels and vessels of
the United States, respectively.

Art. XIII. — The Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-
Consular Agents of each of the High Contracting Parties,
residing in the territories of the other, shall receive from
the local authorities such assistance as can by law be
given to them for the recovery of deserters from the
vessels of their respective countries.

It is understood that this stipulation shall not apply
to the subjects or citizens of the country where the
desertion takes place.

Art. XIV. — The High Contracting Parties agree
that, in all that concerns commerce and navigation any
privilege, favour, or immunity which either High Con-
tracting Party has actually granted, or may hereafter
grant, to the Government, ships, subjects, or citizens of
any other State, shall be extended to the Government,
ships, subjects, or citizens of the other High Contract-
ing Party, gratuitously, if the concession in favour of
that other State shall have been gratuitous, and on the
same or equivalent conditions if the concession shall
have been conditional ; it being their intention that the
trade and navigation of each country shall be placed, in
all respects, by the other on the footing of the most
favoured nation.

Art. XV. — Each of the High Contracting Parties
may appoint Cousuls-Geueral, Consuls, Vice-Consuls,

356 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Pro-Consuls, and Consular Agents, in all the ports, cities,
and places of the other except in those where it may not
be convenient to recognize such officers.

This exception, however, shall not be made in regard
to one of the High Contracting Parties without being
made likewise in regard to every other Power.

The Consuls-General, Consuls, Vice-Consuls, Pro-Con-
suls, and Consular Agents may exercise all functions,
and shall enjoy all privileges, exemptions, and immuni-
ties which are, or may hereafter be, granted to Consular
officers of the most favoured nation.

Art. XVI. — The subjects or citizens of each of the
High Contracting Parties shall enjoy in the territories
of the other the same protection as native subjects or
citizens in regard to patents, trademarks, and designs,
upon fulfilment of the formalities prescribed by law.

Art. XVII. — The High Contracting Parties agree to
the following arrangement ; —

The several Foreign Settlements in Japan shall, from
the date this Treaty comes into force, be incorporated
with the respective Japanese communes, and shall
thenceforth form part of the general municipal system
of Japan. The competent Japanese authorities shall
thereupon assume all municipal obligations and duties
in respect thereof, and the common funds and property,
if any, belonging to such Settlements shall at the same
time be transferred to the said Japanese authorities.

When such incorporation takes place, existing leases
in perpetuity upon which property is now held in the
said Settlements shall be confirmed, and no conditions
whatever other than those contained in such existing
leases shall be imposed in respect of such property. It
is, however, understood that the Consular Authorities
mentioned in the same are in all cases to be replaced by
the Japanese Authorities. All lands which may pre-
viously have been granted by the Japanese Government

APPENDIX

357

free of rent for the public purposes of the said Settle-
ments shall, subject to the right of eminent domain, be
permanently reserved free of all taxes and charges for
the public purposes for which they were originally set
apart.

Art. XVIII. — The present Treaty shall, from the
date it comes into force, be substituted in place of the
Treaty of Peace and Amity concluded on the 3rd day of
the 3rd month of the 7th year of Kayei corresponding
to the 31st day of March, 1854; the Treaty of Amity
and Commerce concluded on the 19th day of the 6th
month of the 6th year of Ausei, corresponding to the
29th day of July, 1858 ; the Tariff Convention concluded
on the 13th day of the 5th month of the 2nd year of
Keio, corresponding to the 25th day of June, 1866 ; the
Convention concluded on the 25th day of the 7th month
of the 11th year of Meiji, corresponding to the 25th
day of July, 1878, and all Arrangements and Agreements
subsidiary thereto concluded or existing between the
High Contracting Parties, and from the same date such
Treaties, Conventions, Arrangements, and Agreements
shall cease to be binding, and in consequence, the juris-
diction then exercised by Courts of the United States in
Japan and all the exceptional privileges, exemptions,
and immunities then enjoyed by citizens of the United
States as a part of, or appurtenant to, such jurisdiction,
shall absolutely and without notice cease and determine,
and thereafter all such jurisdiction shall be assumed and
exercised by Japanese Courts.

Art. XIX. — This Treaty shall go into operation on
the 17th day of July, 1899, and shall remain in force
for the period of twelve years from that date.

Either High Contracting Party shall have the right,
at any time after eleven years shall have elapsed from
the date it goes into operation, to give notice to the
other of its intention to terminate the same, and at the

358 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

expiration of twelve months after such notice is given
this Treaty shall wholly cease and determine.

Art. XX. — This Treaty shall be ratified and the
ratifications thereof shall be exchanged at Tokyo or
Washington as soon as possible, and not later than six
months after its signature.

In witness whereof, the respective Plenipotentiaries
have signed the present Treaty in duplicate and have
thereunto affixed tlieir seals.

Done at the City of Washington the 22nd day of the
11th month of the 27th year of Meiji, corresponding to
the 22nd day of November in the eighteen hundred and
ninety-fourth year of the Christian era.

(Signed) Siiixichiro Kurino. (L. S.)

Walter Q. Gresham. (L. S.)

[Amendment to the Foregoing Treaty Proposed by the Government of
the United States of America and Ratified with the Treaty.]

Art. XIX. — Clause 2, after the word “time” insert
the word “thereafter” and strike out all after the word
“time” down to and including the word “operation,”
so that the clause will read : “ Either High Contracting
Party shall have the right, at any time thereafter, to
give notice to the other of its intention to terminate the
same, and at the expiration of twelve months after such
notice is given this Treaty shall wholly cease and
determine.”

Protocol

The Government of His Majesty the Emperor of
Japan and the Government of the United States of
America, deeming it advisable in the interests of both
Countries to regulate certain special matters of mutual
concern, apart from the Treaty of Commerce and Nav-
igation signed this day, have, through their respec-
tive Plenipotentiaries, agreed upon the following
stipulations : —

APPENDIX

, 359

1. — It is agreed by the Contracting Parties that one
month after the exchange of the ratifications of the
Treaty of Commerce and Navigation signed this day,
the Import Tariff now in operation in Japan in respect
of goods and merchandize imported into Japan by the
eitizens of the United States shall eease to be binding.
From the same date the General Statutory Tariff of
Japan, shall, subject to the provisions of Article IX. of
the Treaty of March 31, 1854, at present subsisting
between the Contracting Parties, so long as said Treaty
remains in force, and thereafter, subject to the provis-
ions of Article IV. and Article XIV., of the Treaty
signed this day, be applicable to goods and merchan-
dize, being the growth, produce, or manufacture of the
territories of the United States upon importation into
Japan.

But nothing contained in this Protocol shall be held
to limit or qualify the right of the Japanese Govern-
ment to restrict or to prohibit the importation of adul-
terated drugs, medicines, food, or beverages ; indecent or
obscene prints, paintings, books, cards, lithographic or
other engravings, photographs or any other indecent
or obscene articles ; articles in violation of patent, trade-
mark, or copyright laws of Japan ; or any other article
which for sanitary reasons or in view of public security
or morals, might offer any danger.

2. — The Japanese Government, pending the open-
ing of the country to citizens of the United States,
agrees to extend the existing passport system in such
a manner as to allow citizens of the United States, on
the production of a certificate of recommendation from
the Kepresentative of the United States at Tokio, or
from any of the Consuls of the United States at the
open ports in Japan, to obtain upon application pass-
ports available for any part of the country and for any
period not exceeding twelve months, from the Imperial

380 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Japanese Foreign Office in Tokio, or from the Chief
Authorities in the Prefecture in which an open port is
situated, it being understood that the existing Rules
and Regulations governing citizens of the United
States who visit the interior of the Empire are to be
maintained.

3. — The undersigned Plenipotentiaries have agreed
that this Protocol shall be submitted to the two High
Contracting Parties at the same time as the Treaty of
Commerce and Navigation signed this day, and that
when the said Treaty is ratified the agreements con-
tained in the Protocol shall also equally be considered
as approved, without the necessity of a further formal
ratification.

It is agreed that this Protocol shall terminate at the
same time the said Treaty ceases to be binding.

In witness whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries
have signed the same and have affixed thereto their
seals.

Done at Washington the 22nd day of the 11th month
of the 27th year of Meiji, corresponding to the 22nd
November, in the eighteen hundred and ninety-fourth
year of the Christian era.

(Signed) Shiniciiiro Kukino. (L. S.)

Walter Q. Gresham. (L. S.)

Imperial Rescript on the New Treaties

Governing Our realm by the abiding aid of Our
ancestors’ achievements, which have enabled Us to
secure the prosperity of Our people at home and to
establish relations of close amity with the nations
abroad, it is a source of heartfelt gratification to Us that,
in the sequel of exhaustive planning and repeated nego-
tiations, an agreement has been come to with the Powers,
and the revision of the Treaties, Our long cherished aim,

APPENDIX

361

is to-day on the eve of becoming an accomplished fact ;
a result which, while it adds materially to the responsi-
bilities of Our empire, will greatly strengthen the basis
of Our friendship with foreign countries.

It is Our earnest wish that Our subjects, whose
devoted loyalty in the discharge of their duties is con-
spicuous, should enter earnestly into Our sentiments in
this matter, and, in compliance with the great policy
of opening the country, should all unite with one heart
to associate cordially with the peoples from afar, thus
maintaining the character of the nation and enhancing
the prestige of the empire.

In view of the responsibilities that devolve upon Us
in giving effect to the new Treaties, it is Our will that
Our Ministers of State, acting on Our behalf, should
instruct Our officials of all classes to observe the utmost
circumspection in the management of affairs, to the end
that subjects and strangers alike may enjoy equal
privileges and advantages, and that, every source of
dissatisfaction being avoided, relations of peace and
amity with all nations may be strengthened and con-
solidated in perpetuity.

(Imperial Sign Manual.)

(Signatures of all the Cabinet Ministers.)

(Dated) June 30th, 1899.

Schools in Japan ^

“ The latest returns compiled by the educational
authorities show that education in Japan is in a satis-
factory condition. For instance the percentage of the
children newly admitted to primary schools throughout
the country out of every 100 of those who had attained
the school-going age last month [March, 1903] was 93.78
for boys, 81.08 for girls, and 88.05 for boys and girls

^ From the “Japan Times.”

362 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

NUMBER OF SCHOOLS, ETC.

By the goveri\ment establishments are meant all institutions under the
control of the Department of Education.

Statistical items relating to the Higher Normal School for Females are

Ko. OP

Schools.

iKSTBUCTOaS

Teachebs

AND

Gov.

Public.

Private.

Total.

Gov.

Public.

Elementary schools . .

26,485

369

26,856

91,767

1,101

Blind and dumb schools

Normal schools . . .

• • •

. . .

958

- . .

Higher normal schools

110

Jliddle schools . . .

1^3

218

3,067

659

Higher female schools

525

114

Higher schools

345

Imperial universities

. . .

291

Special schools . . .

128

734

Technical schools . .

265

297

238

1,382

137

Miscellaneous schools .

122

1,195

1,317

4,273

Total

27,156

1,678

28,862

1,199

97,885

7,043

1899

27,051

1,639

28,717

1,128

92,286

6,692

1898

26,799

1,600

28,421

983

86,634

5,346

1897

26,753

1,677

28,452

913

81,632

5,310

1896

26.621

1,762

28,404

785

77,720

5,509

together, which show respectively an increase of 3.23,
9.18, and 6.38 against the figures for last year. Again,
the different schools throughout the country totalled
29,335, while the teachers totalled 110,104, the attend-
ance 5,265,006, and the graduates 911,621, representing
respectively an increase of 473; 11,977; 339,333; and
112,737 as compared with the figures for the preceding
year.

APPENDIX

3G3

IN JAPAN IN 1900-1901.1

included amonp; those for the Hijjher Normal School, and those relating to
the three institutes for the training of technical teachers among those for
technical schools.

Students

AND Pupils,

Graduates.

■<

92,899

1,124

4,622,9.30

59,544

4,683,598

318

736,907

8,580

745,805

231

196

194

621

958

15,639

15,6.39

7,323

110

803

180

3,748

321

64,051

1^943

78,315

5,.584

2,163

7,787

658

306

9,746

1,932

11,984

1,832

637

2.560

345

5,684

1,019

. • • .

1,019

291

3,240

• . . .

3,240

633

943

968

1,447

10,985

13,400

138

210

1,687

2.0.15

1,757

1,730

23,599

2,126

27,455

349

4,406

249

5,004

4,363

4,817

80,117

84,934

721

15,783

16,504

106,127

14,407

4,742,425

168,841

4,925,673

2,782

756,991

29,111

788,884

100,106

13,230

4,339,490

160,614

4,513,334

2,454

655,112

27,201

684,767

92,963

11,788

4,086,.323

149,2.30

4,247,341

2,129

600,528

23,486

626,143

87,8.55

10,839

4,005,164

152,714

4,168,717

2,146

550,7.38

20,912

573.796

84,014

9,321

3,872,794

148,858

4,030,973

1,819

507,969

20,419

530,207

Japan’s University for "VYomen^

The most remarkable occurrence in Japan in the open-
ing year of the Twentieth Century was the establish-
ment of a University for Women. What does this
mean ? It means that the Twentieth Century is to be
the century for women in Japan and perhaps in other
parts of the Orient, just as the Nineteenth Century was
the century for women in the Occident. This new Uni-

1 From 28th Annual Report of the Minister of State for Education.

* Condensed from “ The Chautauquan,” April, 1902.

364 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

versity will be the centre of woman’s activity, social,
educational, economical (and perhaps political ?), in the
future in Japan.

About ten years ago IMr. Naruse began to think about
establishing a university for girls and went to America
to inspect female institutions of learning. There he
spent three years going about from place to place, and
thus made a thorough observation and study of colleges
for women in the United States of America. In 1894
he was encouraged to start the enterprise, in which his
special friends were such men as Marquis ltd, Marquis
Saionji, Counts (Jkuma and Itagaki, and Baron Utsumi,
then JNIayor of (Jsaka, now Home Minister.

Among the first promoters of the enterprise were
well-to-do persons of Osaka, such as Mr. Dogura and
Mrs. Hirooka (of the Mitsui family). The idea was,
and still is, to secure 300,000 yen^ of which half should
be used for property and half for endowment. It was
also decided not to begin to build unless at least 100,000
yen had been raised. The money was obtained quite
rapidly ; and in this l\Ir. Naruse’s skill and tact were
remarkable. Many not in sympathy with the idea of
higher female education (like Baron Katd, ex-President
of the Imperial University), were won over by Mr.
Naruse’s presentation of the cause.

The problem of location was thoroughly discussed in
Osaka, and at last it was unanimously agreed that Tokyo,
being the capital, was the most convenient place, because
the institution was not local, for either Osaka or Tokyo
alone, but was national, for all Japan.

The faculty number forty-six in all, among whom are
several professors of the Imperial University. The
President is, of course, Mr. Naruse ; and the Dean is
Professor S. Aso, a Doshisha alumnus. There are also
several ladies ; and it is the purpose to have as many
lady teachers as possible.

APPENDIX

365

There are three departments in the University course :

1. Department of Domestic Science.

2. Department of Japanese Literature.

3. Department of English Literature.

In the first department the greater part of the time
is devoted to various branches of Applied and Domestic
Science; in the second and third departments the largest
number of hours is given up to Japanese and English
respectively. Ethics, Sociology, Psychology, Education
(including Child-Study) and Calisthenics are required
studies in all departments ; and Drawing, Music, and
Science of Teaching, are electives in all cases.

The boarding-department includes seven “Houses,”
each with a matron and a head cook. The girls live just
as at home, and take turns in cooking.

This school is not, of course, to be compared- with
foreign universities, or the Imperial University; nor is
it a copy of other universities; but it is intended to
make this university just suited to the needs of the
time and the social conditions of Japanese women.
The standard will be gradually elevated. In the system
of female education, it is a university, at least in
germ.

It is the purpose as soon as possible to increase the
number of courses ; to add, for instance, pedagogy (in-
cluding sociology, psychology, etc.), music, science, art,
and calisthenics. It is intended also to extend the pre-
paratory course downward, so that it shall include, not
a Koto Gakko only as at present, but also a Sho Gakko
(Grammar School) and a kindergarten. Thus the sys-
tem of female education will be complete in all its
grades: from three to six in the kindergarten; six years
in the grammar school ; five years in the secondary
school {Koto Jo Gakko) ; three years in the university ;
with a post-graduate course of three years. Then surely
the institution will be worthy to be called a university.

366 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Statistics of Christianity in Japan ‘

Under the title, “ The Present State of Christianity,”
the “ Tokyo Maishu Shinshi ” publishes a number of
statistics culled from the Rev. D. S. Spencer’s “Tidings
from Japan.” Here is the “Maishu Shinshi’s ” sum-
mary of Mr. Spencer’s report :

Hiesioks.

Mission*

ARIES.

Native Pas-
tors AND
Eyanoblists.

Membebs.

Protestant

789

494

50,512

Roman Catholic ....

229

55,824

Greek Church ....

152

27,245

These figures, when compared with those of ten years
ago, do not, as far as the Greek Church and the Roman
Catholic Church are concerned, indicate remarkable
progress, but to Protestants they are on the whole
encouraging. There are 23 Protestant denominations
working in Japan, but the most important sects are the
Congregationalists, the Presbyterians, the Episcopalians,
the Methodists, and the Baptists. The statistics for the
5 principal missions are as follows : —

Missions.

Foreign

Mission-

aries.

Japanese

Pastors.

Adult

Mem*

BEES.

Including

Children.

Baptisms

Last

Tear.

Congregational .

10,856

11.548

880

Presbyterian . .

153

10,156

11,651 •

1,213

Episcopalian . .

224

9,968

10,997

846

Methodist . . .

233

125

9,283

9,711

1,598

Baptist . . .

2,213

328

1 These statistics, taken from the “Japan Mail” and the
“Japan Times,” do not exactly correspond, but represent the gen-
eral situation.

APPENDIX

867

The following table gives other interesting particulars :

Missions.

Chttbchss.

Self-support-
ing Churches.

Chokch

Pbopeett.

Yen.

Confu-egational . . .

125,794

Presbyterian ....

218,252

Kpiscopalian ....

Metliodist

146

225,559

Baptist

Missions.

SCNDAT-

SCHOOL

SCBOLASS.

Native
Monet Sob-

SCEIBED.

Yen.

Amount Pee
Member.
Yen. Sen.

Conffregational . . .

6,880

33,791

3.11

Presbyterian ....

7,879

29,027

2.86

Episcopalian ....

5.524

15,827

1.59

SIcthodist

12,613

30,011

3.24

Baptist ......

3,775

4,283

1.94

It is calculated that if all the different kinds of property
held by the Protestant Church be included, it is worth
over 1,500,000 yen.

The Catholic Church in Japan
A writer signing himself “ K. M.” contributes to the
“ Fukuin Shimpo ” an account of the methods followed by
the Roman Catholics and of their work in Japan, said
to have been derived from an interview with L’Abbe E.
Ligneul. The following is a summary of “ K. M.’s”
article. (1) The revival of Toman Catholicism in Japan.
This began at Nagasaki in 1865, where a chiirch was
built and when the descendants of the old Christians
came forward in large numbers to -welcome the arrival of
foreign missionaries. Having mentioned the principal
works of reference on the Roman Catholic Missions in
Japan, M. Ligneul went on to speak (2) Of the present
state of their churches. The following table gives the
numerical strength of the mission : —

368 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

Ecclesiasticai,

Distbicts.

COKYEBTS.

Japanese

Priests*

Japanese

Evangelists.

Foekigb

Miesiokabies

(Ma-lb).

Tokyo

9,245

Nascasaki ....

38,100

180

Osaka

4,273

Hakodate ....

4,643

Total ....

56,321

260

115

The fact that comparatively little is known of the
work being carried on by the Roman Catholics through-
out the country is no accidental affair. It is one of the
principles observed by the whole mission to refrain
from the use of the methods employed by other missions
for making their work known to the public generally.

The Greek Church in Japan

In the issue of the “ Tserkovniya V3'edoraosti ” or
“Church Gazette” (the official organ of the Russian
Church) for March 29 (0. S.) there is a long article
taken from the “Moscow Gazette” on the state of the
Greek Church in Japan.

The writer says that there are now 260 congregations,
one more than last year ; 41 clergymen, including 1
bishop, 2 Russian clerg}'men (who have now left Japan
— Translator), 30 Japanese clergymen, 1 Russian dea-
con, 7 Japanese deacons : altogether three more persons
than last year ; Christians 27,245 (935 more than last
year ) ; Catechists 1,214 (643 adults, 571 minors, al-
together 305 more than last year) ; deaths 279 (18 less
than last year); marriages 29 (9 more than last year);
churches or preachers’ houses 174. The sum of the
offerings made by the Christians in support of their
church totalled 11,870 yen 41.8 sen, 4,505 yen 72.5 sen

APPENDIX

369

more than last year. The number of pupils in Mission
schools totalled 152, 12 less than last year.

The annual meeting of clergy (Shinpin Kwaigi) of
the Greek Church Mission was held in the cathedral
of that mission in Tokyo on the loth inst. It was
reported at the meeting that there were 1,037 converts
last year, deaths 320 ; and now that the members of
the church number 27,956, including 40 clergymen and
146 denkiosha (preachers or unordaiued evangelists and
helpers).

Japan’s National Song ‘

Few Europeans have learned to detect and enjoy the
subtle beauty of Japanese poetry. Fewer still, perhaps,
are acquainted with the delicate charm of the little poem
which, although not a hymn, takes the place in Japanese
minds and hearts of the Briton’s “ God Save the King,”
or the American’s “ My Country, ’tis of Thee.” It is
sung to a native air, the custom being to sing the poem
through thrice, and when thus rendered by a large and
enthusiastic company it is often truly impressive. The
poem itself is very old, being found in the “ Manyoshiu,”
which dates from about the middle of the eighth century,
and its author is unknown. As originally composed, it
was not addressed to the actual ruler, but in all prob-
ability to an Emperor who had gone into retirement.
Now, however, it is exclusively applied to the reigning
Sovereign. The poem consists of the usual number of
thirty-one syllables, and runs as follows : —

Kimi ga yo wa
Chiyo ni yachiyo ni
Sazare ishi no
Iwao to narite
Koke no musu made.

1 From the “ Kobe Herald.”

370 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

So far as we are aware only two English translations
have been published. One of these is by Viscount
Eukuba, and, closely following the original, reads as
follows :

“ May our Sovereign live for thousands and ten thousands
of years, until the tiny pebble becomes a moss-covered rock.”

The other, by Professor Chamberlain, is more finished
but less literal than the foregoing, and is included in his
excellent “ Classical Poetry of the Japanese ” : —

“ A thousand years of happy life be thine !

Live on, My lord, till what are pebbles now,

By age united, to great rocks shall grow.

Whose venerable sides the moss doth line.”

To the above translations may be added a third by the
late Dr. Gordon : —

“ O Prince upon the throne !

Ten thousand years live on,

Till pebbles shall great rocks become
With moss aU overgrown ! ”

Floral Japan

The Japanese are a nature-loving people, and frequently
give practical expression to their feelings by taking a
holiday simply for “ flower-viewing.” At the proper
season the entire nation, so to speak, takes a day off,
and turns out on a big picnic to see the plum blossoms,
or the cherry blossoms, or the maples, or the chrysan-
themums. No utilitarian views of the value of time or
miserly conceptions of the expense of such outings pre-
vail for a moment ; for the Japanese are worshippers
of beauty rather than of the “ almighty dollar.” A few
pennies on such occasions bring many pleasures ; and
business interests are sacrificed at the shrine of beauty.
And, as one or more flowers are blooming every month,
because twigs, leaves, grasses, etc., are included in the

APPENDIX

371

scope of the word hana, there is almost a continuous
round of such picnics during the year. It is our pur-
pose, therefore, to arrange a calendar of flowers popular
each month.

At the very outset we are confronted with a chrono-
logical difficulty in presenting this subject to Western
readers. For the programme of Japanese floral festivals
was originally arranged on the basis of the old lunar
calendar so long in vogue in Japan. By that calendar
the New Year came in at varying dates from about the
21st of January up to the 19th of February ; in 1903 it
fell on Thursday, January 29 ; so that it is from three to
seven weeks behind the Occidental solar calendar. And
yet, when Japan adopted the Gregorian calendar, many
of these festivals were transferred to the “New Style ”
without regard to the awful anachronism that necessarily
followed. '

For instance, the following is a floral programme accord-
ing to the “ Old Style ” : —

OiJ) Sttlk. New Sttlb.

1st month, Februarv ....

2(1

March

. . . Plum.

April

4th

Mav

5th

{(

June

6th

July

7th

August ....

8th

September . . .

9th

October ....

10th

November . . .

11th

December . . .

12th

Januarj- ....

Now, the pine is chosen for the 1st month (O. S.) on
account of the prominent part that it plays in the New
Year’s decorations, but when the new year begins the
first of January, that calendar suffers serious dislocation,
because all of the other flowers cannot be moved a
whole month.

372 A HANDBOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

A similar confusion arises in connection with the
great festival of the “autumn full moon,” in which
certain grasses also figured. By the lunar calendar it
fell about the 15th day of the 8th month, which never
comes in the Western 8th month, August. It came in
1902 on September 18 ; and 1903 it will not come until
early in October ! It may now be readily seen how
difficult it is in Japan to run on schedule time !

But, taking all these difficulties into consideration,
and harmonizing them so far as possible, we have been
able to construct the following modern Japanese floral

calendar : —

January . .

Pine.

July . . .

Morning-glory.

February . .

Plum.

August . .

Lotus.

March . . .

Peach.

September .

“Seven Grasses.’

April . . .

Cherry.

October . .

Chrysanthemum.

May . . .

Wistaria.

November .

Maple.

June . . .

Iris.

December

Camellia.

Japan and Siam^

Mr. Inagaki, Japanese Representative in Bangkok,
has been making strenuous efforts to bring about the
establishment of a direct line of steamers between Japan
and Siam. He maintains that there cannot be any
substantial development of trade without some improve-
ment of the means of communication. Tokyo newspapers
report that the Osaka Shosen Kaisha has been induced
to undertake the extension of its Formosan line to
Siam, and that arrangements are now iinder discussion
with the Formosan officials.

In a lecture delivered by Mr. Inagaki before the
Japan Economic Society, he insisted that Siam could
be of the greatest service to Japan in suppljdng raw
materials and food stuffs. Her production of sugar,
hemp, and gum is very large, and whereas her export

1 From the “ Japan Mail.”

APPENDIX

373

of silk ten years ago was only 250,000 yen, it is now
10 millions. The Siamese government has decided to
devote a quarter of a million yen to agricultural experi-
mental stations, and there can be no doubt that if Japan
sent seeds of raw materials to be grown in that country,
fine results would be obtained. It is important that a
country like Japan should have a source of supply which
would certainly remain neutral in time of war, and Siam
is essentially such a source. This question of food
supply will one day be as important for Japan as it is
already for England, and its solution seems to lie in
the direction of Siam.

Formosa under Japan

Concerning Formosa under Japanese rule the follow-
ing additional items are worthy of notice.

It has been pointed out by the “Japan Mail” that
the revenue of the new territory in the first six years
after its cession to Japan has increased by 600 per cent,
as shown in the following table : —

Yen.

1896 2,710,000

1897 5.320,000

1898 8,250,000

1899 11,750,000

1900 14,900,000

1901 16,370,000

The number of the pest patients in Formosa has been
decreasing year after year, as the following returns for
the period January 1 to June 17 of the respective years
show : —

Cases. Mortality.

1901 3,481 2,619

1902 1,795 1,352

1903 750 606

The government is making strenuous efforts to increase
the export trade. It has subsidized a modem sugar-

374 A HATTDEOOK OF MODERN JAPAN

mill which has commenced operations in South Formosa,
manufacturing brown sugar for refining purposes ; it
has likewise given assistance to a white-sugar factory ;
it has started an experimental paper-factory ; in fact, it
has devoted all its energies toward increasing the island’s
productions. Independent Japanese firms have likewise
done a good deal, though not as much as we had reason
to anticipate. Two gold-quartz mills, one being of con-
siderable size, are successfully at work in the Formosan
gold fields ; two wealthy companies are engaged in plan-
tation work on a large scale in Southeast and in North
Formosa ; and there is a glass-factory in the north,
several Japanese-owned coal-mines, a paper-factory at
Kagi, several modern salt farms, and other small indus-
tries, to Japanese credit. In improving transportation,
the Japanese have done much, aud are planning to do
much more. The Chinese railway line was handed over
to the J apanese in such a condition that it had to be
all reconstructed. We thus have practically a new line
to Kelung and another to Shinchiku (formerly Tecko-
ham). In addition to these, new lines were constructed
from Taihoku to Taiusui, aud from Takow to Shinyeisho
via Tainan-fu, which gives a total of 93 miles of rail.
The trunk line connecting the north and south is now
in course of construction. The Japanese have also built
over 200 miles of narrow gauge for the temporary trans-
port of military supplies, general freight, and passengers.
Nearly a thousand miles of ordinary road have been
constructed.^

Rev. W. Campbell, a Scotch missionary in Formosa^
testifies concerning what Japan has accomplished in the
island : —

At the outset it should be remembered that, when
1 U. S. Consul Davidson.

APPEiroiX

375

they [Japanese] arrived in 1895, instead of being allowed
to take quiet possession, they found the people every-
where up in arms against them, and had literally to fight
their way from north to south before anything like
settled government could be established. . . . Immedi-
ately after some measure of peace had been restored, the
executive sent out qualified experts to engage in survey
work and to report on the resources of their newly ceded
territory.

A complete census of the population was taken in
1897, 800 miles of roads were made, and a tramway lino
laid down from Takow to Sin-tek. This was followed
by construction of the main line of railway from Kelung
to Takow, about one-half of which has already been
opened for goods and passenger traffic. Three cables
were also laid down, connecting Formosa with Japan,
Foochow, and the Pescadores, and over the existing 1,500
miles of telegraph and telephone wires immediate com-
munication has been made possible with every important
inland centre. The post offices recently opened in For-
mosa number over a hundred, and letters can now be
sent to any part of the empire for two cents each. Up
till the close of 1899, 122 government educational insti-
tutions had been established, only 9 of those being for
Japanese, and 113 for natives. There are at present 10
principal Government hospitals in the island, at which
about 60,000 patients are treated gratuitously every year,
while sanitary precautions and free vaccination have
become so general that the danger from visitations like
small-pox and plague has been very much reduced.

INDEX

Abdication, practice of, 90, 97
Aborigines, 44

Academy of Music, Tokyo, 217
Acrobats, 66
Actors’ guild, 27
Adams, Will, 91

“ Advance Japan,” 15, 28, 59, 117, 132,
158, 208

Agricultural College, see Sapporo
Agricultural College
Agricultural College in China, 297
Agricultural experiment stations, 373
Agriculture, 16-22, 216, 312
Ainu, 44, 45
“ Ainu of Japan,” 45
Akashi, 8
Alaska, 15
Alcock, 117
Ale, 56

Aleutian Islands, 15
Almonds, 313

Amaterasu, see Sun-goddess
America, 2. 3, 7, 14, 20, 21, 28, 34, 37,
55, 61, 106, 112, 140, 145, 189, 213,
219, 220, 237, 268, 270, 271, 281,
285, 290, 292, 299-301
American baby, lirst, 60
American books, favorite, 204
” American Journal of Sociology,”
175

American life, 80

“ American Missionary in Japan, An,”
190, 269

American State legislature, 135
Americans, 33, 36, 47, 66, 79, 104,
107, 144, 165, 168, 210, 216
Amoy, 295
Amusements, 66-69
Ancestors, worship of, 64
“ Ancient Matters, Records of,” 92

Anderson, 235
“Andover Review,” 259
Anglo-Japanese Alliance, 4, 92, 147,
153, 154, 156, 157, 299
Anglo-Saxon influence, 157
Anglo-Saxon town meeting, 142
Anglo-Saxons, 128, 168
Animals, see names of animals
“ Annals of the American Academy of
Political and Social Science,” 129
Anti-Christian edicts removed, 91,
111, 112

Anti-foreign reaction, 92, 114, 115

Antimony, 23

Aomori, 17, 32

Aoyama, Dr., 220

Apples, 19, 314

Apricots, 19

Architecture, 51, 91

“ Arena,” 95

Aria, 5, 7

Arima, 8

Arita ware, 229

Armor, 230

Armv, 126, 147-151; statistics, 343-
344

Arnold, Sir Edwin, 78, 253
Arsenal, 149, 150, 286
“ Art Japonais, L’,” 235, 236
Artisans, 48. 82
“Artistic Japan,” 236
“Artist’s Letters from Japan, An,”
236

Arts, fine, 91, 222-236
Arts, mechanical, 24, 25
Aryans, 45
Asama, 8

Ashikaga Toshiraasa, 233
Ashikaga period, 98, 99
Ashikaga supreraacv, 91
Asia, 14, 149, 156, 281, 292, 294, 301
“Asia, the key of,” 4

378

INDEX

Asia, Eastern, supremacy of Japan in,
299, 300

“Asiatic Loch Lomond,” 8
Asiatic Society of Japan, Transac-
tions, 20, 22^ 43, 54, 61, 02, 71, 83,
89, 92, 101, 132, 133, 145, 159, 174,
199, 208, 231, 249, 255, 259, 261
Aso, Prof. S., 364
Aso, Mount, 8

Aston, \V. G., 50, 92, 208, 232, 236
Atanii, 8
Athletics, 66

“Atlantic Monthl}',” 302
Atsu, Prince, 123
Audsley, G. A., 235, 236
Australasia, 281
Australia, 34, 45
Austria, 85
Automobiles, 31, 34
Autumn, Japanese, 12
“Awakening of the East, The,” 28,
158

Ayrton, Mrs. Chaplin, 66

Babylon, 300

Bacon, Miss Alice M., 59, 75, 189,
190, 221
Badgers, 13
Baelz, Dr., 46, 47
Baggage, 29

Baggage check system, American, 33
Bakan, 9
Ballard, Miss, 70
Ballard, Walter J., 318
Bamboo, 13, 22, 74
Bananas, 19
Bandai, Mount, 8, 113
Bank of Formosa, 38
Bank of Japan, 38,39, 92, 170; organ-
ized, 113

Banks, national, 38 ; see also specific
names

Banks, private, 38
Banks, savings, 38, 39
Baptists, 264, 272, 366, 367
Barbers’ guild, 27
Barley, 19, 26, 55

Base-ball, 66

Bastiat’s “ Science of Finance,” 206
Batchelor, J., 45
Bathing, 58, 59
Baths, 58, 59

Battledore and shuttlecock, 66
Battleships, see Warships
Bays, 9

Beans, 19, 37, 55
Bear, 13

Beechey, , 105

Beef, 54
Beer, 56

Beer brewing, 24
Beets, 19
Beggars, 48
Beggars’ guild, 27
Bellows, U. S. Consul, 313
Bettelheim, Dr., 105

Bevan, , 236

Bicycle boats, 85
Bicycles, 31, 34, 280, 281
Biddle, Commodore, 105
Bimetallism, 92, 111
Bing, S., 236

Bird, Miss, see Bishop, Mrs. Isabella
Bird

Birds, 13

Birth and birthdays, 60, 61
Bishop, Mrs. Isabella Bird, 15, 4.3, 45
Biwa Lake, 8
Bizen ware, 229

Black, , 1 17, 200

Blind, 217
“Blossom,” 105
“Blue-jacket Spirit,” 152
Boar, 13
Boatmen, 30

Boats, 29, 31; see also Row-boats,
Steamboats
Boissonade, M., 161
Bonin Islands, 34
Books, 197, 203

Bowes, , 235

Boxer troubles, 115, 146, 153
Bramhall, Mrs., 60, 75, 221
Brick industry, 24
Bricklayers’ guild, 27
Brinkley, Captain, 231-233, 235
Brinkley’s Dictionary, 208

INDEX

379

British, 7, GG
British Columbia, 14
Brothels, IGG, 167, 271
Buckwheat, 19

Buddha, 253-255, 260 ; statue of,
228

Buddha’s birthday, 74
Buddhism, 48, 54^ 90, 96, 99, 177, 224,
237, 251-260, 269, 288
Buddhist ceremonies, 62
Buddhist education, 209
Buddhist festivals, 63, 65
Buddhist periodicals, 203
Buddhist philosophy, 198
Buddhist priests, 224, 258
Buddhist temples, 65, 166, 240, 243,
253, 258

Buffalo, N. y., 37
Bus, see Omnibus
Busliido, 251-252

“Bushido, the Soul of Japan,” 89,
239, 252, 2G1

Business ability of Japanese, 39-42,
82-83

“ Business men’s party,” 131
Butter, 37
Button industry, 24
Byron, Lord, 204

Cabinet, 124, 130, 143, 337, 338
Cabinet reconstruction, 113, 114
Cabinets, Japanese and United States
compared, 125
California, 5, 14, 37
Camellia, 372
Camellia trees, 12
Campbell, W., 374
Camphor, 37
Camphor trees, 12, 21
Canadian Pacific steamship line, 3
Candles, 37
Canning industry, 22
Canton river, 14
Capital punishment, 1G2
Capitals of Japan, 91, 96, 97
Cards, 66

Carpenters’ guild, 27

Carpenters, wages of, 26
Carriage, 281
Carrots, 19

Cary, , 89, 212, 249, 259, 27G

“Catalogue of Japanese and Chinese
Paintings in the British Museum,”
235

“ Catalogue of the Morse Collection
of Japanese Potter}',” 235
Cats, 13
Caucasians, 45
Cedar trees, 12
Cemeteries, 258, 259
Central America, 291
Chamberlain, B. II., 15, 22, 45, 58,
75, 86, 92, 152, 161, 192, 197, 199,
208, 222, 236, 252, 256, 370
Chang Chih-tung, Viceroy, 207
Cha-no-Yu, see Tea-ceremonial
Characteristics of the people, 46-50,
76-89

“Charter Oath,” 91, 110-112, 118
“ Chautauquaii, The,” 211, 3G3
Cherry flowers, 65, 79, 370-372
Cherry trees, 13
Chess, 66
Chestnuts, 19
Chicago, 3, 11, 37, 38
Chickens, 13, 54, 56
“Child-Life in Japan,” GG
Children, 181, 182

China, 4, 5, 14, 21, 34, 35, 37, 42, 02,
96, 99, 103, 106, 115, 143, 14G, 149,
150, 153, 154, 157, 221, 224, 237,
250, 255, 285, 287, 291, 292, 294-
299, 301; tribute to, 91; war with,
92, 115; Japanese influence in, 294-
298

Chinese, 7, 85, 94, 100, 105, 143, 144,
178, 198, 281, 297, 298
Chinese art, 224
Chinese Empire, 157
Chinese ideographs, 193, 194, 207, 220,
227

Chinese government service, 297
Chinese language, 209
Chinese literature, 90, 208, 209, 296
Chinese play, 290
“ Chinese liecorder,” 297
Chinese zodiac, 71

380

INDEX

Cholera, 10
Chop-sticks, 55
Choshiu, Clan of, 109
Christian home, 177
Christian literature, 2G5, 266
Christian periodicals, 203
Christianity, 48, 61, 71, 91, 99, 100,
107, 111, '156-158, 167, 177, 190, 219,
237, 240, 242, 243, 247-249, 253, 256,
259, 276, 286-288; statistics, 366-
369; see also Anti-christian
Christmas, 66

Chromoxylography, see Color print-
ing

“ Chronicle,” 201
“ Chronicles of Japan,” 92
Chrysanthemum Festival, 64, 65
Chrysanthemums, 370-372
“ Chrj’santhemums, War of the,” 91,
99

Churches, 91, 110, 111, 267, 268,
287

Churenji, 8
Chuzenji, Lake, 8
Cire perdue process, 230
Cities, opening of, 91
Citizen (komiii), 138-140
City council, 140, 141
Civil Code, see Code, Civil
Civil war, 91, 104, 109, 110
‘‘Classical Poetry of the Japanese,”
236, 370

Clearing-houses, 316
Climate, 5, 6, 11, 12
Cloisonne, 230

Coal, 23, 37, 41, 42, 152, 292, 295,
298

Coast line, 5, 9, 10
Cocoa, 37

Code, Civil, 61, 114-116, 176, 178,
180-182, 190

Code, Commercial, 38, 114, 115, 161
Code, Criminal, 161
Code, Napoleon, 161
Code, Penal, 113, 114
Code of Civil Procedure, 161
Code of Criminal Procedure, 113, 114,
161

Codes, new, 92
Co-education, 211

Coffins, 62
Coins, 39
Collotype, 227

Colonial Bank of Hokkaido, 38
Color printing, 227
Columbia University, 296
“ Commentaries on the Constitution of
the Empire of Japan,” 132
Commerce, 36, 37, 39-43; see also
Treaty of commerce and naviga-
tion

Commercial centre, 291
Commercial Code, see Code, Commer-
cial

Compulsory school attendance, 212

Conder, , 54, 236

‘‘ Conflict of Christianity with Heath-
enism,” 275

Confucian education, 209
Confucian influences, 91
Confucian philosophy, 198
Confucianism, 48, 96, 100, 101, 237,
250-252, 260

Congregationalists, 264, 366, 367
“ Congressional Work,” 183
Constantine, 248, 275
Constitution, 92, 113, 114, 120-122,
124, 127, 128, 132, 150, 273, 287
‘‘ Constitutional Development of

Japan,” 111, 132, 145
“ Constitutional Government in

Japan,” 129

Continental influences, 90

Convicts, 162

Cooking, European, 56

Cooks’, European-stvie, union, 27

Coolies, 29, 31, 32, 282

Coolies’ guild, 27

Co-operative stores, 27, 28

Copper, 23, 37, 41

Copper pieces, see Coins

Cornstarch, 37

Corporal punishment, 212

Costumes, see Dress

Cotton, 21, 37

Cotton-mills, 21, 286

Cotton-spinning, 21

Cotton velvet, 37

Counsel, 163, 164

Couriers, 29, 35, 281

INDEX

381

Courts, 163-165
Cream, evaporated, 37
Credit Mobilier, 38
Crimes, 162
Criminal law, 160, 161
Criminals, 163
Currency, 39

Curtis, iV. E., 28, 43, 56, 66, 132, 174

Curtins, , 107

Customs, 60-75

Dai Mahon Shi, 101
Dalrymple, 17
Damascus, 230

Dancing, 68, 69, 231-233; see nlso
No dances
Dancing-girls, 69
Dan-no- ura, Battle of, 98
Darwin’s “ Origin of Species,” 204

Davidson, , 21, 143, 145

Davidson, U. S. Consul, 374

Days, special, lucky or unlucky, 71-75

Deaf, 217

Death, 62

Deer, 13

Deme Jikan, 228

Dening, , 86, 89

Deportation, 162

Development, internal, 104, 113, 114
“ Dial, The,” Chicago, 204, 206, 208
“ Diamond edition of humanity,” 47
“ Diarv of a Japanese Convert,” 265
Dickens, F. V., 236, 303

Dickson, , 117

Dining-cars, 33

Diosy, Arthur, 39, 117, 145, 151, 152,
156, 158
Disciples, 264
Divisions, 5, 6

Divorce, 61, 177, 179, 180, 181

Dixon, , 109

Dixon, IV. G., 117
Dock coolies, see Coolies
Docks, 110, 111, 286
Dockyards, 91
Dogs, 13

Dogura, , 364

Dolls, 66

Dolls’ festival, 61, 64, 65
Doshisha, 215
Dowie, J. A., 264
Drama, 233
Dress, 56-59, 284
Duarchy, 97
Dumb, 217

Dutch, 91, 100, 105, 106, 210, 281
Dutch language, 285
Dyeing, 24

“Earthquake, The Great,” see Cabi-
net reconstruction

Earthquakes, 8, 10, 51, 88, 106; see
also Gifu earthquake
Earthquakes, Professor of, 216
Easter, 66

Eastlake, , 117, 158, 283

Ebara, Mr., 274
Editors, 201

Education, 47, 209-221, 285
“Educational Conquest of the Far
East, The,” 221

Edwards, , 68

Egg-plants, 19
Eggs, 26, 55, 56, 60
Egypt, 48

Election, First Xational, 114
Election, first under Constitution of
1889, 127

Electoral franchise, extension of, 115,
116

Electric cars, 34, 281
Electric lights, 31, 36
Electric railways, 31
Electrical apparatus manufactories,
280

Elgin, Lord, 106, 107
“Elizabethan Age,” 97
Elocution, 195
Embroidery, 24, 231
Emperors and Empresses, chronologi-
cal table, 336, 337

Emperors of China, see name of Em-
peror

Empire, New, 91

382

INDEX

Empress of Japan, 111, 188, 280
Empresses and Emperors, chronologi-
cal table, 336, 337
Enamelling, 230

“ Encyclopa“dia Britannica,” 204
Engi era, 332
Engine works, 286
Engineering, 23
Engineers, American, 32
England, 37, 61, 85, 93, 300, 373
English, 91, 145

“ English-Japanese Ehmology,’' 208
English language, 113, 195, 201, 211,
219, 285, 298

English normal school, 186
Epicureanism, 79, 81
Epidemics, 10

Episcopalians, 264, 272, 366, 367
Eularia, 371

Europe, 3, 34, 112, 156, 189, 213, 237,
281, 290, 292, 299, 301
European books, favorite, 204
European languages, 220
Europeans, 47
Evangelical alliance, 271
“ Evolution of the Japanese, The,” 89
Exports, 36, 37

Factories, 314-315

“Fairy Tales from Far Japan,” 70

Family, Japanese, 50, 51

Fan industry, 24

Farmers, 16, 17, 18, 48, 82, 248, 283
Farms, 17-19

Fenollosa, , 135

“Feudal and Modern Japan,” 59, 89,
101, 132, 208, 249

Feudalism, 91, 110, 112, 119, 133, 134,
332

Figs, 19, 313

Filial piety, 87, 166, 176, 250
Fillmore, Millard, 102, 106
Financial situation, present, 42
Finck, H. T., 15, 59, 89
Fine Arts School, Tokyo, 217
Fireflies, 285

Fire-Shine and Fire-Fade, Princes, 90

Fish, 13, 26, 55, 56

Fisheries, 294

Fishermen, 22, 248

Fisher’s “ Universal History,” 205

Fishing, 22, 23

Flag, first foreign, officially raised, 107

Flag, Imperial, 5

Flags, Feast of the, 61, 64, 65

Flags, red and white, wars of, 91

Fleas, 10

Florenz, Dr., 249

Flour, 37

Flower arrangement, 233, 234
Flower festivals, 65, 371
“Flower-viewing,” 370
Flowers, 370-372; see also specific
names

“Flowers of Japan and the Art of
Floral Arrangement, The,” 236
Folk-lore, 70
“ Folk-Lorist,” 70
Food, 54-56, 284

Foreign Language School, Tokj’o, 217
Foreign trade, 330
Foreigners, status of, 170-174
Formosa, Island of, 3, 5, 6, 12, 14, 16,
21, 30, 34, 91, 92, 111, 115, 142-144,
220, 295, 309; under Japan, 373-375
Formosan Bank, 295
Foxes, 13

France, 37, 85, 164, 278, 290

Freight, 29, 30

Freight carts, 31

French language, 211, 285

French people, 264

Friends, 264, 272

Froebel, Friedrich, 214

Fruit, see specific names •

Fruit-growing, 313-314

Fuchow, 294, 295, 375

Fuji, Mount, 8

Fujiwara bureaucracy, 91

Fujiwara epoch, 97

Fujiwara famil)’’ established in re-
gency, 91

Fukuba, Viscount, 370
Fukuzawa, Mr., 184, 185, 215
Fukwai, 135-138
Funeral ceremonies, 62
Furniture, 52, 53

IlSTDEX

383

Gamblers’ gxiild, 27
Game, 54
Games, 66
Gardens, 17, 53, 54
Gas, 36

Geisha, see Dancing-girls
Genroku era, 332
German language, 211, 285
German liberals, 264
Germany, 37, 85, 122, 145, 147, 300;
and Japan, 300

“Geschichte des Japanischcn Farben-
holzschnitts,” 235
Gifu earthquake, 92, 114
Ginko or Salisburia, 313
Ginza, the, 26

“Gist of Japan, The,” 15, 89, 249,
“276

Glass-blowing, 24

“ Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan,” 43,
54, 65

Glyptic art, 227
Go, 66
Goats, 13

Goethe’s “Faust,” 204

Gob, , 50

Gokinai, 6

Gold, 23, 27, 41

Gold coins, see Coins

Gold standard, 39, 92, 115, 116

Golownin, , 104

Gonse, , 235, 236

Gordon, Captain, 104
Gordon, Dr., 370
Gordon, M. L., 190, 276
“ Gospel ship,” 267, 287
Goto family, 230

Government, colonial, in Formosa,
143, 144

Government, Constitutional, 113, 116;

and Liberals, alliance between, 115
Government ownership, 33
Governor, 136-138
Governors, assembly of, 91, 111
Grseco-Roman mythology, 95
“Grammar of the Japanese Written
Language,” 208
Grant, U. S., 113, 331

Grapes, 19, 313
Grave-diggers, 48

Great Britain, 4, 37, 146, 147, 153-
157

Greece, 248, 300
Greek chorus, 68
Greek church, 263, 366, 368, 369
Greek language, 211, 285
Greene, , 259

Gregorian calendar, 64, 91, 103, 111,
112, 371

Gribble, , 20

Griffin, Professor, 342
Griffis, Dr., 18, 43, 59, 71, 73, 75, 99,
101, 117, 206, 208, 241, 242, 249,
232, 256, 257, 276
“ Grippe, La,” 10
Guam, 299
Guano deposits, 6

Gubbius, , 161, 176, 178, 182

Guilds, 27
Gulf Stream, 11
Gulick, , 89

Gumma Prefecture, Governor of, 138
Gunboat, United States, 23
Guncotton, 85
Gunpowder, smokeless, 85

Hachiman, god of war, 90, 96
Ilachisuka, Marquis, 188
Hades, God of, 74

Haga, , 261

Hakodate, 9, 107, 368
Hakone, 8, 37
Hakone Lake, 8
Hakuchi era, 332
Hakuseki, Arai, 210
Ham, 54
Hamaoka, 39
Hamath, 46

“ Hand-Book for Japan,” 15
“ Hand-Book of Colloquial Japanese,”
208

Hand-carts, 31
Handkerchief industry, 24
Hangchau, China, 297
Hara, Mr., 168

384

INDEX

Harbors, 9
Hardy, Thomas, 204
Hare, 13

Harris, Townsend, 106, 107, 117
Hartshorne, Miss, 15, 43, 59, 75
Haru, Prince, 92, 113, 115, 123, 188,
211

Harunobu, 227
Hawaii, 3, 7, 35, 299
Hearn, Lafcadio, 43, 54, 65, 75, 77,
89, 190, 238, 249
Hebrew, 285
Heco, Joseph, 200
Heine, Heinrich, 204
“Herald,” 201
Herbart, J. F., 205
“ Heroic Japan,” 117, 158, 283
Hideyoshi, 91, 99
Hildreth, Richard, 101
Hirooka, Mrs. Asa, 186, 187, 364
Hirobka, Shingoro, 186
Hiroshima, 148
Hirth, Dr., 296

“ Histoire de 1’ Art du Japan,” 235
History (Old Japan), 90-101
I. Divine Ages, 94
II. Prehistoric Period, 94-96
HI. Imperialistic Period, 96-97

IV. Civil Strife, 97-100

V. Tokugawa Feudalism, 100-101
History (New Japan), 102-117
I. Period of Seclusion, 104-106
II. Period of Treaty-Making, 106-
107

HI. Period of Civil Commotions,
107-110

IV. Period of Reconstruction, 110-
112

V. Period of Internal Develop-
ment, 113-114

VI. Period of Constitutional Gov-
ernment, 114-117

Historv and mythology, outline, 90-
92

“Historv of Japanese Literature,”
208, 232, 236

“ History of Japanese Political Par-
ties,” 132

“History of Protestant Missions in
Japan,” 276

“ History of the Empire of Japan,”
101

“ History of the Twelve Japanese
Buddhist Sects,” 253
Hittites, 46
Hizen ware, 229
Hoang-Ho river, 14
Hojo family, 98
Hojo tyranny, 91

Hokkaido, 5, 6, 9, 17,42, 142, 143, 292,
309 ; see also Yezo
Hokurikudo, 6
Hokusai, 227
Holidays, 63-66
Holland, 37
Holme, Charles, 22
“ Honda the Samurai,” 75
Hondo, 5, 6

Hongkong, 33, 35, 37, 317

Honolulu, 3

Horse-cars, 31, 34, 281

Horses, 13, 24

Hours, 72-73

House, E. H., 117

House of Commons, 119, 126, 130

House of Peers, 126, 128, 130, 338, 339

Houses of Japanese, 51-53, 284

Hugo’s “ Les Miserables,” 204

Huish, , 22, 222, 229, 236

“ Hundred Poems,” 199
Hyogo see Kobe

Ice industry, 24
“ Ichijiku,’'’ 266
“ Ideals of the East, The,” 224
Iga ware, 229

Ii, Prime Minister, assassinated, 10",
108

Ikao, 8
Illinois, 37
Imari ware, 229
Imbrie, 208

Imitation, Japanese ability for, 41, 85
Imperial Court, 278. 296
Imperial Diet, 18, 36, 92, 114, 122,
126-128, 130, 165, 207, 212, 247
Imperial family, 48, 93

INDEX

385

Imperial Guard, 149
Imperial Librarj-, see Librarj-, Im-
perial

Imperial Rescript, 212, 3G0-3G1
Imperial University, see University,
Imperial

Imperialism, 91,96-97, 101, 118-132

Imperialistic period, 90

Imports, 3G, 37

“In Far Formosa,” 276

“ In the Mikado’s Service,” 75

Inagaki, Mr., 372

Inari Sama, 248

Incomes, see Wages and incomes
India, 14, 21, 34, 37, 45, 48, 301
Indigo, 17

Industrial and commercial Japan, 17-
28. 39-42, 183
Industrial Bank, 38
“ Industries of Japan, The,” 28, 231,
235

Inland Sea, 10, 267, 287
Inouye, Jukichi, 74
“ Intercourse between the United
States and Japan,” 117
International Oil Company, 36
International Postal Union, 35
Invention, Japanese abilit3' for, 41, 85
Inventions, 85
Investment, foreign, 4(M2
Iris, 65, 371, 372
Irishman, 247
Iron, 23, 37, 42, 295
Iron foundries, 286
Iron-workers’ union, 27
Ise, shrine at, 167, 243
I.shigami, Dr.. 220
Ishikari river, 9
Ishikawajima, 317
“ Island of Formosa, The,” 21, 143
Ita-iaki, Count, 119, 131, 364
Italian, 285

Ito, Marquis, 40, 120, 131, 132, 34-3,
364

Iwakura, Prince, 188
Iwakura Embassy, 110, 112
U'emochi, Shogun, 108, 109
lyenaga. 111, 132, 145
lyenari. Shogun, 2.80
lyeyasu. Shogun, 91, 99, 100

lyeyoshi, Sho'pin, 105
Izanagi, 90, 95
Izanami, 90, 95
Izumo, 94
Izumo ware, 229

“Japan,” 15, 59, 89, 101, 208, 249
“Japan : Its History, Arts, and Liter-
ature,” 231, 233, 235
“Japan and America,” 28, 39, 42, 318
“Japan and her People,” 15, 43, 59,
190

“Japan and its Art,” 236
“Japan and its Regeneration,” 89,
212, 249, 276

“Japan and its Trade,” 28
“Japan and the Japanese,” 300
“ Japan as it Was and Is,” 101
“Japan Daily Advertiser,” 201
“Japan Evangelist,” 27G
“ Japan in Ilistorj’, Folk-lore, and
Art,” 59, 101, 208

“Japan in Transition,” 28, 145,158,
291

“Japan Mail,” 46, 1-31, 184, 201, 243,
296, 312, 3.32, 3.38, 345, 366, 372, 373
Japan Mail Steamship Company, 23,
34, 92, 11.3, 114, 1.39
Japan Society, London, Transactions,
22, 50, 92 ‘

“Japan Times,” 24. 1.30, 131. 188,
201, 204, .324, .34.3, 346, 361, 366
“Japan Tract Society,” 266
“Japanese Boy, A,” 75, 221
“Japanese Calendars,” 71, 83
“Japanese Epigrams,” 208
“Japanese Fairy Tales,” 70
“Japanese Girls and Women,” 59,
75, 189, 190, 221
“Japanese Homes,” 51, 54
“Japanese Illustration,” 235
“ Japanese Interior, A,” 59, 190.221
“Japanese Legal Seal, The,” 174
“.lapanese Odes,” 236
“Japanese Plays,” 68
“Japanese Plays and Plavfellows,”
68

386

INDEX

“Japanese AVood-cutting and Wood-
cut Printing,” 235
“Japanese Wood Engravings,” 235
Java, 45
Javanese, 45
Jevons’s “Money,” 206
Ji sect, 254

Jimmu Tenno, Emperor, 63, 90, 93,
95, 121

“Jingles from Japjm,” 83
Jingoro, Hidari, 228
Jingu, Empress, 90, 95, 96
Jinrikisha, 31, 32, 281
“Jinrikisha Days in Japan,” 15,20,
43, 56, 123, 236
Jiurikislia men, 32, 203
Jodo sect, 253, 255
Journalism, 200-202
Judges, 163-165
Julian, 248
Juinin, see Resident
Justice, 160

Kaga ware, 229
Kagi, Formosa, 374
Kago, 30

“ Kaigai Shimbun,” 200
Kajima, 186

Kaneko, Baron, 120, 139
Kanin, Prince, 278
Kansas City, 37
Karuizawa, 8
Kataoka, Mr., 274
Kato, Baron, 364
Kavvamura, Count, 123
Kawamura, Countess, 123
Kawasaki, 317
Kegon waterfall, 9
Keiki, Shogun, 108, 109
Keio-gijiku, 215
Kelung, Formosa, 374, 375
Kenazawa, 215
Kenkwai, 135-138
Kenzan W'are, 228
“ Keramic Art of Japan,” 235
Keraraic wares, 228
Kii, 9.

Kimotsoki, Admiral, 291
Kindergartens, 210, 213, 214, 269,
365

Kingsley Hall, 28
“Kinse Shiriaku,” 117
Kipling, KuOyard, 204
Kirby, E. C., 317
Kiso river, 9
Kitakami river, 9
Kitasato, Dr., 10, 220
Kites, 66
Kiyomori, 98

Knapp, A. M., 59, 89, 101, 132, 208,
249

Knight, 283
Knox, , 261

Kobe, 2, 9, 33, 110, 201, 317, 326
“ Kobe Herald,” 369
Koch, Dr., 220
Kodama, Baron, 220
Kogoshima, 32, 107, 108
Koike, Mayor, 343
Kojiki, 241
Kojimachi Ku, 139
Kokaku, Emperor, 278
Komagatake, 8
Komatsu II., Emperor, 99
Komei, Emperor, 64, 108, 109, 122
Komin, see Citizen

Korea, 4, 7, 34, 90, 91, 95, 96, 99, 111,
154, 157, 224, 237, 252, 255, 292,
294, 299 ; Japanese influence in,
294

Korean, 95
Koreans, 85
Koriusai, 227
Kublai Khan, 98
Kuchinotsu, 9
Kumamoto, 32, 149, 215
Kure, 150, 317
Knrihama, 102

Kurile Islands, 5, 6, 12, 44, 105, 111
Kuro Shio (Black Stream), 11
Kurozumi-kyo, 259
Kusatsu, 8
Kusunoki, 91, 98

Kyonaga, , 227

Kyoto, 19, 91, 97, 109, 215, 230, 278,
280, 282, 326
Kyoto ware, 229

INDEX

387

Kyowa era, 277

Kyusbiu, 5, 'J, 10, 12, 14, 42, 45, 95,
292

Labor unions, see Guilds, Trade
unions

“ Labor World,” 28
Lacquer trees, 12
Lacquer work, 24
Lacquering, 280-231
Ladd, George T., 87
“Ladoga” (American), 105
La Farge, John, 236
Lamps, 298

Land, arable, 312, 313; foreign owner-
ship of, 170, 171
“ Land of the Morning,” 109
Landscape-gardening, 54, 234
“ Landscape-Gardening in Japan,” 54,
236

Language, 191-198, 206, 207, 232

Lanman, , 117

Latin, 211, 285
Latitude, 5

“Lawrence” (American), 105
Laws, 96

Lay, A. II., 132, 338, 342
Lead, 23

Legal Japan, 159-174
I.,eroy-Beaulieu, A., 28, 158
Lespedeza, 371

Lewis, , 221

Library, Imperial, 203, 220
Library, Mas Muller, "KO
“Life of Sir Harry Parkes,” 303
Light-houses, 91, 110
Lignetil, L’Abbe, 367
Literary class, 48, 49
Literature, 70, 100, 198, 200-208
Lithography, 227
Living expenses, 26, 27, 320-322
Lizards, 13

Lloyd, , 259, 261

Local self-government, 113, 114, 116,
120, 1.3.3-145
Locomotives, 37
London, 224, 317

Lonholm, , 161

Longford, , 174

Loo Choo (Ryukyu) Islands, 5, 12, 34,
92, 105, 113
Loquats, 19, 313
Loti, Pierre, 77

“ Lotos-Time in Japan,” 15, 59, 89
Lotus, 65, 372
Lotze, R. H., 87
Louisiana, 5

Lowell, Percival, 26, 43, 50, 75, 89,
195, 223, 239, 249, 257
Loyalty, 87

Lucky and unlucky days, 71-75
Lumber, 24
Lunar calendar, 64
Lutherans, 264

MacCauIey, (Tlay, 199

McClatchie, , 68

McDonald, Roland, 105, 106

Mackay, , 276

Maclay, , 75

Magazines, 202, 285
“ Magna Charta of Japanese liberty,”
tee Constitution
Maize, 19
Maizuru, 150

“ Maker of the New Orient, A,” 276
Malay customs, 46
Malays, 45, 46, 95
Manchoo Court, 301
Manchuria, China, 30, 295
Manila, 35

Manners, see Cnstoms
Manufacturing plants, 286
“ Manyoshiu,” 369
Maple, 65, 370, 371, 372
Marcus Island, 6
“Mariner” (British), 105
Marriage, 61, 62, 179, 180
Masamnne, 230

Mason, , 15

.Masujima, Dr., 169, 170, 174
Match industry, 24
Matches, 37, 298
Matsukata, Count, 128

388

INDEX

Matsumai, Yezo, 105
“ Matthew Galbraith Perry,” 117
Maltiug, 37

“ Ma3'ors of the Palace,” 98, 278
Mechanics, 283 ; wages of, 26
Megata, Mr., 313
Meiji era, 91, 277
Melons, 19
Memorial Day, 65
Men-of-war, American, 23
Mercantile marine, 346
“Mercator” (.\merican), 105
Merchants, 48, 82, 283
Meredith, George, 204
Merovingians, Japanese, 98
Metal work, 24
Metal-workers, 229-230
Meteorological table, 308
Methodist Publishing House, 266,
276

Methodists, 264, 272, 366, 367
Michi, Prince, 123
Migrations, 95

“Mikado’s Empire, The,” 43, 66, 71,
206

Military class, 48
Mill, John Stuart, 342

Miller, , a criminal, 165

Millet, 19, 55
Milne, Professor, 8
Minaraoto, 98
Mining, 23, 294
Minko, 228
Minnesota, 5
Mint, 39, 91, 110, 111
Miochin famil}’, 230
Mission of Japan, 289-304
Mission schools, 211, 219
Missionaries, 107, 173, 218, 245, 263-
265, 267, 272, 287
Missionary Conference, First, 110
Missionary Conference at Osaka, 92,
113

Missionary’ Conference at Tokyo, 92,
115

Missionary Conference at Yokohama,
91

^Missionary work, 157, 177
Mississippi valley’, 5
Mitake, 8

Mitford, A. B. F., 70, 75
Mito, 54, 60, 67, 280
Mito clan, 100
Mito, Prince of, 149, 286
“Mito Yashiki,” 75
Mitsu Bishi Company, 23
Mitsui Bank, 332
Miwa, 228

“ Miyako-Dori,” 236
Mh’anoshita, 8

“ Modern Japanese Legal Institu-
tions,” 174
Moji, 9, 32, 187
“ Moji no Shirube,” 208
Money in circulation, 329
Money, Table of, 309-311
Mongolians, 45
Monkey, 13
Mormons, 265
Morning-glory’, 65, 372

Morse, , ’235

Morse, E. S., 51, 54

Morris, , 15, 28, 117, 132, 158,

208

Morrison, , 235

“ Morrison ” Expedition, 105
“Moscow Gazette,” 368
Mosquitoes, 10

Mossman, , 117

Mother-in-law, 176
Mott, John R., 270

Mounsey, , 117

Mourning, 62
Mousseline, 37
Mulberry trees, 19
Munichika, 230

Munsinger, , 85

Muramasa. 230
Murata rifle, 149
Muroran, 9, 150

Murray, David, 15, 59, 94, 97, 101,
132,' 263

“Murray’s Hand-Book,” 12, 15
Music, 68, 69, 231, 232
‘‘Music and Musical Instruments of
Japan, The,” 236

Mutsuhito, Emperor, 108-110, 118, 121,
122, 279

Mythology, 90, 92-95; and history,
outline, ‘JO-92

INDEX

389

Nachi waterfall, 9

Nagasaki , 9, 2:1, 32, 104-107, 201, 281,
317, 3G7, 368

Nagova, 21, 148, 230, 326
Naiiiikawa, 2:i0
Kan jo, 253
Nankaido, 6

“Napoleon of Japan,” see Iliderosbi
Kara, 97, 228
Kara epoch, 90, 97
“ Narrative of a Japanese,” 200
Naruse, Jinzo, 187, 188, 364
“Nation, The,” 132, 134, 145
National Assembly, 120
National development, 328, 329
National exhibition in Tokyo, 111
National song, 369, 370
Nature-worship, 45, 79
Naval increment, 345, 346
Navy, 126, 147-152
Nelson, Lord, 151
Nemoto, Mr., 274

“New Far East, The,” 39, 117, 145,
151, 158

New Year’s Day, 61, 64, 65, 75
New York City, 247, 296
New York State Bar Association, 170
Newspaper, first, 91, 110, 111
Newspapers, 200-202, 257, 266, 273,
285 ; see also specific names
Nichiren, a priest, 255, 256
Nicbiren sect, 253, 255
Nickel coin, see Coins
Nicolai, Bishop, 263
Nietsche’s “ Zarathustra,” 204
Nightingale, 13
Niigata, 9, 110
Nikko, 8, 9, 185, 228
Ninigi, 90
Ninsei tvare, 228
Nippon Electric Company, 38
Nippon Y'usen Kwaisha, see Japan
Mail Steamship Company
“Nisshin Shinjishi,” 200
Nitobe, Dr.. 45, 89, 117, 239, 252, 261
Nitta, 91, 98
Ninchwang. 295
Ao dances, 228, 233

Nobility, new orders of, 92, 113, 114
Nobles’ School, 123, 211
Nobunaga, 99

Nobunaga, persecutor of Buddhists, 91
Norimono, see Sedan-chair
Normal schools, 211, 216, 362
Norman, Henrv, 56, 57, 69, 152, 158,
174, 202

“ Notes on Sbippo,” 235
“Noto, an Unexplored Comer of
Japan,” 43
Nunobiki waterfall, 9
Nuts, 55

Nuttall’s “ Standard Dictionary,” 205

Oak trees, 12
Oatmeal, 37
Occidentalization, 69
“ Occult Japan,” 249
Ocean currents, 11, 14
Officials, 26, 48
Ohashi, Mr., 220
Oil, 22, 36, 37, 41, 42
Oil industry, 326-327
Ojin, see Ilacbiman
Okakura, Kakasu, 224, 235
Okayama, 215

Uku’nia, Count, 119, 130, 154, 215, 218,
343, 364

Olcott, Colonel, 253
Omaha, 37
Omnibus, 31, 34
Onions, 19
Onobama, 317
Onset!, 8
Ooka, 159
Opium, 144, 170
Oranges, 19, 313, 314
Orchestras, 67-69
Oregon, 14, 106

Oriental Steamship Company, 35
“Ornamental Arts of Japan,” 235
Osaka, 9, 21, 39, 92,110, 148, 149, 186,
317, 326, 364, 368
“ Osaka Asahi Shimbun,” 202
Osaka Exhibition, 24, 318-320
Osaka Gas Company. 36
“Osaka Mainichi Shimbun,” 202

390

INDEX

Osaka Merchant Marine Company, 34
Osaka Merchant Steamship Company,
^ 295

Osaka Missionarj’ Conference, Pro-
_ ceedings, 276 _

Osaka Shusen Kwaisha, see Osaka
Merchant Marine Company
Oshu, 45
Ota ware, 229
“ Othello,” 68
“ Out of the Far East,” 190
Outcast, 283

Outcasts admitted to citizenship, 91,

110, 112

“ Outline of the History of Ukiyo-ye,
An,” 235
Owari, 229
Owari ware, 229
Ox-carts, 31
Oxen, 13, 29, 31
Oyauia, Marquis, 150

Paci6c Ocean, 1-3, 6, 14, 299, 301
Pack-horses, 29, 31
” Painters of Japan, The,” 235
Painting, 225-227

Paintings, Japanese, collections in
America, 225
Palanquin, 30
Pantomime, 68
Paper-making. 24
Paper-mills, 286
Paper money, 39
” Paradise of the East,” 290
Parchesi, 66

‘‘Party Cabinet,” first, 115
Paulo wnia, 371

“ Peace Preservation Act,” 113, 114

Peach blossoms, 372

Peach trees, 13

Peaches, 19, 313, 314

Peanuts, 19

Pears, 19, 313, 314

Peas, 19, 37

peeresses’ School, 188. 211

Peery, , 15, 89, 249, 276

Peking, 115, 296, 297, 301

Penal Code, see Code, Penal
People, 44-59 ; see also Characteristics
of the people

Perrv, Commodore, 102, 103, 105-107,
116

Perry’s Expedition, 91, 117
Persimmons, 19, 313
Pescadores Islands, 5, 375
Petroleum, 37
‘‘Phaethon ” (British), 104
Philippine Islands, 3, 14, 15, 291, 299

Phillips, 205

Phoenicia, 300

Physiographical advantages, 291
Physiography, 1-15
Pickles, 37

Pickpockets’ guild, 27
“ Pictorial Arts of Japan, The,” 235

Piggott, , 22, 236

Pine, 371, 372
Pine trees, 12
Pisciculture, 24
Plague, 10, 375
Plasterers’ guild, 27
Plum blossoms, 65, 79, 370, 371, 372
Plum trees, 13
Plums, 19, 313, 314
Poetry, 192, 198-200, 225, 226, 231,
232^1 369

Policemen, 162, 163
‘‘Political and Commercial Reasons
for the Study of Chinese,” 296
Political parties, 113,114, 130, 338-343
“ Political Science Quarterly,” 145
Pomegranate, 313
Population, 7, 328
Porcelain, 24, 37
Pork, 54

Portland, Oregon, 2
Ports, opening of, 91
Portuguese, 20, 91, 99
Postage, letter, 35, 36
Postal cards, 35
Postal savings 35, 324-326
Postal system, Japanese, 31, 35, 91,
110, 111; United States, 35
Potatoes, 19 ; sweet, 26
Pottery, 24, 228, 229
” Pottery, Father of,” see Shirozaeniun
Poultry, 24

INDEX

391

“ Powers, Great,” 146
“Practical Introduction to the Study
of Japanese Writing,” '208
“Preble” (United States), 105
Prefectural assemblies, 92, 111-114
Prehistoric period, 90
Presbyterians, 264, 272, 368, 367
Presents, 60

Press, freedom of the, 92, 115, 116, 201
Printers’ union, 27
Prison officials, school for, 168
Prison system, 165, 166
Privy council, 9'2, 113, 124
Professional schools, 218
Prophecy, 288
Proverb, a Japanese, 46
Provinces and Prefectures, 307, 309
Prussian system, 141

Radicals, dissatisfaction of, 113, 114

Radisb, 19

Railroad fare, 33

Railroad, first, 91, 110

Railroads, 31-33, ‘282, 294, 322-324, 329

Railway carriages, 37

Itailway engineers’ union, 27

Railway workmen’s union, 27

Railways, see Railroads

Rainy seasons, 11

Ransome, Stafford, 28, 145, 158, '291
Rathgen, Dr. Karl, 17
Rats, 10, 13

“ Real Japan, The,” 56, 57, 69, 152,
158, 174, 190, 202

Red Cross Society, 188, 269, 270, 280
Reform school, 168
Registration, system of, 168, 169
Rein, J. J., 15, 22, 28, 46, 59, 75, 85,
89, 208, 231, 235, 249
Religion, 172, 173, 237, 239, 242
Religions, Bureau of, 243
“Religions of Japan, The,” 242, 249,
257, 276

Remmon-kyo, 259
Remsen, Ira, 205
Resanoff, 104
“ Rescue homes,” 168

Resident (jumin), 138, 139
Resources, 41, 42

Restoration, 108, 110, 118, 144, 210, 242
Revolutionary rvar, 91
Rice, 18, 19, 26, 37, 54-56, 169, 313
Richardson affair, 91, 107, 108
Rifles, 85

Ritter, , 276

Roman Catholic, 264, 366-368
Roses, War of the, 99
Row-boats, 31
Rowing, 66

Russia, 4, 14, 36, 145, 263, 285, 294,
295; and Japan, 299, 300
Russian aggressions, 155, 157
Russian Church, 368
Russian epidemic, 10
Russian language, 285
Ryukj'ii Islands, see Loo Choo Islands

Sada, Princess, 123, 188, 211
Saga rebellion, 91, 111
Saghalien traded off for Kurile Isl-
ands, 111
Saikaido, 6
Saionji, Marquis, 364
Sake, 24, 55
Salisburia, see Ginko
Salt, 23

Salvation Army, 168, 264, 271

Samurai, see Knight

San Diego, 2, 3

San Francisco, 2, 3, 35, 37

Sanindo, 6

Sanskrit, 211, 285

Sanyo Railway Company, 33

Sanyodo, 6

Sapporo, 149

Sapporo Agricultural College, 216
“Saramang” (British), 105
Sasebo, 150
Satin, 37

Satow, Sir Ernest, 22, 117, 241, 249
Satsuma, Prince of, 108
Satsuma rebellion, 91, 111
Satsuma ware, 229
Sawyers’ guilds, 27

392

INDEX

Saxons, 93

Scandinavian Alliance, 204
Schools, 210-212, 214-218; statistics,
301-363 ; see also Academy of Music,
Fine Arts School, Foreign Language
School, Kindergartens, Mission,
Nobles’, Normal, Peeresses’, Pro-
fessional, and Technical schools,
Sappora Agricultural College, Uni-
versitj’ for Women, and University,
Imperial

Schopenhauer, Arthur, 204
Scidmore, Miss E. ii., 15, 20, 43, 50,
75, 123, 236

“Scribner’s Monthly,’’ 87, 132
Scripture Union, 271
Sculptors, 228

Seattle, IVashington, 2, 35, 317
Seaweed, 55
Sedan-chair, 30
Seidlitz, 235
Seifu ware, 228
Sei-i-Tai-Shogiin, 93
“ Seiyo Kibun,’’ 210
Sekigahara, 91, 100
Sen Kataj'ama, 28
Senate, 9l', 111, 119
Sendai, 148, 215
Seto ware, 229
Setonouchi, see Inland Sea
Setouchi, see Inland Sea
“Seven grasses,” 372
Seventh-Day Adventists, 204
“ Shakai Zasshi,” 18
Shanghai, China, 2j8, 317
Sheep, 13

Shibusawa. Baron, 39, 82
Shigemi, 75, 221
Shikoku, 5, 10, 12
Shimada, Mr., 274
Shimoda, 107

Shimonoseki, 32, 91, 107, 108
Shimonoseki, Straits of, 10, 32, 108
Shin sect, 253, 255, 256
Shinano river, 9
Shinchiku, Formosa, 374
Shingon sect, 253, 254
“ Shinshiu,’’ 255

Shinto, 48, 50, 62, 68, 94, 177, 224,
237-249, 250, 251, 254, 259, 260, 288

Shinto periodicals, 203
Shinto shrines, 166, 240, 243, 244
Shinto temples, 65, 238
Shinyeisho, Formosa, 374
Ship-building, 23, 24, 316-318
Ship-carpenters’ union, 27
Shirane, 8
Shirozaemon, 229
Shizuoka, 230
Shogunate, abolition of, 91
Shogunate, first, 91
Shopkeepers, 25
Shopper’s paradise, 25, 2&

Shops, 25

Shotoku Taisbi, 90, 96
Shrines, Bureau of, 243
Shrines, Shinto, lee Shinto shrines
Shunsho, 227

Siam, 4, 299 ; and Japan, 298, 372-373

Siamese, Crown Prince, 298

Siberia, 4, 14, 34

Siberia railway, 291

Silk, 17, 20, 21, 37, 41

Silkworms, 20

Silver, 23, 41, 42

Silver pieces, see Coins

Simmons, , 133

Singapore, 317
Sin-tek, Formosa, 375
“ Sketches of Tokyo Life,’’ 74
Sleeping-cars, 33
Smallpox, 10, 22(1, 375
Smelt-fishing, 22
Smoking, 20
Snakes, 13
Soap, 37

Social evil, 106, 167
Social settlement, 28
Socialism, 28

Society, classes of, 48-49, 282, 283
Soldiers, 30, 82, 283
“ Solomon, Japanese,’’ see Odka
Soma ware, 229

“ Soul of the Far East,” 20, 50, 89,
195, 239, 249
Soups, 55

South Pacific Islands, 45
Soy, 24, 55
Spanish, 285
Spencer, U. S., 366

INDEX

393

Spencer, Herbert, 206
Spokane Falls, Washington, 67
Spring, Japanese, 12
Springs, hot, mineral, 8, 59
Stage, 111, 34, 281
“Stanilaril, The,” Chicago, 237
Standard Oil Company, 36
Star Vega, Festival of the, 64, 65
Steamboats, 31, 281
Steam-car, 281
Steamers, 37
Steamship companies, 34
Steamship lines, 2
Steamships, 286
Steel, 37

Stevenson, R. L., 204
Stoicism, 81
Stonemasons’ guild, 27
Stores, retail, see Shops
“Story of Japan, The,’’ 15, 59, 94
132, 263

Strange, , 235

Strawberries, 19

Street-car conductors, wages, 26

Street-car drivers, wages, 26

Students’ Standard Dictionary, 205

Sugar-raising, 24

Sugawara, 91

Siiiko, Empress, 96

“Sujin, the Civilizer,” 90, 95

Sulphur, 23

Sumac tree, 230

“ Summary of Japanese Penal Codes,’
174

Summer, Japanese, 12
Sunday-school picnics, 66
Sun-goddess, 90, 95, 248, 259
“Sunrise Kingdom, The,” 5
Superiors, obedience to, 49, 50
Superstitions, 70-75
“Superstitious Japan,” 73
Suyematsu, Baron, 120
Swords, 24, 48, 230

Tacoma, Washington, 2
Taggart’s “ Cotton Spinning,” 205
Taihoku, Formosa, 314

Taikwa Reformation, 332
Tainan-fu, Formosa, 304
Taine’s “English Literature,” 206
Taira, 98

Taira supremacy, 91
“Taiyo,” 291,293, 330
Takaiiashi, K., 290
Take-no-uchi, 90, 96
Takow, Formosa, 374, 375
“Tales of Old Japan,” 70, 75
Tamsui, Formosa, 374
Tamura, N., 61
Tanners, 48

Tariff, 92, 108, 115, 116, 170
Tartar armada, 91
Tartars, 98

Tax, land, 18, 49, 139, 169; busi-
ness, 169; house, 169, 170; income,
169

Taxation, 49, 142, 150, 169; nobility
exempt from, 48
Tea, 19, 26, 37,41,55
Tea-ceremonial, 99, 233
Tea-drinking, 20
Teachers’ Institutes, 219, 220
Technical schools, 211, 216, 362
Telegraph, 31, 53, 91, 110, 282, 294,
329, 375

Telephone, 31, 33, 34, 282, 375
Temperament, 87-89
Tempo era, 332
Tendai sect, 253, 254
Tennis, 66

Tennyson, Alfred, 204
Tenrikyo, 259
Tenryu-gawa river, 9

Terry, , 161

Theatre, 66-68
Thibet, 301

“Things Japanese,” 161, 199, 256
“30th year” (of Meiji) rifle, 149
Thomson, Filihu, 205
Tidal wave, 115
“ Tidings from Japan,” 366
“ Time, Land of Approximate,” 83
Tin, 23

Tobacco, 17, 19, 20; sale of, to minors,
prohibited, 271
Tokaido, 6

Tokugawa Dynasty, 100, 110, 280

394

INDEX

Tokugawa feudalism, period of, 91,
100, 101
Tokuno, 235

Tokyo, 21, 26, 28, 31, .33-37, 39, 47,
91, 92, no. 111, 114, 1.39, 148, 149,
166, 168, 186, 201, 215-217, 220,
2.30, 270, 276, 280, 282, 285, 286,
322, 323, 320, 3.32, 364, 368, 372.
Tokyo Missionary Conference, Pro-
ceedings, 276
Toledo, 230
Tolstoi, Leo, 204
Tomeoka, 168
Tomotada, 228
Tone river, 9
Tops, 66
Tosando, 6

Toyo Kisen Kwaisha, see Oriental
Steamship Company
Toyokuni, 227
Trade unions, 27, 28
Traits, Japanese, see Characteristics
of the people
Transportation, 29-43
Travel, 29-43, 281

Treaties, new, 92 ; with foreign na-
tions, 91

Treaty of commerce and navigation
between Japan and the United
States, 347-361

Treaty-Making, Period of, see History
(New Japan), II
Tree peony, 371
Trees, see names of trees
Trials, 164

Troup, , 255

Trusteeship, system of, 41

Tsukiji Type Foundry, Tokyo, 285, 286

Turnips, i9

“Twain, Mark,” 204

Twentieth Century Japan, 267, 277-288

Typhoons, 10, 11, 88

Uchimura, 265, 300
Uhlhorn, Gerhard, 275
Uji, 19

Ukita, K., 293

Umd Tsuda, Miss, 186
United States, 2, 3, 7, 14, .36, 37, 85,
157, 186, 200, 291, 293, 299, 364
United States, President of the, 102,
106

United States and Japan, Treaty be-
tween, see Treaty of commerce and
navigation
Universalists, 264

University, Imf>erial, 23, 91, 165, 166
University, Imperial, at Kyoto, 211,
215

Universitj’, Imperial, at Tokvo, 110,
210, 215, 216

University for Women, 186, 188, 211,
36.3-365

Uraga, 102, 106. 317
Uraga dockyard, 23
Urami waterfall, 9
Utamaro, 227
Utsumi, Baron, 364
Uyeno, 343

Vaccination, 375
Vancouver, 2

“ Various impressions,” 45
Vegetables, see names of vegetables
Vehicles, 30

“ Verbeck of Japan,” 117, 276

Vergil, 304

Vessels, 329

Vladivostock, 33

Volcanoes, 8

Von Siebold, Dr., 105

Wado era, 332
Wages and incomes, 26, 27
Wages of workmen, 21, 322
Wakayama, 17

Walker’s “ Political Ecouoni}’,” 206

Warships, 150, 151

Waseda, 215

Washington, 14, 157

Watanabe, Viscount, 43

Wealth of Japan, 331, 332

INDEX

395

Weasels, 13
Weaving, 24

Webster’s “Condensed Dictionary,"
205

Webster’s “ Unabridged,” 205
Weddings, sf.e Marriage
“Wee Ones of Japan, The,” 60, 75,
221

Weight and Measure, Table of, 300-
312

Weights, comparative, of Japanese
and European men, 47
Weihaiwei, Battle of, 150
Wheat, 19 ; cracked, 37
Whistler, J. A. M.. 223

Wigraore, , 132-134, 145, 159, 160

William II. of Holland, 105
Willow, 371
Wine, 56

Winter, Japanese, 12
Wistaria, 65, 371, 372
Witnesses, 164

Woman’s Christian Temperance
Union, 168, 264, 270, 271
Women, 175-190, 286; Japanese and
American contrasted, 81; legal po-
sition of, 178-182: education of,
183, 185, 186. 188, 363-365; employ-
ment for, 183, 188, 270
Wool, 37

Woollen mills, 286
Wrestlers’ guild, 27
W restling, 66

Writing, art of, introduced, 92-96
Wuchang, China, 297

Xavier, Francis, 91, 99, 262

Yalu, Battle of, 150
Yamada, 117, 158, 283
Yainagata, Marquis, 150
Yamaguchi, 215
Yamath, see Hamath
Yamato, see Hamath
Yamato-Uake, Prince, 90, 95
Yangtze Kiang river, 14, 295
“Yankees of the East, The,” 28, 43,
56, 66, 123, 132, 174, 190
Year Periods, 332-335
Yedo (now Tokyo), 91, 100, 106, 110,
280, 282

Yedo Bav. 102, 104, 105
Yezo, 5,' 9, 12, 16, 32, 44, 104, 106,
110, 162; see also Hokkaido
Yokohama, 2. 3, 9, 14. 28, 91, 107,
165, 166, 201, 322, 323, 326
Yokohama Athletic Association, 66
Yokohama Specie Bank, 38, 170
Yokosuka, 150
Yoritomo, 91, 98
Yoshitsune, 91, 98

Young Men’s Buddhist Association,
256

Young Men’s Christian Association,
256, 264, 270

Young People’s Society Christian En-
deavor, 265, 271

Young AVomen’s Christian Associa-
tion, 270

Yuzu Xerabutsu sect, 254

Zen sect, 253-255
Zola, £mile, 204

f w

Date Due

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