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HANDBOOK    OF   PAINTING. 

GEEMAN,  FLEMISH,  AND  DUTCH 
SCHOOLS. 

BASED  ON  THE  HANDBOOK  OF  KtJGLEB. 

BE-MODELLED    BY    THE    LATE    PROF.    DR.    WAAGEN, 

AND   THOROUGHLY   REVISED   AND  IX  PART  SE-WBITTEN 

BY   THE    LATE    SIB.  JOSEPH    A.    CBOWE. 

SIXTH  IMPRESSION.   THIRD  EDITION. 


MICROFCRMED  BY 


; 


WITH    ILLUSTRATION  S.  tS 

NOV  0  6  1989 


DATE 


IN    TWO    PARTS.— PART  I. 


LONDON: 
JOHN  MURRAY,  ALBEMARLE   STREET. 

1898. 


J. 


Printed  by  Hazell,  Watson,  &  Viney,  Ld.t  London  and  Aylesbury. 


PKEFACE. 


THIRTEEN  years  have  elapsed  since  tfre  late  Dr.  Waagen 
wrote  the  new  edition  of  *  Kugler,'  of  which  the  present  is  a 
revised  and  corrected  impression.  Dr.  Waagen  at  that  time 
explained  his  reasons  for  rejecting  a  great  part  of  Kugler' s 
work,  stating  that  he  had  enlarged  the  text  in  respect  of  the 
later  Dutch  and  Flemish  schools,  and  extended  his  critical 
notices  to  artists  who  were  at  once  painters  and  engravers.  • 
A  minute  account  of  the  sources  open  to  the  historical  in- 
quirer in  relation  to  art  in  Germany  and  the  Low  Countries 
concluded  this  portion  of  the  learned  Doctor's  preface. 

Art  criticism  has  done  a  great  deal  since  1860  to  increase 
our  knowledge  of  the  lives  of  painters,  and  much  that  was 
then  acceptable  as  historical  and  true  is  now  looked  upon  as 
fabulous  or  doubtful.  I  may  venture  to  affirm  that  no  one 
at  the  present  day  would  attempt  to  class  Dierick  Bouts,  or 
Cristus,  or  Justus  amongst  the  pupils  of  Hubert  van  Eyck ; 
nor  would  it  occur  to  any  person  to  admit  the  existence  of 
Roger  van  der  Weyden  the  younger,  or  to  acknowledge  as 
productions  of  the  last  Holbein  such  works  as  are  found  to 
date  before  1515.  This  classification  and  these  statements 
we  find  in  Dr.  Waagen' s  text ;  and  in  citing  them  as  proofs 
of  the  necessity  for  revising  that  text,  I  do  not  by  any  means 
exhaust  the  subject. 

An  attentive  reader  will  observe  that  I  discard  Dr. 
Waagen's  theory  of  a  Teutonic  School,  whilst  I  endeavour 
to  throw  new  light  on  the  origin  of  painting  in  the  Nether- 
lands. The  influence  of  sculpture-tinting  is  prominently 
brought  forward ;  and  examples  are  given  of  early  art  on 
walls  and  portable  shrines.  Some  interest  is  now  for  the 


IV  PREFACE. 


first  time  given  to  the  painters  who  were  the  precursors  of 
the  Van  Eycks  in  Flanders  ;  and  passing  to  the  Van  Eycks 
themselves,  I  trace  their  connection  with  the  reigning  family 
of  the  Burgundian  Dukes  at  the  time  of  their  residence  in 
Ghent.  John  van  Eyck  is  shown  to  have  spent  two  years 
at  the  Hague ;  his  journey  to  Portugal  is  described  ;  and 
proof  is  afforded  that  our  knowledge  of  him  and  his  brother 
is  mainly  derived  from  Italian  as  contra- distinguished  from 
Belgian  sources.  Cristus  is  noted  as  a  painter  who  lived  in 
the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century ;  he  is  the  only  direct 
disciple  of  the  great  master  of  Bruges. 

The  school  of  the  Van  Eycks,  which  had  its  cradle  in  the 
valley  of  the  Meuse,  is  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of  Vaa 
der  Weyden,  which  arose  in  the  valley  of  the  Scheldt.  Van 
der  Weyden  is  not  the  pupil,  he  is  the  contemporary  and 
rival  of  John  van  Eyck.  Van  der  Goes  appears  as  one  who 
carried  to  a  monastery  the  talents  of  a  great  artist  and  the 
habits  of  a  wine-bibber.  Justus  of  Ghent  wanders  to  Urbino, 
where  he  transforms  his  style,  and  becomes  great  under  the 
influence  of  Santi  and  Melozzo.  Gerard  van  der  Meire,  the 
contemporary  of  Justus,  becomes  connected  by  tradition  with 
a  series  of  pictures  telling  of  prolonged  and  patient  activity. 
Memling's  career,  after  his  settlement  at  Bruges,  is  clearly 
mapped  out ;  and  we  track  to  their  original  places  most  of 
his  scattered  altarpieces  in  European  galleries.  Dierick 
Bouts  is  shown  to  be  the  pupil  of  Roger  van  der  Weyden, 
the  founder  of  a  local  school  at  Lou  vain,  and  the  master  of 
Quentin  Massys.  Gheerardt  David  wanders  from  Holland  to 
Bruges,  imitates  Memling  and  Van  Eyck,  and  forms  Joachim 
Patenier,  the  first  of  the  Belgian  landscapists.  The  birth 
and  death  of  Quentin  Massys,  his  practice  at  Antwerp,  and 
his  relation  to  Holbein  and  Durer  are  accurately  given ; 
whilst  Mabuse  takes  his  place  as  Quentin's  friend  and  con- 
temporary before  he  passed  into  Italy  and  modified  his  style 
after  the  taste  of  the  "Renaissance.  Bellegambe  of  Douai  is, 
restored  to  his  place  in  the  history  of  Belgian  art ;  Marinus 
of  Romerswale  becomes  familiar  as  a  follower  of  Massys ; 
and  the  fantastic  Bosch  resumes  his  old  and  genuine  name 
of  Van  Aeken.  Patenier,  who  matriculated  at  Antwerp  in 


PREFACE. 


1515,  appears  as  the  master  of  Henry  de  Bles,  whose  identity 
with  Henri  de  Patenier  may  be  accepted  as  certain. 

Some  novelty  will  be  found  to  have  been  introduced  into 
the  lives  of  the  painters  of  the  Low  Countries  who  were  the 
precursors,  contemporaries,  and  followers  of  Rubens  and 
Rembrandt.  Of  Rembrandt  himself  and  his  pupils  the  lives 
have  been  remodelled  or  re -written,  to  satisfy  the  claims  of 
the  public  to  an  accurate  knowledge  of  their  style  and  pro- 
ductions. Almost  all  the  dates  illustrating  the  history  of 
the  later  Dutch  have  been  subjected  to  a  necessary  revision. 

Changes  of  no  less  magnitude  will  be"found  in  the  accounts 
of  German  schools.  Hans  Holbein  the  grandfather  disap- 
pears from  the  pages  of  the  Handbook, — his  existence  proved 
to  be  a  myth.  Hans  Holbein  the  father  is  welcomed  back 
to  the  rank  which  he  had  lost,  and  we  assign  to  him  anew  the 
pictures  which  critics  had  learnt  to  attribute  to  his  son.  It 
might  have  been  considered  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  add 
anything  to  the  the  histouy  of  men  hitherto  so  patiently 
studied  as  Holbein  and  Durer,  yet  it  will  be  seen  that  much 
has  been  done  to  complete  the  lives  and  correct  the  lists  of 
works  of  these  eminent  artists. 

In  the  attempt  thus  made  to  remodel  Dr.  Waagen's  'Kugler,' 
I  required  the  help  of  numerous  contemporary  authorities ; 
and  I  perform  a  pleasing  duty  in  acknowledging  the  assistance 
which  I  have  derived  from  such  works  as  the  following : — *  Le 
Beffroi,'  edited  by  Mr.  Weale  ;  the  '  Journal  des  Beaux  Arts/ 
with  its  articles  by  Michiels,  Biirger,  and  Weale,  and  the  latter's 
*  Guide  to  Bruges,'  and  'Catalogue  of  the  Bruges  Academy'; 
the  '  Zeitschrift  fur  Bildende  Kunst,'  edited  by  Professor  von 
Liitzow,  with  its  numerous  contributions  from  the  pen  of  A. 
von  Zahn,  Hermann  Liicke,  Waagen,  A.  Woltrnann,  Gottfried 
Kinkel,  His-Heussler,  Wilhelm  Schmidt,  J.  Baader,  and 
Moriz  ThaUsing ;  Busscher's  '  Recherches  sur  les  Peintres 
Gantois';  Schnaase's  '  Geschichte  der  Bildenden  Kiinste'; 
Dr.  Ennen's  writings  in  the  '  Annalen  des  Historischen  Vereins 
fur  den  Niederrhein ' ;  A.  Pinchart's  '  Archives  des  Arts ' 
and  other  works;  E.  van  Even's  'Louvain  Monumental '  and 
pamphlets  ;  Ruelens'  and  Pinchart's  Annotations  to  Dele- 
pierre's  Translation  of  '  Early  Flemish  painters  ' ;  the  nume- 


VI  PREFACE. 


rous  works  of  Mr.  A.  Wauters  of  Brussels  ;  the  *  Liggeren/ 
or  registers  of  the  Antwerp  Guild,  transcribed  with  copious 
annotations  by  Ph.  Rombouts  and  Th.  van  Lerius ;  Van  der 
Willigen's  '  Artistes  de  Haarlem  ' ;  George  Scharfs  papers  in 
the  '  London  Archeologia ' ;  Dr.  Julius  Meyer's  '  Kunst  Lexi- 
con'; Harzen's'LifeofZeitblom';  Woltmann's  and  Worn  urn's 
'Holbein':  Herman  Grimm's  numerous  essaj^s  ;  *  Durer's 
Life,'  by  A.  von  Eye  ;  Durer's  *  Kunstlehre,'  by  A.  von  Zahn  ; 
0.  Miindler's  '  Beitriige  ' ;  Schuchardt's  *  Lucas  Cranach  ' ; 
C.  Vosmaer's  'Life  of  Rembrandt';  Burger's  'Musees  de 
Hollande ' ;  Fetis'  'Catalogue  of  the  Brussels  Museum'; 
Sunaert's  '  Catalogue  of  the  Ghent  Museum ' ;  Dr.  Bod.e?s 
Trans  Hals '  ;  T.  van  Westrheene's  '  Paulas  Potter  ' ;  P. 
Scheltema  s  '  Amstel's  Oudheit.' 

It  would  not  be  fair  to  neglect  mentioning  such  publica- 
tions as  Vaernewyk's  'Beroerlycke  Tijden,'  and  Weinreich's 
'  Danziger  Chronik,'  both  of  which  were  recently  printed. 

I  have  thought  it  necessary  to  preserve  Dr.  Waagen's 
references  to  the  collection  of  the  Landauer  Briiderhaus  at 
Nuremberg,  because  after  the  close  of  that  collection  the 
pictures  which  it  contained  were  dispersed  no  one  knows 
where. 

After  the  pages  of  the  Handbook  had  been  sent  to  press,  I 
^learnt  that  the  Munich  Pinakothek  had  been  numbered  afresh. 

In  correction  of  the  text  I  may  state  that  the  portrait  in 
the  Belvedere  Museum  assigned  by  Dr.  Waagen  to  Calcar  is 
by  Morone ;  and  the  Soleure  Madonna  is  now  the  property  of 
the  Kunst  Verein  of  that"  city. 

J.  A.  CROWE. 

NOTE.— The  Suermondt  collection  has  been  acquired  for  the  Museum  at 
Berlin;  the  Wynn  Ellis  is  bequeathed  to  the  National  Gallery,  and  the 
Munro—Bu'ler  Johnstone— dispersed  at  Messrs.  Christie's,  1878.  The 
collection  of  Herr  van  Loon,  at  Amsterdam,  is  also  dispersed. 

The  Van  der  Hoop  collection  has  become  part  of  the  State  Museum  at 
Amsterdam. 

Several  picturet  formerly  in  the  Landauer  Briiderhaus  have  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  Germanic  Museum  at  Nuremberg. 

The  Baring  collection  is  now  the  North-brook  collection. 


CONTENTS. 


PAOK 
Pref ace    . . iii 

List  of  Illustrations       ix. 


BOOK  I. 

A.D.  800-1250. 

Chapter   I.— Early  Christian  Epoch.     800-1150 1-1 3 

„      II.— The  Byzantine-Romanesque  Epoch.     1150-1250         13-23 


BOOK  II. 

ART  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES,  1250-1420. 

Introduction. 24 

Chapter  I. — The    Period    when    Faulting    was    principally 
restricted  to    the    Illumination    of    Outlines 

1250-1350 25-31 

n       II. — Development  of  Painting  in  its  more  indepen- 
dent character.     1350-1420..  32-4* 


BOOK  III. 

ABT  OF  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY,  1420-1530. 

Complete  Development  of  Art  in  the  Spirit  of  the  Middle 
Ages. 

Chapter  I. — The  Brothers  Van  Eyck 49-7-1 

n       II. — School  of   Belgium  till   near  the  close  of  tbe 

fifteenth  century    74-111 

„     III. — The  Early  Flemish  School,  up  to  the  period  of 

its  termination.     1 490-1 530 112-124 

n      IV. — The  German  School,  in  its  transition  from  the 
Style  of  the  preceding  period  to  the  Realistic 

Tendency.     1420-1460 125-130 

n       V. — The  German  Schools  which  adopted  the  Beal- 

istic  Tendency  of  the  Van  Eycks.      1460-1500     130-150 
.,      VI.— The  German  Schools  from  1500  to  1550 150-229- 


Vlll  CONTEXTS. 


BOOK  IV. 

ITALO-FLEMINGS.     1530-1600. 

Deterioration  of  Art,  as  regards  Historical  Painting,  arising  from  the 
imitation  of  the  Italians.  Further  development  of  other  classes  of 
Painting — Genre,  Landscapes,  etc. 

PAGfc 

Chapter   I. — Painting  in  the  Netherlands 230-266 

„       II. — Painting  in  Germany    266-274 


BOOK  V. 

THE  FLEMISH  AND  DUTCH  REVIVALS.     1600-1690. 
Second  Development  of    Northern   Feeling  for  Art. 

Chapter   I. — Introduction.     Rubens   275-291 

„       II. — The  Contemporaries  and  Scholars  of  Rubens   ..     291-347 
„     III.— The    Dutch    School.      The    Influence    of    the 
Italian  Naturalisti,  and  of  Rubens'   Style  of 

Art ." 347-362 

„      IV. — Rembrandt  Van  Ryn    363-374 

„       V.— Scholars  and  Followers  of  Rembrandt 375-393 

„      VI. — The  Painters  of  Genre t . .     394-514 

„    VII.— The  Painters  of  Plants,  Fruits,  and  Still  £ife  . .     515-520 
.,  VIII.— The  German  Painters  of  this  Period 523-533 


BOOK  VI. 
THE  DECLINE  OF  ART.    1700-1810. 

Introduction 534-535 

Chapter  I.— The  Flemish  School 535-538 

„       II.— -The  Dutch  School 539-551 

„     III. — The  German  School 551-568 


INDEX  ....  * 569-586 


ILLUSTEATIONS. 


THE  JOYS  AND  SORROWS  OF  THE  VIRGIN  ;  a  picture  by  Hans 

Memling  :  iu  the  Gallery  at  Munich  (see  p.  97)      .  .     Frontispiece. 

Pictures  on  an  altar-chest  at  Dijon.     No.  1     .  .  -  .  .        To  face  page  37 

No.  2     ......          „          37 

No.  3     ......          „          37 

No.  4     ......          „          £7 

The  Altai-piece  of  THE  ADORATION  OF  THE  LAMB  ;  painted 
by  John  and  Hubert  van  Eyck  for  the  Church  of  St. 
Bavon  at  Ghent  ................  „  56 

THE  ADORATION  OF  THE  LAMB    ............          „          58 


. 

Outer  shutters  of  the  great  Van  Eyck  picture  at  Berlin  „  60 
THE  TRIUMPH  OF  THE  CHURCH  :   in  the  National  Mu- 

seum, Madrid        ................  „  68 

THE  LAST  JUDGMENT  ;  by  Roger  van  der  Weyden   ....  „  81 

Outer  shutters  of  LAST  JUDGMENT;  by  Roger  van  der 

Weyden  ....................          » 

ADORATION  OF  THE  KINGS  ;  by  Roger  van  der  Weyden  : 
in  the  Gallery  at  Munich.  (The  standing  King  is  a 
portrait  of  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy)  ....  „  83 

Large  Altarpiece,  by  Hans  Memling,  of  the  LAST  JUDG- 

MENT :  at  Dantzig  ..............  „  94 

THE  RELIQUARY  OF  ST.  URSULA  ;  by  Hans  Memling  :  in 

the  Chapel  of  St.  John's  Hospital  at  Bruges  ....  „  101 

DEATH  OF  ST.  URSULA  ;  one  of  the  pictures  by  Memling  on 

the  Reliquary  of  St.  Ursula  at  Bruges       ......          „         102 

THE  MISERS  ;  a  picture  by  Quentin  Massys  :  at  Windsor 

Castle     ....................          „         116 

A  CARD  PARTY  ;  by  Lucas  van  Leyden  :  at  Wilton  House  „  122 
"THE  DANCE  OF  THE  MAGDALEN;"  from  an  engraving 

by  Lucas  van  Leyden,  in  the  British  Museum  .  .  .  .  „  122 
TEMPTATION  OF  ST.  ANTHONY  ;  from  an  engraving  by 

Lucas  van  Leyden  in  the  British  Museum        .  .      .  .          „         122 

ALTARPIECE,  by  Stephen  Lothener,  in  Cologne  Cathedral, 

in  five  parts  ..................          .,         126 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


THE  ANNUNCIATION  ;  from  an  engraving  by  Martin  Schon- 

gauer  in  the  British  Museum To  face  page  136 

CHRIST  APPEARING  TO  THE  MAGDALEN  ;  from  an  engraving 

by  Martin  Schongauer  in  the  British  Museum        . .          „         136 

ST.  ANTHONY  TORMENTED  BY  DEMONS  ;  an  engraving  by 
Martin  Schougauer,  which  Michael  Angelo  is  said  to 
have  copied :  from  the  British  Museum „  136 

ALBERT  DURER  ;  painted  by  himself  :  in  the  collection 

of  Artists'  Portraits  at  Florence         „         155 

ADORATION  OF  THE  TRINITY  ;  painted  by  Albert  Durer  : 

now  in  the  Belvedere  at  Vienna         „         165 

THE  KNIGHT,  DEATH,  AND  THE  DEVIL  ;  an  engraving  by 

'  Albert  Durer        . .     ' „         167 

MELANCHOLY  ;  engraving  by  Albert  Durer      „        168 

Border  from  the  ''Prayerbook  of  Maximilian  ;  drawn  by 

Albert  Durer  :  in  the  Royal  Library,  Munich  . .      . .          „         169 

Border  from  the  Prayerbook  of  Maximilian  ;    drawn  by 

Albert  Durer  :  in  the  Royal  Library,  Munich „         169 

From  Albert  Durer's  woodcut  of  the  "  CAR  OF  MAXI- 
MILIAN," in  the  British  Museum  ..  „  171 

From  Albert  Durer's  woodcut  of  the  "CAR  OF  MAXI- 
MILIAN," in  the  British  Museum  ,„  171 

THE  APOSTLES  MARK  AND  PAUL  ;  by  Albert  Durer  :  in 

the  Gallery  at  Munich  . .  . .  „  173 

Altarpiece  in  the  Church  at  Weimar,  containing  portraits 
of  LUTHER,  MELANCTHON,  and  the  Painter  himself ; 
by  Lucas  Cranach  „  192 

The  Burgomaster  Meyer's  votive  picture  ;  by  Hans  Hol- 
bein :  in  the  palace  of  Princess  Charles  of  Hesse,  at 
Darmstadt ..  ..  „  206 

The  Burgomaster  Meyer's  votive  picture ;  copied  from 

1  Hans  Holbein,  and  now  in  the  Gallery  at  Dresden  „  206 

THE  TRIUMPH  OF  RICHES  ;  from  a  design  by  Holbein  ;  in 

the  collection  of  the  late  Sir  Charles  Eastlake         . .          „         213 

THE  TRIUMPH  OF  POVERTY  ;  from  a  design  by  Holbein  : 

in  the  same  collection „         213 

THE  DESCENT  FROM  THE  CROSS  ;    by  Rubens  :   in  the 

Cathedral  at  Antwerp ,  284 

BATTLE  OF  THE  AMAZONS  ;  by  Rubens  :  in  the  Gallery  at 

Mxinich..  ..  ....  ....  ..  „  285 

Rubens'  small  picture  of  THE  FALL  OF  THE  DAMMED  :  in 

the  Gallery  at  Munich  „  285 

CASTOR  AND  POLLUX  CARRYING  OFF  THE  DAUGHTERS  OF 

LEUCIPPUS  ;  by  Rubens :  in  the  Gallery  at  Munich         „        280 

APOTHEOSIS  OF  HENRI  QUATRE,  AND  ASSUMPTION  OP  THE 
REGENCY  BY  MARIE  DE  MEDICIS  ;  from  the  Series  of 
pictures  by  "Rubens  in  the  Luxembourg,  illustrating 
the  History  of  Marie  de  Medicis  . .  „  287 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  XI 


Portraits  of  RUBENS,  his  BROTHER,  HUGO  GROTIUS,  and 
JUSTUS  LIPSIUS  :  from  the  picture  by  Rubens  in  the 
Pitti  Palace  at  Florence  ,.  ..  To  face  page  289 

Rubens'  portrait  of  his  two  Sons       „         289 

HOLY  FAMILY  WITH  ANGELS  ;  by  Van  Dyck  :  formerly  in 

the  Houghton  Collection,  now  at  St.  Petersburg     . .          „         301 

KING  CHARLES  I. ;  by  Van  Dyck  :  from  the  original  pic- 
ture at  Windsor  „  306 

THE  PEMBROKE  FAMILY  ;  by  Van  Dyck  :  in  Wilton  House         „        306 

PETER  DENYING  CHRIST  ;   painted  by  David  Teniers  in 

1646  :  now  in  the  Louvre ,,         324 

TAVERN  SCENE  ;  painted  by  Teniers  :  now  in  the  Munich 

GaUery „         325 

THE  ANATOMIST  NICHOLAS  TULP  AND  HIS  PUPILS  ;  painted 

by  Rembrandt  in  1632 :  in  the  Museum  of  the  Hague          M         368 

SAMSON  THREATENS  HIS  FATHER-IN-LAW  ;  by  Rembrandt : 

in  the  Berlin  Museum „         371 

"  CONSEIL  PATERNEL;"  a  picture  by  Gerard  Terburg  :  in 

the  Amsterdam  Museum „         395 

REPRESENTATION  OP  HUMAN  LIFE  ;  by  Jan  Steen  :  in  the 

Museum  of  the  Hague         . .      ^ „         404 

SURGEON  REMOVING  THE  PLASTER  ;   painted  by  Adrian 

Brouwer  :  in  the  Gallery  at  Munich „         418 

THE  ITINERANT  FIDDLER  ;  by  Adrian  van  Ostade  :  in  the 

Hague  Museum „        421 

THE  JEWISH  CEMETERY  ;  by  Kuysdael :  in  the  Dresden 

Gallery ,    ..     ..        „        474 

SEAPIECE  ;  by  Backhuysen  :  in  the  Munich  Gallery  . .         „        502 


HANDBOOK 

OF   THE 

HISTORY   OF    PAINTING 

IN 

GERMANY  AND  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 


BOOK   I. 
A.D.  800  TO  3250. 

CHAPTER   I. 

EARLY    CHRISTIAN    EPOCH. 
800—1150. 

NEITHER  in  Germany  nor  in  the  Netherlands  are  there  indi- 
cations to  be  found  of  any  practice  of  the  art  of  painting 
previous  to  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  Charlemagne, 
who  endeavoured  to  infuse  something  of  the  culture  of  the 
ancient  world  into  his  widely-extended  dominions,  adorned 
the  cathedral  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  with  mosaics,  and  embellished 
his  palace  with  wall  pictures.  In  the  great  cupola  of  the 
former  he  introduced  the  hallowed  composition  of  Christ 
enthroned,  with  four  and  twenty  elders  holding  crowns,  and 
angels  hovering  in  a  golden  heaven.1  The  walls  of  the 
palace  were  filled  with  incidents  of  Charlemagne's  life  as  a 
warrior,  a  statesman,  and  a  patron  of  learning.  They  contained 

1  [See  the  subject  engraved,  after  Ciampini,  in  the  second  part  of 
Ernst  aus'm  Weerth's  '  Kunst-Denkmaler  des  Christl.  Mittelalters  ill 
den  Rheinlanden.'  Leipzig,  T.  0.  Weigel,  1860,  Th.  ii.  Taf.  32,  11 
Fragments  of  the  mosaic  have  been  found  under  whitewash  ;  and  the 
dome  is  now  in  the  hands  of  restorers,  who  hope  to  revive  the  old  deco- 
ration of  Charlemagne.] 

1 


2  EARLY  CHRISTIAN    EPOCH.  Book  I. 

allegories  of  the  sciences,  varied  by  incidents  of  battle  and 
siege.  During  the  same  reign  the  castle  of  Upper  Ingelheim, 
on  the  Rhine,  was  enriched  with  frescos  of  a  devout  and 
secular  character.  In  the  chapel  there  were  scenes  from  the 
Old  and  New  Testament ;  in  the  banqueting  halls,  episodes  of 
history.  On  one  of  the  walls  were  the  deeds  of  the  great 
Pagan  rulers,  Ninus,  Cyrus,  Phalaris,  Romulus,  Hannibal, 
and  Alexander,  and  on  the  other  those  of  the  Emperors 
Constantine  the  Great  and  Theodosius — the  victory  of 
Charles  Martel  over  the  Frieslanders,  the  seizure  of  Aquitaine 
by  Pepin,  Charlemagne's  own  conquests  of  the  Saxons,  and 
finally,  himself  enthroned  in  all  the  majesty  of  a  conqueror. 
Although  no  trace  remains  of  these  extensive  decorations,  yet 
contemporary  miniatures,  executed  by  order  of  the  monarch, 
enable  us  to  form  some  idea  of  the  form  in  which  they  were 
produced  ;  and  we  are  led  inferentially  to  believe  that  monu- 
mental paintings  of  religious  subjects  were  chiefly  based  upon 
the  models  of  early  Christian  art.  Such  subjects,  in  manu- 
scripts, exhibit  an  awkwardness  and  stiffness,  a  feebleness  of 
drawing,  and  a  gaudiness  of  colour,  indicative  only  of  the 
feeling  of  a  still  semi-barbarous  nation.  We  may,  therefore, 
conclude  that  the  secular  scenes,  for  which  the  painter  had 
no  models,  and  in  which  the  story  frequently  entails  great 
liveliness  of  action,  must  have  had  a  very  unrefined  appear- 
ance. The  treatment,  with  broad  lights  and  shadows  laid 
upon  the  same  unvarying  middle  tone,  which  occurs  in  the 
miniatures,  was  unquestionably  derived  from  that  which  we 
observe  in  antique  frescos.  In  the  peculiar  type  of  many 
a  head — in  the  meagre  character  of  the  draperies — in  the 
gold  hatchings  of  the  dresses — in  the  green  tone  of  the  sha- 
dows, and  in  the  repeated  use  of  vermilion  and  unbroken  blue 
— the  influence  of  the  Italians  and  Byzantines  may  have 
taken  effect,  as  it  did  in  the  miniatures.  The  manuscripts  to 
which  these  remarks  apply  are  the  following : — 

An  Evangeliarium,  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Paris.  This 
contains  the  four  Evangelists — Christ  represented  under  a 
youthful  form,  giving  the  benediction  according  to  the  rite  of 
the  Byzantine  Church ;  and  the  Fountain  of  Life,  within  an 
octagon  building  surrounded  by  stags,  by  peacocks,  and  other 


Chap.  I.  EVANGELIARIA.  3 


birds.  The  heads  are  of  an  elongated  oval,  the  eyes  large 
and  widely  opened,  the  brows  heavily  arched,  the  noses 
broad  of  nostril  and  narrow  in  the  barrel.1  We  may  hesitate 
to  affirm  that  the  writer  of  this  manuscript,  whose  name  was 
Gottschalk,  was  also  the  painter  of  the  miniatures ;  yet  it 
may  have  been  so.  At  all  events  it  is  an  ascertained  fact 
that  painting  was,  with  few  exceptions,  practised  only  by 
monks  till  towards  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century — all 
intellectual  culture,  down  to  that  time,  being  engrossed  by 
the  religious  orders. 

An  Evangeliarium  (Supplement,  Latin*,  No.  686),  also  in 
the  Imperial  Library  at  Paris,  and  far  richer  in  contents  than 
the  preceding ;  originally  from  the  church  of  St.  Medardus, 
at  Soissons.  The  pictures,  including  the  subjects  already 
described,  and  also  the  Church  of  Christ  represented  as  a 
building,  exhibit  a  far  more  skilful  artist.  Two  of  the 
Evangelists  are  of  very  animated  action.2 

An  Evangelistarium,  in  the,  town  Library  of  Treves.  The 
four  youthful  Evangelists  here  give  evidence  of  a  still  more 
advanced  artist.  The  motives  have  throughout  something 
grand  and  free,  and  to  some  extent  convey  a  feeling  of 
devout  inspiration ;  the  features  of  St.  Matthew  may  be  even 
termed  noble.  But  the  ornamentation  of  the  borders,  of  the 
canon,  and  of  the  initials,  tell  of  much  higher  cultivation  than 
the  figures.  Two  elements  of  art  are  especially  distinguish- 
able— the  antique,  as  shown  in  Greek  borders,  acroteria,  genii, 
and  animals ;  the  Irish,  as  displayed  in  masterly  meanders  of 
ornament  interspersed  with  dragons  and  serpents.  The  skill 
with  which  space  is  distributed,  the  taste  and  fancy  which 
characterize  the  fillings,  are  peculiar  to  the  inmates  of  Irish 
monasteries  in  the  sixth  century,  who  wandered  as  mission- 
aries into  various  European  countries,  and  gave  permanence 
to  a  new  form  of  art.  In  France  and  Swabia,  St.  Columbanus ; 
in  Switzerland,  St.  Gallus  (founder  of  the  convent  of  St. 
Gallen),  were  the  pioneers  of  this  new  school;  in  Franconia, 
St.  Kilian ;  in  Belgium,  St.  Lievin ;  and  in  Friesland,  St. 

1  See  further  description  in  my  '  Kunstwerke  und  Kiinstler  in  Paris,' 

2  See  '  Kunstwerke  und  Eiinstler  m  Paris,'  p.  237. 


4  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  EPOCH.  Book  I. 

Willebrord.1  Both  the  elements,  antique  and  Irish,  are 
combined  in  the  Bible  of  Treves,  with  the  application  of  the 
most  costly  colours.  Purple,  gold,  and  silver  are  abundantly 
used,  and  a  system  of  ornamentation  is  worked  out  which 
unites  the  utmost  splendour  of  effect  with  a  very  original 
and  attractive  form  of  taste,  and  great  technical  mastery. 
The  same  architectural  feeling  is  observable  which  afterwards 
found  so  grand  a  development  in  the  architecture  of  the 
Germanic  race. 

Subsequently,  when  France  and  Germany,  under  the 
grandchildren  of  Charlemagne,  were  divided  into  separate 
states,  we  perceive  a  distinct  character  in  the  art  of  each.  I 
propose,  therefore,  only  so  far  to  consider  the  form  practised 
in  France  as  it  occasionally  is  found  to  influence  that  of 
Germany.  Meanwhile,  in  the  course  of  the  ninth  century,  a 
barbaric  element  becomes  more  and  more  perceptible.  This 
is  apparent  in  the  type  of  the  heads,  with  noses  of  monstrous 
thickness  and  length — in  the  brick-red  tones  of  the  flesh,  and 
in  a  coarser  style  of  treatment ;  whilst  on  the  other  hand  the 
ornamentation  of  initials  and  borders  reveals  a  far  higher 
level  of  acquirements.  The  chief  specimens  of  this  time  are 
the  Bibles  of  Charles  the  Bald,  in  the  Louvre,  and  in  the 
Royal  Library  at  Munich,  formerly  in  the  convent  of  St. 
Emmeran  at  Regensburg,  and  the  Bible  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  the  Fat,  in  the  church  of  St.  Calixtus  at  Rome.2 
Another  series  of  miniatures  belonging  to  manuscripts 
written  in  France  discover  an  Anglo-Saxon  tendency  ;  these, 
however,  as  exercising'no  influence  on  the  art  of  Germany, 
I  have  no  occasion  to  consider. 

One  form  of  art  of  which  examples  have  been  preserved 
in  Germany  consists  of  very  rude  and  slight  pen-drawings, 
in  which  reminiscences  of  antique  feeling  are  traceable  in  the 
drapery.  Of  this  kind  are  the  miniatures  in  the  manuscript, 
dated  814,  and  belonging  to  the  Bavarian  convent  of  Wesso- 
brunn,  now  in  the  Library  at  Munich.  This  manuscript  is 

1  See  my  Supplement  to  Kugler's  'Handbook  of  the  History  of 
Painting,'  in  the  'Kunstblatt '  of  1850,  p.  83. 

z  There  erroneously  given  out  for  the  Bible  of  Charlemagne.  See 
last-mentioned  Essay  in  '  Kunstblatt,'  1850,  p.  92  ;  aleo  '  Kunstwerke 
und  Kiinstler  in  Paris,'  p.  258. 


Chap.  I.  PEN-DRAWINGS. 


also  celebrated  as  containing  the  Wessobrunn  Prayer,  one  of 
the  earliest  examples  of  the  German  language.  It  is  decorated 
with  sixteen  small  pictures,  illustrative  of  the  Finding  of  the 
true  Cross  by  the  Empress  Helena. 

Translation  of  the  Four  Evangelists  into  German  verse, 
undertaken  in  the  ninth  century  by  Ottfried,  a  monk  belong- 
ing to  the  convent  of  Weissenburg,  in  Alsace ;  now  in  the 
Imperial  Library  at  Vienna.  Two  pictures  here,  the  Cruci- 
fixion and  Palm  Sunday,  probably  both  by  the  same  monk, 
occupy  each  a  whole  page.  Christ  is  represented  upon  the 
Cross  under  a  youthful  form,  and  is  upright  and  still  alive. 
The  expression  of  sorrow  in  the  Virgin  and  St.  John  is  well 
rendered  by  lively  gestures.  Above,  in  two  circles,  are  the 
half-length  figures  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,  looking  at  Christ, 
and  about  to  cover  their  faces  with  their  drapery.  A  third 
picture,  representing  the  Last  Supper,  is  the  work  of  a  latei 
and  far  ruder  hand,  to  whom  also  the  insertion  of  the  eight 
Apostles  in  Palm  Sunday  is  Attributable. 

In  point  of  art,  however,  the  above-mentioned  works  are 
far  surpassed  by  a  picture  of  Christ  as  Salvator  Mundi,  p. 
869  of  a  manuscript  in  the  library  of  the  convent  of  St.  Gallen 
(No.  877),  which  contains  the  Grammar  of  Donatus  and  other 
writings  of  similar  import.  The  conception  is  free  and  noble, 
the  proportions  are  slender,  the  arms  astonishingly  well 
drawn,  and  the  antique  style  of  the  drapery  well  understood. 
This  picture  of  the  ninth  century  proves  how  early  the 
school  of  art  belonging  to  this  convent  had  attained  a  re- 
spectable development. 

Another  class  of  miniatures,  of  which  specimens  are  pre- 
served in  Germany,  consists  of  subjects  very  carefully  ex- 
ecuted in  body  colours.  In  the  conception  of  these,  antique 
types  are  clearly  discerned,  commingled,  especially  in  the 
tenth  century,  with  those  of  Byzantine  art.  The  chief 
specimen  of  this  kind,  belonging  to  the  ninth  century,  is  a 
Psalter,  No.  23  of  the  Library  at  St.  Gallen.  Among  the 
scenes  from  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  contained  in  the 
richly- decorated  Litany,  the  youthful  figure  of  Christ  and 
that  of  David  playing  on  the  psalter  are  most  remarkable. 
As  regards  initial  decorations,  this  is  the  richest  and  most 


6  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  EPOCH.  Book  I. 

splendid  memorial  of  German  art  I  know,  and  may  be  justly 
placed  in  the  same  category  as  the  Bibles  of  Charles  the 
Bald. 

Far  richer  in  pictorial  elements  is  a  stately  Evangeliarium 
in  the  Library  of  the  Cathedral  of  Treves,  which  in  its  initials, 
in  the  attributes  of  the  Evangelists,  and  in  the  use  of  several 
of  the  colours,  betrays  the  influence  of  the  Irish  school  of 
miniature.  At  the  same  time,  in  other  decorations,  the  style 
of  the  above-described  French  school  is  discernible,  while  in 
the  attitudes,  and  partially  in  the  tone  of  colouring,  Byzantine 
feeling  may  be  seen.  One  Thomas,  who  styles  himself  the 
writer,  was  probably  the  author  of  some  of  the  pictures, 
which  are  evidently  the  work  of  different  hands.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  this  codex  was  executed  in  the  convent 
of  St.  Gallen. 

The  prosperity  which  Germany  enjoyed  from  919  to  1066 
under  the  Saxon  and  the  first  two  Frankish  emperors  has 
left  its  impress  in  the  only  surviving  form  of  art — the  minia- 
tures attached  to  manuscripts.  Among  the  draughtsmen  of 
this  time  several  bishops  take  a  prominent  position.  The 
antique  types  are  adhered  to  with  no  inconsiderable  technical 
skill  in  body-colours,  while  side  by  side  with  them  may 
already  be  remarked  signs  of  original  composition.  Fre- 
quently also,  and  especially  at  the  period  of  the  marriage  of 
the  Greek  Princess  Theophanu  with  the  Emperor  Otho  II. 
in  972,  a  strong  savour  of  Byzantine  influence  is  apparent. 
As  characteristic  of  the  German  painting  of  this  and  the  suc- 
ceeding period  we  may  note  the  frequent  use  of  green,  which 
was  evidently  as  much  a  favourite  with  the  Germans  as  azure 
with  the  French.  MSS.  with  miniatures  of  this  period  exist 
in  considerable  numbers,  of  which  I  need  only  give  a  few 
examples.  Important  as  a  monument  of  Swiss  art  is  a  frag- 
ment of  a  codex,  No.  338,  of  the  Library  of  St.  Gallen,  con- 
taining an  Antiphonarium,  a  Sacramentarium,  and  other 
ritual  works.  A  Crucifixion  and  a  Descent  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  exhibit  skill  of  no  common  kind  in  speaking  and 
dignified  action  and  fair  drawing ;  and  we  notice  a  technical 
improvement  in  the  use  of  half  tones. 

1  '  Kunstblatt '  of  1850,  p.  92. 


Chap.  I.  BAVARIAN   ART. 


An  Evangelistarium  entirely  written  by  the  hand  of  St. 
Ulrich,  Bishop  of  Augsburg,  in  the  Koyal  Library  at  Munich, 
constitutes  one  of  the  chief  specimens  of  the  Swabian  school. 
The  pictures  of  the  four  Evangelists,  also  probably  the  work 
of  the  bishop  himself,  and  that  of  the  Archangel  Michael  and 
the  Dragon,  which  is  very  successful,  are  all  but  free  from 
Byzantine  influence,  showing  the  antique  modes  of  conception 
proper  to  early  Christian  art,  combined  with  much  skill  of 
execution.  But  the  harsh  and  gaudy  colours  and  ill-cast 
draperies  are  characteristic  of  a  new  and  more  essentially 
local  manner.  Another  Evangeliarium  by  the  same  hand,  in 
the  British  Museum  (Harleian  MSS.  No.  2970),  only  differs 
from  that  of  Munich  in  the  comparative  lightness  of  its  tones.1 

As  a  specimen  of  Bavarian  art  we  may  look  at  an  Evan- 
geliarium with  the  four  Evangelists,  originally  at  Tegernsee, 
1017-1048,  now  in  the  Library  at  Munich  (No.  31),  which 
exhibits  strict  drawing,  a  simple  cast  of  drapery,  and  a  clean 
mode  of  execution.  * 

At  the  head  of  the  numerous  MSS.  representing  the  Fran- 
conian  school  we  should  name  an  Evangelistarium,  written 
about  the  year  1000,  and  now  in  the  Munich  Library  (iv.  2, 
6),  interesting  for  artistic  skill  and  choice  of  subject.  One 
of  the  four  artists  here  distinguishable,  by  whom  the  Nativity 
was  executed,  shows  a  decided  Byzantine  influence.  Another, 
to  whom  the  enigmatical  representation,  p.  5,  is  attributable, 
displays  the  manner  observable  in  the  MSS.  written  at 
Bamberg,  and  chiefly  decorated  with  miniatures  by  order  of 
the  Emperor  Henry  II.  (1002  to  1024).  Some  of  these  are 
still  preserved  in  the  Library  at  Bamberg,  some  in  the 
Library  at  Munich.  They  differ  most  decidedly,  in  style  and 
treatment,  from  the  works  of  the  earlier  Carlovingian  period, 
though  in  the  main  copies  they  are  not  true  imitations  of 
older  originals.  The  types  of  heads  are  so  uniform  and  rude, 
that  we  fail  to  discover,  even  in  portraits  (Henry  II.),  a 
trace  of  individuality.  The  forms  are  so  ill  drawn  and  so 
slender  as  to  convey  quite  the  impression  of  lameness  ;  the 
drapery  folds  are  only  suggested ;  and  all  that  remains  to 

'Kunstblatt'  of  1850,   p.    98;  also  'Treasures   of   Art  in  Great 
Britain/  vol.  i.  p.  196. 


8  EARLY   CHRISTIAN   EPOCH.  Book  I. 

remind  us  of  antique  feeling  is  a  certain  dignified  solemnity. 
The  colours  are  broken  in  clear  pale  tones,  varying  in  flesh 
from  pure  white  to  pallid  yellow,  brown,  and  orange ;  in 
draperies,  to  tertiary  greens,  blues,  and  reds.  Antique  dress  is 
sometimes  exchanged  for  that  of  the  period.  A  cool  but  not 
unpleasant  harmony  is  enhanced  by  thin  stripes  of  tints,  such 
as  green  for  earth,  violet-blue  and  red  for  skies ;  but  here 
and  there  gold  grounds  are  preserved.  Shadows  are  very 
sparingly  applied;  but  the  transitions  of  these  from  green 
into  yellow  lights  betray  the  influence  of  non- German  art. 
The  handling  in  body-colour  is  clean  and  blended;  it  has 
not  the  breadth  of  the  preceding  centuries.  We  meet 
occasionally  with  miniatures  of  coarser  make,  which  tell  of 
local  education.  Where  the  composer  has  not  been  working 
on  traditional  models,  he  gives  proof  of  a  quaint  observation 
of  nature;  and  a  playful  fancy  is  sometimes  displayed  in 
illustrative  incidents.  Peculiarly  tasteful  are  the  ornaments, 
which  are  sometimes  bordered  with  the  *  Greca,'  sometimes 
with  designs  of  Irish  Franconian  style. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  of  these  MS.  is  the  missal  pre- 
sented by  the  Emperor  Henry  II.  to  the  chapter  of  the 
cathedral  of  Bamberg,  at  his  coronation  in  1002 — a  large 
folio  (B.  No.  7  of  the  Munich  Library)  with  stately  repre- 
sentations of  the  monarch  on  his  throne  and  St.  Gregory, 
finished  after  the  fashion  of  the  artists  beyond  the  Alps,  and 
a  crucifixion  of  coarse  local  stamp. 

Richer  still  is  an  Evangeliarium  given  by  the  same  Emperor 
to  the  chapter  of  Bamberg  (B.  No.  4  of  the  Munich  Library) — 
a  folio  with  ornaments  including  animals  and  homely  episodes, 
allegorical  personifications  of  countries  and  cities  in  antique 
costume,  and  gospel  pictures,  in  one  of  which  Christ  is  cruci- 
fied in  the  primitive  fashion,  with  unbent  frame,  alive,  and 
both  feet  separately  nailed  to  the  cross. 

Worthy  of  notice  again  is  an  Evangeliarium  presented  by 
Henry  IE.  to  a  church  at  Bamberg  (B.  No.  2  of  the 
Munich  Library),  not  only  because  it  contains  rough  imita- 
tions of  the  miniatures  in  the  MS.  above  described,  but  a  very 
rare  subject  at  this  time, — the  Last  Judgment.  On  one  of  the 
pages  four  angels  are  represented  sounding  the  last  trump, 


Chap.  I.  SAXON  ART.  9 

whilst  the  four  winds  at  the  corners  of  the  miniature  are 
blowing  horns,  and  thirteen  souls  of  a  greenish  hue  are  rising 
from  their  graves.  On  the  opposite  page  Christ,  with  flesh 
tinged  in  fiery  red,  sits  in  judgment,  with  the  cross  in  his 
hands,  unattended  by  the  accustomed  figures  of  the  Virgin 
and  St.  John.  Angels  with  scrolls  proclaim  the  sentence  of 
the  condemned,  and  call  the  elect  to  heaven ;  and  amongst 
the  sinners,  as  amongst  the  happy,  there  are  high  dignitaries 
of  the  Church  and  of  the  State,  one  of  the  latter  dragged  by 
a  devil  to  the  flaming  abyss,  at  the  bottom  of  which  Satan  in 
chains  is  seen  to  preside. 

The  following  MSS.  are  particularly  important  as  illus- 
trative of  painting  in  Saxony  : — 

An  Evangeliarium,  in  the  treasury  of  the  church  at 
Quedlinburg,  probably  presented  by  the  Emperor  Henry  I. 
It  may  be  supposed  that  the  paintings  executed  in  the  palace 
of  this  sovereign  at  Merseburg,  representing  his  victory  over 
the  Hungarians,  were  much  in  the  style  of  the  miniatures  in 
this  MS. 

An  Evangeliarium,  in  the  Imperial  Library,  Paris  (Sup- 
plement Latin,  No.  667),  probably  written  for  the  Emperor 
Otho  H.  (reigned  974-983),  and  of  considerable  artistic  value 
as  specimens  of  the  above-mentioned  form  of  treatment, 
though  showing  the  influence  of  non- German  art.1 

An  Evangeliarium,  also  written  for  Otho  H.,  formerly  in 
the  convent  of  Echternach,  now  in  the  Ducal  Library  at 
Gotha.  Some  of  the  pictures  exemplify  the  unattractive 
style  of  French  art  as  practised  in  the  ninth  century ;  yet 
as  respects  number  and  value  of  miniatures,  and  rich  deco- 
ration of  canons  and  initials,  it  may  be  considered  a  work 
<)f  the  first  class.2 

Three  Evangeliaria,  in  the  sacristy  of  the  Cathedral  at 
Hildesheim.  The  miniatures  in  these  MSS.  coincide  much 
with  those  in  the  missal  at  Bamberg,  but  are  somewhat 
ruder  in  execution,  and  doubtless  the  work  of  St.  Bernward, 

1  'Kunstwerke  und  Kiinstler  in  Paris,'  p.  266. 

•">.*  Rathgeber's  '  Beschreibung  des  Herzoglichen  Museum  zu  Gotha,' 
P.  9,  etc.  [It  may  be  doubted  whether  the  miniatures  of  this  Evange- 
liarium are  all  as  old  as  the  date  given  in  the  text — i.e.  973-983.] 


10  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  EPOCH.  Book  I. 

Bishop  of  Hildesheim  (reigned   993-1022),  who  was  well 
known  as  a  painter. 

Westphalian  art  is  represented  by  two  Evangeliaria,  in  the 
Cathedral  Library  at  Treves.  One  of  them  (No.  139), 
scarcely  later  in  date  than  950,  is  more  rude  in  its  figures 
than  contemporary  Bibles  in  South  Germany  or  on  the 
Rhine ;  yet  it  displays  considerable  skill  in  the  forming  of 
initials,  and  in  the  ornamentation  of  the  canons.  The  other 
Evangeliarium  is  of  higher  artistic  value ;  its  miniatures  may 
be  assigned  to  about  the  year  1000,  while  its  cover  contains 
a  carving  in  ivory  of  the  tenth  century,  and  enamels  of  the 
twelfth  century. 

As  regards  the  position  which  miniature  painting  attained 
in  the  Rhine  country,  an  Evangelistarium,  executed  for 
Bisty)p  Egbert  of  Treves  (reigned  978-993),  now  in  the  civic 
Library  of  that  ancient  city,  gives  very  favourable  testimony. 
It  contains  fifty-seven  large  pictures,  in  which  six  different 
hands  may  be  distinguished.  These  are,  in  part,  very 
happily  composed,  and  display  in  the  principal  incidents  and 
in  the  drapery  a  successful  adherence  to  antique  tradition. 
A  small  number  only  of  these  pictures  give  decided  evidence 
of  the  imitation  of  Byzantine  types. 

There  is  proof  also  in  an  Evangeliarium  of  very  splendid 
execution,  in  the  University  Library  at  Prague,  that  a  similar 
style  of  painting  was  also  practised  in  Bohemia.  Various 
departures  from  the  types  of  tradition — for  instance,  in  the 
Baptism,  where  the  river  Jordan  is  represented  as  a  naked 
youth,  pouring  the  water  over  the  head  of  Christ — show  a 
mode  of  conception  peculiar  to  Bohemia.1 

In  the  Netherlands,  judging  from  the  scanty  specimens  of 
MSS.  with  miniatures  belonging  to  this  time,  the  style  of  art 
was  very  similiar,  only  not  so  successful.  An  Evangeliarium, 
in  the  Royal  Library  of  the  Hague,  which  may  be  attributed 
to  about  the  year  900,  though  rude  in  forms  and  crude  in 
colouring,  shows  a  very  powerful  reflection  of  Irish  art.  The 
portraits  of  Count  Dietrich  II.  of  Holland,  and  his  wife 
Hildegard,  recommended  by  St.  Albert  to  the  Saviour,  be- 

1  'Kunstblatt,'  1850,  p.  129.  [And  see  Wocel  in  the  February  No. 
of  the  '  Wiener  Mittheilungen '  for  1860,  pp.  10  and  following.] 


Chap.  I.          SUSPENSION   QF   PICTORIAL   PROGRESS.  11 


long  to  the  latter  half  of  the  tenth  century,  when  this  MS. 
was  presented  by  both  these  personages  to  the  church  of  the 
Abbey  of  Egmond,  dedicated  to  that  saint.  This  subject, 
rudely  drawn  with  the  pen,  is  interesting  as  displaying  the 
rudiments  of  an  original  art  disengaged  from  the  bonds  of 
mere  antique  imitation. 

An  Evangeliarium,  from  the  church  of  St.  Jacques  at 
Liege,  now  in  the  Library  of  the  old  Dukes  of  Burgundy 
(No.  18,888)  at  Brussels,  belonging  to  the  tenth  century, 
and  executed  throughout  in  body  colours  of  light  and  har- 
monious effect,  is  incomparably  richer  and  more  careful  in 
manner. 

Richer  still  and  of  more  importance  is  an  Evangelistarium, 
in  the  same  library  (No.  9428),  of  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  century.  The  pictures  are  similar  in  style  and  type 
of  heads  to  that  of  Bishop  Egbert  of  Treves,  but  ruder.  The 
cool  violet  flesh  tones  and  the  whole  scale  of  bright  and 
harmonious  colouring  show  "a  striking  affinity  to  the  minia- 
tures at  Bamberg  executed  for  the  Emperor  Henry  II., 
proving  the  wide  spread  of  this  style  of  art. 

After  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  owing  pro- 
bably to  the  troubles  of  Henry  IV. 's  reign,  a  suspension  of 
pictorial  progress  is  observable  in  Germany.  Side  by  side 
with  the  style  of  the  previous  epoch — the  use,  namely,  of 
size-colours,  of  a  general  light  tone — we  observe  simple  out- 
lines, only  filled  up  with  slight  illumination ;  yet  the  tradition 
of  the  antique,  which  fades,  is  not  replaced  by  any  display  of 
original  thought.  Single  figures  of  Christ,  the  Virgin,  and 
Saints  are  interspersed  with  Scripture  scenes  and  symbolical 
representations  characteristic  of  the  spirit  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
By  the  beginning  of  the  twelth  century,  however,  instances 
of  moderate  progress  are  traceable,  which  continues  until  the 
end  of  that  century.  I  give  a  few  examples  : — 

An  Evangeliarium,  from  the  monastery  of  Altaich,  near 
Straubing,  in  Bavaria,  now  in  the  Munich  Library,  in  which 
the  figures  of  Christ  in  the  act  of  benediction,  and  of  St. 
Mark,  are  remarkable,  and  where  the  whole  technical  process 
is  very  clean. 

An  Svangeliariuin,  also  in  the  Munich  Library,  from  the 


12  EAELY  CHKISTIAN   EPOCH.  Book  I. 

Niedermiinster  monastery  at  Kegensburg,  At  the  beginning 
of  the  MSS.  we  find  various  allegorical  subjects,  of  a  mystic 
character,  with  rich  tendril-like  ornament  and  numerous 
inscriptions.  One  of  these,  representing  the  victory  over 
death  by  the  sacrifice  of  Christ,  is  remarkable.  In  the  centre 
Christ  is  represented  on  the  cross,  his  feet  fastened  to  a 
board  with  two  nails,  in  red  drapery,  with  the  royal  crown 
and  priestly  stole.  Somewhat  lower  at  each  side  of  the  cross 
stand,  on  the  left,  Vita,  a  female  figure  having  a  crown 
adorned  with  a  cross  and  rich  drapery,  her  face  and  hands 
raised  upwards ;  on  the  right,  Mors,  pallid  in  colour,  with 
matted  hair,  the  countenance  half  veiled,  a  deep  wound  in 
the  neck,  the  body  half  nude,  and  the  clothing  mean,  sinking 
down  with  broken  lance  and  scythe.  A  dragon,  which  grows 
out  from  the  foot  of  the  cross,  appears  to  bite  this  figure  in 
the  arm.  On  both  sides  are  smaller  figures ;  above  are  Sol 
and  Luna,  veiled.  On  the  right  is  the  New  Covenant,  a 
female  figure  crowned,  with  the  standard  of  victory,  and  the 
cup  of  the  Sacrament  on  the  crown.  On  the  left  is  the  Old 
Covenant,  her  countenance  concealed  by  the  border,  the 
scroll  of  the  Law  and  the  sacrificial  knife  in  her  hands.  Be- 
low, on  the  right,  are  the  uprisen  dead  ;  on  the  left,  the  rent 
veil  of  the  Temple.  Further  on  in  the  MS.,  before  each 
Gospel,  there  is  a  representation  of  its  evangelists,  with  the 
appropriate  symbol  above  the  figure,  and  underneath,  one  of 
the  four  rivers  of  Paradise,  in  the  form  of  a  nude  male  figure, 
with  two  horns  and  a  large  water  urn.  The  painting  of  all 
these  subjects  is  very  neat,  and  the  drawing  is  not  altogether 
without  skill. 

Specimens  of  the  same  style  of  outline  may  be  seen  in  a 
Psalter  in  the  Library  of  St.  Gallen  (No.  21),  adorned  by 
Notger,  abbot  of  St.  Gallen,  surnamed  Labeo,  or  Teutonicus, 
with  pictures  which  are  very  rude  for  the  period. 

The  Netherlandish  miniatures  executed  at  this  time  agree  in 
essential  respects  with  those  of  Germany,  only  that  a  more  or 
less  shining  surface  shows  the  mixture  of  gum  with  the  colours. 
The  miniatures  in  the  second  part  of  a  Vulgate  in  the  British 
Museum  (additional,  No.  17,738)  are  an  example  of  this. 
Some  only  of  the  colours,  the  vermilion  and  the  green,  are 


Chap.  II.  GREAT   ADVANCE   IN   THE   ARTS.  13 

given  in  their  full  force.     The  symbolic  subject,  fol.  2,  b, 
especially  shows  a  skilful  artist. 

Another  specimen  is  supplied  by  the  Commentary  of  St. 
Gregory  on  the  book  of  Job,  in  the  Imperial  Library,  Paris 
(Sorbonne,  No.  267),  in  which  a  certain  amount  of  spirit  is 
imparted  to  incidents  of  movement.  As  the  pictures  of  half 
the  work  are  unfinished,  their  technical  processes  are  plainly 
seen.  The  outlines  are  very  cleverly  drawn  with  the  pen, 
then  coloured,  and  finished  in  a  darker  tone  with  a  brush. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE   ROMANESQUE    EPOCH. 
1150— 1250. 

FROM  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  to  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century  great  progress  was  apparent  in  all  the  arts  practised 
throughout  Germany  and  the  Netherlands.  Painting  gradu- 
ally passed  from  monastic  hands  into  those  of  the  laity. 
The  field  of  ecclesiastic  subjects  became  largely  extended, 
and  the  system  of  placing  the  type  and  countertype  from 
the  Old  and  New  Testament  in  juxtaposition  was  fully 
developed.  The  floating  traditions  of  Charlemagne,  King 
Arthur,  and  the  Niebelungen,  not  only  expanded  into  a  large 
and  important  literature,  but  came  into  use  as  a  source  of 
pictorial  representation.  In  this  service  all  the  outward 
forms  of  life — armour,  weapons,  the  costume  of  knights  and 
ladies — were  enlisted  and  taken  from  models  within  the 
painter's  reach.  Side  by  side  with  those  fanciful  modes  of 
conception,  of  which,  in  ecclesiastical  subjects,  the  frequent 
treatment  of  the  Apocalypse  is  an  example,  flourished  also 
those  humorous  ideas  which  found  so  rich  and  picturesque 
an  expression  in  the  grotesque  sculpture  of  Romanesque 
churches,  and  in  the  drolleries  of  the  miniatures.  The 
system  of  representing  the  occupations  of  each  month  in  the 


14  THE  ROMANESQUE  EPOCH.  Book  I. 

calendar  gave  further  occasion  for  the  introduction  of  scenes 
from  daily  life.  Finally,  the  representation  of  animals,  as 
illustrations  of  Aristotle's  Natural  History,  and  also  of  those 
writings  treating  of  the  chase,  and  especially  of  the  science 
of  falconry,  became  very  popular.  Byzantine  art  still  exer- 
cised considerable  influence  in  preserving  the  tradition  of 
ecclesiastical  subject  composition  ;  but  instead  of  continuing 
the  mummified  forms  of  the  earlier  school,  the  painters  of 
the  day  began  to  recognise  the  excellence  which  lay  in  its 
original  inventions,  and  succeeded  in  animating  them  with 
their  own  peculiar  feeling.  A  certain  sense  of  beauty  and 
grace  is  frequently  apparent  in  the  movement  of  figures,  and 
Byzantine  meagreness  yields  to  a  certain  fulness  of  facial 
forms;  but  particular  subjects,  such  as  the  Crucifixion,  retain 
much  of  their  old  character.  Stiff  and  narrow  folds  of 
drapery,  dramatic  action  and  strain,  remind  us  frequently  of 
the  sculptures  which  adorned  both  the  exterior  and  interior 
of  the  Komanesque  churches.  Emotion  expressed  by  means 
of  gesture  was  successfully  cultivated,  and  costumes  were 
more  and  more  taken  from  common  life.  The  treatment  in 
which  body  colours  were  preferred  was  carried  to  great 
mastery  and  precision.  Till  about  1200,  the  colours  as  a 
rule  are  much  broken  with  light  tints  ;  after  that  date  they 
are  forcible  and  frequently  dark.  The  backgrounds  hitherto 
used  are  almost  invariably  replaced  by  gold.  In  the  pre- 
dominance of  decided  and  generally  black  outlines,  and  in 
the  scumbling  of  the  tones,  a  new  principle  is  traceable. 
At  the  same  time  the  northern  spirit  of  art  is  still  more 
originally  and  independently  seen  in  the  pictures  with  pale 
outlines,  filled  up  with  generally  very  slight  colouring. 
With  few  exceptions,  the  painting  of  this  epoch  is  repre- 
sented only  by  miniatures  in  MSS.,  of  which  I  proceed  to 
describe  the  most  remarkable  : — 

A  Psalter,  in  the  library  of  Prince  Wallerstein,  at  Mahin- 
gen,  not  far  from  Nordlingen,  which  belongs  to  the  beginning 
of  this  period,  shows  in  the  occupations  of  the  months, 
illustrating  the  calendar,  various  animated  features  taken 
from  life — for  instance,  the  sower  in  March  ;  the  gathering, 
(.reading,  and  pressing  of  the  grape  in  September ;  and  tha 


Chap.  II.  THE  HORTUS  DELICIARUM.  15 

i . 

tapping  of  the  beer  in  November.  Religious  subjects  are 
treated  as  before,  and  occasionally  with  an  elevated  feeling. 
The  colouring  is  bright  and  clear. 

The  splendid  MS.  of  the  Hortus  Deliciarum  (a  collection 
of  extracts  from  the  fathers,  ecclesiastical  writers,  and  other 
works),  executed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  in 
the  convent  of  Hohenburg,  in  Alsace,  is  adorned  with  a  large 
number  of  miniature  illustrations  of  the  text,  and  thus  con- 
tains, with  subjects  from  sacred  history,  some  of  an  allegorical 
character,  and  others  which  represent  scenes  from  real  life. 
The  latter  display  the  costume  and  fashions  of  the  time  in 
great  variety.  The  conception,  particularly  in  allegories,  is 
rather  poor,  and  requires  numerous  marginal  explanations  to 
elucidate  its  meaning ;  but  there  is  a  dignified  grandeur  and 
repose  in  the  figures  of  saints,  and  occasionally  surprising 
boldness  and  meaning  in  the  ideas  which  the  artist  has  worked 
out.  Amongst  the  most  remarkable  is  a  figure  of  Superbia,  a 
female  in  rich  attire  and  flowing  drapery,  seated  on  horse- 
back, on  a  lion-skin,  and  poising  her  lance.1 

A  peculiar  school  of  miniature  illustration  appears  to  have 
been  formed  at  this  time  in  the  convents  of  Upper  Bavaria  ; 
most  of  the  drawings  with  which  the  MSS.  are  illustrated 
are  only  in  pen  and  ink,  but  the  flesh  is  generally  distinguished 
from  the  drapery,  and  even  different  parts  of  the  latter  are 
distinguished  from  each  other,  by  tints  of  red  and  black  ink. 
In  the  figures  themselves  there  is  seldom  more  colouring,  but 
the  grounds  are  always  filled  in  and  enclosed  with  borders  of 
different  colours.2  Of  these  works  we  may  first  mention  the 
MS.  of  the  German  ^neid,  by  Henry  von  Veldeck,  written 
about  the  year  1200,  which  was  brought  from  Bavaria,  and 
is  now  preserved  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Berlin.  The  draw- 
ings represent  in  a  long  series  the  events  narrated  in  the 
poem.  They  deserve  attention  from  the  care  bestowed  upon 
the  costume  and  other  details,  but  in  all  that  regards  feeling 
for  form  and  grace  they  are  far  inferior  to  the  Hortus  Deli- 
ciarum ;  in  the  deformity  of  many  of  the  figures  they  even 

1  [This  MS.  perished  in  the  fire  of  the  Strasburg  library  in  1870.] 
z  See  Kugler's  Essay,  'Die  Bilderhandschrift  der  Eneidt  in  der  Konigl. 
Bibliothek  zu  Berlin.'     Museum,  1836,  No.  36—38. 


16  THE  ROMANESQUE  EPOCH.  Book  I. 

remind  us  of  the  MSS.  of  Bamberg  already  described.  Still 
they  possess  a  peculiar  interest  as  steps  in  the  history  of 
German  art.  There  is  here  unfolded,  in  the  movements  of 
the  hands  in  particular,  a  complete  language  of  gesture, 
equally  well  adapted  to  convey  the  expression  of  tranquil 
intercourse  or  of  passionate  energy.  Thus,  for  example, 
the  solitary  complaints  of  love,  or  sorrow  for  the  death  of  the 
loved  one,  grief  and  suffering,  are  admirably  expressed  by  a 
convulsive  wringing  of  the  hands. 

Far  more  important  are  the  drawings  of  another  MS.  of 
the  same  time  and  school,  containing  the  beautiful  German 
poem  of  Werinher,  deacon  of  the  convent  of  Tegernsee,  on 
the  life  of  the  Virgin,  which  has  passed  from  the  collection  of 
Herr  v.  Nagler  into  the  Eoyal  Library  of  Berlin.1  With  re- 
spect to  excellence  of  form,  these  drawings  are  nearly  equal 
to  those  of  the  Hortus  Deliciarum,  and  sometimes  surpass 
them  in  quiet  grace  and  naivete.  This  is  particularly  shown 
where  the  expression  of  serene  happiness  is  the  chief  object, 
as,  for  instance,  in  a  group  of  the  Blessed,  in  a  Vision  of  the 
Virgin.  Others,  in  which  the  artist  represents  passionate, 
and  especially  sorrowful  feelings,  are  of  the  highest  excel- 
lence. In  spite  of  the  insufficiency  of  his  means,  he  has 
exhibited  in  the  positions,  gestures,  and  cast  of  drapery,  a 
tragic  pathos  so  peculiarly  expressive  as  to  excite  our  astonish- 
ment, when  we  consider  the  early  epoch  of  art  at  which  the 
work  was  executed.  The  best  of  these  drawings  are — one 
that  represents  the  Damned  (also  in  a  Vision  of  the  Virgin), 
in  which  they  are  bound  together  by  glowing  chains,  and  are 
driven  hither  and  thither  by  inward  torments ;  and  another, 
of  which  the  subject  is  the  lamentation  of  the  mothers  after 
the  massacre  of  their  children  at  Bethlehem ;  in  this  one 
woman  rends  her  garment,  another  cowers  on  the  ground 
and  supports  her  head  on  her  hand,  a  third  wrings  her  hands, 
a  fourth  with  a  passionate  movement  raises  her  arms  and 
appeals  to  Heaven  against  the  horrible  outrage. 

As  a  further  step  of  progress,  in  connection  with  the  fore- 
going, we  may  mention  the  drawings  by  Conrad,  a  monk  of 

1  See  Kugler's  dissertation,  De  Werinhero,  sseculi  xii.  monacho  Te- 
gernseensi,  etc. 


Chap   II.  ILLUSTRATED  MSS.  17 

the  convent  of  Scheyern,  who  was  distinguished  as  the  author 
of  many  learned  works,  and  lived  about  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  Royal  Library  of  Munich  contains 
several  of  the  works  which  he  embellished  with  drawings, 
amongst  which  a  book  of  the  Gospels,  and  another  of  the 
Lessons,  are  particularly  important.1  At  the  beginning  of  the 
latter  MS.  are  several  large  subjects  from  the  Apocalypse; 
then  two  remarkable  legends  in  smaller  drawings — one  con- 
taining the  history  of  Bishop  Theophilus,  the  earliest  German 
version  of  Faust ;  and  lastly,  a  number  of  illustrations  of 
sacred  history.  The  lines  are  not  drawn- with  the  certainty 
and  precision  of  those  before  described ;  but  the  desire  of 
imitating  nature  is  still  more  evident,  the  attitudes  are  still 
freer,  the  cast  of  the  drapery  follows  more  easily  the  move- 
ments of  the  figure,  and  its  outline  has  at  once  softness  and 
dignity. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  illustrated  MSS.  of  this  period, 
but  of  another  school,  is  the  Psalter,  written  about  the  year 
1200  for  the  Landgrave  Hermann  of  Thuringen,  formerly  in 
the  convent  of  Weingarten,  but  now  in  the  King's  private 
library  at  Stuttgart.2  The  minatures  are  highly  finished,  and 
executed  with  great  neatness.  The  style  essentially  resem- 
bles that  of  the  time,  but  the  figures  have  an  air  of  more  solemn 
dignity,  while  their  severity  is  often  pleasingly  softened  by 
an  expression  of  mild  and  simple  grace.  Here  we  find  in 
single  heads  (especially  in  those  of  Christ)  traces  of  ideal 
beauty,  the  more  surprising,  since  in  other  works  of  the  time 
all  the  heads  are  stiff  and  without  grace.  At  the  beginning 
of  this  MS.  is  a  calendar,  in  which  each  month  is  ornamented 
with  a  figure  of  its  patron  saint,  and  characterised  by  a 
country  scene.  Representations  of  this  kind  must  have  been 
very  rare  at  so  early  a  period  ;  the  costume  and  occupations 
throughout  belong  to  the  North,  and  consequently  testify  that 
the  drawings  are  the  productions  of  a  native  school.  Then 
follow,  in  the  Psalms  themselves,  various  subjects,  such  as 

1  Munich  Library.     Cod.  Lat.  Membr.  e.  p.  No.  7,  b.  c. ;  No.  13,  a. 
Museum,  1834,  No.  21,  p.  165. 

2  Museum,  No.  13,  p.  97.    See  Dibdin,  '  A  Bibliographical  and  Anti- 
quarian Tour  in  France  and  Germany,'  vol.  iii.  p.  158. 

2 


18  THE   ROMANESQUE   EPOCH.  Book  I. 

the  Baptism  of  Christ,  his  Death,  Descent  into  hell,  Ascension, 
etc.,  etc.  The  feeling  in  these  is  excellent,  particularly  in 
that  which  represents  the  Yirgin  and  John,  in  a  simple  atti- 
tude of  thoughtful  sorrow,  standing  at  the  feet  of  the  crucified 
Saviour.  After  this  comes  the  Litany,  over  which,  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  page,  are  half-length  portraits  of  saints  and 
princes ;  those  of  the  Landgrave  Hermann  and  his  wife  Sophia 
are  the  first,  and  in  these  we  see  an  example,  remarkable  for 
so  early  a  period,  of  an  attempt  at  individual  likeness. 

A  rich  and  interesting  MS.,  an  Evangeliarium,  written 
about  1200,  is  in  the  Cathedral  Library  at  Treves.  It  is 
remarkable  for  an  elaborate  and  very  original  representation 
of  the  Koot  of  Jesse  and  other  symbolical  pictures,  which 
are  rendered  in  a  curious  style,  with  numerous  inscriptions. 
Antique  personifications — for  instance,  of  river  gods — still 
occur. 

A  Psalter,  written  about  the  same  time  as  the  foregoing, 
and  probably  in  the  Rhine  country,  now  in  the  City  Library 
at  Hamburg,  No.  85.  The  beautiful  and  original  concep- 
tions which  appear  here  are  evidences  of  what  German  art 
could  do  in  this  early  period.  We  may  instance  the  way  in 
which  the  Child  is  caressing  the  Virgin  in  the  Presentation 
in  the  Temple ;  also  the  large  picture  of  the  Madonna  and 
Child,  occupying  an  entire  page,  which,  in  the  meditative 
expression  conveyed  by  the  action  of  the  Child,  recalls 
Guido  da  Siena. 

An  Evangeliarium,  probably  written  about  1200,  in  May- 
ence,  now  in  the  Library  at  Aschaffenburg,  No.  3.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  .important  documents  of  the  time,  both  for 
excellence  in  art  and  copiousness  of  miniatures.  It  contains 
a  most  interesting  composition  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount.1 
A  Psalter,  in  the  Library  at  Bamberg,  No.  232,  unques- 
tionably executed  in  that  city  about  the  first  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  is  of  a  darker  scale  of  colour.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  examples  which  recall  Byzantine  types, 
the  fourteen  large  pictures  are  of  admirable  composition, 
of  original  conception,  and  skilful  technical  execution.2 

1  'Kunstwerke  und  Kiinstler  in  Deutschland,'  vol.  i.  p.  377.  &c» 

2  Ibid.,  vol.  i.  p.  103,  etc. 


Chap.  II.  WAL1,  PICTURES.  19 

The  few  wall  pictures  still  remaining  of  this  period  are 
sometimes  very  peculiar  in  invention,  full  of  symbolical 
meaning  and  clever  incident.  The  execution,  however, 
does  not  extend  beyond  a  rather  coarse  outline,  with  faint 
lights  and  shadows.  Nor  is  it  to  be  supposed  that  the  large 
number  of  such  specimens  of  art  as  have  perished,  and  of 
which  evidence  still  survives,1  should  have  materially  differed 
from  these.  I  add  a  few  examples  of  the  most  important 
still  existing.  Twenty-four  ceiling  compartments  in  the 
former  monastery  of  Brauweiler,  three  leagues  from  Cologne, 
which  were  possibly  executed  about  1200,  represent  the 
power  of  Faith  to  overcome  the  world,  from  a  passage  in  the 
llth  chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  In  the  centre 
of  the  whole  is  the  colossal  bust  picture  of  Christ.  In  the 
other  compartments  appear  those  who,  by  the  triumph  of 
their  faith,  obtained  the  promises,  such  as  Mary  Magdalen 
and  the  Thief  on  the  Cross ;  those  who  suffered  for  their 
faith,  such  as  Daniel  and  St.  Thecla ;  and  those  who  fought 
for  their  faith,  such  as  Samson  and  St.  Hyppolitus,  both  of 
whom  are  distinguished  by  great  beauty  of  conception. 

The  fact  that  painting  flourished  at  an  early  period  in 
Cologne  is  shown  by  a  passage  in  the  poem  of  Parzival,  by 
Wolfram  of  Eschenbach,2  written  about  the  year  1200.  The 
only  examples  surviving  may  be  seen  in  the  Baptistery  of 
St.  Gereon,  Cologne,  where  SS.  Barbara  and  Catherine,  and 
a  reposing  angel,  are  especially  remarkable.  These  were  pro- 
bably executed  soon  after  the  erection  of  the  church  in  1227. 

1  See  notice  of  the  paintings  in  the  Monastery  of  Benedictbeuren  in 
Bavaria,  in  Fiorillo's  '  Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kiinste  in  Deutschland,' 
vol.  i.  p.  178,  etc.    Bishops  Burcard  of  Halberstadt,  Otto  of  Bamberg, 
and  Uffo  of  Merseburg  had  the  walls  of  their  cathedrals  decorated  with 
paintings.     See  Hotho's  '  Malerschule  Hubert's  van  Eyck,'  vol.  i.  p.  42. 

2  The  lines  are  thus  quoted  by  Passavant,  p.  403  : — 

"  Als  uns  die  aventiure  gicht 
Von  Cholne  noch  von  Mastricht 
Dahein  schiltere  entwurf  en  baz 
Denn'  als  er  ufem  orse  saz." 
That  is  to  say — 

"  As  our  tale  runs, 
No  painter  of  Cologne  or  Mastricht 
Could  have  painted  him  more  comely 
Than  as  he  sat  upon  his  horse." 


20  THE   ROMANESQUE  EPOCH.  Book  I. 

Another  important  memorial  of  art,  dating  from  about 
1200,  are  the  paintings  of  the  Boot  of  Jesse,  which  cover  the 
whole  length,  above  100  feet,  of  the  wooden  roof  of  St. 
Michael's  church  at  Hildesheim.  They  are  in  three  series. 
In  the  centre  are  Adam  and  Eve,  Abraham,  the  four  kings 
of  Israel,  Moses,  and  the  Virgin :  at  the  sides  the  Patriarchs, 
Prophets,  and  Saints.  These  figures,  which  are  in  strict 
architectonic  arrangement,  and  the  decorations  surrounding 
them,  show  a  very  respectable  grade  of  art,  and  are  har- 
monious in  colouring  and  of  general  clearness  of  effect. 

Of  still  more  importance  are  the  paintings  in  the  choir  and 
in  the  left  aisle  of  the  transept  of  the  cathedral  at  Brunswick. 
They  are,  however,  unfortunately  deprived  of  their  original 
character  by  means  of  an  unskilful  restoration.  On  the  walls 
of  the  choir,  in  figures  larger  than  life,  and  arranged  accord- 
ing to  symbolical  allusion,  are  the  Sacrifice  of  Cain  and  Abel, 
the  Death  of  Abel,  the  Sacrifice  of  Isaac  (typifying  the 
Redemption  through  the  death  of  Christ),  Moses  and  the 
Burning  Bush,  and  the  Baising  of  the  Brazen  Serpent.  On 
the  ceiling  the  scheme  of  Bedemption  is  more  clearly  given 
in  the  Boot  of  Jesse.  The  cupola  in  front  of  the  choir 
represents  the  Lamb  of  the  New  Covenant,  with  scenes  from 
the  Life  of  Christ, — from  the  Nativity  to  the  day  of  Pente- 
cost,— and  the  twelve  Apostles.  The  figures  of  eight  Pro- 
phets connect  these  scenes  with  the  Old  Testament.  On 
the  ceiling  of  the  transept,  by  a  better  hand,  are  Christ  and 
the  Virgin  enthroned,  figures  above  life-size,  with  two  colos- 
sal Angels  and  the  twenty-four  Elders.  On  the  east  wall 
are  Christ  in  Limbus,  and  the  Ascension  ;  opposite,  in  well- 
known  allusion  to  the  Last  Judgment,  the  parable  of  the 
Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins.  Judging  from  the  purely  Boman- 
esque  character  of  these  pictures,  and  of  the  decorations 
belonging  to  them,  they  were  decidedly  executed  before  the 
year  1250. 

To  the  termination  of  this  period  we  may  also  attribute 
the  wall-paintings  in  the  old  chapel  of  the  Castle  at  Forch- 
heim,  a  small  fortress  lying  between  Bamberg  and  Erlangen. 
The  chief  picture  represents  the  Adoration  of  the  Kings; 
the  others  consist  of  the  Last  Judgment,  the  Annunciation, 


Chap.  II.  EASEL  PICTURES  21 


and  Prophets.  The  conceptions  and  single  motives  are 
good,  but  belong  to  traditionary  art ;  the  execution  is  some- 
what rude.1 

Some  interesting  paintings  have  at  a  comparatively  recent 
period  come  to  light  in  the  restoration  of  the  splendid  cathe- 
dral of  Bamberg,  on  occasion  of  its  being  freed  from  its 
covering  of  plaster  of  many  hundred  years  old.  They  are 
in  the  niches  of  one  of  the  transept-walls  of  St.  Peter's 
choir,  and  must  undoubtedly  belong  to  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  Easel  pictures,  in  the  Byzantine  style, 
are  very  rare  in  Germany.  As  one  example  of  such  we 
may  mention  a  painting  representing  Christ  enthroned  on  a 
rainbow,  with  four  saints  at  his  side,  which  is  in  the  Provin- 
cial Museum  of  Miinster,  and  was  taken  from  the  convent  of 
St.  Walburg  at  Soest.2 

Some  works  connected  with  painting,  and  in  this  style, 
though  in  other  materials,  are  also  preserved,  such  as  the 
paintings  on  glass  which  fill  -the  south  window  of  the  nave 
in  Augsburg  cathedral,  and  are  composed  of  figures  of  saints. 
One  of  the  most  important  of  these  examples  of  the  suc- 
cessful efforts  made  in  art  towards  the  end  of  this  period 
is  furnished  by  the  fragments  of  tapestry  preserved  in  the 
abbey  church  of  Quedlinburg,  woven  about  the  year  1200  by 
the  abbess  Agnes  herself,  with  the  assistance  of  her  nuns,  to 
adorn  the  walls  of  the  choir  of  that  church.  The  subjects 
are  allegorical,  and  represent  the  marriage  of  Mercury  with 
Philology  (after  Marcianus  Capella).  The  original  drawings 
were  evidently  by  different  hands ;  while  some  are  in  the 
common  style  of  the  day,  others  contain  single  figures  of 
such  beauty  of  form,  and  so  much  symmetry  in  the  limbs, 
with  a  cast  of  drapery  so  grand,  and  arranged  with  so  much 
artistic  knowledge,  yet  so  entirely  free  from  the  peculiarities 
of  the  ancient  Christian  models,  that  we  may  imagine  we 
here  see  art  approaching  to  full  perfection.  In  the  cathedral 
at  Halberstadt  there  are  also  tapestries  in  the  Byzantine 

'  Kunstwerke  und  Kiinstler  in  Deutschland,'  vol.  i.  p.  146,  etc. 
2  Becker,  'Ueber  die  altdeutschen  Gemalde  aus  dem  ehemaligen 
Augustiner-Nonnen-Kloster  St.  Walburg  zu  Soest.'    Museum,  1835, 
So.  47,  p.  374. 


22  THE  KOMANESQUE  EPOCH.  Book  I. 

style,  but  they  are  far  ruder  in  the  drawing  than  those  of 
Quedlinburg. 

At  this  epoch  also  painting  in  Bohemia  exhibits  a  similar 
character.  The  strong  Byzantine  influence  especially  is 
here  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  St.  Methodus,  the  apostle 
of  Bohemia,  was  himself  a  painter.  Examples  are  seen  in 
the  National  Museum  at  Prague,  in  the  form  of  the  MS.  of  a 
Latin  Dictionary,1  dated  MCII.  and  signed  Miroslaw,  and  in 
the  pictures  of  a  Bible  in  the  library  of  Prince  Lobkowitz  at 
Prague,  executed  about  1250.  In  this  last  the  tendency  to 
abstract  personifications  is  seen.  Thus  Darkness  (Tenebre) 
is  represented  by  two  sleeping  figures — Light  by  a  small 
figure  with  a  torch  in  its  hand.8 

The  art  of  painting,  as  practised  in  the  Netherlands,  judg- 
ing from  the  existing  though  not  numerous  MSS.  with  minia- 
tures, agrees  essentially  with  that  of  Germany  at  this  period. 
At  the  same  time  Byzantine  tradition  assumes  more  the  upper 
hand  here,  which  is  owing  doubtless  to  the  fact  that  Counts 
of  Flanders  occupied  the  throne  of  Constantinople  during  the 
so-called  Latin  Empire.  In  freedom  and  animation  of  early 
Byzantine  subjects,  and  in  drawing  and  technical  development, 
some  of  these  exh'M  '-,*  great  excellence.  I  give,  the  following 
examples  : — 

A  Missal  in  the  British  Museum  (addit.  No.  16,949),  pro- 
bably written  between  1150  and  1200.  Technical  skill  and 
beauty  of  colouring  are  particularly  remarkable  here.8 

A  Psalter  in  the  Royal  Library  at  the  Hague.  This  is  a 
very  rich  and  important  specimen,  especially  for  scenes  from 
life  in  the  calendar,  and  for  the  extraordinary  beauty  of  the 
Romanesque  decorations.  It  belongs  doubtless  to  the  same 
time. 

The  chief  example,  however,  known  to  me  is  a  Psalter  in 
the  Imperial  Library  at  Paris  (Suppl.  Frangais,  No.  1732  bis), 
written  about  1200.  In  the  numerous  and  admirably  exe- 
cuted pictures  with  which  this  work  is  decorated  appears 
(for  instance,  in  the  same  page  containing  Christ,  the  Virgin 

1  See  «  Kunstblatt '  of  1850,  p.  130. 

2  'Kunstblatt,'  1850,  p.  148. 

3  'Treasures  of  Art  in  Great  Britain,'  vol.  i.  p.  122. 


Chap.  II.  NETHEKLANDISH  MSS.  23 

and  Apostles,  etc.)  an  adherence  to  Byzantine  typical  compo- 
sitions, combined  with  features  taken  from  life.  This  is  also 
seen  in  the  Annunciation  to  the  Shepherds,  and  in  a  combat 
of  horsemen.  Drolleries  also  occur  in  the  initials.1 

Another  specimen,  worthy  to  be  named  with  the  foregoing, 
is  a  MS.  containing  the  greater  part  of  the  Vulgate,  in  the 
same  library  (MSS.  Latins,  No.  116).  This,  though  much 
less  rich  in  contents,  gives  very  favourable  evidence  of  the 
high  grade  of  art  at  this  time  in  the  Netherlands. 

Unfortunately,  no  specimens  of  wall  or  easel  pictures  of 
the  period  under  consideration  have  been*,  to  the  best  of  my 
knowledge,  preserved  in  the  Netherlands.  This  is  the  more 
to  be  regretted,  as  in  the  town  of  Maestricht,  the  artists, 
according  to  the  above-mentioned  poem  of  Parzival,  by 
Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  enjoyed  a  great  reputation. 

1  'Kunstwerke  und  Kiinstler  in  Paris,'  p.  311.  Having  been  misled 
by  Italian  miniatures  of  the  14th  century  in  the  latter  part  of  the  MS., 
and  by  the  Byzantine  influence  also  jpre vailing  in  Italy  from  1200 — 1300, 
I  have  erroneously  described  this  MS.  as  Italian. 


24  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  Book  II. 


BOOK  II.    * 


ART   OF   THE   MIDDLE   AGES. 
1250—1420. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  general  introduction  of  Gothic  architecture  into  the 
Netherlands  and  Germany  exercised  a  very  unfavourable 
influence  on  the  development  of  painting.  It  was  an  unfor- 
tunate peculiarity  of  this  mode  of  building  that  it  broke  up 
the  space  available  for  painting  into  fields  unsuited  for  pic- 
torial composition,  and  placed  the  vaultings  so  high  as  to 
make  subject  decoration  useless.  The  result  was,  that  whilst 
the  stunted  forms  under  which  Gothic  architecture  appeared 
in  Italy  preserved  to  the  Italians  those  walls  and  ceilings 
which  were  required  for  the  expansion  of  monumental  art, 
the  men  of  the  Netherlands  and  Germany  were  restricted  to 
the  production  of  mere  altar  pictures.  Yet  even  in  this  field 
full  liberty  was  not  acquired.  The  centre  compartment — the 
only  space  adapted  by  its  size  for  a  comprehensive  compo- 
sition of  life-sized  figures — was  generally  engrossed  by  sculp- 
ture, while  the' wings,  which  were  the  only  portions  left  for 
the  painter,  were,  by  their  long  and  narrow  forms,  so  un- 
favourable to  pictorial  art  that  they  were  usually  divided 
into  two,  and  thus  only  adapted  to  figures  on  a  very  small 
scale. 


Chap.  I.     CHARACTERISTICS  OF   GOTHIC  PICTURES.  25 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE   PERIOD   WHEN    PAINTING   WAS    PRINCIPALLY    RESTRICTED 
TO    THE    ILLUMINATION    OF    OUTLINES. 

1250—1350. 

THE  art  of  this  period  indicates  progress,  in  so  far  that  it  is 
original,  and,  in  respect  of  technical  treatment,  different  from 
that  of  the  foregoing  age.  Yet  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that 
this  form  of  originality  was  accompanied  by  comparative 
rudeness ;  and  it  is  clear  that  painting  on  this  account  was 
more  unattractive  now  than  it  had  ever  been  before.  In  the 
earlier  pictures  of  this  time  we  trace  a  mixture  of  the  forms 
of  Romanesque  and  Gothic  sculpture ;  in  those  of  a  later 
period  Gothic  feeling  alone  prevails.  The  attitudes  have  a 
conventional  twist,  which  often  gives  rise  to  an  ugly  projec- 
tion of  the  belly.  The  draperies  at  first  preserve  a  certain 
parallelism  of  line  ;  but  they  soon  display  more  waving  con- 
tours, with  narrow  crests  of  projection,  and  equally  narrow 
depths  of  depression  in  folds ;  at  the  same  time  the  traditions 
of  antique  costume  are  seen  to  fade,  and  figures  of  the 
Eternal,  of  Christ,  of  Mary,  or  of  angels,  appear  in  a  new 
dress.  The  heads  are  still  of  typical  form ;  in  the  earlier 
time  they  are  of  an  oval  shape,  broad  above  and  contracted 
below,  with  wide-open  eyes,  narrow,  pointed  noses,  and 
somewhat  large  mouths  drawn  down  at  the  corners ;  in  the 
later  period  the  oval  assumes  greater  fulness,  the  nose  is 
short,  and  the  mouth  small.  Outward  coarseness  and  vul- 
garity is  now  expressed  by  caricatures  with  large  crooked 
noses ;  spiritual  depravity  by  a  distorted  laugh ;  and  sorrow, 
especially,  by  the  drawing  down  of  the  corners  of  the  mouth. 
Occasionally  also  an  attempt  is  made  to  realize  individuality 
of  feature.  Bright  and  gaudy  hues,  among  which  vermilion 
and  a  powerful  blue  play  the  chie£  parts,  are  substitutsd  for 
quieter  tones.  Black  outlines,  rouged  cheeks,  and  thin 
strips  of  shadow,  give  to  these  pictures  the  effect  of  very 


26  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  Book  II. 

gaily  illuminated  pen- drawings.  After  the  year  1300  the 
dawning  feeling  for  greater  harmony  of  colour  is  seen  in  the 
use  of  tertiary  tints — for  instance,  bluish-pink,  brownish, 
greenish,  etc. ;  also  in  a  more  careful  design  and  a  more 
delicate  distribution  of  lights  and  shadows.  These  examples 
have  already  more  the  effect  of  paintings.  The  spaces  are 
only  indicated.  In  the  forms  of  architecture  the  Romanesque 
and  Gothic  alternately  prevail ;  trees  are  quite  conventional 
in  shape,  the  backgrounds  are  gilt,  and  in  the  miniatures 
they  are  also  panelled  in  pattern.  In  the  latter  also  we 
occasionally  see  much  originality  displayed  in  pen-drawings. 

As  every  new  movement  in  painting,  from  this  time  for- 
ward, proceeds  from  the  Netherlands,  and  as  their  flourishing 
political  state  contrasts  conspicuously,  from  the  year  1250, 
with  the  wars  and  disorders  in  Germany,  I  shall  henceforth 
commence  my  observations  with  Netherlandish  examples. 

The  earliest  dated  specimen  known  to  me,  showing  the 
effort  at  greater  independence,  is  the  MS.  of  a  Vulgate  in 
two  folio  volumes,  in  the  Library  of  the  Seminary  at  Li&ge. 
The  pictures  in  the  initials,  heading  each  book,  evince,  it  is 
true,  no  very  skilful  artist,  but  they  are  important  as  showing 
by  the  date,  1248,  how  early  this  style  of  art  was  practised 
in  the  Netherlands. 

Close  upon  the  last  mentioned  in  time,  though  far  superior 
in  art,  are  the  coloured  pen-drawings  in  a  MS.  of  the  French 
History  of  Alexander  the  Great  (No.  11,040)  in  the  Library 
of  the  old  Dukes  of  Burgundy  at  Brussels.  The  numerous 
battles  are  represented  with  the  weapons  and  in  the  fashion 
of  the  painter's  time,  of  which  they  give  a  very  animated  and 
intelligent  picture.  The  youthful  head  of  Alexander  in  the 
drawing  of  his  interment  is  not  unpoetical. 

That  single  cases  long  continued  to  occur  in  which  the 
old  solid  treatment  in  body  colour  was  combined  with  the 
new  style  is  proved  by  the  MS.  of  a  Psalter  in  the  same 
library  (No.  8070),  executed  about  1300,  the  pen  outlines 
being  broad  and  free,  while  the  heads  are  often  expressive. 
There  is  much  truth  in  the  rendering  of  animals  ;  and  the 
various  drolleries  introduced  are  anticipations  of  those  of 
Teniers  and  Jan  Steen. 


Chap.  I.  NETHERLANDISH   EXAMPLES.  27 

Another  remarkable  evidence  of  the  state  of  painting  in 
the  Netherlands,  towards  the  close  of  this  period,  is  afforded 
by  the  miniatures  executed,  according  to  an  inscription,  by 
"Michiel  van  der  Borch,"  in  1332,  in  the  MS.  of  a  Bible  in 
Flemish  rhymes,  by  Jacob  von  Maerland,  in  the  Westrenen 
Museum  at  the  Hague.1  The  action  is  often  speaking  and 
dramatic.  For  instance,  in  the  Creation  of  Eve  the  sleep  of 
Adam  is  very  correctly  expressed,  and  the  Eve  very  pretty. 
At  the  same  time  the  forms  are  frequently  of  startling  fulness, 
as  seen  in  the  picture  of  the  drowning  of  the  Israelitish 
children.  The  folds  of  the  draperies  are-also  treated  with 
unusual  breadth.  In  the  Nativity  we  see  the  dawning  of 
that  realistic  feeling  in  which  the  Netherlands  were  destined 
to  precede  all  other  countries. 

[Of  portable  pictures,  the  only  specimen  which  is  known  to 
exist  in  Belgium  is  the  reliquary  of  St.  Ottilia,  an  oaken  chest 
with  a  gabled  roof,  much  mutilated,  but  still  covered  with 
fragments  of  episodes  from  the  lives  of  St.  Ottilia  and  St. 
Ursula.  If  the  pictures  themselves  be  at  all  like  the  drawings 
that  have  been  made  from  them  by  M.  Jules  Helbig,  of  Liege, 
they  may  be  accepted  as  genuine  works  of  the  period  to  which 
they  are  assigned,  namely,  to  the  year  1292,  when  the  relics  of 
St.  Ottilia  are  said  to  have  been  placed  in  the  shrine.  This 
curious  work  is  supposed  to  have  been  executed  at  Liege 
previous  to  the  transfer  thither  of  the  bones  of  St.  Ottilia 
irom  the  convent  of  the  Croisiers  at  Huy.  The  panels,  to  the 
number  of  eight,  are  outlined  in  the  manner  peculiar  to  this 
time,  and  gaudily  coloured  with  pigments  tempered  in  tur- 
pentine and  wax.  The  faces,  as  well  as  the  drapery  and 
ornament,  are  indicated  by  lines.]2 

As  regards  wall  painting,  one  specimen  of  this  period  has 
been  preserved  in  the  former  refectory  of  the  old  Biloque 
Hospital  at  Ghent.  It  represents,  in  colossal  figures,  the 
Saviour  enthroned,  blessing  the  Virgin,  who  sits  opposite  to 
him  with  raised  and  clasped  hands.  Behind  them,  on  a 
much  smaller  scale,  are  three  angels  holding  a  canopy.  The 

1  See  a  complete  account  in  an  Essay  by  me  in  the  German  '  Kunst- 
blatt'  of  1852.  No.  28. 

2  [See  Le  Beffroi,  fol.,  Bruges,  1864-5,  Tom.  ii.,  pp.  31  and  following.] 


28  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  Book  II 

whole  is  enclosed  in  a  framework  of  a  very  usual  Gothic 
form.  Judging  from  the  style,  the  execution  of  this  piece 
was  probably  not  earlier  than  1300.  Both  from  the  size  of 
the  figures  and  the  decided  character  of  the  action,  the  work 
is  one  of  considerable  effect,  yet  the  treatment  is  slight,  and 
the  feet  and  hands  are  very  feeble  in  drawing.  At  the  sides, 
and  only  in  outline,  are  the  figures  of  John  the  Baptist  with 
the  Lamb,  pointing  to  Christ,  and  of  St.  Christopher  with 
the  Child. 

[Another  not  uninteresting  specimen  of  art  at  this  period 
is  the  wall  decoration  in  the  "  Leugemeete"  (at  present  part 
of  a  brewery)  at  Ghent — a  march  of  Guildsmen  in  military 
dress,  fragments  of  which  give  us  an  insight  into  the  state  of 
monumental  painting  in  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Belgium  at 
the  close  of  the  thirteenth,  or  in  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  The  execution  is  if  possible  more  rude  than  in  the 
Biloque  Hospital.]1 

m  Though  art  in  North  and  South  Germany  was  modified  by 
the  influence  of  the  Netherlands,  it  remained  backward  in 
respect  of  taste  and  finish  ;  and  all  examples  of  this  time  are 
marked  by  clumsy  forms  and  rude  outlines.  Especially 
noticeable  is  the  largeness  of  the  heads  and  the  short  length 
of  the  noses. 

A  specimen  of  this  Netherlandish  influence  is  afforded  by 
the  MS.  of  a  Psalter  in  the  Ambras  collection  at  Vienna,  pro- 
bably executed  in  some  Westphalian  convent  not  long  after 
the  year  1300.  Within  eighty-four  circles  are  a  series  of 
pictures  from  the  Creation  of  the  World  to  the  Last  Judg- 
ment, the  outlines  of  which  are  meagre  indeed,  but  rendered 
with  a  rare  precision  of  pen.  Of  the  same  kind  are  the 
miniatures  in  the  MS.  of  the  Romance  of  *  Wilhelm  von 
Oranse,'  written  for  the  Landgraf  Henry  of  Hesse  in  the 
year  1334,  and  now  in  the  Royal  Library  of  Cassel.  They 
are  remarkable  for  animated  though  unskilful  movements, 


1  [Compare  De  Busscher,  '  Recherches  sur  les  Peintres  Gantoia,'  8vo, 
Ghent,  1859,  p.  165 ;  and  see  for  other  wall  paintings  in  Belgium  and 
Holland  the  '  Journal  des  Beans  Arts,'  Bruz,  1867.  t>.  106  ;  ditto,  1870, p. 
116;  1860,  p.  160  ;  1863,  p.  18 ;  and  1862,  ?.  15.]  " 


Chap.  1.  WALL   PAINTINGS  AT   COLOGNE.  29 

for  an  occasional  attempt  at  expression  in  the  faces,  and  also 
for  a  good  cast  of  drapery. 

In  the  choir  of  the  Cathedral  of  Cologne,  on  the  screen 
surrounding  the  stalls,  are  a  number  of  wall  paintings — 
those  on  the  G-ospel  side  showing  scenes  from  the  life  of  St. 
Peter,  and  of  Pope  Sylvester;  those  on  the  Epistle  side, 
incidents  from  the  life  of  the  Virgin,  and  from  the  legends  of 
the  Three  Kings.  The  proportions  are  good,  the  action 
lively,  the  draperies  in  good  taste,  but  the  heads  are  still 
very  conventional  and  of  little  expression.  The  thick  reddish 
outlines,  and  the  very  slight  shadows,  place  th^se  pictures 
on  a  very  low  scale  of  development.  As  they  were  doubtless 
executed  in  1322,  and  as,  from  the  circumstance  of  the  choir 
being  considered  the  holiest  place  in  the  cathedral,  the  best 
painters  were  probably  chosen,  we  can  have  no  better  oppor- 
tunity than  these  pictures  afford  us  for  forming  conclusions 
regarding  the  state  of  painting  in  that  country ;  and  these 
conclusions  are  far  from  favourable.  Below  these  frescos  are 
all  kinds  of  little  drolleries,  which,  though  mannered  and 
coarse  in  execution,  are  of  spirited  invention.1 

Two  easel  pictures  also  in  the  Cologne  Museum — a  small 
altarpiece  of  a  Crucifixion,  and  the  Apostles  Paul  and  John — 
lead  to  the  same  unfavourable  verdict  on  this  form  of  art. 

I  may  mention  two  more  instances  of  paintings,  which 
occur  towards  the  end  of  this  period.  On  a  low  space  in  the 
Ehinger  House  at  Ulin  figures  of  men  seated  two  and  two 
probably  represent  the  prophets.  A  man  with  a  dog,  and  a 
woman  with  a  monkey,  upon  the  entrance  gate,  are  very 
animated.  Although  these  have  been  subjected  to  later 
restorations,  yet  it  is  easy  to  perceive  the  low  stage  of  art 
and  homely  treatment  which  characterised  them.  An  ante- 
pendium  in  the  church  of  the  Frauleinstift  at  Liine  contains 
the  crucified  Saviour  and  scenes  of  the  Passion,  executed  in 
a  rude  form  by  an  artist  of  about  1250. 

As  regards  the  application  of  painting  to  secular  subjects, 
two  MSS.  containing  the  songs  of  the  Troubadours  are 
interesting.  At  the  head  of  each  poem  its  contents  are 

1  [These  paintings  are  now  concealed  under  a  panelling  covered  Tvitla 
tapestry.] 


30  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  Book  II 

usually  embodied  in  an  appropriate  form  of  occupation. 
Not  that  any  portrait-like  attempt  at  individuality  is  made — 
on  the  contrary,  the  type  of  the  period  prevails  in  a  some- 
what coarse  form.  The  black  outlines  are  broad  and  bold, 
and  the  colouring  is  very  slight  and  rough.  These  works 
exhibit  just  that  style  of  drawing  which  served  as  a  model 
to  the  woodcuts  of  the  next  century.  The  earliest  of  these 
MSS.,  executed  about  1280,  and  formerly  in  the  convent  of 
Weingarten  in  Swabia,  is  now  in  the  private  library  of  the 
King  of  Wiirteniberg  at  Stuttgart.  It  is  the  work  of  a  mode- 
rate artist,  though  the  figures  are  often  animated.  More  im- 
portant is  the  other  manuscript,  of  about  the  year  1300, 
which  formerly  belonged  to  Riidiger  Manesse  at  Zurich,  and 
is  now  in  the  Paris  Library.1  The  figures  resemble,  for  the 
most  part,  those  in  the  former  manuscript,  to  which  they  are 
so  similar  that  either  they  have  been  copied  from  it,  or  both 
have  been  taken  from  a  common  model.  In  the  Paris  manu- 
script, however,  the  size  is  larger,  and  the  technical  execu- 
tion rather  more  worthy  of  an  artist,  while  the  feeling  for 
the  peculiar  circumstances  of  each  subject  is  more  delicate, 
and  the  style  in  which  they  are  conceived  and  treated  has 
greater  truth  and  spirit.  Sometimes  the  poet  is  represented 
alone,  and  sometimes  with  his  lady-love,  it  may  be  in  the 
character  of  a  hardy  huntsman,  or  of  an  armed  knight.  In 
some  the  meditative  feeling  and  reflection  of  the  poet  are 
admirably  expressed,  as  in  the  figure  of  Henry  of  Yeldeck, 
who  sits  amongst  flowers  and  birds,  thoughtfully  resting  his 
head  upon  his  hand ;  or  in  that  of  Keinmar  der  Zweter,  who 
is  placed  on  an  elevated  seat,  and  dictates  to  two  secretaries 
busily  occupied  at  his  side.  The  portrait  of  the  Hardegger 
is  vejy  gracefully  treated.  He  lies  under  a  tree,  a  falcon  on 
his  wrist ;  his  head  supported  on  the  lap  of  his  mistress, 
who  is  bending  tenderly  over  him.  The  movements,  indeed, 
particularly  in  difficult  attitudes,  are  not  always  easy  or 
natural,  and  of  this  defect  the  last-named  drawing  affords  an 
instance ;  yet,  for  the  most  part,  the  feeling  for  form  is 

•  Professor  von  der  Hagen,  of  Berlin,  has  published  many  of  the 
illuminations  of  this  manuscript,  under  the  title  '  Bildersaal  altdeut- 
echer  Dichter.  Berlin,  1856.  T.  A.  Stargardt.' 


Chap.  I.  BOHEMIAN  AKT.  31 

rather  purer,  and  the  drapery  generally  falls  in  beautiful  and 
well-chosen  lines.1  Larger  works  of  another  kind,  with  the 
general  type  of  the  German  style  more  or  less  strongly 
marked  on  them,  are  not  numerous ;  such  as  painted  glass 
for  church-windows,  and  tapestry.  A  piece  of  the  latter,  of 
remarkable  dimensions,  may  be  observed  in  the  church  of  St. 
Elizabeth  at  Marburg,  the  principal  subject  of  which  is  taken 
from  the  history  of  the  Prodigal  Son. 

It  is  probable  that  art  in  Bohemia  advanced  beyond  that 
of  Germany  at  this  time.  This  is  strikingly  attested  by  the 
miniatures  in  a  Passionale  executed  for  Krtnigunde,  sister  of 
King  Ottocar  II.  of  Bohemia,  and  Abbess  of  the  convent  of 
St.  George  at  Prague,  painted  in  1316  by  Colda,  a  Domini- 
can friar,  and  now  in  the  University  Library  at  Prague.  The 
animation  of  the  action  ;  the  fine  taste  shown  in  the  large 
folds  of  the  drapery,  which  is  cast,  it  is  true,  after  the  model 
of  Gothic  sculpture  ;  and  the  good  drawing,  are  all  surprising, 
considering  the  period.  The  sleeping  figure  of  Adam,  in 
the  Creation  of  Eve,  may  in  all  respects  be  compared  with 
contemporary  Italian  figures.  Various  inventions  of  attrac- 
tive character  may  be  designated  as  nationally  Bohemian.  For 
instance,  the  representation  of  the  Magdalen,  who,  in  presence 
of  SS.  John  and  Peter,  announces  to  the  recumbent  Virgin 
the  Resurrection  of  Christ ;  also  the  intensity  of  feeling  in 
the  meeting  of  Christ  and  his  mother  after  the  Resurrection.2 

Equally  remarkable  is  the  series  of  wall  paintings  in  the 
castle  of  Neuhaus  in  Bohemia,  in  which  scenes  from  the 
legend  of  St.  George  are  depicted  in  the  fashion  of  the  first 
years  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

1  Museum,  1834,  No.  5,  p.  35  ;  No.  11,  p.  82. 

2  German  '  Kunstblatt,'  1850,  p.  155,  etc. 

3  See  Wocel,  '  Wandegemalde  der  St.  George  Legende.'     \Vien,  1859. 


32  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  Book  II. 


CHAPTER  II. 

DEVELOPMENT    OF    PAINTING   IN   ITS    MORE    INDEPENDENT 
CHARACTER. 

1350—1420. 

THE  new  pictorial  feeling,  which  we  observed  dawning  as 
early  as  1300,  expanded  greatly  as  the  century  advanced  ; 
and  before  the  turn  of  1350,  artists  had  already  substituted 
a  softer  painted  contour  for  the  hard  and  wiry  outline  of  their 
predecessors.  In  unison  with  the  rest  of  the  treatment, 
these  contours  are  broader  as  well  as  softer  ;  the  transitions 
from  lights  to  shadows  become  more  delicate  and  melting  ; 
harmoniously  broken  tints  replace  the  crude  and  gaudy 
colouring  hitherto  practised,  and  herald  the  coming  of  a  more 
refined  practice.  At  the  same  time  blue  and  vermilion  are 
longest  retained  in  their  former  unbroken  force.  Nor  was 
this  awakening  feeling  for  truth  and  nature  unaccompanied 
by  improvement  in  the  shape  of  heads.  A  new  and  more 
select  form,  founded  on  observation  of  life,  began  to  show 
itself.  The  oval  of  the  face  became  more  delicate,  the 
mouths  and  noses  finer — the  latter  retaining  somewhat  the 
hooked  form  in  males.  The  types  assumed  a  very  pleasing 
character,  in  which  the  prevailing  religious  spirit  of  the 
period,  spiritual  purity,  manly  dignity,  and  feminine  gentle- 
ness, began  to  -be  expressed  by  simple  but  distinct  signs. 
In  figures  representing  profane  persons  more  natural  variety 
and  lively  expressions  are  perceptible.  These  improvements 
are  accompanied  by  more  elevated  and  subdued  action,  and 
drapery  of  soft  line  exhibits  a  more  refined  taste.  The 
drawing  of  the  nude  alone  remains  in  a  backward  state — 
the  forms  are  generally  spare,  and  the  feet  too  small,  though 
the  hands  are  often  of  happy  action.  One  peculiar  and  very 
prevalent  branch  of  painting  at  this  time  consists  in  pictures 
dexterously  executed  in  monochrome.  Gold  grounds  be- 
come more  limited  in  extent,  and  the  space  of  the  back- 


Chap.  II.  DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  FOUKTEENTH  CENTUHY.  33 

ground  is  more  and  more  copiously  expressed  by  buildings 
either  of  Romanesque  or  Gothic  character,  by  trees  and  hills 
of  conventional  forms,  and  by  the  introduction  of  all  kinds 
of  house  utensils.  Even  as  early  as  the  commencement  of 
this  period  gold  grounds  are  often  replaced  by  the  indication 
of  a  blue  sky  ;  indeed,  as  early  as  toward  the  year  1380 
landscape  backgrounds  of  very  creditable  character  begin  to 
occur.  To  all  appearance  this  new  impulse  in  art,  and  espe- 
cially the  development  of  the  space  of  the  background,  pro- 
ceeded from  the  Netherlands.  In  the  extreme  rarity  of 
pictures  of  a  larger  size,  the  destruction  of  which  may  be 
accounted  for  in  various  ways,  we  must  be  content  chiefly 
with  the  evidence  furnished  by  miniatures,  of  which  happily 
a  rich  store  exists. 

At  the  head  of  this  period,  and  in  many  respects  reminis- 
cent of  the  previous  one,  may  be  placed  a  Bible  in  the 
Imperial  Library  at  Paris  (MSS.  Fra^ais,  No.  6829  bis), 
containing  no  less  than  6124  pen-drawings,  washed  with 
Indian  ink,  representing  the  types  and  antitypes  from  the 
New  and  Old  Testament,  and  executed  by  a  very  intelligent 
artist.1  In  closo  affinity  with  these  are  the  miniatures  of 
a  missal,  designed  by  the  Presbyter  Lorenz  of  Antwerp,  in 
1366,  at  Ghent,  and  now  in  the  Westrenen  Museum  at  the 
Hague.2  These  also  remind  us  of  the  preceding  period ;  but 
the  outlines  are  softly  drawn  with  the  brush,  the  forms  are 
truer  to  nature,  and  the  folds  of  the  drapery  are  more  ten- 
derly blended.  In  some  pictures,  for  instance  in  the  Nativity, 
the  Byzantine  form  of  conception  is  still  retained;  single 
episodes  show  a  steady  observation  of  nature. 

Of  later  date,  and  of  great  interest,  are  the  miniatures 
executed  in  1371  by  one  JOHN  OF  BRUGES,  painter  to  King 
Charles  V.  of  France,  which  decorate  a  translation  of  the 
Vulgate  now  in  the  Westrenen  Museum  at  the  Hague.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  volume  Charles  Y.  is  represented 
in  profile,  with  a  figure  kneeling  before  him,  who,  we  are 
informed  by  a  dedication  in  French  verse  in  the  MS.,  was 
one  Jehan  Yaudetar,  who  presented  this  Bible  to  the  King. 

1  '  Kunstwerke  und  Kiinstler  in  Paris,'  p.  327. 
*  German  '  Kuastblatt,'  1852,  No.  28. 

3 


34  .  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  Book  11. 


Both  heads  are  portraits  of  thorough  individuality.  A  few 
small  historical  subjects  also,  fol.  467 — the  Nativity,  the 
Adoration  of  the  Kings,  and  the  Flight  into  Egypt — give 
further  evidence  of  the  existence  of  Netherlandish  painters 
who,  a  generation  before  the  Van  Eycks,  had,  even  in  this 
department  of  art,  attained  great  proficiency.  The  free  and 
lively  movements  and  truthful  forms  which  we  meet  with 
here  were  obviously  taken  from  nature,  as  also  the  drapery 
and  style  of  modelling. 

Very  important  testimony,  as  regards  the  latter  part  of 
this  period,  is  given  by  the  miniatures  in  a  MS.  of  the  travels 
of  Marco  Polo,  and  six  other  well-known  travellers,  now  in 
the  Imperial  Library  at  Paris  (MSS.  Fra^ais,  No.  8392), 
which,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  were  executed  between 
1384  and  1405,  for  Philip  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy.1 
Here  we  see  the  form  of  art  peculiar  to  this  time  already 
fully  developed;  the  cheerful  and  harmonious  colouring 
especially  is  characteristic  of  that  feeling  for  tone  which  was 
ultimately  the  excellence  of  Netherlandish  art;  but  the 
drawing  is  proportionably  defective. 

Next  in  point  of  time  we  may  quote  the  Prayer-book  of 
Margaret  of  Bavaria,  wife  to  John  Sans  Peur  of  Burgundy 
(1389) — now  in  the  British  Museum  (Harleian,  No.  2897). 
The  greater  number  of  the  miniatures,  which  are  very  beau- 
tiful, are  by  Flemings.2  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
those  referring  to  King  David,  fol.  28  b,  42  b,  and  72  b. 
To  a  hand  of  more  realistic  tendency  may  be  assigned  the 
Preaching  of  St.  Ambrose,  fol.  160  a ;  and  finally  to  one  of 
more  idealising  character,  the  Unbelief  of  St.  Thomas,  fol. 
164  a,  and  the  principal  picture,  the  Ascension,  fol.  188  b. 

Of  still  higher  importance  is  a  Prayer-book  with  minia- 
tures by  different  limners,  in  the  Bodleian  (Douce,  144), 
which,  according  to  an  inscription  on  one  of  its  pages,  was 
finished  in  1407.  I  can  only  point  to  a  few  of  the  most 
remarkable  pieces,  The  occupations  of  the  month,  and  the 
signs  of  the  Zodiac,  in  the  Calendar ;  the  Virgin,  to  whom 
an  angel  is  bringing  bread  and  wine,  fol.  10  a;  the  Annun- 

1  '  Kunstwerke  und  Kiinstler  in  Paris,'  p.  331,  etc. 
a  'Art  Treasures  in  Great  Britain,'  vol.  i.  p.  124. 


Chap.  II.  ILLUMINATED  PRAYER-BOOKS.  35 

elation,  fol.  28  a ;  the  Visitation,  fol.  52  a ;  and  two  proces- 
sions, 105  a,  and  108  and  109.  Here  a  delicate  feeling  for 
individuality  is  already  perceptible,  with  an  animation  and 
truth,  for  instance,  in  the  singing  chorister  boys,  not  sur- 
passed by  the  celebrated  work  of  that  subject  by  Luca  della 
Kobbia.  The  Crucifixion,  fol.  Ill  a:  although  the  Christ  is 
too  tall  here,  yet  the  whole  conception  is  elevated,  and  the 
sorrow  of  the  fainting  Virgin  is  as  earnestly  as  it  is  beauti- 
fully expressed.  Finally  the  Virgin  nursing  the  Child,  fol. 
123  a.1 

A  few  years  later  in  time  and  not  less  inlportant  in  art  are 
the  miniatures  of  another  Prayer-book  in  the  British  Museum 
(additional  No.  16,997),  by  a  Fleming.  The  following  are 
most  worthy  of  notice : — The  Annunciation,  in  which  three 
singing  angels  show  a  high  stage  of  development — the  Ado- 
ration of  the  Shepherds — the  Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost — 
All  Saints — the  Virgin  reading — the  four  Fathers  of  the 
Church — both  the  St.  Johns — the  celebration  of  the  Mass — 
and  especially  the  Crucifixion,  and  the  Assumption  of  the 
Virgin,  which,  both  in  arrangement  and  style,  show  a  great 
artist.8 

Another  MS.,  in  the  British  Museum,  the  Poems  of 
Christina  of  Pisa  (Harleian,  No.  4431),  contains  various 
good  pictures  by  Flemish  painters,  which  as  specimens  of 
the  conception  of  secular  subjects,  and  also  of  subjects  bor- 
rowed from  mythology,  are  very  remarkable.  Among  them 
are,  a  pretty  young  woman  kneeling  before  a  man,  and  the 
Marriage  of  Peleus,  in  which  the  feast  is  spread  on  three 
tables  of  the  form  of  the  time.3 

[In  treating  of  the  miniatures  of  this  period,  we  seldom,  if 
ever,  learn  the  name  of  the  person  who  designed  them,  but 
we  frequently  read  -that  of  the  princes  for  whom  they  were 
executed.  The  last  count  of  the  House  of  Flanders,  Louis 

1  Ibid.,  vol.  iii.  p.  75,  etc.     [There  is  nothing  more  remarkable  in  this 
Prayer-book  than  that  it  reminds  us  of  Melchior  Broederlam's  altar-chest 
at  Dijon,  not  only  in  respect  of  composition  and  action,  but  in  respect 
of  technical  execution  and  minutise.     The  altar- chest  will  be  found 
described  in  these  pages.] 

2  '  Treasures  of  Art,'  vol.  i.  p.  125. 
8  Ibid.,  p.  126. 


36  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  Book  II. 

de  Male,  and  the  first  dukes  of  the  House  of  Valois,  Philip 
the  Hardy  and  John  Sans  Peur,  were  princes  to  whose 
patronage  the  arts  owed  much  of  their  expansion  and  pro- 
gress ;  and  we  can  scarcely  doubt  that,  but  for  the  support 
which  they  gave  to  artists  of  every  class,  Belgium  would  not 
have  ranked  so  high  as  it  does  in  pictorial  annals  as  the 
cradle  of  a  school  of  painting.  History  has  preserved  the 
names  of  many  craftsmen  who  took  service  with  the  Counts 
of  Flanders  and  Dukes  of  Burgundy.  We  may  note  a  few 
of  them : — Jean  Yan  der  Asselt,  painter  to  Louis  de  Male  at 
Ghent,  from  1364  to  1380,  subsequently  employed  (1386) 
by  Philip  the  Hardy ;  Jean  de  Beaumez,  "  painter  and  valet " 
to  Philip  (1377  to  1395) ;  Jean  Malwel,  "  painter  and  valet  " 
to  Philip  and  Jean  Sans  Peur  (1397  to  1415) ;  Melchior 
Broederlam  of  Ypres,  "painter  and  valet"  to  Philip  the 
Hardy  (1382 — 1400) ;  Henri  Bellechose  de  Brabant,  "paintei 
and  valet "  to  Jean  Sans  Peur  (1415).  There  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  Van  der  Asselt  is  the  master  to  whom 
we  owe  (1373)  the  wall  paintings  in  the  chapel  of  Louis  de 
Male  at  Notre  Dame  of  Courtrai ;  and  this  mutilated  ex- 
ample is  evidence  of  the  low  level  at  which  monumental  art 
remained  in  Belgium  at  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
The  object  of  Louis  de  Male  in  decorating  the  chapel  of 
Courtrai  was  to  preserve  the  likenesses  of  the  princes  of  the 
House  of  Flanders  ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  the 
line  of  portraits  which  was  executed  by  his  orders  was  con- 
tinued by  command  of  the  princes  of  the  House  of  Burgundy. 
Unhappily  the  heads  "of  all  the  figures  were  hacked  out  of 
the  wall ;  and  •  nothing  is  left  but  the  legs  and  arms  and 
torso,  together  with  the  heraldic  arms  of  each  personage. 
But  what  remains  is  tinted  with  flat  colours,  and  defined  by 
lines,  in  the  spirit  of  the  miniatures  of  the  time.1 

That  the  practice  of  wall-painting  should  have  remained 
unaltered  in  Belgium  till  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century  is 
a  remarkable  circumstance,  which  leads  us  to  conclude  that 
the  artists  of  this  period  had  scarcely  advanced  beyond  the 
stage  of  illuminating.  Given  the  form  in  a  monument  of 

1  [See  an  outline  of  these  figures  and  descriptions  in  De  Busscher's 
'Peintres  Gantois,'  8vo.  Gand,  1859,  p.  47.] 


PICTURES  ON  AN  AI/TAR-CHEST  AT  DIJON.  page  37,  No.  4. 


Chap.  II.  BELGIAN  ^LTARPIECES.  37 

stone,  or  the  outline  in  a  mural  decoration,  painters  "were 
equally  satisfied  in  both  cases  to  cover  the  surfaces  with 
flat  colours.  Nature,  in  the  one  instance,  furnished  the 
necessary  shadows,  which,  in  the  other,  painters  were  as  yet 
too  careless  to  supply.  That  they  practised  both  systems 
indifferently  we  learn  from  the  study  of  the  lives  of  Malwel, 
Broederlam,  and  even  Roger  van  der  Weyden.  Of  Jean  de 
Beaumez's  works  we  know  nothing.  Malwel's  portrait  of 
Jean  Sans  Peur  is  not  to  be  traced  ;  but  an  important  proof 
of  Broederlam' s  skill  is  preserved  in  the  wings  of  a  carved 
altar-table  by  Jacques  de  Baerse  of  Termonde,  the  principal 
parts  of  which  are  in  the  Museum  of  Dijon.]  The  subjects 
represented,  as  the  annexed  woodcuts  show,  are  the  Annun- 
ciation, the  Visitation,  the  Presentation,  and  the  Flight  into 
Egypt.  They  occupy  the  boundary-line  between  the  style 
of  this  period  and  the  realistic  feeling  of  that  which  succeeds 
it.  The  forms  of  the  heads  are  still  roundish  and  soft,  and 
occasionally,  as  in  those  of  tne  Virgin  and  Simeon  in  the 
Presentation  (which  is  the  most  successfully  treated),  exhibit 
a  delicate  feeling  for  beauty,  and  at  the  same  time  a  certain 
individuality  of  character.  Joseph  in  the  Flight  into  Egypt 
is  even  coarsely  realistic.  The  folds  of  the  drapery  are 
still  soft,  but  the  colours  have  assumed  a  clearness  and 
power  which  borders  on  gaudiness.  In  the  fullish  forms  no 
study  of  nature  is  yet  perceptible ;  the  backgrounds,  rocks 
and  trees,  are  still  of  conventional  form,  and  the  skies  are 
gold  ground. 

Other  specimens  of  church  pictures  have  survived,  which 
do  not  come  up  to  the  standard  of  their  time  as  representa- 
tions of  a  larger  scale  of  painting. 

The  first,  originally  produced  for  the  Tanners'  Hall  in 
Bruges,  is  now  in  the  cathedral  of  that  town.  The  subject 
is  the  Crucifixion,  with  figures  about  two-thirds  the  size  of 
life.  The  Christ  is  rather  long  and  meagre,  but  not  badly 
drawn.  He  is  already  lifeless.  On  the  right  is  St.  John, 
with  the  Virgin  fainting ;  she  is  of  very  noble  form,  sup- 
ported by  two  holy  women.  On  the  left,  in  violent  and 
rather  clumsy  action,  is  the  Centurion,  in  silver  armour, 
with  a  guard,  a  priest,  and  a  monk.  At  the  sides  in  niches 


38  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  Book  II. 

are  St.  Barbara  and  St.  Catherine.  The  expression  of  the 
heads  is  lively,  the  colouring  of  the  flesh  feeble,  and  the 
modelling  poor  ;  the  background  is  gilt,  with  a  pattern. 

The  second  picture,  also  the  Crucifixion,  was  formerly  in 
the  church  of  St.  John  at  Utrecht,  and  is  now  in  the 
Museum  at  Antwerp,  No.  519.  It  includes  only  the  figures 
of  the  Virgin  and  St.  John,  with  the  kneeling  portrait  of  the 
Archdeacon  Heinrich  von  Eyn,  who  died  in  1360,  and  upon 
whose  monument,  in  St.  John's  church,  this  picture  was 
erected.  The  Christ  is  of  similar  conception  to  that  above 
described,  but  displays  less  skill.  The  portrait  also  is 
characterised  by  no  signs  of  individuality.  The  best  parts 
are  the  gestures  and  expression  of  sorrow  of  St.  John. 
The  ground  is  here  also  gilt,  with  a  pattern. 

In  Bohemia  the  style  of  this  period  seems  to  have  been 
developed  earlier  than  elsewhere.  The  artists  of  this 
country  made  considerable  progress  under  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  IV.  (reigned  1348-78),  who  did  his  utmost 
in  order  to  advance  his  favourite  Bohemia  in  this  respect. 
Many  miniatures  in  still  existing  MSS.  give  very  favourable 
evidence  of  the  state  of  art  in  Bohemia,  of  which  they  are 
better  exponents  than  a  number  of  ruined  wall  and  panel 
pictures.  The  painters  principally  employed  by  the  Emperor 
were  THEODORICH  OP  PRAGUE,  NICOLAUS  WURMSER  of  Stras- 
burg,  and  one  KUNZ.  The  chief  locality  of  their  labours 
was  the  Castle  of  Karlstein  in  the  vicinity  of  Prague,  the 
favourite  residence  of  Charles  IV.  To  decide  what  is  the 
particular  work  of  each  of  these  painters  among  the  surviv- 
ing pictures  which  adorn  the  church  of  our  Lady,  the  chapel 
of  St.  Catherine,  and  the  church  of  the  Holy  Cross,  or  Eoyal 
Ohapel,  would,  considering  the  vagueness  of  all  traditions, 
and  the  various  restorations  which  have  been  made,  be 
extremely  difficult.  Those  parts  which  are  generally  attri- 
buted to  Theodorich  of  Prague  consist  of  125  half-length 
figures,  larger  than  life,  of  saints,  teachers,  and  rulers  of  the 
Church,  executed  in  tempera  on  panel,  and  decorating  the 
church  of  the  Holy  Cross.  They  show  an  excellent  painter 
in  the  forms  of  art  belonging  to  the  beginning  of  this  period. 
The  heads  of  the  men  consist  of  two  rather  monotonously 


Chap.  II.  BOHEMIAN   ART. 


repeated  types  of  much  earnestness  and  dignity.  The  forms 
are  somewhat  broad  and  ungraceful,  and  the  large  noses 
with  their  broad  ridges  may  be  recognised  as  a  native 
Bohemian  peculiarity.  The  female  heads,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  of  nobler  and  more  refined  forms.  The  wide-open 
eyes  are  characteristic  of  the  Bohemian  school.  The  move- 
ment of  the  figures  is  usually  good,  the  hands  full  in  form 
and  well  put  in  action  ;  the  draperies,  in  the  well-known 
type,  with  large  folds  softly  modelled  in  broken  colours. 
In  the  colouring  of  the  heads  a  certain  alternation  may  be 
perceived.  Some  are  of  a  tender,  coolisB.  red,  others  more 
warmly  tinted ;  a  light  grey  prevails  in  the  half-tones  and 
shadows.  The  fused  treatment  often  degenerates  into 
excessive  softness.  The  accessories  frequently  exhibit  a 
happy  aim  at  truth  of  nature,  as,  for  instance,  the  desk, 
bookstand,  and  pens  in  the  picture  of  St.  Ambrose,  which 
formed  one  of  this  series,  though  now  in  the  Imperial 
Gallery  at  Vienna ;  two  others  have  also  been  transferred  to 
the  University  Library  at  Prague.  Akin  to  these  pictures 
is  an  altarpiece  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Estates  of  Bohemia  at 
Prague,  from  the  Provost's  house  at  Kaunitz  on  the  Elbe, 
containing  the  Virgin  and  Child  adored  by  the  Emperor 
Charles  IV.  and  his  son  Wenceslaus,  and  SS.  Sigismund  and 
Wenceslaus  in  the  upper  part ;  and  below,  the  patron  saints 
of  Bohemia,  SS.  Procopius,  Adalbert,  Vitus,  and  Ludmilla, 
with  the  donor  of  the  picture,  Oczko  von  Wlassim,  archbishop 
of  Prague.  The  heads  of  the  saints  are  elevated  in  form  and 
pure  in  expression.  Considering  the  date  of  the  picture,  1875, 
the  portraits  are  of  surprising  individuality.  A  Crucifixion, 
with  the  Virgin  and  St.  John,  originally  also  executed  for  the 
Castle  of  Karlstein,  and  now  in  the  Imperial  Gallery  at  Vienna, 
is  a  somewhat  feebler  work  by  the  same  master,  to  whom 
Van  Mechel,  the  well-known  editor  of  the  Catalogue  of  that 
collection  in  the  time  of  Joseph  II.,  assigned  the  name  of 
Nicolas  Wurmser.1 

1  [SeeWurmser's  'Diploma  of  Service  under  Charles  IV.,'  dated  1359, 
and  printed  in  full  in  'Histor.  Nuremberg,  Diploin.,'  p.  384,  No.  161, 
quoted  in  Schreiber  (H.)  Das  Miiuster  zu  Strasburg,  8vo,  Karlsruhe, 
1829,  p.  95.] 


40  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  Book  II. 

[An  altarpiece  of  1385,  executed  for  St.  Yeits  at  Miihl- 
hausen  in  Wiirtemberg,  but  subsequently  transferred  to  the 
house  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  in  Stuttgardt,  deserves 
to  be  noted  here  as  a  work  of  the  Bohemian  school  of  this 
period.  The  principal  figures  represented  are  Bohemian 
saints,  St.  Wenzel,  St.  Yitus,  and  St.  Sigismund.]1 

The  paintings  in  the  Castle  of  Karlstein  are  obviously  by 
four  different  hands.  One  of  them,  TOMMASO  DA  MODENA, 
the  author  of  the  existing  remnants  of  an  altarpiece  in  several 
compartments,  inasmuch  as  he  belongs  to  the  Italian  school, 
concerns  us  only  so  far  as  he  exerts  a  very  decisive  influence 
in  the  form  of  heads,  and  in  other  respects,  over  two  of  the 
other  painters.  A  second  hand  may  be  traced  in  the  follow- 
ing works  : — Scenes  from  the  Apocalypse,  in  the  church  of 
our  Lady,  the  Virgin  being  represented  as  the  winged  woman 
with  the  Child ;  of  grand  and  elevated  conception.  The 
Virgin  again,  of  still  finer  invention,  fleeing  before  the  seven- 
headed  dragon,  which  is  admirably  rendered.  Another  large 
picture,  not  so  easy  of  interpretation,  is  probably  the  Adora- 
tion of  Antichrist.  In  the  church  of  the  Holy  Cross,  also  from 
the  Apocalypse,  are,  the  Almighty  enthroned  in  a  Mandorla, 
surrounded  by  choirs  of  angels,  the  seven  stars  in  the  one 
hand,  the  book  with  seven  seals  in  the  other ;  the  Adoration 
of  the  Lamb  by  the  twenty-four  elders ;  the  Annunciation ; 
the  Visitation ;  the  Adoration  of  the  Three  Kings ;  Christ 
with  Martha  and  Mary ;  the  Magdalen  anointing  the  feet  of 
Christ ;  Christ  as  the  JGrardener ;  and  the  Raising  of  Lazarus. 
These  ruined  pictures  (query,  by  Wurmser?)  show  ample 
power  of  invention,  refined  feeling  for  composition,  and  skilful 
treatment.  To  the  third  hand  the  following,  in  the  church 
of  our  Lady,  may  be  ascribed : — Charles  IV.  delivering  to 
Blanka  his  wife  the  cross  which  he  had  received  in  Rome 
from  the  Pope ;  the  same  monarch  presenting  his  son 
Wenceslaus  with  a  ring  ;  and  again  in  prayer.  The  author 
of  these  subjects  (query,  Kunz  ?)  appears  as  a  very  skilful 
portrait-painter.  The  graceful  forms  and  action  of  his  hands 

1  [Compare  Ulm's  '  Kunstleben,'  by  Griineisen  and  Mauch,  p.  12; 
Waageu,  '  Kunst.  in  Baiern,'  etc.,  ii.  226 ;  and  Heideloff,  « Die  Kunst.  in 
Schwaben,'  fol.  Stuttgardt,  1855,  p.  37.] 


Chap.  II.  BOHEMIAN   ART.  41 


are  especially  remarkable.  By  the  fourth  master  are  the 
portraits  of  the  Emperor  Charles  IV.,  and  Anne  of  the 
Palatinate,  his  fourth  wife,  both  holding  a  cross,  over  the 
entrance  to  the  St.  Catherine's  chapel.  Within  the  chapel 
is  the  Virgin,  of  quite  Giottesque  form  of  face,  giving  her 
hand  to  the  Empress  Anne,  and  the  Child  giving  his  hand  to 
the  Emperor.  The  painter  has  been  most  successful  in  the 
portraits,  especially  in  that  of  the  Empress.1 

The  wall  paintings  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Wenceslaus  in  the 
Cathedral  at  Prague  are  so  over  painted  as^to  offer  no  means 
of  forming  an  opinion.  The  most  important  picture  of  the 
whole  school  is  said  to  be  in  the  church  of  the  fortress  of  the 
Wissehrad  at  Prague. 

A  large  mosaic,  on  the  south  side  of  the  exterior  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Prague,  remains  still  to  be  noticed.  It  is 
divided  into  three  compartments  ;  in  the  middle  is  Christ  in 
a  glory,  surrounded  by  angels,  six  Bohemian  saints  below 
him,  and  still  lower  the  donor's,  Charles  IV.  and  his  wife; 
on  the  left  is  the  virgin  with  several  saints,  and  below  is  the 
Resurrection.  On  the  right  is  seen  John  the  Baptist,  with 
saints,  and  underneath  are  the  condemned.  The  style  of  this 
work  is  again  rather  rude,  and  only  worthy  of  notice,  as  a 
whole,  on  account  of  its  execution  in  mosaic,  which  rarely 
occurs  in  Germany. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  number  of  MSS.  with  miniatures  give 
ample  materials  for  judgment,  and  show  more  properly  the 
peculiarity  and  great  significance  of  the  Bohemian  school  at 
this  period.  At  the  same  time,  many  of  these  specimens 
agree  so  entirely  with  contemporary  French  and  Nether- 
landish miniatures,  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Charles 
IV.,  who,  at  an  earlier  time,  resided  in  Paris,  must  have 
summoned  French  painters  to  Prague,  or  Bohemian  painters 
to  Paris.  It  will  suffice  here  to  mention  a  few  of  the  most 
remarkable  MSS.  with  miniatures. 

Two  Prayer-books  belonging  to  Archbishop  Ernest  of 
Prague,  died  1850  :  one  of  them  in  the  Library  of  Prince 
Lobkowitz  at  Prague ;  the  other  and  richer  one,  in  which 
the  artist  designates  himself  by  the  name  of  Sbinko  de 

1  [This  "  fourth  master  "  is  none  other  than  Tommaso  da  Modena.] 


42  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  Book  II. 

Trotina,  in  the  Library  of  the  National  Museum  of  that  city. 
Both  serve  to  prove  that  the  style  of  art  characteristic  of  this 
period  was  fully,  and  consequently  very  early,  developed. 

The  MS.  of  an  Essay  on  the  Doctrines  of  Christian  Truth, 
executed  in  1373  by  Thomas  Stitney,  and  now  in  the  Uni- 
versity Library  at  Prague  (xvii.  A  b),  shows  how  early  the 
Bohemians  began  to  treat  the  common  events  of  daily  life 
with  vivacity,  taste,  and  feeling  for  beauty.  The  most  re- 
markable pictures  are  of  a  youth  and  a  beautiful  girl  (fol. 
37  b) ;  several  young  women  dedicating  themselves  as  the 
Brides  of  Christ  (fol.  44  b) ;  and  a  woman  praying  (fol. 
124  a).1 

Next  in  order  may  be  mentioned  the  miniatures  in  the 
German  translation  of  the  Bible  executed  by  order  of  the 
Emperor  Wenceslaus,  reigned  1378-1400,  now  in  the 
Imperial  Library  at  Vienna. 

The  admirable  miniatures  also  in  a  missal  belonging  to 
Sbinko  Hasen  von  Hasenburg,  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Prague  1402,  and  who  died  as  Archbishop  of  Presburg  in 
1411,  now  in  the  same  library,  show  that  the  school  con- 
tinued to  advance  in  excellence  till  towards  the  conclusion  of 
the  period.  I  may  mention  the  Adoration  of  the  Kings,  and 
the  Baptism  of  Christ,  as  particularly  excellent. 

An  Evangeliarium,  written  by  a  priest  of  the  name  of 
Johann  von  Troppau,  for  Albrecht  II.,  Archduke  of  Austria, 
and  adorned  with  very  fine  miniatures — now  in  the  Library 
at  Vienna — serves  to_  prove  that  the  Bohemian  school  had 
also  taken  root  in  the  province  of  Moravia,  then  a  depend- 
ency of  Bohemia.2  The  same  may  be  said  of  Silesia,  then 
similarly  situated,  which  is  evidenced  by  two  pictures  pro- 
ceeding from  a  convent  in  Silesia,  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum ; 
the  one  (No.  1221)  the  Mocking  of  Christ,  the  other  (No. 
1219)  the  Crucifixion.  Both  exhibit  a  skilful  master,  who 
may  have  flourished  about  1400.  [These  are  now  withdrawn.] 

But  in  Austria  also  this  style  of  art  attained  a  peculiar 
development.  A  brilliant  example  of  this  is  afforded  by  the 

1  See  further  account  of  these  three  MSS.  in  the  German  '  Kunstblatt* 
of  1850,  No.  37. 

2  Ibid,  No.  38. 


Chap.  II.  BOHEMIAN  ART.  43 

miniatures  in  the  MS.  of  a  German  translation  of  Durandus' 
Rationale  Divinorum  Officiorum,  in  the  Imperial  Library. 
These  were  commenced  for  the  same  Duke  Albert  II.,  and 
completed  for  his  nephew  Archbishop  William.  The  minia- 
tures, which  may  be  safely  assigned  to  the  period  between 
1384  and  1403,  are  equal,  in  point  of  art,  to  the  best 
Bohemian  paintings,  but  are  distinguished  from  them  by 
greater  force  of  colour  and  decision  of  forms.  The  best  of 
them  combine  good  arrangement  and  drawing  with  delicate 
heads  and  a  blooming  flesh-tone.  The  Last  Supper,  and  the 
Last  Judgment,  are  especially  remarkable.  The  portraits  of 
the  above-mentioned  princes,  which  occur  in  various  parts, 
show  a  happy  aim  at  individuality. 

The  style  of  this  period  in  Germany  is  seen  to  attain  its 
noblest  form  in  the  last  decades  of  the  fourteenth,  and  first 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  in  the  city  of  Cologne.  That  spiritual 
calm,  peaceful  bliss,  and  untroubled  moral  purity  which  reli- 
gion alone  engenders,  is  expressed  in  a  rare  degree  in  the 
Cologne  school.  In  perfect  agreement  with  this  character 
are  the  harmoniously  broken  colouring,  the  tender  tints  of 
the  flesh,  the  moderate  nature  of  the  modelling,  and  the  soft 
and  fused  style  of  the  execution.  The  weak  side  of  this 
school,  in  which  powerful  expression  and  dramatic  subjects 
were  least  affected,  was  the  deficiency  of  knowledge  as  to 
the  anatomical  structure  of  the  human  frame.  The  difficulty 
of  assigning  the  artist's  name  to  the  surviving  specimens  of 
Cologne  art  is  far  greater  than  in  the  Bohemian  school. 
From  a  passage  in  the  Limburg  Chronicle,  1380,  which  runs 
thus — "In  this  time  there  was  a  painter  in  Cologne  of  the 
name  of  Wilhelm ;  he  was  considered  the  best  master  in  all 
German  Land  ;  he  paints  every  man,  of  whatever  form,  as  if 
he  were  alive  " — from  this  passage  the  custom  arose  of 
attributing  the  best  pictures  in  Cologne  and  the  vicinity,  of 
this  period,  to  MEISTER  WILHELM.  And  true  as  this  con- 
jecture may  be  in  some  instances,  we  must  not  forget  that 
there  is  no  certainty  as  to  the  real  origin  of  one  single 
picture. 

[It  has  been  considered  probable  that  the  earliest  work 
assignable  to  Meister  Wilhelm  was  the  Crucifixion  with 


44  THE  MIDDLE   AGES.  Book  II. 

saints  in  a  niche  above  the  monument  to  bishop  Kuno  (ob. 
1388)  in  St.  Castor  of  Coblenz  ;  yet  it  has  also  been  acknow- 
ledged that  the  value  of  this  relic  was  altogether  impaired  by 
restoration.  The  truth  is,  that  if  we  assign  this  wall  painting 
to  Meister  Wilhelm,  we  dispute  his  identity  with  the  only 
painter  who  bore  the  name  of  Wilhelm  at  the  close  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Wilhelm  of  Herle  was  in  practice  at 
Cologne  from  1358  to  1372,  and  there  are  proofs  of  his  death 
in  1378.1  Payments  made  to  him  in  1372,  "  ad  pingendum 
librum  juramentorum,"  are  preserved ;  and  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  same  person  is  alluded  to  in  subse- 
quent entries  of  the  civic  accounts,  in  which  moneys  are  paid 
to  the  "painter  who  painted"  the  butcher's  hall,  the  banner 
and  wimples  of  the  city,  and  the  town  hall.2  It  has  been 
urged  that  a  master  whose  death  occurred  in  1378  could  not 
have  been  mentioned  as  "of  this  time  "  in  a  chronicle  of 
1380  ;  and  yet  the  writer  of  a  chronicle  composed  in  Limburg 
might  easily  fall  into  a  mistake  of  this  kind,  and  his  words  are 
elastic  enough  to  show  that  he  aimed  at  no  precision  of  date. 
During  the  recent  restoration  of  the  Hanseatic  Hall  in  the 
Bathhaus  of  Cologne,  three  heads,  the  solitary  remnants  of 
the  paintings  noted  in  the  accounts,  were  freed  from  superin- 
cumbent whitewash,  and  revealed  a  painter  of  considerable 
merit,  whose  skill  was  quite  equal  to  the  production  of  the 
pictures  attributed  to  Meister  Wilhelm,  and  whose  manner 
was  characteristic  of  a  master  of  the  fourteenth  century.]3 

Worthy  of  the  great  name  of  Meister  Wilhelm,  and  far 
superior  to  the  Crucifixion  of  Coblenz,  are  some  portions  of 
the  numerous  pictures  which  once  adorned  the  altarpiece  and 
wings  in  the  church  of  St.  Clara,  and  which  are  now  in  the 
chapel  of  St.  John  in  the  Cathedral  of  Cologne.  These  com- 
prise the  Nativity,  the  Annunciation  to  the  Shepherds,  the 
Bathing  of  the  Infant,  the  Adoration  of  the  Kings,  the  Pre- 
sentation in  the  Temple,  the  Flight  into  Egypt,  and  the  scenes 

1  [Merlo,  '  Die  Meister  der  Altkoln.  Malerschule,'  8vo.  Koln,  1852,  pp. 
31,  39.] 

2  [Dr.  Ennen  in  '  Annalen  des  Historischen  Vereins  fur  den  Nieder 
Rhein,'  7er  Heft.     Koln,  1859.] 

8  [See  outlines  in  Schnaase's  '  Geschichte  der  Bildenden  Kiinste,'  6  Bd. 
p.  425.  The  fragments  are  in  the  Cologne  Museum.] 


Chap.  II.  COLOGNE   SCHOOL.  45 

from  the  Passion  in  the  centre  compartment.  TLe  other 
portions  are  by  a  less  important  hand,  only  partially  related 
to  Meister  Wiihelm. 

In  connection  with  these  works  may  be  mentioned  a  picture 
in  the  Berlin  Museum  [withdrawn].  This  consists  of  thirty- 
four  compartments,  representing  scenes  from  the  life  of  Christ 
and  the  Virgin,  from  the  Annunciation  to  the  Last  Judgment, 
of  animated  and  often  admirable  composition,  delicate  tone  of 
colouring,  and  light  and  spirited  treatment. 

Next  in  order  comes  a  small  altarpiece  with  wings,  in  the 
Museum  at  Cologne.  The  head  of  the  Virgin,  who  is 
caressed  by  the  Child,  exhibits  in  the  fullest  extent  the 
purity  of  character,  sweetness  of  expression,  and  softness  and 
delicate  tone  of  flesh  peculiar  to  this  school.  The  figures  of 
SS.  Catherine  and  Barbara  have  also  the  tenderness  charac- 
teristic of  the  master.  Greatly  resembling  this  is  a  small 
altarpiece,  No.  1288,  in  the  Museum  at  Berlin,  with  the 
Virgin  and  Child  and  four  female  Saints  in  the  centre  com- 
partment, and  SS.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary  and  Agnes  on  the 
wings. 

A  picture  of  St.  Veronica  with  the  Sudarium,  at  Munich 
Gallery,  No.  1 ,  furnishes  a  very  fine  example  of  this  manner, 
a  more  careful  execution  and  warmer  colouring  being  com- 
bined with  the  same  purity  and  tenderness  of  feeling.1 

Passing  over  several  other  works  attributed  with  more  or 
less  justice  to  Meister  Wiihelm,  I  will  only  observe  that  the 
number  of  pictures  in  and  about  Cologne — for  instance,  in  a 
closed  chapel  in  the  Cathedral  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  evidently 
painted  in  his  manner — are  considerable.  At  Cologne  these 
specimens  are  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the  Museum,  and  in  the 
chapel  of  the  Town  Hall.  A  small  Crucifixion  also,  in  the 
collection  of  the  late  Mr.  Dietz,  is  particularly  remarkable. 
Others,  originally  in  Cologne,  have  accompanied  the  Boissere"e 
collection  to  Munich ;  some  also  have  made  their  way  to  the 
Germanic  Museum  at  Nuremburg.  The  Garden  of  Eden, 
in  the  Prehn  collection  in  the  Frankfort  Library,  is  a  small 
but  very  attractive  picture.  The  cheerful  and  naive  form  of 

1  [Opinions  may  still  differ  as  to  whether  this  picture  be  by  the  same 
hand  as  those  of  Berlin  and  Cologne.] 


46  THE   MIDDLE   AGES.  Book  II, 

conception  is  in  strict  unison  with  the  tender  execution  and 
gay  colouring.  The  fact  that  the  influence  of  this  master 
extended  to  Guelders,  the  neighbouring  province  of  Holland, 
is  evident  by  the  miniatures  in  a  Dutch  Prayer-book,  belonging 
to  Maria,  Duchess  of  Guelders,  of  the  year  1415,  now  in  the 
Royal  Library  at  Berlin. 

The  most  beautiful  specimen  of  this  early  German  art  I 
know  in  England  is  a  small  altarpiece  with  wings,  containing 
numerous  figures  of  very  elevated  style  and  tender  execution. 
It  once  belonged  to  Mr.  Beresford  Hope.1 

A  close  affinity  with  the  Cologne  school  is  also  distinctly 
seen  in  the  style  of  art  which  prevailed  in  Westphalia.  I 
need  only  instance  those  pictures  of  SS.  Dorothea  and  Ottilia, 
originally  from  Soest,  now  in  the  Town  Museum  at  Minister. 
They  show  a  master  of  elevation  and  refinement,  nearly 
related  to  Meister  Wilhelm  in  style,  but  more  independent  in 
character,  and  in  many  respects  more  advanced. 

A  large  picture,  formerly  in  St.  Michael's  church  at  Liine- 
burg,  now  in  the  public  gallery  at  Hanover,  consisting  of 
numerous,  and  in  parts  interesting,  paintings  of  about  the 
commencement  of  the  fifteenth  century,  shows  that,  without 
being  dependent  on  the  school  of  Cologne,  the  style  of  this 
period  had  spread  also  into  the  region  of  Lower  Saxony. 

Next  to  Prague  and  Cologne,  the  city  of  Nuremberg  may 
be  considered  as  a  central  point  of  art.  The  fine  sculptures 
by  Schonhofer  which  adorn  the  exterior  and  interior  of  the 
porch  of  the  church  of  our  Lady,  and  which  were  completed 
in  1861,  evidently  assisted  much  in  this  local  development. 
Without  deviating  from  the  general  character  of  this  period, 
greater  knowledge  and  observation  of  the  human  figure  are 
apparent  here  than  in  the  Bohemian  and  Cologne  schools ; 
modelling  and  colouring  are  also  both  more  powerful.2  Un- 
fortunately, however,  no  painters'  names  have  descended  to 
us  with  their  works,  and  only  in  a  few  instances  does  an 
inscribed  date  afford  an  accurate  standard  of  their  time. 

1  '  Galleries  and  Cabinets,  etc.,  in  Great  Britain/  p.  190. 

2  See  further  in  '  Kiinstler  und  Kunstwerke  in  Deutschland,'  vol.  i. 
p.  165,  etc.,  and  247,  etc.     Also  Hotho,  'Malerschule  Huberts  v.  Eyck,' 
vol.  i.  p.  291,  etc. :  and  R.  v.  Kettberg,  'Nurnberg's  Kunstleben,'  8vo. 
Stuttgardt,  1854. 


Chap.  II.  ART  IN  NUREMBERG.  47 


An  altarpiece,  founded  by  a  member  of  the  noble  family 
of  Imhof — the  chief  portions  in  the  gallery  of  the  church  of 
St.  Lawrence — may  be  adjudged  to  the  last  decade  of  the 
fourteenth  century.1  The  centre  compartment  of  the  inner 
side  contains  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  and  the  wings  four 
Apostles.  The  head  of  the  Virgin,  with  downcast  eyes,  is 
of  unusual  beauty  of  form ;  her  figure  also  slender  and  of 
elevated  character,  and  the  folds  of  her  blue  drapery  of  much 
purity  of  taste.  The  conception  of  the  Saviour,  who  is 
crowned  and  looking  at  his  mother,  is  serious  and  dignified. 
The  flesh-tones  of  the  Virgin  are  delicate,  tHose  of  the  Christ 
of  a  warm  brownish  tint  with  whitish  lights.  The  reverse 
of  the  altarpiece  represents  in  the  centre  compartment  a 
Pieta  with  the  Virgin  and  St.  John,  and  on  the  wings  four 
other  apostles.  In  point  of  merit  it  nearly  equals  the  front 
side.  The  expression  of  past  suffering  in  the  head  of  the 
dead  Christ  is  especially  fine ;  the  nude  is  but  weakly  ren- 
dered. The  apostles  are  variously  and  worthily  characterised. 
This  portion  of  the  altarpiece  is  in  the  castle  at  Nuremberg. 

But  a  little  later  in  date  are  the  four  wings  of  an  altar- 
piece,  which,  according  to  tradition,  was  executed  for  the 
Deichsler  family  in  1400,  and  placed  in  St.  Catherine  at 
Nuremberg,  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  1207-1210. 
They  represent  the  Virgin,  who,  here  also,  is  very  delicately 
formed,  and  the  Child,  the  latter  very  meagre;  St.  Peter 
Martyr,  of  great  energy  of  character,  and  glowing  colour ; 
St.  Elizabeth  of  Thiiringen,  of  mild  and  delicate  aspect ;  and 
John  the  Baptist.  In  the  lively  action  of  the  last-named 
saint  is  seen  the  energy  which  characterises  Gothic  sculp- 
ture, while  the  warmly  coloured  head,  with  the  aquiline  nose, 
cleverly  expresses  eagerness.  In  the  drawing  of  hands  and 
feet  these  pictures  are  defective. 

The  fact  that  the  style  of  art  peculiar  to  Nuremberg  was 
generally  diffused  throughout  all  Franconia  is  proved  by  a 
picture  on  the  monument  of  Berthold,  Bishop  of  Eichstadt, 

1  [It  is  probably  incorrect  to  assign  this  picture  to  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. It  is  decorated  with  the  arms  of  Kunz  Imhof  and  three  of  his 
wives,  but  not  with  the  arms  of  his  fourth  wife,  whom  he  married  in 
1422.  Kunz  Imhof  died  in  1449.  His  third  wife,  Elizabeth  Schatzin, 
whom  he  married  in  1418,  died  in  1421.  See  Von  Rettberg,  u.  s.,  p.  48.] 


48  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  Book  II. 

in  the  church  at  Heilsbron,  who  died  in  1365.  The  Virgin, 
who  is  very  fine  in  form  and  expression,  approaches  that  on 
the  altarpiece  belonging  to  the  Imhof  family,  and,  even  if 
not  executed  immediately  after  the  Bishop's  death,  belongs 
decidedly  still  to  the  fourteenth  century.  The  portrait  was 
probably  rather  individualised  by  a  restoration  which  took 
place  in  1497. l 

In  Swabia  also  the  style  of  this  period  attained  a  very 
respectable  development.  We  see  this  in  various  pictures, 
belonging  to  the  latter  part  of  this  time,  which  are  preserved 
in  the  Stuttgardt  Museum.  Two  large  pictures  on  panel. 
Nos.  414  and  416,  the  one  containing  the  Evangelists  Mark 
and  Luke,  with  St.  Paul,  the  other,  St.  John  the  Evangelist, 
with  SS.  Dorothea  and  Margaret,  formerly  in  the  church  of 
Almendringen,  near  Ehringen,  bear  evidence  of  an  excellent 
hand.  The  same  may  be  said  of  two  other  large  panel 
pictures,  from  the  monastery  of  Heiligkreutzthal  in  Upper 
Swabia,  Nos.  428  and  441  in  the  Stuttgardt  Museum,  ascribed 
to  F.  Herlen,  representing  the  Entombment,  and  the  Proces- 
sion of  the  Three  Kings. 

Finally  we  may  mention  another  direction  taken  by  art, 
differing  from  all  the  preceding  as  respects  greater  truth  of 
nature  and  drawing,  though  with  less  expression  of  feeling, 
and  which  is  evidenced  by  three  fragments  of  pictures  in  the 
Berlin  Museum — the  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine,  No.  1232  ; 
two  angels  holding  a  tabernacle,  No.  1231  ;  and  St.  Peter, 
No.  1220.  The  locality,  however,  whence  these  pictures 
proceed  is  unfortunately  unknown.  [All  three  are  now 
withdrawn.]  2" 

1  [See  note  to  page  47.] 

2  The  student  who  visits  the  Berlin  Gallery  will  find  that  several 
pictures  described  in   these  volumes,  especially  those  of  the   earlier 
schools,  are  wanting.     The  researches  of  Dr.  Julius   Meyer  and  Dr. 
Wilhelm  Bode,  authors  of  the  recent  Catalogue  of  the  Berlin  Collection, 
A.D.  1878,  have  resulted  in  some  instances  in  a  more  correct  attribution, 
in  others  in  the  rejection  of  works  whose  authenticity  has  not  hitherto- 
been  questioned,  only  because  they  have  not  been  subjected  to  the 
same  amount  of  skilful  and  competent  criticism. 


Chap.  I.     DEVELOPMENT   OF   NOKTHERN   FEELING.  49 


BOOK  III. 

FIFTEENTH    CENTURY    ART. 
1420—1530. 

COMPLETE  DEVELOPMENT  OP  ART  IN  THE  SPIRIT  OF  THE 
MIDDLE  AGES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE    BROTHERS    VAN    EYCK. 

THE  Flemings,  who  were  so  greatly  distinguished  as  artists 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  were  now  the  first  to  work  out  the 
destiny  of  Northern  painting  by  embodying  the  spirit  of  their 
age  into  forms  peculiar  to  themselves.  What  they  strove  to 
attain  was  a  faithful  copy  of  nature  in  outline,  colour,  light, 
and  perspective.  Aji  amiable  spirit  of  realism,  which  was 
quite  exclusively  their  own,  led  them  to  reproduce  the  quaint 
interiors,  furniture,  and  articles  of  daily  use  which  were  com- 
mon to  the  households  of  the  time  ;  and  in  this  pursuit  they 
were  patient,  untiring,  and  methodical.  It  has  never  been 
stated,  yet  deserves  to  be  explained,  that  this  highly  deve- 
loped realism  was  of  the  utmost  importance  in  forming  the 
manner  of  all  Northern  painters.  It  is  this  realism  which 
affords  conclusive  evidence  of  a  purely  original  Northern  tastej 
evidence  likewise  of  the  special  mode  in  which  the  North,  as 
distinguished  from  the  South,  was  imbued  with  pure  Christian 
feeling  in  its  highest  expansion.  In  Italy — the  most  art- 
loving  of  all  Latin  nations — the  people  stood  in  quite  another 
relation  to  art  and  Christianity  than  that  which  we  note 
amongst  the  Northerns.  Ecclesiastical  painting  was  per- 

4 


50  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTUKY.  Book  III. 

iected  in  the  South  under  different  conditions  from  those 
which  hold  for  the  Netherlands.     The  great  migrations  of 
the  early  centuries  did  not  expel  the  old  populations  from  the 
peninsula,  it  only  tempered  to  a  slight  extent  the  blood  of  the 
ancient  race  ;  and  so  the  Germanic  feeling  in  respect  of  Chris- 
tianity and  art  was  modified  by  that  of  the  aboriginal  race 
on  Italian  soil.     There,  too,  the  numerous  monuments  of  the 
classic  times  exercised  an  important  influence  on  the  cultiva- 
tion of  art ;  and  under  these  favourable  conditions  the  noblest 
creations  of  Christian  painting  were  produced.     Yet,  when 
compared  with  the  purest  Greek  masterpieces,  the  best  crea- 
tions of  the  Italian  revival  were  not  as  original  as  those  of  the 
old  Flemings  ;  they  were  in  truth  but  a  happy  cross  between 
the  antique  and  Christian  Germanic  feeling,  i     In  this,  that 
early  Netherlandish  art,  in  its  freedom  from  all  foreign  in- 
fluence, exhibits  to  us   the   contrast   between1  the   natural 
feeling  of  the  Greek  and  of  the    Germanic   races   in   the 
department  of  art — these  two  races  being  the  chief  repre- 
sentatives of  the  cultivation  of  the  ancient  and  the  modern 
world — and  exhibits  this  contrast  in  a  purity  and  distinctness 
not  traceable  in  any  other  form ;  in  this  circumstance  consists 
the  high  significance  of  this  school  when  considered  in  refer- 
ence to  the  general  history  of  art.     While  it  is  characteristic 
of  the  Greeks  to  idealize  not  only  the  conceptions  of  the  ideal 
world,  but  even  that  of  portraits,  by  the  simplification  of 
forms,  and  the  prominence  given  to  the  more  important  parts 
of  a  work  of  art,  the  early  Netherlander  conferred  a  portrait- 
like  character  upon  the  most  ideal  personifications  of   the 
Virgin,  the  Apostles,  Prophets,  and  Martyrs,  and  in  actual 
portraiture  aimed  to  render  even  the  most  accidental  pecu- 
liarities of  nature.  F  While  the  Greeks  expressed  the  various 
features  of  outward  nature — such  as  rivers,  fountains,  hills, 
and  trees — under  abstract  human  forms,  the  Netherlanders 

1  [It  is  hardly  necessary  to  observe  that  this  comparison  between 
Flemish  and  Italian  art  is  peculiar  to  Dr.  Waagen,  and  would  probably 
meet  with  but  slight  countenance  from  any  but  a  small  circle  of  enthu- 
siasts. I  confess  my  inability  to  discover  or  to  understand  what  feeling 
in  respect  of  art  was  carried  by  the  Germanic  races  to  Italy.  But  1 
know  that  German  art  began  to  dawn  after  Charlemagne  had  been  at 
Rome.1 


Chap.  I.      DEVELOPMENT  OF  NORTHERN   FEELING.  51 

endeavoured  to  express  them  as  they  saw  them,  and  with  a 
truth  which  extended  to  the  smallest  detailsf\In  opposition 
to  the  ideal,  and  what  may  be  called  the  personifying  ten- 
dency of  the  Greeks,  the  Netherlandish  race  developed  a 
purely  realistic  and  landscape  school.  In  this  respect  the 
other  Northern  nations  are  found  to  approach  them  most 
nearly,  the  Germans  first  and  then  the  English. 

The  schools  of  art  characteristic  of  both  the  other  Latin 
nations — the  French  and  the  Spanish — must  be  considered 
as  subordinate  when  compared  with  those  of  Italy  and  the 
Netherlands ;  inasmuch  as  they  were  alternately  and  strongly 
influenced  by  each,  occasionally  both  influences  holding  the 
balance  with  happy  equality,  but  oftener  the  one  prevailing 
over  the  other. 

The  high  development  of  the  realistic  feeling,  as  it  first 
appears  in  the  pictures  of  the  brothers  Van  Eyck,  has  been 
looked  upon  as  a  riddle.  It  may,  however,  be  partly  ac- 
counted for  by  the  fact  that  the,  works  of  the  generation  pre- 
ceding them  were  completely  destroyed  in  the  iconoclastic 
storm  which  raged  in  the  Netherlands  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
In  order  to  account,  as  far  as  possible  on  historical  grounds, 
for  the  marvellous  perfection  exhibited  by  the  Van  Eycks,  I 
have  been  obliged  to  recur  to  the  sculpture  antecedent  to 
them.  Nor  has  my  research  been  unsuccessful.  From  the 
inspection  of  a  number  of  monumental  reliefs  in  the  posses- 
sion of  M.  Dumortier  at  Tournay,  I  have  convinced  myself 
that  the  school  of  sculpture  existing  there  during  the  middle 
agfea  very  earlv  pursued  a  realistic  directionT  and  towards  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  had  already  made  considerable 
progress.1  The  life-sized  stone  statues  executed  in  1396  for 
Philip  the  Bold  of  Burgundy,  by  CLAES  SLUTEB,  ancTwhich 
decorated  the  fountain  of  the  Chartreuse  at  Dijon,  show  even 
a  development  of  the  realistic  tendency  and  a  knowledge  of 
nature  which  places  them  on  a  par  with  the  pictures  by  the 

1  The  monument  to  Colard  de  Seclin,  Doctor  of  Ilights,  inscribed 
1341,  is  particularly  important,  as  showing  that  not  only  was  a  great 
individuality  already  given  to  portraits,  but  that  the  features  of  the 
infant  Christ,  who  in  some  respects  was  evidently  studied  from  nature, 
partook  also  completely  of  a  portrait-like  character. 


52  THE  FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

Van  Eycks.1  They  represent  the  figures  of  Moses  (whence 
the  fountain  is  called  "Puits  de  Moyse  "),  David,  Jeremiah, 
Zechariah,  Daniel,  and  Isaiah.  We  gather  from  this  that 
sculpture  in  the  Netherlands,  as  well  as  in  Italy,  took  the 
lead  of  painting ;  and  as  we  are  historically  informed  that  the 
painters  of  Italy  studied  from  Lorenzo  Grhiberti's  celebrated 
bronze  doors  of  the  Baptistery  at  Florence,  so  we  may  safely 
conclude  that  a  similar  course  was  pursued  in  the  Netherlands. 

[The  masterpieces  of  sculpture  produced  at  the  close  of 
the  fourteenth  and  opening  of  the  fifteenth  centuries  were 
coloured.  We  trace  the  practice  with  certainty  in  France, 
in  Belgium,  and  on  the  Rhine  ;  and  more  particularly,  ex.  gr., 
in  altarchests  by  Jacques  de  Baerse  at  Dijon,  and  statues  of 
Pagan  and  Christian  heroes  in  the  Town  Hall  of  Cologne. 
It  is  probable  that  painters  were  indebted  to  sculpture,  not 
only  for  the  reproduction  of  form,  but  for  the  custom  of  flat 
tinting.  Unhappily,  when  we  say  that  the  Van  Eycks  were 
indebted  to  the  sculptors  of  their  age  for  some  of  the  pro- 
gress which  their  works  display,  we  are  still  far  from  having 
solved  the  mystery  which  clings  to  the  earlier  period  of  their 
lives.  We  know  that  these  great  artists  were  natives  of 
Maaseyck,  and  countrymen  of  some  of  the  miniaturists  who 
were  employed  at  the  court  of  France  between  1400  and 
1410.  There  are  miniatures  in  a  Prayer-book  of  the  Duke 
of  Bern  (1409),  and  in  a  Josephus  (1410),  by  Pol  of  Limburg, 
which  remind  us  of  later  productions  of  the  Van  Eycks 
in  the  originality  of  conception,  the  peculiar  embodiments  of 
form,  and  the  remarkable  tendency  to  realism  which  they 
display ; 2  but  this  only  proves  that  Limburg  was  a  province 
in  which  the  elements  of  art  might  be  acquired ;  and  this  is 
all  that  history  as  yet  has  been  able  to  discover  with 
reference  to  the  two  men  who  brought  art  to  the  highest 
perfection  of  which  it  was  found  capable  in  the  Netherlands. 

Hubert  van  Eyck  was  born,  according  to  the  common 
acceptation,  in  1366.  John  van  Eyck  was  his  junior  by 

1  See  article  by  me  in  the  German  'Kunstblatt'  of  1856,  N/o.  27. 
This  also  contains  an  account  of  sculpture  by  the  same  Claes  Sluter  on 
the  monviment  to  Philip  the  Bold,  now  in  the  Museum  at  Dijon. 

2  [The  Prayer-book  is  in  the  Bibliotheque  Ste.  Ge"nevieve,  the  Josephus 
(HSS.  6891)  in  the  public  library  in  Paris.] 


Chap.  I.  HUBERT  VAN   EYCK.  53 

some  unknown  number  of  years.  Chroniclers  of  the  six- 
teenth century  vaguely  suggest  that  the  two  brothers  settled 
at  Ghent  in  1410.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  all 
these  dates  are  incorrect ;  that  Hubert  was  born  after  1366, 
and  that  the  date  of  his  migration  to  Ghent  must  be  placed 
later  in  the  century.  It  is  credible  that  both  the  brothers 
were  court  painters  to  Philip  of  Charolois,  heir  apparent  to 
the  throne  of  Burgundy,  who  lived  with  his  wife  Michelle  de 
France  at  Ghent  between  1418  and  1421.  In  the  service  of 
the  prince,  painters  were  free  from  the  constraint  of  their 
guild,  but  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  court  fhe  privilege  would 
cease  ;  and  this  explains  how  the  names  of  the  Van  Eycks 
were  not  recorded  in  the  register  of  the  corporation  of  St. 
Luke  till  1421,  when,  on  the  death  of  the  countess  Michelle, 
and  as  a  tribute  to  her  memory,  they  were  registered  as 
masters  without  a  fee.  John  van  Eyck  soon  found  employ- 
ment in  the  court  atmosphere,  which  seemed  congenial  to 
him,  whilst  Hubert  remained  at  Ghent,  received  commissions 
from  the  municipality  (1424),  and  became  acquainted  with 
Jodocus  Yydts,  for  whom  he  composed  the  vast  altarpiece 
known  as  the  'Adoration  of  the  Lamb.'1  It  was  not  fated 
that  he  should  finish  the  great  work  which  he  was  then  in- 
duced to  begin.  j  He  probably  sketched  the  subjects  that 
were  to  adorn  the  panels,  and  completed  some  of  the  more 
important  of  them.  At  his  death  in  1426  he  was  buried  in 
the  chapel,  the  decoration  of  which  had  been  the  last  occu- 
pation of  his  life.  We  may  sum  up  the  qualities  which  dis- 
tinguished him,  and  the  services  which  he  rendered  to  the 
art  of  his  country,  in  the  following  sentences  : — ] 

He  carried  the  realistic  tendency,  already  existing  in  the 
Flemish  masters,  to  an  extraordinary  pitch  of  excellence, 
whilst  in  many  essential  respects  he  adhered  to  the  more 
ideal  feeling  of  the  previous  period,  imparting  to  this,  by  the 
means  of  his  far  richer  powers  of  representation,  greater 
distinctness,  truth  of  nature,  and  variety  of  expression. 
Throughout  his  works  he  displayed  an  elevated  and  highly 
energetic  conception  of  the  stem  import  of  his  labours  in  tha 

1  [Ruelens,  in  notes  et  additions  to  the  French  Traaaktion  of  '  Eeri*? 
Flemish  painters,'  vol.  ii.  p.  slvi] 


54  THE  FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  IIL 

service  of  the  Church.  The  prevailing  arrangement  of  his 
subject  is  symmetrical,  holding  fast  the  early  architectonic 
rules  which  had  hitherto  presided  over  ecclesiastic  art.  The 
later  mode  of  arrangement,  in  which  a  freer  and  more 
dramatic  and  picturesque  feeling  was  introduced,  is  only 
seen  in  Hubert  van  Eyck's  works  in  subjection  to  these 
rules.  Thus  his  heads  exhibit  the  aim  at  beauty  and  dignity 
belonging  to  the  earlier  period,  only  combined  with  more 
truth  of  nature.  His  draperies  unite  its  pure  taste  and 
softness  of  folds  with  greater  breadth  ;  the  realistic  principle 
being  apparent  in  that  greater  attention  to  detail  which  a 
delicate  indication  of  the  material  of  the  drapery  necessitates. 
Nude  figures  are  studied  from  nature  with  the  utmost  fidelity : 
undraped  portions  are  also  given  with  much  truth,  especially 
the  hands ;  only  the  'feet  remain  feeble.  That,  however, 
which  is  almost  the  principal  quality  of  his  art,  is  the 
hitherto  unprecedented  power,  depth,  transparency,  and 
harmony  of  his  colouring.  To  attain  this  he  availed  himself 
of  a  mode  of  painting  in  oil  which  he  and  his  brother  had 
perfected.  Oil  painting,  it  is  true,  had  long  been  in  use,  but 
only  in  a  very  undeveloped  form,  and  for  inferior  purposes. 
According  to  the  most  recent  and  thorough  investigations^ 
the  improvements  introduced  by  the  Van  Eycks,  and  which 
they  doubtless  only  very  gradually  worked  out,  were  the 
following.  First,  they  removed  the  chief  impediment  which 
had  hitherto  obstructed  the  application  of  oil-paint  to  pictures 
properly  so  called..  For,  in  order  to  accelerate  the  slow 
drying  of  the  oil  colours,  it  had  been  necessary  to  add  a 
varnish  to  them,  which  consisted  of  oil  boiled  with  a  resin. 
Owing  to  the  dark  colour  of  this  varnish,  in  which  amber, 
or  more  frequently  sandarac,  was  used,  this  plan,  from  its 
darkening  effect  on  most  colours,  had  hitherto  proved  un- 
successful. The  Van  Eycks,  however,  succeeded  in  pre- 
paring so  colourless  a  varnish  that  they  could  apply  it, 
without  disadvantage,  to  all  colours.  In  painting  a  picture 
they  proceeded  on  the  following  system.  The  outline  was 
drawn  on  a  gesso  ground,  so  strongly  sized  that  no  oil  could 

1  See  Sir  Charles  Eastlake's  '  Materials  for  a  History  of  Oil-painting.' 
London,  1847.     Longman.     Chap.  VIII. -XL 


Chap.  I.  HUBERT  VAN   EYCK.  55 

penetrate  the  surface.  The  under  painting  was  then  exe- 
cuted in  a  generally  warm  brownish  glazing  colour,  and  so 
thinly  that  the  light  ground  was  clearly  seen  through  it. 
They  then  laid  on  the  local  'colours,  thinner  in  the  lights, 
and,  from  the  quantity  of  vehicle  used,  more  thickly  in  the 
shadows ;  in  the  latter  availing  themselves  often  of  the  under 
painting  as  a  foil.  In  all  other  parts  they  so  nicely  preserved 
the  balance  between  the  solid  and  the  glazing  colours  as  to 
attain  that  union  of  body  and  transparency  which  is  their 
great  excellence.  Finally,  in  the  use  of  the  brush  they 
obtained  that  perfect  freedom  which  the  new  vehicle  per- 
mitted ;  either  leaving  the  touch  of  the  brush  distinct,  or 
fusing  the  touches  tenderly  together,  as  the  object  before 
them  required.  Of  all  the  works  which  are  now  attributed 
to  Hubert,  [but  one  is  genuine  and  historically  authenti- 
cated.] This  noble  work  is  certified  by  an  inscription.  It  is 
a  large  altar  picture,  consisting  of  two  rows  of  separate 
panels,  once  in  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Bavon  at  Ghent.  It 
was  painted,  as  before  remarked,  for  Jodocus  Vydts,  Seigneur 
of  Pamele,  and  Burgomaster  of  Ghent,  and  his  wife  Elizabeth, 
of  the  then  distinguished  family  of  Burluut,  for  their  mor- 
tuary chapel  in  that  cathedral.1  When  the  wings  were  opened, 
which  occurred  only  on  festivals,  the  subject  of  the  upper 
centre  picture  was  seen,  consisting  of  three  panels  (see 
woodcut),  on  which  were  the  Triune  God — the  King  of 
heaven  and  earth — and  at  his  side  the  Holy  Virgin  and  the 
Baptist :  on  the  inside  of  the  wings  were  angels,  who  with 
songs  and  sacred  music  celebrate  the  praises  of  the  Most 
High  :  at  the  two  extremities ,  each  inside  the  half- shutters 
which  covered  the  figure  of  God  the  Father,  were  Adam  and 
Eve,  the  representatives  of  fallen  man.  The  lower  central 
picture  shows  the  Lamb  of  the  Revelation,  whose  blood 
flows  into  a  cup ;  over  it  is  the  dove  of  the  Holy  Spirit ; 
angels,  who  hold  the  instruments  of  the  Passion,  worship  the 
Lamb,  and  four  groups,  each  consisting  of  many  persons, 
advance  from  the  sides ;  they  comprise  the  holy  martyrs, 
male  and  female,  with  priests  and  laymen ;  in  the  foreground 
is  the  fountain  of  life  ;  in  the  distance  the  towers  of  the 
1  Carton,  '  Les  Trois  Freres  van  Eyck/  p.  56. 


56  THE   FIFTEENTH    CENTURY.  Book  III. 

heavenly  Jerusalem.  On  the  wing  pictures,  other  groups 
are  coming  up  to  adore  the  Lamb ;  on  the  left,  those  who 
have  laboured  for  the  kingdom  of  the  Lord  by  worldly  deeds 
— the  soldiers  of  Christ,  and  T;he  righteous  judges ;  on  the 
right,  those  who,  through  self-denial  and  renunciation  of 
earthly  good,  have  served  Him  in  the  spirit — holy  hermits 
and  pilgrims  ;  a  picture  underneath,  which  represented  hell, 
finished  the  whole. 

This  work  is  now  dispersed :  the  centre  pictures  being  in 
Ghent,1  the  Adam  and  Eve  in  the  Museum  of  Brussels. 
The  lower  picture  of  hell  was  early  injured  and  lost,  and 
the  others  form  some  of  the  greatest  ornaments  of  the 
gallery  of  the  Berlin  Museum.2 

The  three  figures  of  the  upper  centre  picture  are  designed 
with  all  the  dignity  of  J5iatue-like  repose  belonging  to  the 
early  style ;  they  are  painted,  too,  on  a  ground  of  gold  and 
tapestry,  as  was  constantly  the  practice  in  earlier  times :  but 
united  with  the  traditional  type  we  already  find  a  successful 
representation  of  life  and  nature  in  all  their  truth.  They 
stand  on  the  frontier  of  two  different  styles,  and,  from  the 
excellences  of  both,  form  a  wonderful  and  most  impressive 
whole.  In  all  the  solemnity  of  antique  dignity  the  Heavenly 
Father  sits  directly  fronting  the  spectator — his  right  hand 
raised  to  give  the  benediction  to  the  Lamb,  and  to  all  the 

1  [Marc  van  Vaernewijck  in  a  MS.  of  1566-8,  describing  the  Ghent 
troubles,  states  that  on  the  19th  of  August,  two  days  before  the  iconoclasts 
plundered  St.  Bavon,  the  picture  of  the  Mystic  Lamb  was  removed 
from  the  Vijdts  chapel  and  concealed  in  one  of  the  towers.     See  the  MS., 
'  Van    die   Beroerlicke  Tij'den  in  die  Nederlanden,'    recently  printed 
at  Ghent  (1872),  p-.  146.   On  the  same  page  in  which  Vaernewijck  relates 
this  story  he  says  that  he  refers  his  readers,  for  the  lives  of  the  Van 
Eycks,  to  his  book,  '  Mijn  leecken  Philosophic  int  xxe.  bouck.'    This 
book,  which  probably  still  exists  on  the  shelves  of  some  library,  has  not 
as  yet  been  discovered.] 

2  "  The  pictures  here  exhibited  as  the  works  of  Hemmelinck,  Messis, 
Lucas  of  Holland,  A.  Diirer,  and  even  Holbein,  are  inferior  to  those 
ascribed  to  Eyck  in  colour,  execution,  and  taste.     The  draperies  of  the 
three  on  a  gold  ground,  especially  that  of  the  middle  figure,  could  not 
be  improved  in  simplicity,  or  elegance,  by  the  taste  of  Raphael  himself. 
The  three  heads  of  God  the  Father,  the  Virgin,  and  St.  John  the  Baptist, 
are  not  inferior  in  roundness,  force,  or  sweetness,  to  the  heads  of  L.  da 
Vinci,  and  possess  a  more  positive  principle  of  colour." — Life  of  Fuseli, 
i.  p.  267.     This  is  a  very  remarkable  opinion  for  the  period  when  it  was 
written. 


'Chap.  I.  HUBERT  VAN   EYCK.  57 

£gures  below ;  in  his  left  is  a  crystal  sceptre  ;  on  his  head 
-the  triple  crown,  the  emblem  of  the  Trinity.  The  features 
are  such  as  are  ascribed  to  Christ  by  the  traditions  of  the 
•Church,  but  noble  and  well-proportioned  ;  the  expression  is 
forcible,  though  passionless.  The  tunic  of  this  figure,  ungirt, 
is  of  a  deep  red,  as  well  as  the  mantle,  which  last  is  fastened 
over  the  breast  by  a  rich  clasp,  and,  falling  down  equally 
from  both  shoulders,  is  thrown  in  beautiful  folds  over  the  feet. 
Behind  the  figure,  and  as  high  as  the  head,  is  a  hanging  of 
green  tapestry  adorned  with  a  golden  pelican  (a  well-known 
symbol  of  the  Redeemer) ;  behind  the  head  the  ground  is 
gold,  and  on  it,  in  a  semicircle,  are  three  inscriptions,  which 
again  describe  the  Trinity,  as  all-mighty^  all-good,  and  all- 
bountiful.  The  two  other  figures  of  this  picture  display 
equal  majesty  ;  both  are  reading  holy  books,  and  are  turned 
towards  the  centre  figure.  The  countenance  of  John  ex- 
presses ascetic  seriousness,  but  in  the  Virgin's  we  find  a 
serene  grace,  and  a  purity  of*  form,  which  approach  very 
nearly  to  the  happier  efforts  of  Italian  art. 

On  the  wing  next  to  the  Virgin  (see  woodcut)  stand  eight 
angels  singing  before  a  music-desk.  They  are  represented 
.as  choristers  in  splendid  vestments  and  crowns.  The  brilli- 
ancy of  the  stuffs  and  precious  stones  is  given  with  the  hand 
of  a  master,  the  music-desk  is  richly  ornamented  with  Gothic 
<carved  work  and  figures,  and  the  countenances  are  full  of 
•expression  and  life  ;  but  in  the  effort  to  imitate  nature  with 
the  utmost  truth,  so  as  even  to  enable  us  to  distinguish  with 
certainty  the  different  voices  of  the  double  quartett,  the  spirit 
of  a  holier  influence  has  already  passed  away.  On  the  oppo- 
site wing,  St.  Cecilia  sits  at  an  organ,  the  keys  of  which  she 
touches  with  an  expression  of  deep  meditation  :  other  angels 
stand  behind  the  organ  with  different  stringed  instruments. 
The  expression  of  these  heads  shows  far  more  feeling,  and  is 
more  gentle  :  the  execution  of  the  stuffs  and  accessories  is 
•equally  masterly.  The  two  extreme  wings  of  the  upper 
series,  the  subjects  of  which  are  Adam  and  Eve  (see  wood- 
cut), are  now  [in  the  Museum  at  Brussels] .  The  attempt  to 
.paint  the  nude  figure  of  the  size  of  life,  with  the  most  careful 
.attention  to  minute  detail,  is  eminently  successful,  with  the 


58  THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

exception  of  a  certain  degree  of  hardness  in  the  drawing. 
Eve  holds  in  her  right  hand  the  forbidden  fruit.  In  the 
filling  up,  which  the  shape  of  the  altarpiece  made  necessary 
over  these  panels,  there  are  small  subjects  in  chiaroscuro : 
over  Adam,  the  sacrifice  of  Cain  and  Abel ;  over  Eve,  the 
death  of  Abel — death,  therefore,  as  the  immediate  conse- 
quence of  original  sin. 

The  arrangement  of  the  lower  middle  picture,  the  worship 
of  the  Lamb  (see  woodcut),  is  strictly  symmetrical,  as  the- 
mystic  nature  of  the  allegorical  subject  demanded,  but  them 
is  such  beauty  in  the  landscape,  in  the  pure  atmosphere,  in 
the  bright  green  of  the  grass,  in  the  masses  of  trees  and 
flowers,  even  in  the  single  figures  which  stand  out  from  the 
four  great  groups,  that  we  no  longer  perceive  either  hardness 
or  severity  in  this  symmetry.     The  wing  picture  on  the  right 
(see  woodcut),  representing  the  holy  pilgrims,  is,  in  the  figures,, 
less  striking  than  the  others.     Here  St.   Christopher,  who 
wandered  through  the  world  seeking  the  most  mighty  Lord, 
strides  before  all,  a  giant  in  stature,  whilst  a  host  of  smaller 
pilgrims,  of  various  ages,  follow  him.     A  fruitful  valley,  with 
many  details,  showing  a  surprising  observation  of  nature,  is 
seen  through  the  slender  trees.     The  cast  of  the  folds  in  the 
ample  red  drapery  of  St.  Christopher,  as1  ill  Lliu  uppei  picLuie, 
reminds  us  still  of  the  earlieF^tyfeT^-^he  whimsical  and 
singular  expression  in  the  countenances  of  the  pilgrims  is 
also  very  remarkable.     The  picture  next  to  the  last  described 
is  more  pleasing ;  it  represents  the  troop  of  holy  anchorites 
passing  out  of  a  rocky  defile.     In  front  are  St.  Paul  the  Her- 
mit and  St.  Anthony,  the  two  who  set  the  first  example  of 
retirement  from  the  world ;  and  the  procession  closes  with 
the  two  holy  women  who  also  passed  the  greater  part  of  their 
lives  in  the  wilderness,  Mary  Magdalen  and  St.  Mary  of  Egypt. 
The  heads  are  full  of  character,  with  great  variety  of  expres- 
sion :  on  every  countenance  may  be  traced  the  history  of  its 
life.     Grave  old  men  stand  before  us,  each  one  differing  from 
the  other  :  one  is  firm  and  strong,  another  more  feeble  ;  one 
cheerful  and  single-minded,  another  less  open.     Some  in- 
spired fanatics  wildly  raise  their  heads,  whilst  others  with  a. 
simple  and  almost  humorous  expression  walk  by  their  side,. 


Chap.  i.  HUBERT;  VAN  EYCK.  59 

and  others  again  are  still  struggling  with  their  earthly  nature. 
It  is  a  remarkable  picture,  and  leads  us  deep  into  the  secrets 
of  the  human  heart — a  picture  which  in  all  times  must  be 
ranked  amongst  the  master-works  of  art,  and  which  to  be 
intelligible  needs  no  previous  inquiry  into  the  relative  period 
and  circumstances  of  the  artists  who  created  it.  The  land- 
scape background,  the  rocky  defile,  the  wooded  declivity,  and 
the  trees  laden  with  fruit,  are  all  eminently  beautiful.  The 
eye  would  almost  lose  itself  in  this  rich  scene  of  still  life  if  it 
were  not  constantly  led  back  to  the  interest  of  the  foreground. 
The  opposite  wing  pictures  differ  essentially  in  conception 
from  those  just  described  (see  woodcut).  Their  subject  did 
not  in  itself  admit  such  varied  interest,  and  it  is  rather  the 
common  expression  of  a  tranquil  harmony  of  mind,  and  of 
the  consciousness  of  a  resolute  will,  which  attracts  the  spec- 
tator, combined  at  the  same  time  with  a  skilful  representation 
of  earthly  splendour  and  magnificence.  Inside  the  wing  to 
the  right  we  see  the  soldiers  of  the  Lord  on  fine  chargers, 
simple  and  noble  figures  in  bright  armour,  with  surcoats  of 
varied  form  and  colour.  The  three  foremost  with  the  waving 
banners  appear  to  be  St.  Sebastian,  St.  George,  and  St. 
Michael,  the  patron  saints  of  the  old  Flemish  guilds,  which 
accompanied  their  earls  to  the  crusades.  In  the  head  of  St. 
George,  the  painter  has  strikingly  succeeded  in  rendering  the 
spirit  of  the  chivalry  of  the  middle  ages — that  true  heroic 
feeling  and  sense  of  power  which  humbles  itself  before  the 
higher  sense  of  the  Divinity.  Emperors  and  kings  follow 
after  him.  The  landscape  is  extremely  beautiful  and  highly 
finished,  with  rich  and  finely-formed  mountain  ridges,  and  the 
fleecy  clouds  of  spring  floating  lightly  across.  The  second 
picture  (the  last  to  the  left)  represents  the  righteous  judges ; 
they  also  are  on  horseback,  and  are  fine  and  dignified  figures. 
In  front,  on  a  splendidly  caparisoned  grey  horse,  rides  a  mild 
benevolent  old  man,  in  blue  velvet  trimmed  with  fur.  This 
is  the  likeness  of  Hubert,  to  whom  his  brother  has  thus  dedi- 
cated a  beautiful  memorial.  Rather  deeper  in  the  group  is 
John  himself,  clothed  in  black,  with  his  shrewd,  sharp  coun- 
tenance turned  to  the  spectator.  We  are  indebted  to  tradition 
for  the  knowledge  of  these  portraits. 


60  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Book  III. 

Both  these  wing  pictures  have  the  special  interest  of  show- 
ing us,  by  means  of  armour,  rich  costumes,  and  caparisons, 
a  true  and  particular  representation  of  the  Court  of  Burgundy 
in  the  time  of  Philip  the  Good — when  it  was  confessedly  the 
most  superb  court  in  Europe. 

The  upper  wings,  when  closed  (see  woodcut),  represented 
the  Annunciation,  and  this  was  so  arranged  that  on  the  outer 
and  wider  ones  (the  backs  of  the  two  pictures  of  angels  sing- 
ing and  playing)  were  the  figures  of  the  Virgin  and  the  angel 
Gabriel — on  the  inner  narrower  ones  (that  is,  on  the  back  of 
the  Adam  and  Eve)  a  continuation  of  the  Virgin's  chamber. 
Here,  as  was  often  the  case  in  the  outside  pictures  of  large 
altarpieces,  the  colouring  was  kept  down  to  a  more  uniform 
tone,  in  order  that  the  full  splendour  might  be  reserved  to 
adorn  with  greater  effect  the  principal  subject  within.  The 
angel  and  the  Holy  Virgin  are  clothed  in  flowing  white 
drapery,  but  the  wings  of  the  angel  glitter  with  a  play  of 
soft  and  brilliant  colour,  imitating  those  of  the  green  parrot. 
The  heads  are  noble  and  well  painted :  the  furniture  of  the 
room  is  executed  with  great  truth,  as  well  as  the  view 
through  the  arcade  which  forms  the  background  of  the 
Virgin's  chamber,  into  the  streets  of  a  town,  one  of  which 
we  recognise  as  a  street  in  Ghent. 

In  the  semicircles  which  close  these  panels  above,  on  the 
right  and  left,  are  the  prophets  Micah  and  Zechariah,  whose 
heads  have  great  dignity,  but  are  somewhat  stiff  and  unsatis- 
factory in  their  attitudes.  In  the  centre  (corresponding  with 
the  figures  in  chiaroscuro  over  Adam  and  Eve)  are  two  kneel- 
ing female  figures  represented  as  sibyls. 

The  exterior  portion  of  the  lower  wings  contains  the 
statues  of  the  two  St.  Johns.  These  display  a  heavy  style 
of  drapery,  and  there  is  something  peculiarly  angular  in  the 
breaks  of  the  folds,  imitated  perhaps  from  the  sculpture  of 
the  day,  which  had  also  already  abandoned  the  older  Northern 
mould.  This  peculiarity  by  degrees  impressed  itself  more  and 
more  on  the  style  of  painting  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
the  drapery  of  the  figures  in  the  Annunciation  already 
betrays  a  tendency  towards  it.  The  heads  exhibit  a  feeling 
for  beauty  of  form  which  is  rare  in  this  school.  John  the 


Outer  Shutters  of  the  great  Van  Eyck  picture  at  Berlin  page  go. 


Chap.l.  HUBERT  VAN   EYCK.  61 

Baptist,  who  is  pointing  with  his  right  hand  to  the  Lamb  on 
his  left,  is  appropriately  represented,  as  the  last  of  the  Pro- 
phets, as  a  man  of  earnest  mien  and  dignified  features,  with 
much  hair  and  beard.  John  the  Evangelist,  on  the  other 
hand,  appears  as  a  tender  youth  with  delicate  features,  look- 
ing very  composedly  at  the  monster  with  four  snakes  which, 
at  his  benediction,  rises  from  the  chalice  in  his  hand. 

The  likenesses  of  the  donors  are  given  with  inimitable  life 
and  fidelity.  They  show  the  careful  hand  of  Jan  van  Eyck, 
but  already  approach  that  limit  within  which  the  imitation 
of  the  accidental  and  insignificant  in  the  human  countenance 
should  be  confined.  The  whole,  however,  is  in  admirable 
keeping,  and  the  care  of  the  artist  can  hardly  be  considered 
too  anxiously  minute,  since  feeling  and  character  are  as  fully 
expressed  as  the  mere  bodily  form.  The  aged  Jodocus  Yydts, 
to  whose  liberality  posterity  is  indebted  for  this  great  work 
of  art,  is  dressed  in  a  simple  red  garment  trimmed  with  fur ; 
he  kneels  with  his  hands  foldejl,  and  his  eyes  directed  up- 
wards. His  countenance,  however,  is  not  attractive ;  the 
forehead  is  low  and  narrow,  and  the  eye  without  power. 
The  mouth  alone  shows  a  certain  benevolence,  and  the  whole 
expression  of  the  features  denotes  a  character  capable  of 
managing  worldly  affairs.  The  idea  of  originating  so  great 
a  work  as  this  picture  is  to  be  found  in  the  noble,  intellec- 
tual, and  expressive  features  of  his  wife,  who  kneels  opposite 
to  him  in  the  same  attitude,  and  in  still  plainer  attire. 

At  Hubert  van  Eyck's  death,  on  the  16th  of  September, 
1426,  Jodocus  Vydts  engaged  Jan  van  Eyck,  the  younger 
brother  and  scholar  of  Hubert,  to  finish  the  picture  in  the 
incomplete  parts.1  A  close  comparison  of  all  the  panels  of 

1  This  appears  from  the  following  inscription  of  the  time,  ou  the 
frame  of  the  outer  whig  : — 

"  Hubertus  e  Eyck,  major  quo  nemo  repertus 
Incepit ;  pondusq  odu  Johannes  arte  secundus 
Frater  perfecit,  Judooi  Vyd  prece  fretus 
[VersV  seXta  Mai  Vos  CoLLoCat  aCta  tVerl."] 

[The  last  verse  gives  the  date  of  May  6,  1432.]  The  discovery  of  this 
inscription,  under  a  coating  of  green  paint,  was  made  in  Berlin  in  1824, 
when  the  first  word  and  a  half  of  the  third  line,  which  were  missing, 
were  [imperfectly]  supplied  [with  "  frater  perfectus  "]  by  an  old  copy  of 
this  inscription,  found  by  M.  de  Bast,  the  Belgian  connoisseur. 


62  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Book  III. 

this  altarpiece  with  the  authentic  works  of  Jan  van  Eyck 
shows  that  the  following  portions  differ  in  drawing,  colour- 
ing, cast  of  drapery,  and  treatment,  from  his  style,  and 
may  therefore  with  certainty  be  attributed  to  the  hand  of 
Hubert : — Of  the  inner  side  of  the  upper  series,  the  Almighty, 
the  Virgin,  St.  John  the  Baptist,  St  .Cecilia  with  the  angels 
playing  on  musical  instruments,  and  Adam  and  Eve ;  of  the 
inner  side  of  the  lower  series,  the  side  of  the  centre  picture 
with  the  apostles  and  saints,  and  the  wings  with  the  hermits 
and  pilgrims,  though  with  the  exception  of  the  landscapes. 
On  the  other  hand,  of  the  inner  side  of  the  upper  series,  the 
wing  picture  with  the  singing  angels  is  by  Jan  van  Eyck ; 
of  the  inner  side  of  the  lower  series,  the  side  of  the  centre 
picture  of  the  Adoration  of  the  Lamb,  containing  the  patri- 
archs and  prophets,  etc.,  and  the  entire  landscape ;  the  wing 
with  the  soldiers  of  Christ  and  the  Righteous  Judges,  and 
the  landscapes  to  the  wing  with  the  hermits  and  pilgrims ; 
finally,  the  entire  outer  sides  of  the  wings,  comprising  the 
portraits  of  the  founders,  and  the  Annunciation.  The  Pro- 
phet Zechariah  and  the  two  Sibyls  alone  show  a  feebler 
hand.1 

About  one  hundred  years  after  the  completion  of  this 
altarpiece  an  excellent  copy  of  it  was  made  by  Michael 
Coxis  for  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  The  panels  of  this  work,  like 
those  of  the  original,  are  dispersed ;  some  are  in  the  Berlin 
Museum,  some  in  the  possession  of  the  King  of  Bavaria,  and 
others  in  the  remains  of  the  King  of  Holland's  collection  at 
the  Hague.  A  second  copy,  which  comprises  the  inside 
pictures  of  this  great  work,  from  the  chapel  of  the  Town- 
house at  Ghent,  is  in  the  [Antwerp  Museum.] 


1  [Dr.  Waagen  did  not  always  hold  decided  opinions  as  to  what  portions 
of  the  altarpiece  of  Ghent  are  by  Hubert  and  John  van  Eyck,  respec- 
tively. There  is  no  doubt  that  some  of  "  the  sublime  earnestness"  which 
Schlegel  notes  in  the  Eternal,  the  Virgin,  and  John  the  Baptist,  and 
much  of  the  stern  realism  which  characterizes  those  figures,  is  to  be 
found  in  the  patriarchs  and  prophets,  and  in  the  hermits  and  pilgrims, 
and  in  the  Adam  and  Eve  ;  but  it  is  too  much  to  say  that  these  wing 
pictures  can  "  with  certainty  be  assigned  to  Hubert,"  and  it  is  not  to 
be  forgotten  that  John  van  Eyck  worked  in  this  picture  on  the  lines 
Laid  down  by  his  elder  brother,  and  must  have  caught  some  of  the  spirit 
of  his  great  master."! 


Chap.  I.  HUBERT   VAN   EYCK.  63 

[Hubert  van  Eyck's  name  has  been  extensively  misused 
by  compilers  of  catalogues;  but  criticism  has  had  the 
melancholy  result  of  proving  that  not  one  of  the  numerous 
compositions  assigned  to  the  master  are  the  work  of  his 
hand ;  and  this  is  true  even  of  the  noble  St.  Jerome  taking 
the  thorn  from  the  lion's  paw,  in  the  Museum  of  Naples. 
It  was  the  habit  of  the  dealers  of  the  fifteenth  century  to 
send  Flemish  works  of  art  to  South  Italy,  and  numerous 
panels  in  Neapolitan  churches  prove  the  importance  of  the 
trade  without  throwing  light  on  the  history  of  painting  in 
the  Netherlands.  Though  Hubert  van  'Eyck  has  been 
restored  to  the  place  which  he  deserved  to  hold  in  the 
annals  of  his  country,  his  merits  and  services  met  with  but 
a  tardy  recognition.  He  was  soon  forgotten  in  Ghent,  and 
Burgundian  literature  treated  him  and  the  followers  of  his 
art  with  such  contempt  that  we  never  find  an  allusion  to 
them  in  Flemish  print  till  after  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  It  was  fortunate  that,  whilst  the  countrymen  of 
the  Van  Eycks  gave  evidence  of  so  much  indifference, 
Italian  writers  should  have  been  more  just  and  more  con- 
scientious. But  even  in  Italy  the  revival  of  criticism  came 
too  late  to  rescue  Hubert  van  Eyck  from  oblivion ;  and 
when  attention  was  directed,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  to  the 
art  of  the  Netherlands  by  Leon  Battista  Alberti,  by  Cyriacus 
of  Ancona,  by  Facius,  and  Filarete,  it  only  connected  Bel- 
gian painting  with  the  names  of  John  van  Eyck  and  Roger 
van  der  Weyden.  When  Vasari  published  the  first  edition 
of  his  lives  in  1550,  he  was  unaware  of  Hubert's  existence. 
He  began  to  print  the  second  edition  without  being  better 
informed ;  but  in  the  interval  which  elapsed  between  the 
appearance  of  his  first  and  last  volumes,  Guicciardini  had 
written  his  description  of  the  Low  Countries.  His  know- 
ledge of  Hubert,  as  John  van  Eyck's  brother  and  fellow- 
painter,  was  communicated  to  Vasari,  who  (1568)  made  but 
a  partial  and  unsatisfactory  correction  of  previous  statements 
in  a  final  chapter  on  Flemish  craftsmen.  Guicciardini' s  his- 
tory very  soon  attracted  attention  in  Belgium ;  and  the  facts 
which  it  contained  were  copied,  though  with  small  discrimi- 
nation, by  numerous  annalists.  Hubert  van  Eyck  recovered 


04  THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

a  place  in  the  history  of  art ;  but  he  was  not  raised  to  the 
first  rank,  which  he  ought  to  have  held,  and  which  modern 
history  now  properly  assigns  to  him. 

Of  John  van  Eyck  it  may  be  said  likewise  that  ho 
suffered  from  the  neglect  of  his  contemporaries,  for  though 
he  never  sank  into  complete  obscurity,  as  his  brother  had 
done,  his  claims  to  public  attention  were  superficially  urged ; 
and  recent  research  only  has  lifted  the  veil  which  concealed 
the  greatest  part  of  his  active  and  important  life.  I  shall 
endeavour  to  sketch  in  a  few  sentences  the  more  salient 
points  in  his  picturesque  career. 

Shortly  after  the  death  of  Michelle  de  France  at  Ghent, 
John  van  Eyck  entered  the  service  of  John  of  Bavaria,  whose 
recent  conquest  of  Holland  had  given  him  a  powerful  posi- 
tion amongst  the  princes  of  the  Netherlands.  From  Sep- 
tember 23rd,  1422,  to  January  13th,  1423  there  are  distinct 
traces  of  the  painter's  residence  at  the  Hague,  where  John  of 
Bavaria  held  his  court.1  What  pictures  he  may  have  painted 
there,  and  of  what  kind  his  occupations  may  have  been,  we  are 
unable  to  ascertain,  nor  is  it  without  a  melancholy  significance 
that  neither  at  the  Hague  nor  in  any  other  part  of  the  Nether- 
lands is  a  single  production  to  be  met  with  which  helps  us 
to  measure  the  painter's  acquirements  before  the  death  of 
Hubert.  It  will  be  seen  indeed  that  there  is  one  altarpiece 
in  the  regal  collection  of  the  Dukes  of  Devonshire  at  Chats- 
worth  which  might  claim  to  have  been  executed  in  1421, 
but  the  state  to  which  this  panel  has  been  reduced  by  the 
baleful  effects  of  time  and  restoring  is  such  as  to  render  it 
valueless  to  the  critic.  After  the  death  of  John  of  Bavaria, 
in  1425,  John  van  Eyck  took  service  with  Philip  the  Good 
of  Burgundy,  for  whom  he  painted  numerous  portraits,  which 
unfortunately  have  not  been  preserved.  In  his  official  capa- 
city he  bore  the  title  of  "  my  lord's  painter  and  varlet ; " 
his  salary  was  100  livres  per  annum  ;  and  he  enjoyed  per- 
quisites for  rent  at  Lille  or  at  Bruges,  or  when  despatched 

1  [See  the  notices  of  Mr.  A.  Pinchart  in  '  Early  Flemish  Painters,' 
2nd  ed.,  p.  40.  The  story  of  John  van  Eyck's  visit  to  Antwerp  in 
1420  rests  upon  a  false  reading  of  some  records  respecting  the  Antwerp 
Guild,  which  tell  of  Albert  Diirer's  visit  to  Antwerp  in  1520.] 


Chap.  I.  JAN   VAN   EYCK.  65 


on  special  missions  to  take  the  portraits  of  ladies  to  whose 
hand  the  frequently  widowed  Duke  might  aspire.  We  have 
note  of  some  of  these  "  s"ecret  pilgrimages"  in  1426,  1428, 
1430,  1433,  and  1436  ;  but  one  of  them  deserves  to  be  more 
particularly  recorded.  Two  Venetian  galleys  left  the  port 
of  Sluys  on  the  19th  of  October,  1428,  bearing  the  lord  of 
Roubaix  with  his  suite,  for  the  purpose  of  visiting  Lisbon  and 
negotiating  a  marriage  between  Isabel  of  Portugal  and  Philip 
the  Good.  The  embassy,  with  John  van  Eyck  in  its  company, 
reached  Lisbon  on  the  18th  of  December,  and  spent  several 
months  at  Arrayollos,  Aviz,  Santiago  di  Compostella,  Jaen, 
and  Granada.  Van  Eyck  painted  the  likeness  of  Isabel  of 
Portugal,  and  visited  Mahomet,  King  of  the  Moors.  He  spent 
upwards  of  nine  months  in  the  Peninsula,  and  came  home 
with  Philip's  bride  on  Christmas  day,  1429.  In  1430  he 
bought  a  house  at  Bruges,  where  he  lived  till  his  death  in 
1440-41.  During  a  long  period  of  service  under  Philip  he 
was  treated  with  all  the  distinction  which  it  was  possible  for 
the  Duke  to  confer  upon  him ;  and  it  is  a  proof  of  the  favour 
in  which  he  was  held,  that  Philip  was  godfather  to  his  daughter 
Lyennie,  who  in  1449  withdrew  to  a  convent  in  her  father's 
native  place  at  Maaseyck.1] 

Fortunately  the  world  possesses  various  authentic  pictures 
by  Jan  van  Eyck,  in  which  his  original  powers  are  more 
easily  recognized  than  in  the  part  he  executed  of  the  great 
altarpiece,  where  he  doubtless  accommodated  himself  with  true 
fraternal  piety  both  to  the  composition  and  general  style  of 
his  master  and  brother.  His  own  works  also  show  a  very 
different  originality  from  that  which  characterised  Hubert. 
He  possessed  neither  that  enthusiasm  for  the  rich  significance^ 
of  the  ecclesiastical  art  of  the  middle  ages,  nor  that  feeling 
for  beauty  in  human  forms  or  in  drapery,  which  belonged  to 
the  elder  brother.  His  feeling,  on  the  other  hand,  led  him 
to  the  closest  and  truest  conception  of  individual  nature.  In 
the  head  of  the  Saviour  he  adhered  to  the  early  Byzantine 
type,  but  all  his  Virgins  and  saints  have  a  thoroughly  portrait- 
like  character,  and  are  even  occasionally  ug"  in  form,  and 
without  any  particular  elevation  of  feeling.  His  realistic 
1  [' Early  Flemish  Painters,'  2nd  ed.,  131.] 

5 


06  THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III 

treatment  also  was  carried  out  with  admirable  mastery  in  the 
stuffs  of  which  his  draperies  were  formed,  in  the  backgrounds, 
and  in  every  possible  detail.     Onlyinjhe_ 
drapery  with  sharp  and  angular  folds  in  ideal  figures  has  he 
obviously  imitated  the    sculptors  who   preceded  him.     His 
hands  also,  on  these  occasions,  are^offerTtoo  narrowT 'Where, 
however,  he  had  only  to  paint  portraits — a  task  which  quite 
coincided  with  the  tendency  of  his  mind — he  attained  a  life- 
likeness  of  conception  and  a  truth  of  form  and  colouring  in 
every  part,  extending  even  to  the  minutest  details,  such  as  no 
other  artist  of  his  time  could  rival,  and  which  art  in  general 
has  seldom  produced.     As  regards  his  participation  in  the 
merit  of  the  improved  mode  of  oil-painting,  I  entirely  agree 
with  Messrs.  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  that  he  probably  found 
his  far  older  brother  already  in  possession  of  the  advantages 
he  had  developed,  though  Jan  van  Eyck  may,  by  his  own 
practice  of  the  art,  have  brought  them  to  greater  perfection.1 
In  the  management  of  the  brush  he  possessed  obviously  a 
greater  facility  than  Hubert,  by  which  also  he  was  enabled 
to  render  the  material  of  every  substance  with  marveUous 
fidelity.     Here,  as  in  his  flesh-tones,  the  colours  are  seen 
alternately  blended  with  tenderness,  or,  as  in  freely  growing 
hair,  lightly  thrown  on  to  the  panel.     In  the  aim  at  round- 
aess  of  modelling,  the  highest  lights  of  the  flesh-tones  ap- 
proximate to  white,  and  in  the  shadows,  to  a  powerful  and 
sometimes  rather  heavy  brown,  broken  with  yellow.     The 
brown  in  Hubert's  shadows,  on  the  contrary,  has  a  reddish 
tendency.     The  distinctness  of  his  sight,  and  the  wonderful 
precision  of  his.  hand,  inclined  Jan  van  Eyck  to  a  moderate 
and  occasionally  very  small  scale  of  size.     The  pleasure  he 
took  in  the  imitation  of  every  form  of  nature  led  him  in  some 
instances  to  desert  the  class  of  ecclesiastical  subjects,  as  for 
example  in  the  Otter-hunt,2  and  in  the  Bath-room,3  both  of 
these  being  early  cited  as  admirable  pictures,  though  they 
have  now  disappeared.     Finally,  he   so  loved  to  represent 
landscapes  with  distant  views,  that  he  not  only  introduced 

1  'Early  Flemish  Painters,'  1st  ed.,  pp.  44  and  46,  2nd  ed.,  pp.  48,  49. 

2  'Anonimo,'  by  Morelli,  p.  14. 
8  See  Facius. 


Chap.  I.  JAN   VAN   EYCK.    '  67 

them  in  the  background  of  his  historical  pictures,  but  an 
example  is  known  in  which  a  similar  landscape  constituted 
the  whole  of  his  subject.1  Besides  the  pictures  by  him  now 
in  England,  I  will  only  quote  those  which  are  easy  of  access. 
In  these  I  endeavour  to  observe  a  chronological  order.  Others 
of  less  importance  I  omit  altogether. 

[The  earliest  picture  connected  with  the  name  of  Jan  van 
Eyck  is  the  Consecration  of  Thomas  a  Becket  as  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  in  the  collection  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire 
at  Chatsworth.  Its  originality  appears  to  be  certified  by  the 
painter's  signature,  and  the  date  of  1421  f  but  the  panel  is 
so  injured,  and  the  treatment  is  so  much  below  the  usual 
level  of  the  master,  that  we  should  hesitate  to  accept  it  as 
evidence  of  his  powers,  even  in  the  period  noted  in  the  in- 
scription.]2 

St.  Francis  kneeling  before  a  mass  of  rock  and  receiving 
the  stigmata ;  the  lay  brother  before  him  with  his  hand 
covering  his  face.  This  small,  picture,  which  is  at  Lord 
Heytesbury's  seat,  Heytesbury,  in  Wiltshire,  is  remarkable 
for  its  solid  and  delicate  execution,  and  for  the  depth  and 
fulness  of  its  warm  tone.  The  fact  that  Lord  Heytesbury 
purchased  it  from  a  medical  man  in  Lisbon  renders  it  pro- 
bable that  this  work  was  executed  by  the  master  during  his 
stay  in  Portugal  in  1428-29.3 

Next  in  chronological  succession  follow  those  wings  of  the 

1  The  representation  of  the  world,  which,  according  to  Facius,  he 
executed  for  Philip  the  Good,  was  essentially  nothing  more  than  the 
representation  of  a  landscape,  which  was  especially  renowned  for  the 
indication   of   towns  and  villages,  and  for  the  illusion  produced  by 
perspective. 

2  [Jan  van  Eyck  sometimes  signed  his  pictures  when  they  were  only 
sketched  in ;  and  of  this  there  is  an  example  in  a  St.  Barbara  of  the 
Antwerp  Museum.     The  Chatsworth  altarpiece  may  have  been  signed 
under  similar  conditions,  and  it  may  then  have  been  finished  by  a  later 
school  hand.     Dr.  Waagen  believed  it  to  be  original,  and  what  is  still 
more  strange,  well  preserved.     See  his  '  Treasures,'  vol.  iii.,  p.  349.] 

3  [In  a  will  dated  Feb.  10,  1470,  (n.  s.,)  Anselme  Adorne,  Knight  and 
Lord  of  Corthuy,  near  Bruges,  bequeathes  to  each  of  his  two  daughters 
"  a  little  picture  by  John  van  Eyck,  representing  St.  Francis."     The 
panel  of  Lord  Heytesbury's  collection  may  be  one  of  these,  in  which 
case  Dr.  Waagen's  suggestion  that  it  was  painted  in  Portugal  would  bo 
incorrect.     See  A.  Pinchart, '  Archives  des  Arts,'  etc.,  8vo.     Gand,  1360, 
p.  264.] 


68  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Book  III. 

altarpiece  at  Ghent,  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  which  were 
the  work  of  Jan  van  Eyck.  I  am  the  more  inclined  also  to 
attribute  to  him  the  landscapes  in  the  wings  of  the  Hermits 
and  Pilgrims,  otherwise  painted  by  Hubert,  and  in  which 
southern  yegetation,  such  as  the  orange,  the  stone  pine,  the 
cypress,  and  the  palm,  are  rendered  with  great  fidelity, 
from  the  fact  that  Jan  van  Eyck  alone,  from  his  voyage  to 
Portugal,  had  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  these  objects  in 
nature. 

[Akin  to  this  altarpiece  of  the  Lamb,  in  subject  and  feeling, 
but  altogether  in  the  spirit  of  John  van  Eyck,  is  the  «  Fount 
of  Salvation,'  in  the  Museum  of  Madrid.] 

The  figure  of  the  Almighty  is  seen  enthroned  under  a  gor- 
geous Gothic  canopy,  holding  a  sceptre  in  the  left  hand,  and 
in  the  act  of  benediction  with  the  right.  At  the  sides  are 
the  Virgin  reading  on  the  right,  and  St.  John  the  Evangelist 
writing  on  the  left.  On  the  arms  of  the  throne  are  the  attri- 
butes of  the  four  Evangelists  ;  at  the  feet  of  the  Almighty 
the  Immaculate.  Lamb,  whom  he  made  an  offering  for  the  sins 
of  the  world.  Below,  this  offering  is  seen  in  the  form  of  a 
stream  of  water,  in  which  the  sacramental  wafers  are  floating, 
flowing  into  a  little  flower-garden,  where  six  angels  are  cele- 
brating the  glory  of  God  on  different  instruments.  Beyond 
these,  on  each  side,  are  singing  angels  under  Gothic  canopies, 
also  terminating  in  lesser  pointed  towers.  A  scroll  in  the 
hands  of  one  of  the  angels,  on  the  left,  contains  the  inscrip- 
tion, which  sets  forth  the  meaning  of  the  stream  of  water  as 
follows  :  "  Can  : — fons  ortorum,  puteus  aquarum  viventium  " 
— referring  to  the  text  in  the  Song  of  Solomon,  ch.  iv.  verse 
15  :  "A  fountain  of  gardens,  a  well  of  living  waters."  The 
water  flows  finally  into  a  Gothic  fountain,  which  rises  in  the 
centre  of  the  foreground,  and  which,  with  the  usual  allegorical 
allusion,  is  decorated  with  a  pelican  feeding  her  young  with 
her  blood.  On  the  right  are  the  ranks  of  the  Blessed,  vic- 
torious through  Christ,  headed  by  the  Pope  standing,  bearing 
a  tall  crozier  with  the  standard  in  his  left  hand,  and  with  the 
right  directing  the  attention  of  the  Emperor,  who  is  kneeling 
in  adoration,  to  the  fountain,  as  the  source  of  all  salvation. 
Behind  both  are  other  clerical  and  lay  personages.  On  the 


J.COOPEK  .   Sc. 


THE   TRIUMPH   OF  THE   CHURCH. 
In  the  National  Museum,  Madrid. 


Chap.  I.  JAN  VAN  EYCK.  69 


left,  in  front,  is  the  High  Priest  standing,  his  eyes  bound, 
holding  a  broken  standard  in  his  right  hand,  with  his  left 
endeavouring  to  prevent  a  kneeling  Jew  from  paying  adora- 
tion. Besides  these  are  eight  more  Jews,  in  lively  actions  of 
horror  and  despair.  In  the  three  principal  upper  figures,  and 
in  the  angels,  a  deep  religious  expression  is  seen  combined 
with  a  pure  feeling  for  beauty  ;  in  the  lower  figures  a  keen 
portrait-like  character  prevails.  The  momentary  and  dra- 
matic actions  of  some  of  the  Jews  are  especially  admirable. 
The  colouring  of  this  picture,  which,  independent  of  the 
upper  projection,  is  five  feet  six  inches  high,  is  harmonious 
and  clear,  and  the  very  careful  execution  masterly  in  the 
highest  degree.1 

The  Virgin  and  Child  seated  under  a  penthouse.  In- 
scribed "  Completum  anno  domini  MOCCCXXXII  per  Johannem 
de  Eyck,  Brugis,"  with  his  motto,  "  Als  ich  chan,"  in  other 
words.  "  as  well  as  I  can."  The  head  of  the  Virgin  in  this 
little  picture  is  of  unusually  noble  character,  the  folds  of  the 
drapery  very  sharp  and  angular.  This  picture  is  at  Ince 
Hall,  near  Liverpool. 

The  Virgin  enthroned,  giving  the  breast  to  the  Child. 
Her  features  are  pleasing,  but  of  no  spiritual  character. 
The  Child,  who  is  clumsy  in  body,  is  less  attractive.  The 
sharp  and  admirably  rendered  folds  of  the  Virgin's  drapery 
hide  the  form  too  much.  This  picture,  which,  from  its 
former  possessor,  the  Duke  of  Lucca,  was  called  the  Madonna 
di  Lucca,  is  now  in  the  Stadel  Institute  at  Frankfort. 

(The  portrait  <f .  a  man  in  the  National  Gallery,  signed  and 
dated  Octooer,  1432  (No.  290) — a  sunny  picture,  without 
much  shadow,  and  of  a  yellow  tinge — is  blended  and  finished 
to  the  utmost. 

More  powerful  in  contrasts  of  light  and  shade,  and  more 
perfectly  rounded,  is  the]  portrait  of  a  man,  in  the  same 
gallery,  (No.  222),  signed  "Johes  de  Eyck  me  fecit  ano 
MOCCC33,  21.  Octobris,"and  his  motto  as  above.  This  picture 

1  [Dr.  Waagen  held,  before  seeing  this  picture,  that  it  was  by  Hubert 
van  Eyck.  He  did  not  think  fit  to  reverse  his  judgment  after  a  visit  to 
Madrid  in  1863.  Yet  the  preponderance  of  critical  opinion  is  altogether 
against  him.  See  '  Early  Flemish  Painters,'  2nd  ed.,  p.  99.] 


70  THE    FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

is  of  marvellous  truth  and  vivacity,  and  equal  precision  and 
mastery  of  execution. 

[Of  larger  size,  and  equally  attractive — for  finish  quite  a 
miracle — is  the  "  Man  with  the  Pinks,"  a  portrait  of  a  beard- 
less weather-beaten  old  man,  in  the  Suermondt  collection  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle.]  [Now  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  525  A.] 

In  the  National  Gallery,  also,  No.  186,  are  the  portraits 
of  Jean  Arnolfini  and  his  wife,  Jeanne  de  Chenany.     They  are 
\        dressed  in  holiday  attire,  and  are  represented  standing,  hand 
\    /  in  hand,  in  a  small  room,  with  numerous  accessories.     At 
their  feet  is  a  terrier  dog.     Signed  "  Johannes  de  Eyck  fuit 
hie  f.  1434."     No  other  picture  shows  so  high  a  development 
of  the  master's  powers.     Besides  every  other  quality  peculiar 
to  him  which  we  have  already  mentioned,  and  which  it  pos- 
sesses in  fullest  measure,  we  observe  here  a  perfection  of 
general  keeping  and  of  chiaroscuro  which  no  other  specimen 
of  this  whole  period  affords.      It  is   no  wonder   that  the 
Princess  Mary,  sister  of  Charles  V.,  and  Governess  of  the 
Netherlands,  should,  as  Van  Mander  relates,  for  this  picture, 
have  bestowed  a  post  of  100  guldens  a  year  upon  a  barber  to 
V  whom  it  belonged.1 

^The  Virgin  with  the  Child  on  her  arm,  to  whom  St. 
Barbara  is  representing  the  donor,  an  ecclesiastic  in  white 
robes.  The  background,  landscape  and  architecture.  This 
remarkable  work  is,  in  point  of  fact,  a  delicate  miniature  in 
oil,  and  follows  the  preceding  picture  very  closely  in  time. 
At  Berlin  Museum,  from  Burleigh  House. 

Nearly  related  in  every  respect  to  the  last  mentioned  is 
a  picture  in  the  Louvre,  No.  162,  representing  the  Virgin 
crowned  by  an  angel,  with  the  Child  on  her  lap,  and  adored 
by  the  donor  Rollin,  chancellor  of  Philip  the  Good,2  who 
kneels  before  her.  The  features  of  the  Virgin  are  pretty, 
but  of  little  spirituality  of  character,  the  Child  of  unusual 
elegance  for  the  master,  the  angel  very  beautiful,  and  the 

1  [This  story,  derived  from  Van  Mander,  is  not  founded  on  fact,  for 
the  picture  belonged  to  Margaret  of  Austria  as  early  as  1516.] 

2  We  gather  this  from  a  passage  in  CourtepeVs  '  Descrip.  Hist,  et 
Topogr.  du  Duche"  de  Bourgogne,'  quoted  by  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  in 
'  Early  Flemish  Painters,'  2nd  ed.,  p.  96.     According  to  this  the  picture 
was  formerly  in  the  sacristy  of  Notre  Dame  at  Autun. 


Chap.  I.  JAN   VAN   EYCK.  71 

portrait  of  the  donor  of  astonishing  energy  and  animation. 
The  mantle  of  the  Virgin  is  in  numerous  sharp  breaks.  The 
landscape  background,  which  exhibits  a  town  lying  upon  a 
river,  and  distant  snow  mountains,  contains  the  richest  and 
most  incredible  amount  of  detail  that  the  master  has  be- 
queathed to  us. 

Next  in  succession  we  may  take  a  picture,  inscribed  1436, 
in  the  collection  of  the  Academy  at  Bruges,  which,  in  its 
different  parts,  is  of  very  unequal  merit.  The  Virgin,  seated 
under  a  canopy,  is  of  unusual  ugliness,  and  the  Child,  who 
is  playing  with  a  parrot,  has  the  features  <5f  a  little  old  man. 
The  head  also  of  the  St.  George,  standing  on  the  left  of  the 
Madonna,  has  no  spiritual  expression  whatever.  On  the 
other  hand,  St.  Donatian,  standing  opposite  to  him,  though 
of  very  portrait-like  character,  is  incomparably  more  digni- 
fied. But  the  most  admirable  figure  is  that  of  the  kneeling 
donor,  the  Canon,  George  de  Pala,  who  is  presented  by  St. 
Donatian.  The  decided  chasacter  of  his  very  individual 
features  borders  on  hardness.1  This  work,  with  figures  about 
two-thirds  life-size,  is  the  largest  we  know  by  the  master. 

The  portrait  of  Jan  de  Leeuw,  in  the  gallery  of  the 
Belvedere  at  Vienna,  with  the  same  date  inscribed,  has 
the  same  certainty  of  forms,  and  is  unusually  grey  in  the 
shadows. 

Another  portrait,  of  much  analogy  to  the  last,  is  also  in  the 
Belvedere  Gallery.  It  is  there  called,  though  in  my  opinion 
erroneously,  the  portrait  of  Jodocus  Vydts  in  advanced  years. 

The  picture  of  St.  Ursula,  seated  before  a  rich  Gothic 
tower — her  attribute — is  in  the  Museum  at  Antwerp,  dated 
1437.  It  is  especially  interesting  as  showing  how  Jan  van 
Eyck  treated  chiaroscuro.  Although  executed  with  the  point 
of  the  brush,  it  has  all  the  effect  of  a  careful  pen-drawing. 

The  head  of  Christ  as  Salvator  Mundi  (1438),  in  the  Berlin 
Museum,  shows  us  how  closely  he  adhered  in  his  principal 
forms  to  the  early,  bearded,  eastern  type,  at  the  same  time 
developing  his  warm  and  powerful  colouring,  and  peculiar 

1  See  engi'aving  of  this  picture,  in  which,  however,  little  attention 
has  been  paid  to  the  heads,  in  Carton's  '  Les  Trois  Freres  van  Eyck,'  p. 
72,  where  also  the  elaborate  inscriptions  on  the  frame  are  fully  given. 


;  72  THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Cook  III. 

mastery  over  detail,  as  for  instance  in  the  painting  of  the 
beard. 

The  portrait  of  his  wife,  who  was,  however,  by  no  means 
attractive  in  feature,  in  the  Academy  at  Bruges,  painted  in 
1439,  is  a  specimen  of  marvellous  delicacy  and  decision  of 
carrying  out.  It  is  also  truer  in  colouring,  though  less  warm, 
than  his  other  portraits.1 

To  his  more  highly  finished  pictures  belongs  finally  a  small 
altarpiece  in  the  Dresden  Gallery.  The  centre  represents 
the  Virgin  seated  with  the  Child  in  a  rich  chapel  of  Roman- 
esque architecture  :  the  inner  sides  of  the  wings  contain  St. 
Catherine  and  St.  George,  who  is  presenting  the  donor ;  the 
outer  sides  the  Annunciation  in  chiaroscuro. 

Finally,  I  must  mention  the  embroidered  ecclesiastical 
robes,  preserved  in  the  Imperial  Treasury  at  Vienna,  the 
cartoons  for  which,  I  am  convinced,  proceeded  from  Jan  van 
Eyck.2  These  robes  were  executed  for  Philip  the  Good, 
for  the  festival  instituted  by  him  in  honour  of  the  Order 
of  the  Golden  Fleece.  A  figure  of  the  Almighty,  a  Baptism 
of  Christ,  and  some  Saints,  are  imbued  with  Jan  van  Eyck's 
feeling. 

The  brothers  Van  Eyck  had  a  sister,  by  name  MARGARET 
VAN  EYCK,  who  is  said  to  have  been  a  skilful  painter,  but  to 
whom  no  work  can  with  certainty  be  assigned.  She  died 
also  before  her  brother  Jan,  and  was  buried,  like  Hubert,  in 
the  cathedral  at  Ghent. 

It  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  the  discovery  of  a 
third  brother,  of  the  name  of  LAMBERT  VAN  EYCK,  has  been 
made.  A  notice  in  the  church  books  of  the  cathedral  of 
Bruges,  dated  21st  March,  1442,  states  that,  on  the  petition  of 
Lambert  van  Eyck,  brother  of  the  celebrated  painter,  Jan  van 
Eyck,  the  chapter  had  granted  permission,  with  consent  of  the 
bishop,  to  have  the  body  of  the  same  removed  from  the  outer 
precincts  of  the  cathedral,  where  it  had  lain,  to  a  spot  within 

1  On  the  upper  border  of  this  picture  is  the  inscription,  "Conjux 
meus  Johannes  me  complevit  1439,  11  Juni."     On  the  lower  border, 
"  Etas  mea  triginta  tria  annorum.     ALS  IXH  XAN." 

2  [Dr.  Waagen  modified  his  opinion  as  to  these  ornaments.     In  his 
'  Handbuch,'  8vo.,  Stuttgardt,  1862,  p.  136,  he  expresses  the  opinion  that 
the  cartoons  must  have  been  by  Jan  van  E}Tck  and  Roycr  van  der  Weydcn.] 


Chap.  I.  LAMBERT   VAN   EYCK.  73 

the  edifice  near  the  font.1  This  fact  of  a  third  brother  would 
have  been  of  little  consequence,  but  for  a  passage  in  the 
archives  of  Lille,  from  which  it  appears  that  he  was  also  a 
painter.2  If  this  was  really  the  case,  an  unfinished  picture, 
mentioned  in  an  almost  contemporary  account  of  Jan  van 
Eyck,  may  probably  be  by  him.  According  to  that  account, 
this  picture  was  painted  in  1445,  for  Nicolas  of  Maelbecke, 
.abbot  and  dean  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Martin  at  Ypres ; 
was  placed  above  the  grave  of  the  donor  in  the  church  of  the 
monastery,  he  having  died  in  1447  ;  was  taken  by  the  last 
Bishop  of  Ypres  into  his  palace  at  the  invasion  of  the  French, 
towards  the  close  of  the  last  century ;  and  after  being  long 
in  the  hands  of  M.  Bogaert,  a  bookseller  at  Bruges,  came 
finally  by  purchase  into  the  families  of  Van  der  Schriek  [and 
Schollaert],  at  Louvain.8  It  consists  of  a  centre  and  two 
wings.  In  the  first,  the  Holy  Virgin,  as  Queen  of  Heaven, 
splendidly  crowned,  with  long  flowing  hair,  and  a  wide,  richly 
ornamented  purple  mantle,  holds  the  infant  Christ  in  her 
arms ;  before  her  kneels  the  donor  of  the  picture,  and  the 
background  consists  of  ancient  church  architecture,  through 
which  we  look  out  on  a  rich  and  animated  landscape.  The 
wings  contain  four  subjects  from  the  Old  Testament,  in  part 
only  sketched,  which  must  be  taken  to  relate  the  mystery  of 
the  Nativity,  in  the  spirit  of  the  ancient  Christian  symbols. 
The  subjects  are — Moses  and  the  Burning  Bush,  Gideon  with 
the  Angel  and  the  Miraculous  Fleece,  the  Closed  Gate  of 
Ezekiel,  and  Aaron  with  the  Budding  Kod.  On  the  outside 

1  Respecting  this  and  all  other  records  of  Lambert  van  Eyck,  see  the 
often  cited  Carton,  '  Les  Trois  Freres  van  Eyck,'  p.  54,  etc. 

2  [The  proof  which  Dr.  Waagen  adduces  can  scarcely  be  accepted  sis 
a  convincing  one.    He  says  :  "  An  account  book  of  the  expenses  of  Duke 
Philip  the  Good  states,  '  A  Lambert  de  Heck,  frere  de  Johannes  de 
Heck,  peintrede  Monseigneur,  pour  avoir  e'te',  k  plusieurs  fois,  devers  mon 
dit  seigneur,  pour  aucunes  besognes  que  mon  dit  seigneur  voulait  faire 
faire.'"  The  quality  of  painter  in  this  sentence  does  not  apply  to  Lambert, 
but  to  John  van  Eyck.] 

J  Passavant  declares  this  picture  to  be  a  copy,  but  Dr.  de  Merseman, 
a  thorough  investigator  of  art  at  Bruges,  has  proved  that  this  is  the 
same  work  which  was  formerly  in  the  church  at  Ypres.  See  Carton's 
'  Les  Trois  Freres  van  Eyck,'  p.  62,  etc.  The  improbability  of  a  copy 
having  been  made  of  this,  in  many  parts,  only  just  begun  work,  speaks 
for  itself. 


74  THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

of  the  wings  there  is  the  Virgin,  in  chiaroscuro,  with  the 
Child,  appearing  to  the  Emperor  Augustus  and  the  Tiburtine 
Sibyl,  who  explains  to  him  the  meaning  of  the  vision. 

The  principal  portions,  namely,  the  Virgin  and  the  Donor, 
are  too  feeble  in  drawing  and  execution  of  the  flesh  parts  for 
Jan  van  Eyck,  nor  could  he  really  have  taken  part  in  the 
picture,  since  his  death  is  known  to  have  taken  place  in 
1441.  At  the  same  time,  there  is  such  affinity  in  all  acces- 
sories, in  the  hair  and  crown  of  the  Virgin,  and  especially  in 
the  rich  landscape,  to  Jan  van  Eyck's  works,  that  there  can 
be  no  doubt  of  its  having  proceeded  from  the  atelier  of  a 
contemporary  master.  The  old  record  too,  which  names 
Jan  van  Eyck  as  the  originator  of  the  work,  is  so  far  in 
favour  of  Lambert  from  the  fact  that  it  was  deeply  interested 
in  attributing  it  to  the  more  celebrated  of  the  brothers.* 
Several  of  the  smaller  figures  show  so  striking  an  accordance 
with  the  two  Sibyls  and  the  prophet  Zechariah  in  the  Ghent 
altarpiece,  that  I  am  also  inclined  to  attribute  these,  the 
weaker  portions  of  that  great  work,  to  the  hand  of  Lambert. 
For  the  same  reasons  it  is  probable  that  he  was  the  author 
of  the  repetition  of  the  great  picture  in  the  Academy  at 
Bruges,  which  in  every  way  approaches  so  near  the  original, 
and  is  now  Nos.  413 — 424  in  the  Museum  at  Antwerp. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SCHOOL  OF  THE  BEOTHEKS  VAN  EYCK  TILL  NEAR  THE  CLOSE  OF 
THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 

THE  influence  of  the  realistic  tendency  in  art  thus  completely 
carried  out,  as  well  as  of  the  new  and  admirable  mode  of 
applying  oil-pigments,  extended  to  every  country  in  Europe 
where  art  was  practised  with  any  success.  In  the  Nether- 
lands themselves  it  was  of  course  most  felt ;  after  them  in 

1  See  my  article  in  the  '  Kunstblatt '  of  1849,  Nos.  16  and  17. 


Chap.  II.  PETRVS   CRISTUS.  75 

Germany ;  and  then  in  France,  England,  Italy,  Spain,  and 
Portugal.  We  need  only  examine  its  progress  in  the  two 
first-named  countries. 

Among  the  Netherlandish  scholars  and  followers  of  the 
Van  Eycks,  of  whom  any  record  has  been  preserved,  some 
appear  to  have  been  gifted  with  considerable  powers,  though 
none  attained  the  excellence  of  their  great  precursors.  Al- 
though a  number  of  works  representing  this  school  still  exist 
in  the  various  countries  of  Europe,  yet,  compared  with  the 
actual  abundance  of  them  at  one  time,  they  constitute  but  a 
scanty  remnant.  And  more  scanty  are  the  notices  we  possess 
regarding  the  lives  and  circumstances  of  these  painters  ;  the 
documentary  researches,  however,  of  past  years  have  elicited 
a  few  fresh  facts  and  dates.1 

[PETRUS  CRISTUS,  born  at  Baerle,  near  Deynze,  in  Belgium, 
is  one  of  the  few  painters  whom  we  trace  directly  to  the 
studio  of  John  van  Eyck.  In  a  picture  of  1447,  exhibited 
at  Frankfort,  he  copied  the  figures  of  Adam  and  Eve  on  the 
altarpiece  of  the  Lamb,  and  an  oriental  carpet  introduced  by 
Van  Eyck  into  his  panel  of  the  Virgin  of  Lucca.  Petrus 
Cristus  purchased  the  freedom  of  Bruges  in  1444 ;  painted 
the  likeness  of  Edward  Grimston,  now  in  the  collection  of 
the  Earl  of  Verulam,  in  1446  ;  and  was  free  of  the  guild  of 
St.  Luke  in  1450.  He  was  still  living  at  Bruges  in  1471. 
His  church  pictures  are  singularly  without  elevation,  but  his 
skill  in  portrait  is  shown  to  have  been  considerable.  It  is 
characteristic  of  his  manner  that  the  human  figure  is  drawn 
in  stunted  proportions,  with  rounded  heads  of  unselect  shape. 
The  colours  are  of  a  dusky  gloss,  yet  defective  in  transpa- 
rency. A  Virgin  and  child  '  with  a  fountain,'  ascribed  to 
John  van  Eyck,  in  the  Berlin  Coll.,  No. 525  B,  is  probably  one 
of  the  earliest  works  of  Cristus.  The  Virgin  and  Saints  (1447), 
in  the  Stadel  at  Frankfort,  is  a  better  picture,  with  which  the 
Annunciation,  Visitation,  Nativity,  and  Epiphany,  in  the 

1  The  most  distinguished  of  these  inquirers  have  been  Count  Leon 
de  Laborde,  at  Paris  ;  M.  Wauters,  the  keeper  of  the  records  at  Brus- 
sels ;  the  Abbe  Carton,  at  Bruges  ;  Edward  van  Even,  keeper  of  the 
records  at  Louvain  ;  and  many  other  Belgian  gentlemen,  whose  names 
are  mentioned  in  the  Introduction  to  the  Catalogue  of  the  Antwerp 
Museum  of  1857,  p.  ix.,  etc. 


76  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Book  III. 

Madrid  Museum,  deserve  to  be  classed.  Cristus  painted  ID 
duskier  tones  as  he  grew  older ;  and  this  peculiarity  may  be 
observed  in  the  St.  Elisius  of  the  Oppenheim  collection  at 
Cologne,  painted  (1449)  for  the  Goldsmiths'  Guildhall  at 
Antwerp,  and  in  the  Last  Judgment,  of  the  Berlin  Museum, 
executed  (1452)  for  a  convent  at  Burgos.  In  the  last  of 
these  pictures  Cristus  displays  quite  a  childish  conception  of 
Paradise,  at  the  same  time  that  he  prepares  us,  in  a  repre- 
sentation of  Hell,  for  the  drolleries  of  Jerom  Bosch.  Inte- 
resting examples  to  study  are  the  Last  Judgment  and  the 
Crucifixion,  in  the  Hermitage  of  St.  Petersburg,  a  Virgin  and 
Child,  in  the  gallery  of  Turin,  and  a  kneeling  dignitary,  with 
St.  Anthony,  in  the  Museum  of  Copenhagen.  There  are 
two  masterly  portraits,  male  and  female,  from  his  hand  in 
the  Uflizi  at  Florence,  assigned,  erroneously,  to  Van  der  Goes. 
A  portrait  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  of  very  soft  and  blended 
treatment,  represents  a  lady  in  the  peaked  cap  of  the  Flem- 
ings of  the  fifteenth  century.  It  would  be  more  instructive 
if  it  had  not  been  robbed  of  the  brown  glazings  noticeable 
in  a  fine  likeness  of  Marco  Barbarigo  (No.  696),  in  the 
-National  Gallery,  which  is  wrongly  catalogued  in  that  collec- 
tion as  by  Gerard  van  der  Meire.]1 

[it  would  be  easy  to  show,  if  it  had  not  been  shown  before 
in  innumerable  instances,  that  great  masters  seldom  produce 
able  disciples.  Neither  Hubert  nor  Jan  van  Eyck  were 
exceptions  to  this  rule.  The  talents  which  they  displayed  at 
Ghent  and  at  Bruges  were  not  transmitted  with  any  abun- 
dance to  their  pupils ;  and  the  school  of  the  Netherlands 
migjit  perhaps  have  perished,  but  that  it  was  kept  up  by  other 
masters  of  almost  equal  ability  in  various  cities  of  Belgium. 
Whilst  John  van  Eyck  was  giving  a  name  to  Bruges,  by  the 
number  and  beauty  of  the  pictures  which  he  produced  there, 
another  artist,  less  great,  but  not  less  original,  was  slowly 
rising  into  notice  at,  Brussels.  In  the  course  of  a  long  and 
fruitful  practice  this  talented  craftsman  formed  one  great 
pupil,  who  transferred  his  easel  to  Bruges,  and,  purging  a 

1  [See  for  the  latest  proofs  in  respect  of  Petrus  Cristus,  'Le  Befiroi,'  foL 
Bruges,  1863,  i.,  151,  236,  and  237.] 


Chap.  II.  ROGER  VAN   DER  WEYDEN.  77 


dry  and  inflexible  style  of  some  of  its  defects,  tempered 
anew  the  art  of  the  disciples  of  the  Van  Eycks.  The  influence 
of  Brussels  and  of  Bruges  commingled  was  subsequently  felt 
at  Louvain,  and  modelled  there  into  a  peculiar  form,  which 
gave  its  impress  to  Quentin  Massys,  the  last  truly  national 
painter  of  the  fifteenth  century  in  the  Netherlands.  We  may 
affirm  that  the  school  of  the  Meuse,  at  the  head  of  which  the 
Van  Eycks  remained,  was  the  greatest  that  illustrated 
Flanders ;  but  we  shall  find  it  necessary  to  admit  that  the 
school  of  the  Schelde,  presided  over  by  Van  der  Weyden,  was 
that  which  became  chiefly  instrumental  in  extending  the  limits 
of  northern  art,  sending  forth  roots  into  every  part  of  the 
Netherlands,  and  far  away  to  the  eastward  in  the  various 
provinces  of  Southern  Germany.  It  was  Van  der  Weyden  who 
educated  Memling  and  Dierick  Bouts.  It  was  Memling  who 
gave  new  life  to  the  school  of  Bruges ;  Bouts  who  taught 
Quentin  Massys ;  but  neither  Memling  nor  Bouts  would  have 
done  such  service  had  they  npt  had  the  pictures,  the  pre- 
cepts, and  the  pupils  of  the  Van  Eycks  to  guide  and  assist 
them  in  their  training. 

Tournai  is  the  birthplace,  Eobert  Campin  was  the  master, 
of  ROGER  VAN  DER  WEYDEN  ; '  but  we  know  no  more  of  the 
form  of  Tournaisian  art  than  is  apparent  in  the  works  of  its 
latest  representative.  In  1432,  Roger  van  der  Weyden  took 
the  freedom  of  his  guild ;  in  1436  we  find  him  living  at 
Brussels,  with  the  title  of  "  town  painter." 2  It  is  an  error  to 
suppose  that  he  learnt  the  rudiments  of  his  profession  from 
John  van  Eyck.  His  style  of  drawing,  treatment,  and  feel- 
ing for  colour,  differ  altogether  from  those  of  the  Van  Eycks, 
and  presuppose  a  different  education,  nor  is  it  quite  certain 
that  he  mastered  all  the  subtleties  of  oil  painting,  as  taught 
by  the  artists  of  Maaseyck.  In  Tournai,  rather  than  at 

1  [Roger  van  der  Weyden  was  the  son  of  Henri  van  der  Weyden,  of 
Tournai,  and  himself  born  at  Tournai ;  but  the  date  of  his  birth  is  un- 
known.    See  A.   Pinchart  in  Annotations  to   '  Les  Anciens  Peintres 
Flamands,'  pp.  ccvi-vii.] 

2  [See  the  authority  quoted  above,  and  further,  A.  Pinchart's  'Archives 
des  Arts,'  vol.  ii.  p.  156,  where  Roger  van  der  Weyden's  name,  with 
the  qualification  of  "  Stad  Scilder,"  is  still  noted  in  the  register  of  the 
brotherhood  of  the  Holy  Cross  at  Brussels  in  1462.] 


78  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Book  III. ' 

Bruges,  we  trace  the  rise  of  that  peculiar  school  which  sprang 
from  the  study  of  tinted  sculpture.  Van  der  Weyden  him- 
self did  not  refuse  commissions  for  colouring  bas-reliefs. 
His  most  characteristic  pictures  are  composed  in  the  spirit 
and  dyed  after  the  fashion  of  bas-reliefs  ;  the  carved  portals 
with  fretted  ornaments  which  enclose  his  compositions  are 
copied  with  patient  and  minute  fidelity  from  the  edifices  of 
the  period.  We  deplore  the  accidents  which  deprived  us  of 
the  works  of  the  Van  Eycks  previous  to  1432 ;  but  we  note 
with  equal  concern  the  loss  of  all  Van  der  Weyden's  early 
pictures.  Not  a  single  one  of  his  works  is  left  at  Brussels, 
where  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life,  though  we  know 
that  four  of  his  largest  and  most  important  canvases  were 
executed  for  the  town  hall.  The  oldest  of  his  church  pictures 
is  that  which  represents  the  Nativity,  the  wail  of  Mary  over 
the  body  of  Christ,  and  the  Resurrection,  in  the  gallery  of  Ber- 
lin ;  and  this  we  can  only  trace  to  a  Spanish  monastery  in  1445. 
But  two  replicas  of  an  altarpiece,  representing  scenes  from 
the  life  of  the  Baptist,  are  specimens  of  the  same  manner, 
preserved  in  the  galleries  of  Berlin  and  Frankfort.  At  a 
later  period  Van  der  Weyden  composed  a  Descent  from  the 
Cross  for  a  church  at  Louvain,  which  was  subsequently  sent 
by  Mary  of  Hungary  to  Spain.  This  altarpiece,  of  which 
there  are  numerous  replicas,  is  now  in  the  Madrid  Museum. 
Another  famous  example  is  the  Last  Judgment,  in  the  Hos- 
pital of  Beaune,  completed  for  the  Burgundian  Chancellor 
Rollin  between  1443  and  1447. 

In  1449,  Van  der -Weyden  paid  a  visit  to  Italy;  and 
during  a  stay  of  .some  months  at  Ferrara,  where  he  painted 
a  Descent  from  the  Cross  for  Lionel  d'Este,  he  was  treated 
with  great  distinction  by  a  large  body  of  artists,  imbued,  by 
connection  with  the  northern  school  of  Padua,  with  some  of 
the  distinctive  peculiarities  of  transalpine  art.  It  is  curious 
to  observe  that  the  melancholy  realism  of  a  style  which  is 
only  attractive  because  of  its  extreme  earnestness  should 
have  been  thought  worthy  of  admiration,  and  even  of 
imitation,  by  the  Ferrarese ;  equally  curious  to  note  that  Italian 
painting,  whether  observed  at  Ferrara,  at  Florence,  or  at 
Rome,  made  no  impression  on  Van  der  Weyden's  pictorial 


Chap.  II.  ROGER   VAN   DER   WEYDEN.  79 

method.  It  may  be  supposed  that  the  old  and  experienced 
Fleming  wandered  at  Florence  into  the  churches  adorned  by 
Giotto,  Orcagna,  Masaccio,  and  Angelico ;  for  his  presence 
may  be  traced  in  the  city  of  the  Medici,  where  he  painted  a 
picture  that  still  remains  to  us  in  the  Stadel  at  Frankfort. 
Yet  we  look  in  vain  for  a  passing  change  in  his  feeling  for 
colour  or  form.  It  seemed  as  if  Flemish  realism  was  proof 
against  all  influences  of  a  more  genial  and  grander  style.  At 
Rome,  one  should  think,  Van  der  Weyden  might  have  admired 
the  masterpieces  of  the  early  Christian  time,  or  those  of  the 
Florentines,  who  had  been  summoned  from  time  to  time  to 
cover  with  precious  frescos  the  walls  of  the  most  celebrated 
churches ;  yet  it  was  not  so,  and  he  preferred  to  the  creations 
of  Giotto  or  Angelico,  the  feebler  but  more  realistic  produc- 
tions of  Gentile  da  Fabriano. 

On  his  return  from  Rome  in  1450,  Roger  van  der  Weyden 
completed  for  Pierre  Bladelin,  treasurer  of  the  Golden 
Fleece,  an  Adoration  of  the  Infant  Christ,  which,  after  adorn- 
ing for  centuries  the  altar  of  a  church  at  Middelburg,  was 
transferred  at  last  to  the  Berlin  Museum.  In  1455  he 
composed  for  Jean  Robert,  Abbot  of  St.  Aubert  of  Cambrai, 
an  altarpiece,  which,  on  very  good  grounds,  is  considered 
identical  with  that  of  the  Madrid  Museum,  representing  the 
Crucifixion,  the  Expulsion,  and  the  Last  Judgment. 

Roger  van  der  Weyden  died  on  the  16th  of  June,  1464, 
at  Brussels,  and  was  buried  at  Ste.  Gudule.  The  most 
characteristic  feature  of  his  style  is  its  expressive  realism. 
He  preferred  and  usually  composed  those  subjects  of  gospel 
history  which  convey  sentiments  of  grief  and  pity.  He 
sternly  rejected  the  notion  that  form  should  be  select  and 
attractive.  Neither  in  the  shape  of  the  human  frame,  nor  in 
the  features  of  the  head,  nor  in  that  of  the  feet  and  hands, 
did  he  strive  for  more  than  a  copy  of  ordinary  nature — but 
even  in  this  copy  he  was  not  always  successful,  and  we 
often  observe  deficient  drawing  of  extremities.  It  is  the 
simplicity  with  which  he  gives  expression  by  large  and 
melancholy  eyes,  thought  by  projections  of  the  forehead, 
grief  by  contracted  muscles,  and  suffering  by  attenuation  of 
the  flesh,  which  touches  us.  His  earnestness  is  so  genuine 


80  THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

and  so  consistent,  that  however  much  we  may  be  dissatis- 
fied with  the  means,  we  still  are  impressed  with  the  result, 
There  is  not  an  approach  to  a  smile  in  any  face  that  Van  der 
Weyclen  painted ;  but  we  may  observe  many  a  face  wrung 
with  agony  and  many  a  tear.  The  rare  tenuity  of  outlines, 
denning  parts  with  minute  dryness,  the  usual  absence  of 
shadow,  the  pallid  scale  of  tones  in  which  flesh  is  modelled, 
the  light  of  dawn  before  sunrise,  which  fills  the  room  and 
landscape  with  an  agreeable  and  invariable  atmosphere, 
contribute  greatly  to  the  impression  which  we  receive. 
The  draperies  are  often  broken  up  into  angles,  the  stiffness 
or  hardness  of  which  is  not  diminished  as  it  co-exists  with  a 
thick  texture  of  stuffs  ;  but  there  is  no  excess  of  ornamenta- 
tion in  seams  and  borders ;  and  this  is  a  very  rare  quality  in 
a  Flemish  artist.  In  the  masterpieces  of  the  Van  Eycks 
we  are  charmed  by  the  atmosphere  which  pervades  land- 
scapes ;  we  are  struck  with  the  skill  with  which  every  part, 
from  the  foreground  to  the  horizon,  is  kept  in  focus.  Van 
der  Weyden,  who  objected  to  shadow  in  every  form, 
finishes  a  distance  with  the  same  touch  as  the  grasses  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  spectator.] 

Of  existing  pictures  the  finest  only  need  be  mentioned  in 
the  order  in  which  they  were  painted. 

The  small  triptych  altarpiece,  presented  by  Pope  Martin  V. 
to  the  King  of  Spain,  and  brought  in  recent  times  by  General 
Armagnac  from  Spain  to  France,  now  No.  534  A  of  the  Berlin 
Museum,  represents  the  Nativity,  a  Dead  Christ  in  the  lap 
of  the  Virgin,  and  Chrfst  appearing  to  his  Mother  after  his 
Resurrection.  These  are  intense  in  feeling,  powerful  in 
colour,  and  of  miniature -like  execution,  but  meagre  in  the 
limbs.  Painted  borders  to  the  pictures,  in  the  manner  of 
Gothic  portals,  contain  numerous  other  subjects  in  chiar- 
oscuro. 

An  altarpiece,  with  three  scenes  from  the  life  of  John  the 
Baptist,  representing  his  Birth,  the  Baptism  of  Christ,  and 
his  Decollation,  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  534  B. 
These  pictures  were  formerly  in  Spain.  They  are  enframed 
in  borders,  like  those  just  described,  with  which  they  also 
closely  agree  in  the  whole  style  of  execution. 


Chap.  II.  ROGER   VAN   DER   WEYDEN.  81 

A  triptych,  in  the  collection  of  the  Marquis  of  Westminster 
in  London ;  half-length  figures,  and  painted  doubtless  as  a 
sepulchral  monument.  In  the  centre,  Christ  in  the  act  of 
benediction ;  in  his  left  hand  the  globe :  of  very  stern  and 
almost  forbidding  character,  and,  what  is  unusual,  with  black 
hair.  On  his  right  is  the  Virgin — a  noble  head — adoring 
him :  on  the  left  John  the  Evangelist ;  a  fine  head,  of  great 
depth  of  colour,  holding  the  chalice  in  his  left  hand.  On  the 
right  wirig  is  John  the  Baptist,  of  very  earnest  character, 
pointing  with  his  right  hand  to  Christ.  On  the  left  wing  the 
Magdalen,  with  a  dignified  expression  of  repentance,  holding 
the  box  of  ointment.  This  important  work  approaches,  in 
point  of  warmth  and  depth  of  colouring,  very  near  to  the 
foregoing  pictures. 

The  Last  Judgment,  in  the  hospital  at  Beaune.  This  is 
the  most  comprehensive  example  of  the  master  that  has 
descended  to  us.  Our  illustration  will  show  how  strictly  his 
composition  adheres  to  the  forms  of  tradition  ;  while  at  the 
same  time  the  formally  symmetrical  arrangement  of  the  upper 
part  is  broken  by  the  vivacity  and  freedom  of  the  movements.  < 
The  heads,  especially  those  of  John  the  Baptist  and  some  of 
the  Apostles,  are  unusually  elevated  in  character  for  him  ;  the 
expression  also  of  sympathy  is  very  touching.  The  papal 
figure  behind  the  Apostles,  in  the  right  wing,  is  Pope  Euge- 
nius  IV. ;  the  srowned  individual  next  him,  Philip  the  Good  ; 
and  the  crowned  female  opposite,  on  the  left  wing,  probably 
Philip's  second  wife,  Isabella  of  Portugal.  The  lower  part, 
which  is  divided  from  the  upper  by  strata  of  clouds,  is  upon 
the  whole  somewhat  empty,  and  has  also  been  much  dis- 
figured by  over-painting.  The  head  of  the  Archangel  Michael 
is  fine,  but  his  figure  too  long.  On  the  outer  sides  (see 
woodcut)  are  the  kneeling  portraits  of  Rollin  the  founder, 
and  his  wife  Guignonne  de  Salin  ;  both  of  great  excellence. 
The  chiaroscuro  figures  of  SS.  Sebastian  and  Anthony,  treated 
like  statues,  and  the  similarly  painted  Annunciation,  are  by 
the  hand  of  an  assistant. 

[Of  great  importance  as  a  school  model  is  the  large  Descent 
from  the  Cross  (No.  1046),  in  the  Museum  of  Madrid,  of 
which  there  are  two  copies  in  the  National  Gallery  at  Madrid 

6 


82  THE  FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

and  the  Escurial,  and  a  third  of  small  size  in  the  church  of 
St.  Pierre  at  Louvain.] 1 

Next  in  period  to  the  last  picture  we  may  place  that  now 
in  the  Stadel  Institute  at  Frankfort,  which  was  doubtless 
painted  for  Pietro  and  Giovanni  de'  Medici,  and  which  repre- 
sents their  patron-saints  of  the  names,  and  those  of  the  house 
of  Medici,  SS.  Cosmo  and  Damian,  surrounding  the  Virgin 
and  Child.  The  execution  of  this  picture  is  of  the  tenderest 
finish,  and,  compared  with  the  foregoing,  shows  an -improve- 
ment in  drawing. 

[Of  the  same  period  as  the  Medici  Madonna,  and  not 
without  marks  of  the  helping  hand  of  Memling,  is  the  cruci- 
fied Saviour,  with  portraits  of  some  members  of  the  Sforza 
family,  sold  at  the  sale  of  the  Zambeccari  collection  in  London 
in  1872.] 

The  altarpiece  with  wings,  executed  for  Peter  Bladelin,  is 
in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  535.  In  the  centre  is  the  Nativity, 
with  the  kneeling  donor,  and  angels  of  great  beauty,  some  of 
whom  kneel  close  to  the  Infant,  while  others  hover  over  the 
roof  of  the  stable.  On  the  one  side  is  the  Annunciation  of 
the  Redeemer  to  the  Ruler  of  the  West — the  Emperor 
Augustus — by  means  of  the  Tiburtine  Sibyl ;  on  the  other 
the  Annunciation  to  the  Rulers  of  the  East — the  Three  Kings 
who  are  keeping  watch  on  a  mountain,  where  the  Child 
appears  to  them  in  a  star.  The  arrangement  of  this  portion 
is  peculiarly  grand,  and  the  heads  highly  characteristic. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  and  best  preserved  exam- 
ples of  Roger  van  def  Weyden. 

[The  Crucifixion,  Expulsion,  and  Last  Judgment,  recently 
taken  from  the  Monastery  de  los  Angelos  to  the  Madrid 
Museum,  if  it  be  the  picture  ordered  by  the  Abbot  of  St. 
Aubert,  is  of  the  period  immediately  following  the  Bladelin 
Nativity.  It  is  described  as  a  very  fine  example  of  the  master.]2 

1  [See  *  Early  Flemish  Painters,'  2nd  ed.,  p.  196,  and  Dr.  H.  Lxicke 
in  '  JahrbiicherfiirKonstwissenschaft,'  5th  year,  p.  223.     Dr.  Waagen's 
opinion  ('  Jahrbiicher,'  1st  year,  p.   46),  that  the  picture  in  the  Madrid 
Museum  is  a  copy  by  "  Peter  van  der  Weyden,"  and  that  the  small  copy 
at  Louvain  is  an  original,  is  only  held  by  himself  and  a  writer  in  the 
'Beffroi,'  i.  111.] 

2  [See  Dr.  Waagen  in  <  Jahrbiicher.'  i.  40-44.] 


Chap.  II.  ROGER   VAN  yDER    WEYDEN.  83 

The  Adoration  of  the  Kings,  with  the  Annunciation,  and 
the  Presentation  in  the  Temple,  in  the  wings,  is  now  in  the 
Munich  Gallery,  Nos.  101,  102,  and  103.  This  was  pro- 
bably painted  for  the  church  of  St.  Columba,  in  Cologne, 
and  was  afterwards  in  the  Boisseree  collection  :  we  subjoin 
an  illustration.  This  is  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  works 
by  the  master.  The  figure  of  the  Virgin  in  the  Presenta- 
tion is  very  noble,  and  perhaps  the  most  successful  ren- 
dering of  this  Handmaid  of  the  Lord  that  has  descended 
to  us  by  the  painter.  The  woodcut  only  gives  the  centre 
picture.  Unfortunately,  both  flesh  and  draperies  have 
been  rendered  very  glaring  in  colour,  by  means  of  the 
glazings  which  the  Boisserees  employed  so  abundantly. 

St.  Luke  painting  the  Virgin  [originally  placed  on  the 
altar  of  the  Guild  of  St.  Luke  at  Brussels,  and  now  in] 
the  Munich  Gallery,  No.  100.  The  head  of  the  Virgin  is 
here  of  a  portrait-like  character,  and  of  no  beauty  of  feature. 
The  Child  also  is  meagre  and  unattractive.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  head  of  St.  Luke,  though  also  portrait-like,  is 
very  agreeable;  the  landscape  of  great  transparency;  and 
the  colouring  of  astonishing  power.1 

The  Descent  from  the  Cross,  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Hague, 
No.  226,  and  wrongly  designated  as  Memling,  is  a  rich 
composition,  with  heads  of  highly  pathetic  expression  and 
admirable  execution.  It  is  rather  cooler  in  the  flesh-tones.2 

The  Seven  Sacraments  [painted  for  Jean  Chevrot,  Bishop  of 
Tournai,  and]  now  in  the  Antwerp  Museum,  Nos.  393,  394,  and 
395.  On  the  centre  and  larger  panel,  by  way  of  figure  of  the 
Last  Supper,  is  the  Crucifixion  seen  in  a  Gothic  church.  On 
the  right  wing  are  the  Sacraments  of  Baptism,  Confirmation, 
and  Penance  ;  on  the  left  the  Consecration  of  the  Priesthood, 
Marriage,  and  Extreme  Unction.  The  action  and  heads  are 
speaking  and  animated,  but  the  colouring  is  cooler,  and  the 
shadows  less  transparent,  than  usual.8 

Among  the  later  works  of  the  master  the  following  speci- 

1  [There  are  old  copies  of  this  picture  in  the  Hermitage  at  Petersburg, 
and  in  the  Museum  at  lladrid.] 

2  [This  I  believe  to  be  a  school-piece.] 

3  [This  also  I  believe  to  be  a  school-piece.] 


84  THE  FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

mens  may  be  included : — Three  narrow  wing-pictures,  with 
figures  almost  life-size,  formerly  in  the  Belgian  monastery  of 
Flemalle,  now  in  the  Stadel  Institute,  and  representing — 
1st.  The  Virgin  nursing  the  Child  :  the  maternal  expression 
is  admirably  given,  and  the  white  drapery  of  masterly 
modelling.  2nd.  St.  Veronica,  with  the  Sudarium,  on 
which  the  black  but  very  noble  countenance  of  Christ  is 
impressed.  3rd.  The  Trinity :  the  Almighty  holding  the 
dead,  stiff,  and  meagre  body  of  the  Saviour,  which  is  admi- 
rably executed  in  chiaroscuro.1 

The  fact  that  Koger  van  der  Weyden,  like  his  master,  Jan 
van  Eyck,  also  painted  miniatures,  is  proved  by  the  picture 
heading  a  Hennegau  chronicle,  by  Jacques  de  Guise,  in 
the  Library  of  the  old  Dukes  of  Burgundy  at  Brussels.  [?] 
It  represents  Jacques  de  Guise  presenting  this  MS.  on  his 
knees  to  Philip  the  Good  of  Burgundy,  who  is  surrounded  by 
his  son  Charles  the  Bold  and  the  grandees  of  his  court.  In 
point  of  animation  and  individuality  of  heads,  keeping, 
power  of  colour,  and  freedom  of  treatment,  this  miniature  is 
one  of  the  finest  which  the  Belgian  school  produced.2 

No  painter  of  this  school  [it  has  been  already  remarked], 
the  Van  Eycks  even  not  excepted,  exercised  so  great  and 
widely  extended  an  influence  as  Roger  van  der  Weyden. 
Not  only  was  Hans  Memling  his  scholar,  but  innumerable 
works  of  art  of  various  kinds  were  brought  forth  in  the 
country, — miniatures,  block-books  (the  Biblia  Pauperum,  the 
Speculum  Salvationis,  the  Song  of  Solomon),  and  old  engra- 
vings— in  which  his  form  of  art  is  recognisable.  It  Was 
under  the  auspices  of  this  master  that  the  realistic  tendency 
of  the  Van  Eycks  pervaded  all  Germany;  for  it  is  quite 
intelligible  that  their  more  universal  reputation  only  took  place 
after  the  death  of  Jan  van  Eyck,  when  the  great  considera- 

1  [It  cannot  be  doubted  that  this  is  a  school-piece.] 

2  I   was  the  first  to  recognise  this  as  the  work  of  Eoger  van  der 
Weyden.     See  '  Kunstblatt '   of  1847,  p.   177.     Passavant  and  Count 
Le'on  de  Laborde  agree  in  my  verdict.     There  is  a  lithograph  of  this 
miniature  engraved  in  the  'Messager/  etc.,  of  1825.     [The  painter  of 
these  miniatures  is  Guillaume  Wijelant  of  Bruges,  who  executed  them 
in  1 468.    See  Pinchart's  Annotations  to  'Les  Anciens  Peintres  Flamands/ 
p.  cclxiii.] 


Chap.  II.  HUGO  VAN  BEE  GOES.  85 

tion  in  which  Roger  van  der  Weyden  was  held  throughput 
Europe  induced  German  artists  to  visit  his  atelier  at 
Brussels.  Martin  Schongauer,  for  instance,  the  greatest 
German  master  of  the  fifteenth  century,  is  historically 
known  to  have  been  a  scholar  of  Roger.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  painter,  Frederick  Herlen,  who  came  from  Nord- 
lingen  in  Swabia,  and  his  works  equally  show  that  he  was 
taught  by  Roger.  I  shall  have  occasion  also  to  mention  his 
influence  in  the  works  of  other  German  artists. 

[Fictions  in  the  garb  of  history  greatly  contributed  to  inten- 
sify and  to  prolong  the  darkness  which  stilf  rests  on  Flemish 
art  of  the  period  immediately  following  John  van  Eyck's 
death.  A  great  obstacle  in  the  way  of  discovering  the  truth 
was  the  statement  of  very  old  writers  that  Roger  van  der 
Weyden  was  a  disciple  of  the  younger  Van  Eyck.  Its  for- 
tunate removal  has  been  the  signal  for  a  progressive  clearing 
away  of  similar  and  equally  pernicious  errors.] 

[HUGO  VAN  DER  GOES  is  proved  by  documents  of  acknow- 
ledged authenticity  to  have  been  a  long-lived,  industrious, 
and  prolific  artist ;  yet  it  is  his  fate  to  be  known,  as  Hubert 
van  Eyck  is  known,  by  a  single  picture  only.  He  is  traced  in 
records  to  Ghent,  where  he  lived  for  a  considerable  number  of 
years.  Yet  Van  Mander  states  that  he  was  a  pupil  of  John 
van  Eyck,  who  never  lived  at  Ghent  after  1421.  There  is 
some  apparent  confirmation  of  Van  Mander's  statement  in  the 
fact  that  many  of  Hugo's  altarpieces  were  exhibited  in  Bruges 
churches.  Yet  the  only  picture  we  possess — the  Nativity  in 
Santa  Maria  Nuova  at  Florence — which  can  be  ascribed  with 
certainty  to  Van  der  Goes,  displays  but  slightly  the  influence 
of  the  Van  Eycks. 

Vasari  speaks  of  Van  der  Goes  as  "  Hugo  of  Antwerp  ;  "l 
Van  Mander  calls  him  "  a  painter  of  Bruges."8  Van  Vaer- 
newijk,  with  substantial  detail,  declares  him  a  Dutchman ;  and 
taking  occasion  to  describe  the  loss  of  a  Madonna,  with  St. 
Catherine  and  St.  Ursula,  which  was  torn  to  pieces  by  the 
Iconoclasts  of  1566,  in  St.  Jacob  of  Ghent,  he  says  :  "  This 
was  the  cleverest  piece  in  the  whole  church  ;  it  was  painted 

1  PVasari,  Lemonniers  Edition,  i.  163,  and  xiii.  149.] 

2  [Van  Mander,  u.  s.  204.] 


86  TEE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Book  IIL 

by  Hughe  van  der  G-hoest  in  Zeelandt,  so  called  because  he 
lived  long  in  that  country,  though  he  was  born  at  Leyden."1 
In  a  declaration  of  appraisal  made  in  1479,  at  Louvain,  it  is 
stated  that  in  order  to  value  a  picture  by  Dierick  Bouts,  the 
officers  of  the  town  sent  for  "the  most  noted  painter  of  the 
surrounding  country,  a  monk,  native  of  Ghent,  at  that  time 
living  in  the  Eooden  Cloestere  "  (a  monastery),  near  Brussels. 
Van  der  Goes,  being  the  only  painter  known  to  have  taken 
vows  in  the  Rooden  Cloestere,  is  supposed  to  be  the  person 
to  whom  allusion  is  here  made,  and  so  comes  to  be  considered 
a  native  of  Ghent.2 

None  of  the  sources  upon  which  we  rely  for  notices  of 
Van  der  Goes  tell  us  anything  as  to  his  birth.  He  was  not 
free  of  the  Guild  of  Ghent  till  1465  ;3  and  he  is  not  known 
to  have  practised  anywhere  before  that  year ;  yet  it  may  be 
that  he  took  the  freedom  of  Ghent  after  having  enjoyed  that 
of  Bruges  ;  and  this  fact  alone,  if  it  were  properly  authen- 
ticated, would  solve  our  doubts  as  to  whether  a  man  who 
began  so  late  can  have  been  born  early  enough  to  study 
under  John  van  Eyck.  In  1468,  Van  der  Goes  was  called 
to  Bruges  to  take  part  in  the  festivities  of  the  marriage  of 
Margaret  of  York ;  he  was  sent  back  almost  immediately 
after  to  Ghent  to  prepare  the  "joyful  entry  "  of  the  same 
princess.  In  both  cities  he  was  known  for  a  special  talent 
in  designing  and  colouring  loose  cloths  as  ornaments  for  walls 
of  houses  and  churches ;  he  was  also  a  painter  of  flags  and 
scutcheons  ;  in  1472-74  he  presided  as  elder  in  the  Guild 
of  Ghent.  In  1476  ne  was  induced  to  withdraw  from  the 
world,  and  join  as  a  novice  the  monastery  of  Eooden  Cloestere. 
How  he  lived  and  laboured  in  this  retreat  is  related  to  us 
by  his  companion,  Gaspar  Offhuys.  Sometimes  he  felt  the 
sting  of  a  bad  conscience,  and  complained  that  he  was  a 
miserable  sinner  ;  at  other  times  he  longed  to  return  to  the 
world  which  he  had  left.  He  was  celebrated  as  a  painter, 
and  received  visits  from  persons  of  the  highest  rank.  With 

1  [Van  Vaernewijk,  '  Van  die  Beroerlicke  Tijden  in  die  Nederlanden,' 
8vo.  Ghent,  1872,  p.  158.] 

2  [Van  Even,  'Louvain  Monumental,'  fol.    Louvain,  1860,  p.  141.] 

*  [De  Busscher,  'Recherches  sur  les  Peintres  Gantois,'  pp  '111,  114.] 


Chap.  II.  HUGO   VAN  DER  GOES.  87 


these  he  frequently  enjoyed  carousals  which  produced  drunken- 
ness and  created  scandal.  It  was  thought  necessary  to  re- 
move him  from  the  scene  of  these  exploits.  He  was  ordered 
off  to  Cologne,  but  on  the  way  back  he  went  mad  and  was 
with  difficulty  restored  to  his  senses.  Under  these  circum- 
stances his  life  was  not  of  long  duration,  and  he  died,  not 
unlamented,  in  1482.] l 

Of  his  oil  pictures,  only  the  one  mentioned  by  Vasari  is 
historically  authenticated.  This  was  ordered  by  Tommaso 
Portinari,  agent  for  the  house  of  Medici,  in  Bruges,  for  the 
high  altar  of  the  church  of  the  Hospital  of  S.  Maria  Nuova 
at  Florence,  founded  by  his  ancestor,  Folco  Portinari,  where 
it  is  still  preserved.  The  middle  picture  represents  the 
Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,  figures  almost  life-size.  In  the 
centre  is  the  Yirgin  kneeling,  and  taken  almost  in  front; 
the  tips  of  her  fingers  touching  each  other :  on  the  right  is 
Joseph ;  opposite  to  him  three  Shepherds  adoring ;  also 
numerous  angels.  In  the  la/idscape  background  are  the 
Annunciation  to  the  Shepherds,  and  other  figures.  On  the 
wings  are  the  portraits  of  Tommaso  Portinari,  and  two 
little  sons,  presented  by  their  patron  saints,  SS.  Matthew 
and  Antony,  and  those  of  the  founder's  wife  and  daughter, 
presented  by  their  patron  saints,  SS.  Margaret  and  Mag- 
dalen. In  the  heads  generally,  which  are  portrait-like,  a 
feeling  of  earnestness  and  severity  is  seen,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  deficiency  in  the  sense  of  beauty.  The  drapery  also 
has  not  only  a  sharp  and  snapt  character,  but  the  arrange- 
ment  of  the  chief  folds  is  stiff  and  hard.  The  scale  of  colour 
is  clear,  but  at  the  same  time  it  is  very  cool.  The  local 
flesh  tones  are  partly  pale,  partly  a  coolish  red  ;  the  shadows 
grey.  Van  der  Goes  is  the  earliest  master  of  this  school 
who  painted  blue  draperies,  broken  with  green,  combining 
further  with  this  mixture  an  orange  colour,  which  is  far 
from  enhancing  the  general  harmony.  In  other  respects  he 
possesses  the  highest  qualities  of  the  Flemish  school.  His 
portraits  are  true  to  nature  and  animated,  his  drawing  is  good 
and  conscientiously  carried  out  in  every  part,  and  his  execu- 
tion is  solid. 
1  [Chronicle  of  Rouge  Cloitre  in  Pinchart's  Annotations,  u.  s.,  p.  ccxxvi.} 


88  THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

Various  important  works,  which  Hugo  executed  for  the 
Netherlands,  perished  by  the  hands  of  the  Iconoclasts,  such 
as  survived  having  disappeared  since.  He  also  occasionally 
drew  cartoons  as  designs  for  glass-painting ;  one  of  which, 
in  the  church  of  St.  James  at  Ghent,  was  so  fine  as  to  be 
pronounced  by  Van  Mander  a  design  by  Jan  van  Eyck.1 

[GERARD  VAN  MEIRE  is  one  of  a  numerous  family  of  artists 
who  lived  during  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  at 
Ghent.  He  was  free  of  the  Painters'  Guild  in  1452,  and 
sub-dean  of  the  same  in  1472.2  The  only  picture  in  existence 
with  which  his  name  is  intimately  connected  is  a  triptych 
in  a  chapel  of  St.  Bavon  at  Ghent,  representing  the  Cruci- 
fixion, the  Raising  of  the  Brazen  Serpent,  and  Moses  striking 
the  Bock.  These  compositions  are  remarkable  for  the 
number  of  figures  which  they  contain ;  but  they  are  not 
remarkable  for  skilful  distribution.]  The  figures  are  stiff 
and  lame  ;  the  heads  generally  monotonous  in  character, 
and  without  modelling ;  the  drapery  with  sharp  breaks  ;  the 
proportions  too  long;  and  the  figures,  especially  of  Christ 
and  the  thieves,  very  meagre.  A  few  of  the  heads,  however, 
such  as  the  Virgin  and  the  Centurion,  are  of  elevated  expres- 
sion ;  and  the  rocky  landscape,  with  the  snow  mountains  in 
the  distance,  even  beautiful.  The  clear  and  somewhat  crude 
general  effect  is  partly  attributable  to  overcleaning.  A  few 
better  preserved  portions,  such  as  the  Moses,  and  the  two 
male  figures  standing  behind  him,  show  the  power  and  depth 
of  the  original  colouring. 

[Im  many  public  galleries,  and  particularly  in  the  Berlin 
Museum,  we  find  pictures  assigned  to  Van  der  Meire,  which 
display  some  well-defined  and  individual  features.  Most 
characteristic  of  this  peculiar  manner  is  the  stunted  pro- 
portion of  the  human  frame,  the  marked  yet  tenuous  outline, 
the  soft  pallor  of  flesh,  modelled  with  excessive  care,  and 
relieved  by  a  mere  indication  of  shadow ;  prominent  shape 

1  Some  of  the  most  important  pictures  wrongly  given  to  him  will  be 
described  in    the  notices  on  other  masters.     See  Van  Mander,   folio 
127  b. 

2  [Van  der  Meire  was  supposed  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Hubert  van 
Eyck,  but  the  authority  upon  which  this  statement  was  made  is  now 
very  properly  contested.  See  'Early  Flemish  Painters,'  2nd  ed.,  p.  146.] 


Chap.  II.  JUSTUS   OF   GHENT.  89 

in  foreheads,  and  long  noses  and  jaws.  The  landscapes  are 
minute  and  finished.  Two  or  three  specimens  in  this  style 
deserve  more  particularly  to  be  mentioned :  the  Visitation, 
at  Berlin,  with  a  kneeling  donor  (No.  542) ;  the  Epiphany,  at 
Berlin  (No.  527) ;  the  Visitation,  in  the  collection  of  Baron 
Speck  von  Sternburg  at  Liitschena,  near  Leipzig,  a  very 
well  preserved  and  most  interesting  piece ;  and  a  Carmelite 
Monk  (No.  264),  in  the  National  Gallery.  Of  the  same 
school,  and  equally  careful  in  execution,  but  of  a  warmer  and 
more  mellow  tone,  is  the  Raising  of  the  Body  of  St.  Hubert 
of  Liege,  an  altarpiece  (No.  783),  in  the*  National  Gallery, 
which  has  been  ascribed  successively  to  many  painters,  and 
at  last  to  Dierick  Bouts.  It  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind 
that  if  all  or  any  of  the  pictures  enumerated  in  the  foregoing 
lines  were  by  Gerard  van  der  Meire,  he  was  a  disciple  of  the 
school  of  Van  der  Weyden  rather  than  of  that  of  the  Van 
Eycks.] 

[JUSTUS  OF  GHENT,  a  contemporary  of  Van  der  Goes  and 
Van  der  Meire,  is  better  known  in  Italy  than  in  Flanders.  Yet 
lie  must  have  had  some  practice  in  the  Netherlands  before 
he  became  known  to  Frederick  of  Montefeltro,  who  sent  for 
him  to  paint  the  portrait  of  his  duchess  and  decorate  his 
library  "  with  figures  of  philosophers,  poets,  and  doctors  of 
the  church."1  Vespasiano  de  Bisticci,  who  wrote  the  life  of 
JFrederick  of  Montefeltro,  does  not  name  the  painter  who 
was  selected  to  perform  these  commissions;  yet  we  can 
hardly  doubt  that  he  meant  to  allude  to  Justus  of  Ghent, 
who,  as  early  as  1470,  finished  for  the  brotherhood  of  Corpus 
Christi  the  "  Communion  of  the  Apostles,"  which  is  now 
exhibited  (No.  46)  in  the  town  gallery  of  Urbino.2  We 
shall  be  struck,  when  looking  at  this  piece,  by  faulty  per- 
spective and  a  certain  disproportion  in  the  size  of  figures  on 
different  planes.  In  other  respects  the  picture  is  worthy  of 

1  [See  Vespasiano,  in  '  Mai's  Lives.'  Rome,  1839.    That  Justus  can  have 
been  a  pupil  of  Hubert  Van  Eyck  is  impossible.     See  De  Bast,  in 
'Messager  des  Sciences.'     Ghent,  1822,  p.  132,  corrected  by  Ruelens. 
Notes  et  Additions,  u.  s.,  cxviii.] 

2  [See  the  payments  for  the  altarpiece  to  '  Giusto  da  Guanto,'  in 
Pungileoni's  '  Elogio  Storico  di  Gio.   Santi.,'  8vo.   Urbino,  1822,   pp. 
-64-66.] 


90  THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III, 

attention  as  the  work  of  an  artist  who  upheld  the  fame  of 
the  Flemings  in  a  remote  corner  of  Italy.]  The  composi- 
tion representing  Christ  standing  in  the  act  of  giving  th& 
chalice  to  the  Apostles  kneeling  around,  is  arranged  with 
considerable  artistic  discrimination.  With  the  exception 
of  the  Christ,  whose  striding  position  and  head  are  unsuc- 
cessful, the  movements  are  free  and  speaking.  The  forms  of 
the  hands,  and  other  portions  of  the  figures,  which  are  three- 
fourths  life-size,  are  well  rendered.  Finally,  the  brownish,, 
though  not  very  deep  and  transparent,  flesh-tones,  are  effec- 
tive enough.  The  portraits  of  Federigo  di  Montefeltro,  Duke 
of  Urbino  ;  of  Caterino  Zeno,  envoy  from  the  Venetian 
republic,  and  of  an  aged  man,  probably  the  painter  himself, 
are  very  true  and  living.  The  predella,  containing  allegorical 
representations  of  the  Holy  Sacrament,  no  longer  exists. 

[Later  in  life,  Justus,  if  we  accept  him  as  the  painter  of  the- 
figures  now  preserved  in  the  Barberini  palace  at  Borne,  and 
in  the  Louvre  in  Paris,  tempered  the  hardness  of  the  Flemish 
style  with  a  breadth  and  freedom  derived  from  the  schools  of 
Santi  and  Melozzo ;  and  it  is  not  uninteresting  to  trace  the 
wavering  inclinations  of  the  master  in  the  northern  air  of 
"Solon,"  "Augustin,"  or  "St.  Jerom,"  and  the  southern 
stamp  of  a  "  Dante  "  or  "  Vittorino  da  Feltre. ' '  The  master  of 
whom  Justus  most  reminds  us  is  Koger  van  der  Weyden.J 

[To  conclude  this  notice  of  the  masters  of  Ghent  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  it  is  only  necessary  to  name  NABOB  MARTIN 
(1404-1453),  the  probable  author  of  a  wall  painting  in  the 
"  Grande  Boucherie  "  at  Ghent,  a  damaged  composition  of 
the  Nativity,  with  portraits  of  Philip  the  Good,  his  wife  and 
child,  dated  1448.] ' 

Contemporary  with  Koger  van  der  Weyden,  but,  it  appears, 
in  less  dependence  on  the  style  of  the  Van  Eycks,  there 
flourished  in  Haarlem  a  painter  of  the  name  of  ALBERT  VAN 
OUWATER,  who  founded  there  an  original  Dutch  school.  Van 
Mander2  mentions  him  as  a  capital  master,  who  particularly 
excelled  in  the  drawing  of  hands  and  feet,  and  in  the  render- 
ing of  drapery  and  landscape.  His  especial  excellence  in  the 

1  [See  De  Bussclier,  '  Recherches  sur  les  Peintres  Gantois.'  pp.  60-95.1 

2  [Van  Mander,  128  b.] 


Chap.  II.  OU WATER.  91 

latter  department,  and  the  fact  of  his  being  the  founder  of 
the  very  early  school  of  landscape-painting  in  Haarlem,  appear 
from  the  circumstance  that  several  of  his  landscapes  were 
preserved  in  the  house  of  Cardinal  Grimani1  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  Unfortunately  no  picture  by  him  can  now  be 
positively  identified.  A  Pieta  in  the  Imperial  Gallery  at 
Vienna, a  which  Passavant  ascribes  to  the  master,3  is  at  all 
events  an  excellent  picture  of  the  early  Dutch  school :  the 
composition  is  devoid  of  style,  and  most  of  the  heads  ugly, 
but  of  intense  feeling  and  expression ;  the  proportions  are 
long,  the  execution  of  the  utmost  solidity! 

A  scholar  of  Ouwater,  GEERTGEN  VON  ST.  JANS,  so  called 
from  a  monastery  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  at  Haarlem, 
where  he  resided,  was,  according  to  Van  Mander,  a  very 
distinguished  painter,  whose  talent  was  admired  by  Albert 
Durer  on  occasion  of  his  visit  to  Haarlem.4  He  died,  how- 
ever, at  the  early  age  of  twenty- eight.5  The  only  authen- 
ticated pictures  by  him  are  two  wings  of  an  altarpiece 
mentioned  by  Van  Mander,  and  now  in  the  Vienna  Gallery,8 
Nos.  851  and  852,  the  one  representing  a  Pieta;  the 
other,  three  legends  referring  to  the  bones  of  John  the 
Baptist — namely,  to  their  interment  in  the  presence  of 
Christ,  the  burning  of  them  by  Julian  the  Apostate,  and 
the  removal  of  some  of  them  to  the  chief  seat  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  John,  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  in  1252.  The  heads 
have  throughout  a  portrait-like  appearance,  and  are 
animated,  though  with  the  exception  of  some  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  John,  who  are  elevated  in  character,  the 
forms  are  ugly.  The  figures,  which  are  smaller  in  pro- 
portion to  the  landscape  than  in  most  of  the  pictures 

1  '  Anonimo,'  by  Morelli,  p.  76,  and  p.  220,  etc. 

2  There  attributed  to  Jan  van  Eyck  ;  Catalogue,  No.  12,  second  room 
of  second  floor. 

3  'Kunstblatt'  of  1841,  p.  39. 

4  [I  have  been  unable  to  discover  any  trace  of  Dvirer's  visit  to  Haarlem.] 

5  Van  Mander,  folio  129. 

6  According  to  a  short  notice  on  the  back  of  the  second  picture,  they 
were  presented  to  Charles  I.  by  the  States-General  in  1635,  and  probably 
bought  with  other  pictures  by  the  Archduke  Leopold,  at  the  sale  of  the 
Royal  Gallery.     The  Pieta  was  engraved  by  T.  Matham,  with  a  notifi- 
cation of  the  master's  name. 


92  THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

of  the  Van  Eyck  school,  are  over-slender  and  meagre,  but 
of  very  good  drawing.  A  heavy  brown  tone  predominates 
in  the  flesh.  [By  the  same  hand  are  the  Virgin  and 
Child  with  the  families  of  Joseph  and  Zachariah,  No.  485, 
and  the  Virgin  and  Child  with  four  saints,  No.  486,  in  the 
gallery  of  Amsterdam.]  These  pictures  may  be  assigned 
to  about  1460-70.1 

The  greatest  scholar2  of  Roger  van  der  Weyden  was 
indubitably  HANS  MEMLING.  All  that  is  known  of  him 
with  historical  certainty  is,  that  in  1477-78  he  was  living 
at  Bruges;  [that  about  1480  he  bought  the  leasehold 
of  a  house,  and  that  he  died  in  1495,  at  Bruges.3]  In  him 
the  school  attains  the  highest  delicacy  of  artistic  develop- 
ment ;  while  at  the  same  time,  in  feeling  for  beauty  and 
grace,  he  was  more  gifted  than  any  painter  subsequent 
to  Hubert  van  Eyck.  Compared  with  those  of  his  master, 
iis  figures  are  of  better  proportions  and  less  meagreness 
of  form ;  his  hands  and  feet  truer  to  nature ;  the  heads 
of  his  women  are  sweeter,  and  those  of  his  men  less 
severe ;  his  outlines  are  softer ;  in  the  modelling  of  his 
flesh  parts  more  delicacy  of  half-tones  is  observable;  and 
his  colours  are  still  more  luminous  and  transparent.  In 
aerial  perspective  also,  and  chiaroscuro,  his  works  show 
an  improvement.  On  the  other  hand,  he  is  inferior 
to  Koger  van  der  Weyden  the  elder  in  the  carrying 
out  of  detail — for  instl£Sce,  in  that  of  the  materials  of  his 
draperies — and  in  the  ^rendering  the  full  brilliancy  of  gold. 
In  the  earlier  time,  when  he  occasionally  worked  on  the  same 
panel  with  his  master,4  the  pictures  of  the  two  are  difficult  to 

1  [It  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  painter  of  these  pieces  can  have 
lived  in  the  fifteenth  century.     I  believe  them  to  be  by  an  artist  of 
the  sixteenth  century.] 

2  The  name  "  Ausse,"  or  "Havesse,"  both  Italian  perversions  of  the 
name  which  Vasari  (Siena  edition,  vol.  i.,  p.  177  ;  vol.  iii.,  p.  312  ;  vol. 
xi.,  p.  63)  mentions  as  a  scholar  of  Roger  of  Bruges,  is  without  doubt 
intended  for  Hans  Memling,  which  is  further  proved  by  the  resemblance 
between  the  works  of  each. 

8  [Consult  Mr.  Weale  in  the  '  Journal  des  Beaux  Arts'  for  1860,  pp. 
22,  35,  36.] 

4  Margaret  of  Austria  possessed  a  small  altarpiece,  the  centre  of  which 
was  by  Roger  and  the  wings  by  Memling.  See  '  Inventaire  des  Tableaux,' 
etc.,  belonging  to  this  princess,  by  Count  de  Laborde,  p.  24. 


Chap.  II.  HANS  MEMLING.  93 

distinguish.  Of  no  other  painter  of  this  school  have  so  many 
first-rate  works  descended  to  us.  I  proceed  now  to  quote 
those  which  I  personally  know,  in  the  order  in  which  I  believe 
them  to  have  been  executed  : — 

A  small  altarpiece  in  the  Gallery  at  Munich,  Nos.  107, 
108,  and  109.  The  Adoration  of  the  Kings,  the  centre 
picture,  has  decidedly  the  impress  of  the  master;  the  wings, 
John  the  Baptist  and  St.  Christopher,  show,  in  their  lengthy 
proportions  and  hard  outlines,  more  the  style  of  Eoger. 
Much  of  their  original  character,  however,  has  been  sacri- 
ficed by  cleaning  and  over-paintings  with'glazing  colours.1 

The  Crucifixion,  a  large  altar  picture  in  the  first  room  of 
the  Palais  de  Justice  at  Paris.  On  the  right  of  the  cross  is 
the  Virgin  fainting,  supported  by  a  woman,  and  with  another 
woman,  John  the  Baptist,  and  St.  Louis ;  on  the  left,  John 
the  Evangelist,  St.  Denys,  and  Charlemagne.  The  building 
of  the  old  Louvre  and  the  Tour  de  Nesle,  seen  in  the  land- 
scape, show  that  the  painter,  executed  this  picture  in  Paris. 
The  somewhat  feeble  drawing  of  the  feet,  and  even  of  the 
hands,  assigns  this  work  to  his  early  time.  The  heads, 
however,  are  masterly,  and  some  of  them  of  intense  feeling.2 

A  small  Diptych,  with  a  rich  composition  of  the  Cruci- 
fixion on  one  side,  and  the  donor,  Jeanne  de  France,  daughter 
of  John,  2nd  Duke  of  Bourbon,  with  her  patron  saint,  St. 
John  the  Baptist,  and  the  Virgin  and  Child  in  the  sky,  on  the 
other.  A  picture  of  miniature-like  delicacy.  From  the  collec- 
tion of  the  late  Rev.  John  Fuller  Russell,  Greenhithe,  Kent.3 

The  wings  of»»a  smaller  altarpiece,  with  the  portraits  of 
the  founders,  man  and  wife,  and  their  patron  saint.  For- 
merly in  Miss  Rogers's  collection,  subsequently  belonging  to 
Vernon  Smith,  Esq. ;  of  great  truth,  very  harmonious  and 
warm  tone,  and  admirable  execution  in  the  landscapes. 

1  [This  altarpiece  was  painted  for  the  family  chap4l-  of  the  Snoij  of 
Maliies.     It  is  still  catalogued  at  Munich  as  a  work  of  Memling,  yet  is 
so  entirely  in  the  style  of  Dierick  Bouts,  that  it  must  be  assigned  to 
that  painter.] 

2  [Dr.  Waagen  is  the  only  critic  who  assigns  this  picture  to  Memling. 
It  is  possibly  by  Van  der  Goes.] 

3  '  Galleries  and  Cabinets  of  Great  Britain,'  p.  285.     [This  can  at  best 
be  but  a  school-piece.] 


94  THE  FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

The  Last  Judgment,  in  the  church  of  Our  Lady  at  Dant- 
zic;  a  large  altar-picture.1  The  composition  of  this  work, 
given  in  the  annexed  woodcut,  is  far  richer  and  better  ar- 
v  ranged  than  that  of  the  picture  of  the  same  subject  by  Roger, 
though  his  influence  is  still  very  perceptible.  In  the  centre, 
on  a  large  and  brilliant  rainbow,  which  touches  the  horizon. 
sits  the  Saviour,  with  the  severe  .expression  of  the  judge. 
A  red  sword  is  suspended  on  the  left,  a  lily-branch  on  the 
right  of  his  head  ;  a  golden  ball  (painted)  hangs  in  the  air  as 
His  footstool,  and  reflects  the  nearest  objects.  He  is  clothed 
in  a  red  mantle  fastened  on  the  breast,  and  falling  over  the 
lap  in  beautiful  folds.  Above  him  hover  four  angels  with 
the  instruments  of  the  Passion,  and  below  him  are  three 
others  with  the  trumpets  of  the  Last  Judgment.  At  his 
right  kneels  the  Virgin,  with  an  expression  of  mercy  and 
maternal  intercession;  on  the  left  is  John  the  Baptist,  and 
on  both  sides  are  ranged  the  Apostles — fine  figures,  with 
heads  of  great  excellence,  though  of  different  degrees  of 
beauty.  In  the  lower  half  of  the  picture  stands  St.  Michael, 
clad  in  golden  armour,  so  bright  as  to  reflect  in  the  most 
complete  manner  all  the  surrounding  objects.  This  figure 
is  slender,  but  colossal  as  compared  with  the  rest,  and  he 
seems  to  be  bending  earnestly  forward ;  a  splendid  purple 
mantle  extends  from  his  shoulders  to  the  ground,  and  he  has 
large  wings  composed  of  glittering  peacock's  feathers.  He 
holds  the  balance  of  justice,  in  which  the  souls  of  men  are 
weighed;  the  scale  with  the  good  rests  on  the  earth,  but 
that  with  the  souls  which  are  found  wanting  quickly  mounts 
into  the  air :  a  demon  stands  ready  to  receive  the  Damned, 
and  towards  this  scale  St.  Michael  directs  the  end  of  a  black 
staff  with  a  rich  handle,  which  he  holds  in  his  right  hand. 
Around  is  a  plain,  out  of  which,  as  well  as  in  the  depth  of 
the  landscape  background,  the  dead  are  rising  from  their 
graves ;  on  one  side  are  the  Blessed  in  the  act  of  ascending 
to  heaven,  on  the  other  the  Damned.  Close  behind  the 
archangel,  an  angel  and  a  demon  are  contending  for  a  soul. 
Inexpressible  anguish,  grief,  and  despair  bordering  on  mad- 
ness, are  depicted  in  the  various  groups  of  the  Damned  of 
1  First  rightly  attributed  to  him  by  Professor  Hotho. 


Chap.  II.  HANS  MEMLING.  95 

every  age  and  sex,  who  are  crowded  together  on  the  left  of 
St.  Michael.  Grotesque  figures  of  demons,  some  of  them 
decked  out  with  coloured  butterfly  wings,  are  mixed  up  with 
the  lost  souls,  and  are  driving  them  with  demoniac  glee  into 
the  abyss.  On  the  right  all  is  holy  peace,  and  the  counte- 
nances of  the  Blessed  already  express  a  foretaste  of  approach- 
ing bliss.  The  left  wing  represents  Hell;  between  steep 
and  craggy' rocks  flames  are  raging,  and  sparks  and  smoke 
burst  forth,  while  the  Damned  are  hurled  downwards  in 
frantic  terror,  and  are  tormented  in  various  ways.  Here  a 
pair  of  lovers,  fastened  together  with  fime  cords,  are  sus- 
pended between  the  teeth  of  a  bat- winged  fiend;  there 
another  stands  on  the  throat  of  a  falling  woman,  whilst  with 
his  hooked  fork  he  drags  a  priest  after  him.  Some  ape-like 
demons  are  pulling  down  the  lost  souls  by  the  hair,  whilst 
others  bear  their  prey  upon  their  backs  and  torment  them 
with  firebrands.  The  variety  of  attitude  and  the  boldness  of 
the  foreshortening  are  masterly, — the  gradations  of  tone  given 
to  the  one  prevailing  expression  of  sorrow  and  despair  are 
surprisingly  varied.  In  the  right  side-picture  is  a  splendid 
Gothic  portal,  adorned  with  columns,  and  through  its  open 
gates  the  Blessed  are  passing  in.  Subjects  from  the  Old 
and  New  Testament  in  bas-relief  embellish  the  fa£ade  and 
ceiling  of  the  high-arched  vestibule,  whilst  angels  of  great 
beauty,  clothed  in  rich  vestments,  stand  on  the  balustrades 
and  on  the  two  balconies  of  the  building,  singing,  playing, 
and  strewing  flowers.  Clouds  surround  the  building  on  both 
sides.  As  the  Blessed  draw  near,  they  are  received  and 
guided  by  angels,  who  clothe  them  in  splendid  garments. 
Peter,  with  the  keys  of  Heaven,  stands  at  the  gate,  and 
beckons  to  the  elect.  His  figure  is  majestic.  A  host  of 
priests  have  already  ascended  the  steps.  Here,  too,  we  find 
the  same  variety  of  countenances,  all  apparently  copied  from 
nature,  and  the  same  truth  which  we  have  noticed  in  repre- 
senting grief  and  despair,  but  here  the  predominant  expres- 
sion is  that  of  humble  astonishment  and  tranquil  joy.  The 
execution  of  detail,  the  depth  and  variety  of  expression  in 
the  heads,  the  force  of  colouring,  and  the  modelling  and 
rendering  of  every  portion,  are  admirable.  Judging  from 


96  THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  IIL 

the  numbers  67  on  a  tombstone,  it  is  probable  that  this 
picture  was  painted  in  1467.1  This  is  not  only  the  most 
important  by  Memling  that  has  descended  to  us,  but  one  of 
the  chefs-d'oeuvre  of  the  whole  school. 

[The  Baptist,  a  small  but  most  delicate  piece  by  Memlingr 
at  the  Munich  Pinakothek  (No.  115),  once,  we  maybeliever 
part  of  a  diptych  dated  1470,  in  possession  of  Cardinal 
Bembo.] 

King  David  and  Bathsheba,  in  the  Gallery  at  Stuttgart 
(No.  398).  The  figure  of  Bathsheba  is  remarkable  as  the 
only  one  life-sized  and  undraped  by  Memling.  The  drawing 
and  modelling  are  very  successful  for  the  period.2 

A  picture,  with  figures  of  small  size,  representing  all  the 
scenes  of  the  Passion  from  Palm  Sunday  to  the  recognition 
of  Christ  by  the  Disciples  at  Emmaus,  in  a  number  of  separate 
groups,  is  in  the  Royal  Gallery  at  Turin.  [It  is,  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe,  the  centre  part  of  the  altarpiece 
painted  by  Memling  in  1477-8  for  the  chapel  of  the  Book- 
sellers' Guild  at  Bruges.]3 

A  small  altarpiece  in  St.  John's  Hospital  at  Bruges,  No, 
16 :  the  centre  represents  a  Pieta ;  the  inner  sides  of  the 
wings,  the  donor,  Adrian  Rheims,  a  brother  of  the  Order, 
and  his  patron  saint,  St.  Adrian,  with  St.  Barbara ;  and  the 
outer,  SS.  Helena  and  Mary  of  Egypt.  The  proportions  are 
still  too  long,  the  heads  very  tender  and  of  deep  feeling. 
This  has  unfortunately  lost  something  of  its  power  and 
colour  by  cleaning. 

A  small  altarpiece,  also  in  St.  John's  Hospital,  No.  3 :  the 
Adoration  in  the  centre,  with  the  portrait  of  the  founder,  a 
brother  of  the  Order  ;  the  wings  containing  the  Nativity  and 
the  Presentation  in  the  Temple  ;  the  outer  sides  John  the 
Baptist  and  St.  Veronica.  This  is  the  only  instance  where, 

1  [The  picture  formed  part  of  the  lading  of  a  ship  chartered  by  Tom- 
maso  Portinari  of  Bruges,  and  captured  by  a  Dantzic  privateer  in  1473. 
See  Weinreich's  Chronik.,  4to.     Berlin  1855.] 

2  [Dr.  Waagen's  opinion  in  respect  of  this  picture  is  entitled  to  re- 
spect, though  it  is  not  quite  convincing.     The  painter  may  be  a  pupil  of 
Quentin  Massys.     0.  Miindler  is  said  to  have  held  the  opinion  that  it 
was  by  Massys  himself.     Consult  W.  Liibke  in  '  Zeitschr.  f.  bild.  Kunst.' 
iii.,  230]. 

1  [See  '  Early  Flemish  Painters,'  2nd  ed.  p.  267.] 


Chap.  II.  HANS  MEMLING.  97 

besides  the  date  1479,  the  name  of  the  painter  occurs  in 
full.  The  arrangement  of  the  composition  shows  the  influ- 
ence of  the  often- quoted  picture  by  Roger  van  der  Weyden 
in  the  Gallery  at  Munich.  The  headc  are  more  delicate  and 
sweet,  but  less  earnest  and  grand — the  execution  freer,  but 
less  solid.  This  gem  has  also  partially,  but  very  seriously, 
suffered  by  cleaning. 

[Of  the  same  date  as  the  Adoration,  but  in  the  spirit  of  the 
Turin  altarpiece],  a  picture  (see  frontispiece)  of  a  long  form, 
now  at  Munich,  and  formerly  in  the  Boisseree  collection, 
deserves  especial  notice.  It  represents  the* principal  events 
of  the  life  of  Christ  and  the  Virgin  (the  seven  joys  of  the 
Virgin);  not  in  separate  compartments,  but  as  one  great 
whole,  united  in  a  landscape,  with  an  endless  number  of 
subordinate  events:  a  whole  world  of  life,  and  joy,  and 
sorrow — all  executed  with  wonderful  grace  and  beauty. 
[This  beautiful  piece  was  painted  for  Pierre  Bultynck,  a 
currier  of  Bruges,  who  presented  it  to  the  chapel  of  his  guild 
in  1479.]1 

The  Annunciation,  inscribed  1482,  in  possession  of  Prince 
Radzivil,  at  Berlin.  A  picture  of  very  original  conception 
and  marvellous  delicacy.  Also  injured  in  parts. 

The  Virgin  and  Child,  with  angel  and  donor,  in  the 
Vienna  Gallery  ;  there  called  Hugo  van  der  Goes. 

A  large  altarpiece,  in  the  collection  of  the  Academy  at 
Bruges,  No.  9  [painted  for  Willem  Moreel]  the  centre 
containing  St.  Christopher,  with  SS.  Maur  and  Giles  at  his 
side ;  on  the  inside  of  the  wings,  St.  William,  with  the  donor 
and  his  sons,  and  St.  Barbara,  with  the  donor's  wife  and  her 
daughter ;  on  the  outside,  in  chiaroscuro,  John  the  Baptist 
and  St.  George.  Inscribed  with  the  date  1484.  All  the 
heads  very  true  to  nature.  In  that  of  St.  Christopher  the 
moment  of  spiritual  enlightenment  is  admirably  expressed. 
The  infant  Christ  is  the  feeblest  figure.  Of  the  saints,  SS. 
Maur,  Giles,  and  Barbara  are  refined  in  heads,  and  of  mild  ex- 
pression, but  St.  John  the  Baptist  is  the  most  successful.  Here 
the  original  excellent  modelling  is  still  in  good  preservation.* 

1  [See  Le  Beffroi,  fol.     Bruges,  ii.,  268.] 
1  [This  picture  is  full  of  massive  repaints.] 


98  THE  FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  TIL 

A  small  altarpiece,  at  Chiswick,  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Devon- 
shire. The  Virgin  and  Child,  with  the  donors,  [Sir  John  and 
Lady  Donne,]  with  their  children,  adoring,  and  their  patron 
saints,  Agnes  and  Barbara.  On  the  wings,  SS.  John  the 
Baptist  and  Evangelist.  This  picture,  which  is  mentioned 
by  Horace  Walpole  as  by  Jan  van  Eyck,  is  in  every  respect 
one  of  the  finest  works  of  the  master. 

St.  Christopher,  at  Holker  Hall,  Lancashire,  seat  of  the 
Duke  of  Devonshire.  Very  like  the  same  saint  on  the  wing- 
picture  at  Munich,  but  incomparably  better  rendered,  and  in 
excellent  preservation.  Erroneously  called  Albert  Durer. 

Portrait  of  an  aged  Canon  of  the  Order  of  St.  Norbert,  in 
the  Museum  at  Antwerp,  No.  253.  In  the  expression  of  simple 
and  intense  devotion  this  admirably-executed  picture  makes 
an  impression  on  the  mind  as  of  an  historical  work. 

Portrait  of  a  member  of  the  family  of  Croy,  also  in  the 
Antwerp  Museum,  No.  254.  Of  uncommon  truth  and  mas- 
terly rendering,  in  a  somewhat  cool  tone.1 

Small  altarpiece,  once  the  property  of  Rev.  Mr.  Heath, 
vicar  of  Enfield.  The  Dead  Christ  bewailed  by  the  Virgin 
St.  John,  and  the  Magdalen.  On  the  wings,  St.  James  the* 
Major,  and  St.  Christopher.  The  body  of  the  Christ  is  very 
meagre  ;  the  expression  of  sorrow  in  those  around  fine  and 
intense,  and  the  colour  very  clear  and  powerful.2 

The  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine,  in  St.  John's  Hospital.3 
The  Virgin  is  placed  in  the  centre,  on  a  seat  under  a  porch, 
with  tapestry  hanging  down  behind  it:  two  angels  hold  a 
crown,  with  much  grace,  over  her  head;  beside  her  kneels  St. 
Catherine,  her  head  one  of  the  finest  by  Memling,  on  whose 
finger  the  beautiful  infant  Christ  places  a  ring  of  betrothal ; 
behind  her  is  a  charming  figure  of  an  angel  playing  on  the 
organ ;  and  further  back  St.  John  the  Baptist,  attended  by 

1  [Instead  of  noticing  these  two  portraits,  which  are  very  doubtful  as 
productions  of  Memling,  we  should  prefer  to  keep  in  remembrance  the 
two  fine  portraits  of  Willern  Moreel,  his  wife  and  daughter ;  the  two 
first,  Nos.  32  and  33,  in  the  Brussels  Museum  ;  the  third,  under  the  name 
of  the  Sibyl  Zambetha,  in  the  Hospital  of  Bruges.] 

2  « Cabinets  and  Galleries  of  Great  Britian,'  p.  313,  etc. 

*  Inscription  and  date,  1479,  are  apocryphal.  Seo  article  by  me  in 
'Kunteblatt'  of  1854,  p.  178. 


Chap.  II.  HANS  MEMLING.  99 

the  lamb.  On  the  other  side  kneels  St.  Barbara,  reading ; 
behind  her  another  angel  holds  a  book  to  the  Virgin ;  and 
still  deeper  in  the  picture  is  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  whose 
figure  is  of  great  beauty,  and  of  a  mild  and  thoughtful  cha- 
racter. Through  the  arcades  of  the  porch,  we  look  out,  at 
each  side  of  the  throne,  on  a  rich  landscape,  in  which  are 
represented  scenes  from  the  lives  of  the  two  St.  Johns.  The 
panel  on  the  right  side  contains  the  Beheading  of  the  Baptist, 
and  at  a  distance  a  building,  with  a  glimpse  into  the  land- 
scape, in  which  are  again  introduced  events  from  the  life  of 
the  saint.  On  the  left  is  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  on  the 
island  of  Patmos,  about  to  write  in  a  book,  and  looking  up- 
wards, where  the  vision  of  the  Apocalypse  appears  to  him — 
the  Lord,  on  a  throne,  in  a  glory  of  dazzling  light,  encom- 
passed with  a  rainbow.  In  a  larger  circle  are  the  hosts  of 
the  Elders,  with  a  solemn  character  of  countenance,  in  white 
garments,  and  with  harps  in  their  hands ;  opposite  to  them, 
among  flames  and  mystic  forma,  is  the  four-headed  beast. 
Below  all  is  a  landscape,  in  which  men  are  fleeing,  and  seek- 
ing to  conceal  themselves  among  the  rocks,  whilst  the  four 
horsemen,  in  the  swiftness  of  their  might,  are  bursting  on 
them.  Finally,  the  sea,  with  its  deep  green  crystal  waves, 
reflects  the  entire  subject,  the  rainbow,  the  glow  of  the  sky, 
the  mystic  figures,  and  the  forms  on  the  shore,  and  thus  unites 
these  various  objects  into  one  great  whole.  On  the  outside 
of  the  wings  are  four  saints,  two  male  and  two  female,  and 
kneeling  before  them  are  men  and  women  in  religious  vest- 
ments. The  whole  forms  a  work  strikingly  poetical,  and 
most  impressive  in  character ;  it  is  highly  finished,  both  in 
drawing  and  in  its  treatment  as  a  picture,  and  is,  with  excep- 
tion of  the  outer  sides,  which  are  over-cleaned  and  badly 
retouched,  in  tolerable  preservation.  This  picture  approaches 
very  near  to  that  in  the  Academy  at  Bruges ;  the  better  draw- 
ing, namely,  of  the  feet,  shows  that  it  was  painted  somewhat 
later,  probably  in  1486. 

A  votive  picture,  somewhat  larger  than  the  centre  com- 
partment of  the  last-mentioned  work,  is  in  the  Louvre  from 
the  Duchatel  collection.  The  head  of  the  Virgin,  who  is 
enthroned  in  the  centre  with  the  Child,  agrees  closely  with 


100  THE  FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 


that  of  the  last  we  have  described.  On  the  right  are  the 
men  and  youths  under  the  protection  of  John  the  Baptist ; 
on  the  left  the  women  and  maidens,  under  that  of  another 
male  saint ;  both  parties  in  considerable  numbers,  and  kneel- 
ing. It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  the  flesh-parts  of  the 
Virgin,  the  Child,  and  of  all  the  female  figures  in  this  fine 
picture,  have  become  pale  through  over-cleaning.  The  work 
itself  has  great  affinity  with  that  of  the  Marriage  of  St. 
Catherine.  The  architecture  of  the  background  is  of  mas- 
terly treatment.  This  is  one  of  the  many  pictures  of  this 
school  which  had  made  its  way  to  Spain. 

The  Marriage  of  St.  Catherine,  in  the  Strasburg  Gallery, 
there  called  Lucas  van  Leyden.1 

Of  about  the  same  time  may  be  the  Virgin  and  Child 
adored  by  Nevenhoven,  the  donor  of  the  picture,  dated 
1487,  in  St.  John's  Hospital.  The  Virgin  is  of  portrait-like 
character  ;  the  portrait  itself  of  the  utmost  animation.  The 
forms  are  decided,  the  colouring  not  so  luminous  as  usual. 

Portrait  of  a  man  with  joined  hands,  dated  1487,  in  the 
Uffizi.2 

The  Virgin  and  Child,  from  the  collection  of  H.R.H.  the 
Prince  Consort  at  Kensington  [now  No.  709  at  the  National 
Gallery].  This  agrees  so  entirely  with  the  last-described 
picture  that  it  must  have  been  painted  in  the  same  year. 

[The  Virgin  and  Child,  with  a  kneeling  nobleman  guarded 
by  St.  George  ;  from  the  Weyer  collection  at  Cologne,  now 
No.  686  in  the  National  Gallery. 

St.  John  the  Baptist  and  St.  Lawrence,  also  (No.  747) 
in  the  National  Gallery]. 

Portrait  of  a  man  with  an  open  book  in  his  hands,  calk 
St.  Benedict  (No.  769)  in  the  Uffizi. 

A  small  picture,  in  the  Louvre,  once  the  property  of  th( 
medal  die-sinker,  M.  Gatteau,  at  Paris,  represents  the  Vir£ 
seated  with  the  Child  in  a  cheerful  hilly  landscape,  ai 
placing  the  ring,  on  the  finger  of  St.  Catherine,  who  closeb 
resembles  the  same  saint  in  the  picture  at  Bruges. 

1  [This  picture  perished  by  fire  during  the  bombardment  of  St 
in  1870.] 

2  [The  date  is  1482.] 


THE    RELIQUARY   OF   ST.   URSULA, 
By  Hans  Memling      In  the  Chapel  of  St.  John's  Hospital  at  Bruges,    paje  101. 


Chap.  II.  HANS  MEMLING.  101 

her  are  SS.  Agnes  and  Cecilia,  opposite  SS.  Ursula,  Margaret, 
and  Lucy.  In  the  sky  are  three  angels  playing  the  flute. 
This  picture  is  a  marvel  of  beauty  in  the  small  heads,  of 
great  tenderness,  feeling,  delicacy  of  execution,  and  clearness 
of  golden  tone  ;  and  also  in  the  rarest  preservation. 

To  the  same  time  belongs  :  a  small  picture  in  the  gallery  of 
the  Uffi>,i,  the  Virgin  and  Child,  and  two  angels  playing, 
very  lovely  in  the  heads,  and  of  great  glow  of  colour,  [of 
which  there  is  a  charming  repetition  on  a  small  scale  in  the 
country  palace  of  Worlitz,  near  Dessau ;  a,  most  expressive 
small  panel  of  the  Pieta  in  the  Doria  Palace  at  Rome  ;  and 
two  small  figures  of  saints,  the  Baptist  and  Magdalen,  in 
the  Louvre.] 

In  St.  John's  Hospital  is  also  the  celebrated  Reliquary  of 
St.  Ursula,  see  woodcut,  a  shrine  about  four  feet  in  length ; 
its  style  and  form  are  those  of  rich  Gothic  church  archi- 
tecture, such  as  we  often  find  adopted  for  the  larger  depo- 
sitories of  relics.  The  whole*  exterior  of  this  casket  is 
adorned  with  miniatures  in  oil  by  Memling.  On  each  side 
of  the  cover  are  three  medallions — a  large  one  in  the  centre, 
and  two  smaller  at  the  sides.  The  latter  contain  angels 
playing  on  musical  instruments ;  in  the  centre,  on  one  side, 
is  a  Coronation  of  the  Virgin ;  on  the  other,  the  Glorifica- 
tion of  St.  Ursula  and  her  companions,  with  two  figures  of 
Bishops.  On  the  gable-end,  in  front,  are  the  Virgin  and 
Child,  before  whom  two  sisters  of  the  hospital  are  kneeling. 
At  the  other  end  is  St.  Ursula,  with  the  arrow,  the  instru- 
ment of  her  martyrdom,  and  the  virgins  who  seek  protection 
under  her  outspread  mantle.  On  the  longer  sides  of  the 
Reliquary  itself,  in  six  rather  large  compartments,  enclosed 
in  Gothic  arcades,  is  painted  the  history  of  St.  Ursula.  Ac- 
cording to  the  legend,  this  saint  was  the  daughter  of  an 
English  king,  who,  with  an  innumerable  train  of  companions, 
her  pious  lover,  and  an  escort  of  knights,  set  out,  by  the 
command  of  God,  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome.  On  their  jour- 
ney home  they  suffered  martrydom  at  Cologne.  The  subjects 
of  each  picture  separately  are — 1.  The  landing  at  Cologne, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  journey  ;  Ursula,  clothed  in  princely 
purple,  and  her  hair  braided  with  pearls,  steps  from  ths 


102  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Book  IB 

boat;  whilst  a  virgin  at  her  side  carries  a  casket  of  jewels. 
With  pious  humility  she  bends  kindly  to  the  virgins  who 
receive  her.  The  view  of  Cologne  is  taken  from  the  place,  so 
that  the  principal  buildings  are  easily  recognized.  2.  The 
landing  at  Basle.  The  princess,  with  part  of  her  followers, 
has  landed,  and  goes  towards  the  old  city.  Two  mort 
ships  approach  the  landing-place.  In  the  background  we 
see  the  Alps :  here,  then,  the  virgin  host  have  already  set 
out  on  their  land  journey.  3.  The  arrival  in  Home.  Pope 
Cyriacus  receives  the  princess,  who  is  followed  from  the 
mountains  by  her  train.  Youthful  knights,  with  Conan,  the 
lover  of  St.  Ursula,  at  their  head,  accompany  them.  The 
church  is  thrown  open,  and  in  it  some  are  in  the  act  of 
receiving  baptism,  whilst  others  are  at  confession.  4.  The 
second  arrival  at  Basle.  In  the  background  are  the  gates  of 
the  city,  from  which  the  princess  and  her  companions  are 
advancing  to  the  river.  In  the  foreground  the  embarkation 
has  already  begun.  In  a  large  boat  sit  the  pope  between 
two  cardinals,  and  St.  Ursula  between  two  virgins,  engaged 
in  devout  discourse.  5  and  6.  The  martyrdom.  The  camp 
of  the  Emperor  Maximin,  the  enemy  of  the  Christians,  is 
seen  on  the  banks  of  the  Ehine ;  the  two  ships  are  just 
putting  in ;  in  the  nearer  one  is  the  Bishop  who  has  attended 
St.  Ursula  from  Rome ;  a  crossbowman  and  an  archer  dis- 
charge their  arrows  into  the  boat.  In  the  other,  Conan,  who 
has  come  to  the  front,  receives  his  death  wound  from  a 
spear.  One  of  the*  virgins,  stabbed  in  the  breast,  falls 
back  into  the  arms  of  St.  Ursula,  who  is  again  represented, 
in  6,  awaiting  her  death  with  calm  resignation.  The  female 
figure  in  the  background,  who  is  clasping  her  hands  with 
an  expression  of  pity,  seems  to  belong  to  the  suite  of 
the  Emperor.  These  little  pictures  are  among  the  very 
best  productions  of  the  Flemish  school.  The  drawing  in 
these  small  figures  is  much  more  beautiful  than  in  the 
larger  examples  by  the  same  master;  there  is  nothing  in 
them  meagre,  stiff,  or  angular ;  the  movements  are  free ; 
the  execution  and  tone  of  colour,  with  all  its  softness,  very 
powerful ;  the  expression,  in  the  single  heads,  of  the  highest 
excellence. 


DEATH   OP   ST.    URSULA. 
One  of  the  Paintings  by  Memling  on  the  Peliquary  of  St.  Ursula  at  Bruges. 


page  101. 


Chap.  II.  HANS  xMEMLINQ.  103 

Tlie  six  pictures  ou  the  cover  are  not  so  fine,  and  evidently 
executed  by  another  hand. 

A  large  altarpiece,  with  double  wings,  in  the  cathedral  at 
Lubeck.  On  the  outer  sides  of  the  first  pair  of  wings  is  the 
Annunciation  in  chiaroscuro.  The  two  figures  are  of  slender 
and  elevated  character,  the  heads  of  great  sweetness  and 
refinement,  and  the  draperies  of  excellent  taste  and  very  care- 
ful modelling.  On  the  inner  sides  of  these  wings  are  SS. 
Blaise  and  Egidius,  and,  on  the  outsides  of  the  next  pair  of 
wings,  John  the  Baptist  and  St.  Jerome,  ^hese  four  figures 
are  among  the  finest  specimens  of  the  master's  art.  The 
inner  sides  of  the  last-mentioned  wings  are  connected  in 
subject  with  the  centre  picture.  The  right  wing  contains 
scenes  from  the  life  of  Christ,  from  the  Passion  in  the  Garden 
to  the  Bearing  of  the  Cross,  which  proceed  from  the  back- 
ground and  terminate  in  the  foreground.  The  centre  picture 
shows  the  Crucifixion,  including  the  two  thieves — a  compo- 
sition of  thirty-five  figures.  This  is  the  most  important  repre- 
sentation of  the  subject  which  this  school  offers,  full  of  original 
motives,  and  of  admirable  carrying  out.  On  the  left  wing  is 
the  Entombment  in  the  foreground,  and  in  the  middle  distance 
and  background  the  subsequent  events,  terminating  with  the 
Ascension.  The  date,  1491,  on  this  picture,  is  the  latest 
known  on  any  picture  by  Memling,  and  shows  him  in  his 
greatest  perfection.1 

The  travelling  altarpiece  of  Charles  V.,  at  Madrid.  The 
centre  represents  the  Adoration  of  the  Kings,  the  wings  the 
Nativity  and  the  Presentation  in  the  Temple.  The  figures 
are  about  one-third  life  size.  [This  triptych  is  composed  on 
the  model  of  that  of  Van  der  Weyden  at  Munich,  and  is  not 
unlike  that  of  Memling  at  Bruges.  Some  parts  of  it  are  due 
to  the  master's  assistants.] 

It  is  not  surprising  that  an  oil-painter  who  excelled  in 
works  on  so  small  a  scale  should  have  been  also  an  excellent 
miniature-painter.  This  is  proved  by  the  miniatures  in  the 

1  See  article  by  me  in  the  'Kunstblatt'  of  1846,  No.  28.  [Dr.  Waagen 
never  saw  this  picture  after  1846.  If  he  had  done  so,  he  would  not  have 
been  so  eloquent  in  its  praise.  It  bears  copious  traces  of  the  assistance 
which  Memling  had  from  his  journeymen.] 


10-t  THE  FIFTEENTH   CENTUKY.  Book  III. 

well-known  Breviary  bequeathed  by  Cardinal  Grimani  to  the 
Library  of  St.  Mark's  at  Venice.  This  relic,  which  is  the 
richest  and  most  beautiful  specimen  of  early  Netherlandish 
miniature-painting,  was  executed,  I  am  convinced,  for  Mary 
of  Burgundy,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold.1 

[DIEKICK  STUERBOUT,  or  BOUTS,  one  of  the  best  guildsmen  of 
Louvain,  produced  most  of  his  pictures  in  that  city  after  1466, 
and  in  feeling  as  well  as  treatment  shows  himself  a  disciple 
of  Van  der  Weyden.  During  a  tour  in  the  Netherlands  Van 
Mander  became  aware  of  the  existence  of  Dierick,  whose 
-house  in  the  Cruys  Straet  at  Haarlem  he  was  taken  to  see. 
Further  on  in  the  same  tour  Van  Mander  came  to  Ley  den, 
where  he  saw  a  picture  with  an  inscription  to  this  purport, 
that  it  was  executed  at  Louvain  in  1462  by  Dirk,  who  was  a 
native  of  Haarlem.2  In  1450  Dierick  was  married,  and  settled 
at  Louvain,  where  he  remained  till  his  death  in  1475. ]8 

As  early  as  1462,  Dierick  probably  painted  a  most  cha- 
acteristic  portrait,  first  of  a  man  in  a  high  cap,  which  was 
for  some  years  accessible  to  the  London  public,  in  the  collec- 
tions of  Mr.  Aders  and  Rogers  the  poet.  In  1466-8  he 
completed  two  pictures  for  chapels  in  St.  Pierre  of  Louvain  : 
for  the  smaller  chapel  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Erasmus  in  the 

1  See  article  by  me  in  the  '  Kunstblatt '  of  1847,  No.  49.     [Mr.  W. 
H.  J.  Weale  proves  almost  conclusively  that  this  Breviary  was  written 
in  or  after  1484.     One  of  the  miniatures — an  Epiphany — is  an  exact 
reduction  of  that  of  Memling  at  Munich.    See  'Le  Beftroi,'  ii.,  213,  214.] 

2  This  inscription  [was  in  Latin,  but  in  Van  Mander's  Flemish  trans- 
lation, it  runs  as]  follows  : — "  Duysent  vier  hundred  en  twee  et  tsestien 
Jaer  nac  Christus  gheboort,  heeft  Dirk,  de  te  Haerlem  is  ghebooren  my 
te  Lowen  ghemaeckt,  de  euwighge  rust  moet  hem  ghewerden."     This 
picture  consisted  of  figures  the  size  of  life,  Christ  in  the  centre,  and  SS. 
Peter  and  Paul  on  the  wings. 

3  [Wauters  in  A.  Pinchart's  Annot.,  u.  s.,  p.  ccxxxi.,  proves  the 
existence  of  Dierick  at  Louvain  in  1450.     The  same  writer  published  a 
notice  in  the '  Chronicle  of  the  Historical  Society  of  Utrecht,'  vi.,  p.  268,  in 
which  he  tried  to  show  that  Dierick  was  born  in  1391.   As  a  proof  of  this 
he  quoted  evidence  of  a  trial  at  Brussels  in  1467,  in  which  one  "Thieni 
of  Haarlem  "  gave  testimony,  saying  that  he  was  then  seventy-six  years 
old.     This  reasoning  convinced  Dr.  Waagen,  who  accordingly  makes 
Dierick  a  pupil  of  Hubert  van  Eyck.     It  might  have  occurred  to  both 
Wauters  and  Dr.  Waagen  to  inquire  whether  Thierri  of  Haarlem  and 
Dierick  Bouts  were  identical,  which  is  altogether  impossible.     For  how 
should  we  be  without  records  of  the  industry  of  a  painter  born  in  1391, 
until  so  late  a  period  as  1462  ?    See  also  '  Early  Flemish  Painters,'  2nd 
ed.  325-331.] 


Chap.  II.  DIERIC£   STUERBOUT.  105 

centre,  and  SS.  Jerome  and  Bernard  on  the  wings ;  for  the 
larger  chapel  also  the  Last  Supper  in  the  centre,  and  on  the 
wings  four  compartments,  one  above  the  other,  with  emblem- 
atical representations  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  taken  from  the 
Old  Testament.  The  last  altarpiece,  on  which  he  laboured 
several  years,  receiving  from  time  to  time  small  instalments 
of  payment,  was  completed  in  the  year  1467.1  In  [1468, 
Dierick  appears  for  the  first  time  in  the  city  accounts  as 
"town  painter,"  having  finished  for  the  council  chamber  of 
the  Town-hall  two  pictures,  now  preserved  (Nos.  51  and  52) 
in  the  Brussels  Museum.  These  pictures]*consist  of  life-sized 
figures,  and  represent  events  calculated  to  admonish  the 
judges  of  the  strict  fulfilment  of  their  office.  These  were 
taken  from  a  legend  in  the  Chronicle  of  Gottfried  of  Viterbo, 
written  in  the  twelfth  century,  relating  how  the  Emperor 
Otho  III.  had,  on  the  false  testimony  of  his  empress,  a  guilty 
and  disappointed  woman,  executed  one  of  the  nobles  of  his 
•court.  The  wife  of  the  murdered  man,  however,  proved,  by 
the  ordeal  of  fire,  the  innocence  of  her  husband;  the  empress 
was  condemned  to  the  flames.2  For  these  pictures  the 
painter  received  the  then  considerable  sum  of  230  crowns,  a 
proof  how  highly  his  works  were  esteemed  ;  while  the  satis- 
faction of  the  magistracy  was  further  shown  by  the  immediate 
commission  to  execute  two  more  works.  The  one,  an  altar- 
piece  with  wings,  six  feet  high  and  four  feet  wide,  repre- 
senting the  Last  Judgment,  was  destined  for  the  council- 
chamber  of  the  Sheriffs,  and  was  completed  in  1472;  the 
other,  intended  to  take  its  place  in  a  collection  of  pictures 

1  That  both  these  altarpieces,  designated  in  the  church  as  the  works 
of  Memling,  and  by  me  attributed  to  Justus  van  Ghent,  are  by  the 
hand  of  Stuerbout,  is  evident  from  the  following  passage  in  Molanus  : 
— "  Theodorici  filii  opus  sunt  in  ecclesia  D.  Petri  duo  altaria  venerabilis 
sacramenti  quse  multum  ex  arte  commendantur."     The  fullest  con- 
firmation of  this  passage  has  been  extracted  by  M.  Edward  van  Even 
from  the  financial  records  of  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Holy  Sacrament 
for  the  last-named  picture.     Even  the  painter's  receipt,  of  the  year 
1467,  has  been  found.     It  runs  thus:    "Je  Dieric  Bouts  kenne  mi 
vernucht  (sic)  en  wel  betaelt,  als  van  den  were  dat  ic  ghemackt  hebbe 
den  heiligen  sacrement." 

2  This  appears  from  a  record  in  the  Annals  of  Louvain,  first  published 
in  the  'Messager  des  Sciences,'  etc.,  p.  18,  1832,  and  afterwards  by 
Orowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  in  '  Early  Flemish  Painters/  1st  ed.  p.  290. 


106  THE  FIFTEENTH   CENTUKY.  Book  IIL 

which  the  city  authorities  proposed  forming  in  the  Town-hall, 
consisted  of  four  pieces,  ranging  twelve  feet  in  height,  and, 
forming  altogether  a  length  of  twenty-six  feet,  would  have 
been  the  largest  known  work  of  this  school.  The  artist  con- 
tracted to  paint  both  pictures  for  500  crowns  ;  but  before 
completing  the  second  compartment  of  the  last  great  work, 
death  interrupted  his  labours.1  The  greater  part  of  the- 
pictures  thus  recorded  being  still  in  existence,  I  am  not  only 
enabled  to  form  a  deliberate  opinion  as  to  the  master's  style 
of  painting,  but  also,  with  this  standard,  to  identify  other 
works  by  his  hand.  In  his  treatment  of  religious  subjects 
the  feeling  of  devotion  which  pervades  the  whole  early 
Netherlandish  school  is  accompanied  by  the  expression  of  a, 
repose,  solemnity,  and  slight  melancholy,  which  imparts  a- 
peculiar  charm.  In  the  arrangement  of  his  subject  the  sense 
of  the  picturesque  so  predominates  over  that  of  the  sym- 
metrical as  often  to  give  an  arbitrary  and  scattered  look  to 
his  compositions.  At  the  same  time  separate  actions  have 
generally  something  angular  and  stiff,  which  shows  itself 
especially  in  the  position  of  the  legs  ;  the  proportions  are 
also  often  too  long  and  meagre,  the  legs  again  being  par- 
ticularly in  fault,  and  the  forms  too  slender.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  character  of  the  heads  is  very  various,  of  much 
animation  and  individuality,  generally  full  of  meaning,  and 
occasionally  displaying  a  delicate  feeling  for  beauty.  .The 
drawing  is  very  able,  and  the  hands  always  in  good  action. 
In  point  of  drapery  no.  painter  of  this  school  is  so  exempt 
from  the  angularity  of  folds  peculiar  to  Jan  van  Eyck.  His 
distinctive  merits,  however,  consist  in  his  colouring,  in  his 
landscape  backgrounds,  and  in  the  style  of  their  execution. 
For  depth,  power,  and  fulness  of  colouring,  no  other  painter 
in  the  whole  school  can  indeed  be  compared  with  him.  His- 
red  and  green  draperies,  for  instance,  are  so  melting  and 
transparent  as  only  to  be  likened  to  garnets  and  emeralds. 
This  effect  in  the  green  extends  even  to  the  trees  and  plants 

1  Regarding  his  death,  and  also  the  price  awarded  to  the  unfinished 
work  by  Hugo  van  der  Goes,  see  the  same  work  by  E.  van  Even,  p.  14. 
See  also  the  passage  describing  these  pictures  in  the  Louvain  Annals,. 
'  Early  Flemish  Painters,'  1st  ed.  p.  291. 


Chap.  II.  DIERICK  STUERBOUT.  107 

of  his  landscape  backgrounds,  which,  in  their  greater  softness 
and  depth  of  tone,  and  slightly  more  developed  aerial  per- 
spective, assign  to  him  the  highest  place  among  his  compeers. 
It  is  possible  that  the  example  of  his  father,  who  is  supposed 
to  have  been  an  excellent  painter,  may  have  influenced 
him.  We  know  for  certain  that  a  picture  by  Dierick,  repre- 
senting events  from  the  life  of  St.  Bavon,  was,  as  late  as 
1609,  in  the  possession  of  a  Mr.  T.  Blin,  at  Haarlem.  Here 
the  environs  of  the  city  were  given  with  such  detail,  that 
even  a  well-known  hollow  tree  then  existing  could  be  identi- 
fied.1 Finally,  in  the  treatment  of  the  whole  picture  he  dis- 
plays a  breadth  and  softness,  compared  with  which  the  works 
of  [such  a  great  master  as]  Roger  van  der  Weyden  the  elder, 
appear — namely,  in  the  execution  of  rich  stuffs — to  be  some- 
what hard  and  meagre.  The  number  of  works  attributed  to 
Stuerbout  are  by  no  means  inconsiderable.  My  limits,  how- 
ever, only  allow  me  to  mention  those  most  characteristic  of 
the  master,  and  also  most  accessible  to  the  reader. 

His  probably  earliest  production  known  to  me  are  two 
small  wings  containing  eight  events  from  the  legend  of  St. 
Ursula,  in  the  chapel  of  the  convent  des  Sceurs  Noires  at 
Bruges,  and  there  wrongly  given  to  Memling.  The  exterior 
of  the  wings,  with  the  four  Evangelists,  the  four  Fathers  of 
the  Church,  and  the  Annunciation,  in  chiaroscuro,  are  well 
deserving  notice.  Next  in  period  may  be  taken  two  works 
belonging  to  a  larger  altarpiece.  One  of  these,  represent- 
ing Judas  and  his  troop  taking  our  Lord,  is  in  the  Munich 
Gallery,  No.  112.  The  composition  is  rich  and  animated, 
but  the  meagreness  of  the  forms,  angularity  of  the  motives, 
and  a  certain  hardness  of  outline,  assign  it  to  the  earlier 
period  of  the  painter.  At  the  same  time  his  admirable  in- 
dividuality of  heads  is  already  pronounced  in  this  work,  also 
the  variety  of  his  flesh-tones,  and  the  power  and  depth  of  his 
colouring.  The  other — the  Ascension — wrongly  attributed 
to  Memling,  is  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Maurice  at  Nuremberg 

1  The  description  of  this  picture  is  found  in  a  note  to  the  French 
translation  of  Guicciardini's  'Account  of  the  Netherlands,'  published 
in  Amsterdam,  in  1609,  by  Pioter  van  Bcrge.  See  Edward  van  Even, 
p.  29,  etc. 


108  THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

No.  23.  The  dignity  expressed  in  the  head  of  the  Saviour  is 
an  attractive  feature,  but  the  piece  is  otherwise  too  much 
restored. 

To  these  pictures  probably  succeeds,  in  point  of  time,  his 
smaller  altarpiece  in  the  Cathedral  of  Bruges  :  the  centre  con- 
taining the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Hippolitus,  who  is  torn  to  pieces 
by  four  horses ;  and  the  wing,  the  King  by  whom  the  Saint 
was  condemned,  with  four  other  figures,  and  the  now  partly 
obliterated  portrait1  of  a  man  and  his  wife,  the  founders  of 
the  picture.  The  expression  of  grief  in  the  Saint  is  very 
elevated ;  the  flesh  of  a  brownish  tone,  and  well  modelled. 
But  the  horses,  considering  the  time,  are  the  most  remarkable 
portion,  being  well  formed,  and  of  much  vivacity  of  action. 
The  landscape  background  already  bears  witness  to  his  pecu- 
liar excellence  in  that  line.  The  centre  picture  has  been 
unfortunately  much  retouched. 

In  close  approximation  to  this  last  work  is  the  small  altar- 
piece,  with  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Erasmus,  already  alluded 
to,  in  St.  Peter's  at  Louvain,  and  which  was  probably  exe- 
cuted in  1463  or  1464.  The  drawing  of  the  Saint's  body 
shows  an  evident  improvement  upon  the  last  picture.  The 
disagreeable  effect  of  the  peculiar  martyrdom  of  this  Saint, 
whose  bowels  were  wound  out  upon  a  windlass,  is  much 
diminished,  though  somewhat  at  the  expense  of  the  truth 
usually  observed  by  the  school  in  such  scenes,  by  the  absence 
of  blood,  and  of  all  distortion  of  the  features.  Some  of  the 
heads  are  less  warm  and  clear  than  usual,  but  the  modelling 
is  throughout  excellent.  The  drapery  of  St.  Jerome,  in  the 
wing,  may  be  considered,  in  cast,  colouring,  and  making  out, 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  efforts  of  the  whole  school.  The 
landscape  of  the  background  is  one  of  the  finest  examples  of 
the  master's  hand. 

Immediately  following  may  be  placed  the  larger  altarpiece, 
completed  in  1467,  which  is  in  the  same  church  at  Louvain. 
and  the  centre  of  which  represents  the  Last  Supper.  In 
every  portion  of  this  work  the  painter  appears  at  the  very 
zenith  of  his  art.  The  figures  of  Christ  and  his  Disciples 
are  distributed  with  great  artistic  judgment  round  a  quad- 
rangular table,  and  exhibit  an  admirable  variety  in  action, 


Chap.  II.  DIERICK   STUERBOUT.  109 

character,  and  expression.  The  noble  head  of  the  Saviour 
forms  a  striking  contrast  to  that  of  Judas,  which  is  distin- 
guished by  its  jet  black  hair  and  malignant  expression. 
I  had  on  former  occasions  conjectured  the  head  of  one  of 
the  subordinate  figures  to  be  the  portrait  of  the  painter. 
Herr  van  Even,  who  is  of  the  same  opinion,  has,  in  a  well 
known  pamphlet,  given  an  outline  from  a  tracing  of  the 
head,  which  is  that  of  an  elderly  man  of  fine  features,  but 
rather  morose  expression.  The  wings  to  this  picture  are 
not  less  fine.  Two  of  them,  Abraham  and  Melchisedec,  and 
the  Gathering  of  the  Manna,  are  in  the  Munich  Gallery. 
Nos.  110  and  111 :  two  others,  Elijah  in  the  Wilderness 
fed  by  an  Angel,  and  the  First  Celebration  of  the  Passover, 
in  the  Berlin  Museum,  Nos.  533  and  539.  The  Gathering 
of  the  Manna  has  suffered  much  by  fresh  glazings,  but  it 
has,  in  common  with  the  fourth-mentioned  subject,  a  very 
beautiful  landscape. 

The  two  pictures  from  the  *legend  of  the  Emperor  Otho, 
though  the  largest  and  the  latest  by  the  master  (executed 
1468),  are  by  no  means  the  most  satisfactory  of  his  works. 
The  angular  movements,  over-long  proportions,  and  meagre 
limbs — in  short,  the  weak  points  of  the  painter — are  much 
more  conspicuously  seen  in  figures  the  size  of  life  than  in 
his  smaller  productions.  At  the  same  time,  the  vivacity  of 
the  heads,  the  warm  and  vigorous  colouring,  though  here  and 
there  defaced  by  cleaning,  and  the  thorough  execution,  suffice 
to  give  these  pictures  no  inconsiderable  value  as  works  of  art. 

[It  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  Dierick  Bouts  was 
a  contemporary  of  HUBEKT  STUERBOUT,  a  painter  at  Lou- 
vain,  whose  name  appears  in  the  civic  accounts  from  1439 
to  1468.  Hubert  had  a  large  family  of  sons,  many  of  whom 
were  also  painters.]1 

ROGER  VAN  DER  WEYDEN  the  younger  was  the  son  and 
scholar  of  the  elder  Roger.2  But  beyond  this  we  know 
nothing  more  than  that  he  earned  much  by  his  art,  was  very 
benevolent,  and  that  he  died  in  Brussels  in  1529,  at  a  great 

1  [See  Van  Even's  Louvain  Monumental.] 

2  Sandrart  distinctly  says  tiiis  ('Teutsche  Academie/  p.  66)  in  his 
notice  on  oil-painting. 


110  THE   FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Book  III. 

age,  of  the  so-called  English  sweating  sickness.1  He  ad- 
hered throughout  to  the  style  of  his  father,  to  whom,  in  his 
earlier  works,  he  approaches  very  near.  Later,  however, 
his  proportions  are  not  so  long,  his  forms  fuller,  and  his 
drawing  more  delicate.  This  applies  especially  to  his  hands 
and  feet.  On  the  other  hand,  he  has  little  feeling  for  beauty, 
and,  while  his  motives  are  occasionally  the  reverse  of  beauti- 
ful, his  heads  are  frequently  of  a  portrait-like  and  tasteless 
character.  In  general,  he  shows  greater  softness  of  outline, 
his  flesh-tones  are  lighter  and  more  broken,  his  lights  of  a 
cooler  red,  his  shadows  clearer,  and  his  treatment,  finally, 
broader.  He  appears  especially  to  have  devoted  himself  to 
the  representation  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  and  to  the 
sorrow  of  the  Virgin  and  the  Disciples  ;  almost  every  picture 
that  is  with  any  probability  assigned  to  him  belonging  to  this 
class  of  subject.  His  mode  of  conception  must  have  been 
very  congenial  to  the  religious  feeling  of  his  period,  for  old 
copies  of  his  works  abound. 

His  principal  work  is  one  originally  executed  for  the 
church  of  our  Lady  "Darbuyten,"  at  Louvain,  now  in  the 
Sacristy  of  S.  Lorenzo  of  the  Escurial — a  Descent  from  the 
Cross,  consisting  of  ten  life-sized  figures.2  The  Virgin  has 
fainted  at  the  right  of  the  body  of  Christ,  which  is  supported 
by  Nicodemus  and  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  and  is  upheld  her- 
self by  one  of  the  Maries  and  by  St.  John.  At  the  feet  of 
Christ,  in  passionate  but  ungraceful  gestures,  is  the  Magdalen. 
Behind  the  group  of  the  Virgin  is  another  woman  weeping 
and  covering  her  face*  with  a  cloth.  The  animation  and 

1  Van  Mander,  plate  129  b.  f.     Because  Van  Mander  in  some  respects 
confounds  him  with  his  father,  Wauters,  and  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  after 
him,  deny  his  existence.     With  these  opinions  I  cannot  agree.     See  my 
reasons  in   'Kunstblatt'  of   1847,   p.   170,  etc.     Passavant  also    (see 
above-mentioned  work,  p.  134,  etc.),  and  Hotho,  are  of  my  opinion. 

2  As  I  have  not  seen  this  picture  myself,  I  adopt  Passavant's  descrip- 
tion (see  as  before).     I  was,  however,  at  one  time  inclined  to  agree  with 
Wauters,  who  assigns  this  to  the  father  (see  p.  171),  an  opinion  shared 
by  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  (p.  185,  etc.),  who  think  that  the  specimen 
in  the  Gallery  at  Madrid  is  the  original.     [Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle  never 
considered  that  the  Descent  from  the  Cross  at  the  Escurial  was  by  the 
"  elder  "  Van  der  Weydeto.     On  the  contrary,  they  say  expressly  ['  Early 
Flemish  Painters,'  1st  ed.,  p.  186  ;  2nd  ed.,  p.  197)  that  it  is  by  a  pupil 
of  that  master,  and  that  pupil  is  probably  Dierick  Bouts.  1 


Chap.  II.  SCHOOL  OF  VAN   DER  WEYDEN.  Ill 

highly- wrought  pathos,  the  careful  drawing  of  every  portion, 
and  especially  of  the  Saviour's  body,  and  that  of  the  hands, 
have  at  all  times  rendered  this  picture  the  object  of  great 
admiration.  Two  of  the  contemporary  repetitions  of  the  pic- 
ture are  also  by  the  painter ;  one  in  the  Madrid  Gallery,  No. 
1046,1  the  other,  dated  1488,  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  534. 

Of  the  other  works  in  Spain  attributed  by  Passavant  to 
him,2 1  only  cite  a  small  Crucifixion  in  the  Gallery  at  Madrid, 
with  the  false  monogram  of  Albert  Durer. 

The  Descent  from  the  Cross,  a  small  altarpiece,  with 
wings,  in  the  Liverpool  Institution,  No.  42,8  is  of  the  earlier 
time  of  the  master,  still  hard  in  outline,  but  of  great  pathos. 

Another  Descent  from  the  Cross,  [formerly]  in  the  collec- 
tion of  the  Prince  Consort  at  Kensington,  No.  36.  The  great 
warmth  of  colour,  and  the  stricter  carrying  out,  are  again 
proofs  of  his  early  time. 

An  Ecce  Homo,  and  a  Mater  Dolorosa,  both  [at  one  time] 
at  Kensington ;  half-length  £gures ;  the  Virgin  of  elevated 
and  intense  feeling.4 

An  Ecce  Homo,  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Green,  of  Hadley, 
near  Barnet,  very  like  the  foregoing. 

An  Entombment,  once  in  the  collection  of  Sir  Culling 
Eardley,  at  Belvedere,  near  Erith,  of  his  earlier  time.  Of 
great  energy  of  feeling  and  colour.5 

A  Descent  from  the  Cross,  in  the  Royal  Gallery  at  Naples; 
a  very  rich  and  beautiful  composition,  purchased  about  twenty 
years  ago. 

The  head  of  a  Woman  weeping,  in  the  Gallery  at  Brussels, 
of  much  truth  and  depth  of  expression.6 

1  '  Christliche  Kunst  in  Spanien,'  p.  134. 

Ibid.  p.  137, 

"Treasures  of  Art,'  etc.,  vol.  iii.  p.  235. 

'  Treasures,'  etc.,  vol.  iv.  p.  226,  etc. 

Ibid.  p.  278. 

[Dr.  Waagen,  mindless  of  criticism  which  denies  that  there  exists 
any  proof  of  the  authorship  of  Eoger  van  der  Weyden  the  younger  in 
any  extant  picture,  clung  to  his  opinion  with  great  persistency.  He 
was  at  last  the  only  defender  of  this  opinion,  which  I,  amongst  others, 
cannot  share.] 


112  DECLINE   IN   FLANDERS.  Book  III. 


CHAPTER  ILT. 

THE  EARLY  FLEMISH  SCHOOL,  UP  TO  THE  PERIOD  OF 
ITS  TERMINATION. 

1490—1530. 

[AT  the  period  upon  which  we  now  enter,  Flemish  painting 
still  preserved  its  nationality ;  but  the  forces  which  had  been 
at  work  to  produce  the  great  masters  of  the  fifteenth  century 
were  nearly  exhausted.  All  the  vitality  that  was  left  was 
directed  into  subordinate  channels,  and  art  entered  upon  a 
phase  of  absolute  decline.  At  Bruges,  where  John  van  Eyck 
brought  landscape  to  the  highest  perfection  as  subsidiary  to 
composition,  a  new  race  of  craftsmen  arose,  which  clung  to 
the  models  of  its  predecessors,  and  modified  their  principles 
of  distribution  by  making  figures  of  less  importance  than 
the  surrounding  distance.  At  Louvain  the  same  process  of 
change  led  to  the  creation  of  a  school  of  realistic  expression. 
In  this  way  Gheerardt  David  of  Bruges,  and  Quentin  Massys 
of  Louvain,  acquired  positive  importance  in  history ;  the 
first  because  he  was  the  leader  of  the  movement  which  gave 
prominence  to  Patenier  and  De  Bles,  the  second  because  he 
led  in  the  introduction  of  those  homely  caricatures  which 
degenerated  into  the  low,  yet  not  untalented  form  of  Jan 
Steen.] 

[GHEERARDT  DAVID  was  born  at  Oudewater,  between 
Utrecht  and  Rotterdam,  and  wandered  to  Bruges,  where  he 
took  the  freedom  of  the  Painters'  Guild  in  January,  1484. 
He  was  fourth  "vinder"  of  the  Guild:  first  "vinder"  in  1495 
and  1498,  and  president  or  "  dean  "  in  1501-2.  He  died  on 
the  13th  of  August,  1523,  and  was  buried  in  Notre  Dame  of 
Bruges.  In  1498  he  painted  the  Last  Judgment  for  the 
magistrates  of  the  city;  in  1507,  for  Jean  des  Trompes,  the 
well-known  "Baptism  of  Christ,"  in  the  Academy  of  Bruges ; 
in  1509,  the  Yirgin  and  Child  with  Saints,  in  the  Museum  of 
Rouen,  which  was  presented  by  the  artist  himself  to  the 


Chap.  III.  GHEERARDT  DAVID.  1 1 3 

sisters  of  the  Carmelites  of  Sion  at  Bruges.  That  Joachim 
Patenier  was  a  direct  pupil  of  Gheerardt  is  probable ;  and 
confirmation  of  this  belief  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
when  Joachim  took  the  freedom  of  the  Guild  of  Antwerp,  in 
1515,  the  name  of  "  Meester  Gheeraet  van  Brugghe"  was 
inscribed  immediately  after  his,  on  the  register  of  that  cor- 
poration.1 The  "  Baptism  "  is  a  typical  piece  for  those  who 
wish  to  acquaint  themselves  with  David's  manner.  The 
figures  are  underset  and  devoid  of  grace,  in  shape  and  face 
reminiscent  of  Van  Eyck  and  Memling  ;*  but  without  the 
manly  strength  of  the  first  or  the  delicate  feeling  of  the 
second.  In  the  variegated  tones  of  the  dresses  harsh  and 
inharmonious  contrasts  vex  the  eye ;  but  the  surface  is  bur- 
nished, spotless,  and  clean,  and  modelled  with  such  polish 
that  the  touch  is  not  to  be  distinguished  in  any  part.  To 
the  frigid  metallic  brilliance  thus  created  additional  coldness 
is  imparted  by  a  bright  landscape  of  trees  and  ground,  the 
detail  and  minutiae  of  which  are  given  as  if  the  air  was 
saturated  with  moisture,  and  invisible  to  the  eye.  Foliage 
is  reproduced  with  due  regard  to  form,  and  nature  is  equally 
consulted  in  respect  of  leaf  and  branching. 

In  the  spirit  of  this  piece  is  the  Madonna  with  Saints,  in 
the  town  Museum  at  Rouen,  and  a  series  of  pictures  in  con- 
tinental galleries,  of  which  a  short  description  is  all  that  can 
be  attempted.  The  Virgin  and  Angel  Annunciate,  in  the  col- 
lection of  the  Prince  of  Hohenzollern  at  Sigmaringen;  a 
marvel  of  polished  finish.  The  Virgin  and  Child,  St.  Catherine, 
and  other  female  saints  in  a  landscape  ;  a  panel  of  delicate 
tone,  made  pallid  by  removal  of  glazes,  in  the  collection  of 
Count  Arco  Valley  at  Munich.  The  Crucifixion  (No.  573),  in 
the  Museum  of  Berlin  ;  a  glossy,  gaudy,  but  wonderfully 
minute  panel,  of  enamel  surface.  A  Nativity,  in  the  National 
Gallery  at  Madrid.  An  Epiphany  (No.  118),  at  Munich, 
and  almost  a  replica  of  the  same  (No.  20),  in  the  gallery  of 
Brussels.  A  Tree  of  Jesse,  once  in  the  Culling  Eardley 
collection  at  Erith.  The  Marriage  of  Cana  (No.  596),  at 
the  Louvre  [formerly  in  St.  Basile  at  Bruges.]2 

1  [See  De  Liggeren,  i.  83.] 

2  [For  David's  life  and  works,  consult  Le  Beffroi,  Weale  in  vol.  xx.  of 
the  '  Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts,'  and  '  Early  Flemish  Painters.'] 

8 


114  THE  DECLINE   IN   FLANDERS.  Book  III. 

[QUENTIN  MASSYS  was  born  at  Louvain  in  1466,  and  brought 
•up  by  his  father,  who  was  a  locksmith.  Being  the  younger 
of  two  sons,  the  elder  of  whom,  Josse  Massys,  had  elected 
to  follow  the  profession  of  a  smith,  clockmaker,  and  architect, 
he  took  lessons  in  painting  from  a  master  at  Louvain,  whom 
we  may  suppose  to  be  Dierick  Bouts,  and  in  course  of  years 
became  a  painter  of  name.  In  1497  he  changed  his  residence, 
and  settled  at  Antwerp,  having  joined  the  Painters'  Guild  in 
1491.  We  may  judge  of  the  fairness  of  his  repute  from  the 
fact  that  he  was  employed  in  1509  to  paint  a  large  altarpiece 
for  a  chapel  in  St.  Pierre  of  Louvain,  and  in  1517  to  take  the 
likenesses  of  Erasmus  and  Egidius,  which  were  presented  by 
the  former  to  Sir  Thomas  More.  Erasmus  was  acquainted 
with  all  the  painters  of  his  time,  and  particularly  with  Holbein 
.and  Diirer.  He  may  have  induced  the  latter  to  pay  Massys 
the  visit  which  we  find  noted  in  the  Diirer  Diary  of  1520. 
Quentin  died  before  Christmas,  1530.]1 

The  style  of  Massys  marks,  popularly  speaking,  the  close 
of  the  last  and  the  beginning  of  the  next  period.  A  number 
of  pictures,  representing  sacred  subjects,  exhibit,  with  little 
feeling  for  beauty  of  forms,  such  delicacy  of  features  and 
earnestness  of  expression,  tenderness  and  clearness  of  colour- 
ing, and  skilfulness  of  careful  finish,  as  worthily  recall  the 
religious  spirit  of  the  middle  ages,  though  at  the  very  ter- 
mination of  them.  In  his  draperies  also  we  observe  a 
tenderly  broken  tone,  of  the  utmost  charm,  peculiar  to  him- 
self. At  the  same  time,  in  the  subordinate  figures  introduced 
into  sacred  subjects,  such  as  the  executioners,  etc.,  he  takes 
pleasure  in  rendering  coarse  and  tasteless  caricatures.  In 
subjects  also  taken  from  common  life,  such  as  money-changers, 
occasionally  a  loving  couple,  or  a  weazened  old  woman,  he 
uses  his  brush  with  evident  zest,  and  with  great  success. 
The  pictures  of  his  later  time  are  also  in  this  respect  distin- 
guished from  those  of  most  other  Netherlandish  painters, 
inasmuch  as  his  figures  are  three-quarter  life  size,  or  full  life 

1  [Consult  E.  van  Even's  Louvain  Monumental ;  the  same  author  in 
Le Beffroi, ii.  74 ;  A.  Woltmann  and  G.  Kinkel,  in  'Zeitschrift  fur  Bildende 
Kunst,'  i.  198 — 202,  and  iv.  197 ;  Wornum,  in  Kinkel,  u.s.,  the  catalogue 
•of  the  Antwerp  Gallery  for  1857,  and  De  Liggeren,  i.  p.  43.] 


Chap.  III.  QUENTtN  MASSYS.  115 

size.  His  most  important  work  is  an  altarpieee,  painted 
originally  for  the  Joiners'  Guild  as  an  ornament  of  their 
chapel  in  the  Cathedral,1  but  now  in  the  Museum  of  Antwerp, 
Nos.  245-49,  which  he  undertook  in  the  year  1508.  The 
.centre  represents  the  Body  of  Christ  after  the  descent  from 
the  Cross,  mourned  over  by  his  friends  and  the  holy  women  : 
the  Virgin,  sunk  in  the  deepest  grief,  is  supported  by  John ; 
two  venerable  old  men,  Joseph  of  Arimathea  and  Nicodemus, 
sustain  the  head  and  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  whilst  the 
holy  women  anoint  the  wounds  of  the  Saviour.  The  figures 
.are  nearly  the  size  of  life,  and  so  arranged  that  each  appears 
distinct  and  significant.  On  the  right  wing,  the  head  of  John 
the  Baptist  is  placed  on  the  table  of  Herod,  whilst  musicians 
— absurd  and  disagreeable  figures — play  on  an  elevated  plat- 
form. On  the  left  wing  is  John  the  Evangelist  in  the  caldron 
•of  boiling  oil,  and  the  executioners,  who,  with  brutal  jests, 
stir  up  the  fire  whilst  the  spectators  are  disputing.  This 
picture  is  highly  finished  in  execution,  full  of  reality,  and 
profound  in  the  development  of  individual  character.  In  the 
mourning  figures  of  the  centre  division  a  fine  pathetic  feeling 
is  expressed  in  all  its  various  degrees. 

The  altarpieee  in  St.  Peter's,  at  Louvain  (in  a  side  chapel 
of  the  choir),  represents  the  Virgin  with  the  Child,  and  the 
holy  personages  of  her  family  ;  on  the  side  wings  are  scenes 
from  the  life  of  her  parents.  [It  is  an  important  work,  in- 
scribed: "  Quinte  Metsys  screef  dees,  a°.  1509." 

More  interesting  still  is  the  portrait  of  Egidius,  at  Longford 
•Castle ;  a  noble  likeness,  framed  together  with  that  of  Erasmus 
by  Holbein.]2 

A  picture  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  in  which  the  Virgin  is 
seated  on  a  throne  kissing  the  infant  Christ.  In  front,  on  a 
small  table,  are  articles  of  food,  well  painted,  No.  561.  This 

1  See  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds' s  Journey  in  Flanders,  "Works,  vol.  ii.  p, 
288,  who  says,  "  There  are  heads  in  this  picture  not  exceeded  by  Raphael, 
and  indeed  not  unlike  his  manner  of  painting  portraits  :  hard  and  mi- 
nutely finished.     The  head  of  Herod,  and  that  of  a  fat  man,  near  the 
Christ,  are  excellent." 

2  [Egidius  and  Erasmus,  at  Longford,  were  considered  in  Dr.  Waagen's 
time  to  be  by  Holbein.     Otto  Miindler  and  others  subsequently  ex- 
pressed the  opinion  that  they  were  by  Massys.    Now  it  is  agreed  that 
ihe  Egidius  is  by  Massys,  the  Erasmus  by  Holbein.] 


116  THE  DECLINE  IN  FLANDERS.  Book  III. 


already  indicates  a  reference  to  earthly  wants,  which,  like  the 
more  animated  movement  of  the  whole  picture,  would  have 
been  opposed  to  the  feelings  of  the  older  masters  ;  but  the 
workmanship  of  the  throne,  particularly  the  agate  pillars, 
and  their  embossed  capitals  of  gold,  is  executed  entirely  in 
the  serious  style  of  earlier  art.  [A  valuable  picture  in  the 
same  feeling  is  the  Virgin  and  Child  (No.  902),  in  the  Museum 
of  Amsterdam.] 

Among  the  most  original  and  attractive  pieces  by  Massy s 
are  the  half-length  pictures  of  Christ  and  the  Virgin.  These 
must  have  been  very  popular  in  his  own  time,  for  he  has  left 
several  repetitions  of  them.  Two  heads,  of  this  class,  of 
marvellous  delicacy  of  feeling,  colouring,  and  expression,  are 
in  the  Museum  at  Antwerp,  Nos.  241  and  242.  Two  others, 
of  equal  beauty,  only  that  the  Christ  is  somewhat  heavier  in 
tone,  have  passed  from  the  collection  of  the  King  of  Holland 
into  the  National  Gallery  No.  295.  Considering  the  rarity 
of  his  pictures  representing  this  class  of  religious  subjects,  I 
may  cite  a  Virgin  and  Child  of  his  earlier  period,  in  the  hands 
of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Russell,  Greenhithe,  Kent ;  a  Mater  Dolorosa, 
belonging  to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Heath,  Enfield ;  and  a  Virgin  and 
Child  adored  by  SS.  Catherine  and  Margaret,  a  picture  of 
the  rarest  delicacy,  once  in  the  possession  of  Alexander 
Barker,  Esq.,  and  erroneously  designated  as  an  Albert  Durer.1 

The  most  celebrated  of  his  subject-pictures  is  that  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Two  Misers,  at  Windsor  Castle,  of  which 
a  woodcut  is  subjoined.  But  I  am  not  disposed  to  consider 
this  example,  or  others  I  know  of  the  same  composition,  as 
the  originals,  but  rather  as  repetitions,  and  chiefly  by  his  son, 
Jan  Massys.3  A  genuine  and  signed  picture  of  this  class  is 
that  of  a  Changer  of  Money  weighing  gold,  of  the  utmost 
delicacy,  in  the  Louvre,  No.  279.8  [Signed :  "  Quintin  Matsijs 
schildt,  1518."  There  are  other  pieces  of  this  class  which 

1  Eegarding  other  and  chiefly  earlier  works,  see  my  notice,  in  tl 
'Kuntsblatt'  of  1847,  p.  202. 

2  A  close  examination  in  the  Manchester  Exhibition,  in  1857,  con- 
vinced me  of  this  fact. 

3  I  have  become  convinced  of  the  genuineness  of  this  picture,  in 
tradiction  to  my  formerly-expressed  opinion,  '  Kiinstler  und  Kunstwerl 
in  Paris,'  p.  544.     [The  date  is  now  read  1514.] 


THE   MISERS. 
A.  Painting  by  Quenttn  Massya  at  Windsor  Castle,  page  116 


Chap.  III.  JAN   MOSTAERT.  ]  17 

it  may  be  of  interest  to  note :  viz.,  a  Lucretia,  in  the  Belve- 
dere at  Vienna,  and  a  Magdalen,  in  the  Rothschild  collection 
in  Paris.  Interesting  in  addition  are  the  portraits  of  Massys 
and  his  wife  and  a  St.  Jerom,  in  the  Uffizi  at  Florence.] 

[The  "  double  "  of  Quentin  Massys,  MARINUS  DE  SEEW,  of 
Romerswalen,  can  only  be  mentioned  here.  He  was  a  coun- 
tryman of  Mabuse,  and  lived  chiefly  in  Zeeland,  his  speciality 
was  the  painting  of  money-changers  and  shopkeepers,  in 
bright  and  pastose  colours.  The  most  accessible  pictures  of 
this  scarce  master  with  which  I  am  acquainted  are  these : 
An  Agent  at  his  desk,  with  people  attending  to  pay  rent,  in- 
scribed, "Marin.  im.  fecit,  a°.  1542;"  and  a  Changer  with  his 
wife  weighing  gold,  signed,  "  Rogmerswalen,  Marinus  me 
fecit,  a°.  38,"  in  the  Munich  Gallery.  A  replica  of  the  last, 
with  the  inscription,  "  Marinus  me  fecit,  anno  1541,"  in  the 
Dresden  Gallery.  The  same  subject,  ascribed  to  Quentin 
Massys,  in  the  Antwerp  Museum.  The  same  again,  dated 
1538,  is  in  the  Madrid  Museum,  together  with  a  St.  Jerom, 
dated  1521,  and  a  Customs  Officer,  in  the  Gallery  of  Copen- 
hagen1 ;  the  same  again  in  the  National  Gallery.] 

[The  field  over  which  the  annals  of  Flemish  Netherlandish 
art  extends  now  becomes  greatly  enlarged.  Whilst  David 
illustrates  Bruges,  and  Massys  Antwerp,  numerous  artists 
attract  attention  at  Haarlem,  Maubeuge,  Leyden,  Dinant, 
and  Bouvines.] 

JAN  MOSTAEET,  born  at  Haarlem  1474 ;  died  in  the  same 
place  in  1555  or  56.  [The  earliest  notice  of  his  employ- 
ment on  works  of  painting  is  a  contract  in  which  he 
engages  to  execute  the  wings  of  an  altarpiece  on  which  St. 
Bavon  and  twelve  episodes  of  his  life  were  to  be  placed. 
These  pictures  were  ordered  for  St.  Bavon  of  Haarlem  in 
1500.  The  latest  record  which  refers  to  the  artist  is  a 
petition  addressed  to  the  burgomaster  of  Haarlem,  asking 
permission  for  Mostaert  to  leave  the  city  to  work  at  an 
altarpiece  in  the  church  of  Hoorn.  The  petition  is  dated 

1  [See  Van  Mander,  178,  and  Guicciardini's  Low  Countries.  A  replica 
of  the  St.  Jerom,  inscribed,  "  Opus  Marini  de  Kogmerswale,  a.  1535,"  is  in 
the  Acad.  of  S.  Fernando  at  Madrid.  See  Dr.  H.  Liicke  in  Zahn's  Jahr- 
biicher,  v.  226.]. 


118  THE  DECLINE  IN  FLANDSBS.  BcokllL 

1549.1  Mostaert  was  paihter-in-ordinary  to  Margaret  of 
Austria  for  eighteen  years.]  In  style  of  feeling  and  in 
development  of  landscape  this  painter  shows  a  close  affinity 
to  the  masters  of  Bruges.  Besides  treating  subjects  of  a 
religious  order  with  an  elevation  and  purity  of  feeling 
remarkable  at  so  late  a  period,  he  was  also,  according  to  the 
evidence  of  Van  Mander,  a  very  popular  portrait-painter. 
The  only  authenticated  pictures  also  by  him  are  two  por- 
traits, distinguished  by  warmth  and  clearness  of  tone,  and  a 
certain  softness  in  the  careful  treatment,  which  are  in  the 
Museum  at  Antwerp.2  Another  picture  by  him,  in  the 
same  gallery,  No.  262,  represents  the  Virgin  and  Child, 
surrounded  by  four  angels,  three  prophets,  and  two  sibyls — 
the  latter  with  scrolls,  on  which  are  inscribed  their  prophecies 
regarding  the  Incarnation.  The  features  are  pleasing,  though 
generally  portrait-like.  As  the  most  important  work,  in  my 
opinion,  by  the  master,  I  may  mention  a  Virgin — represented 
as  the  Mater  Dolorosa — in  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  at 
Bruges.  Of  the  pictures  by  him  in  England  I  will  only 
instance  the  Entombment,  belonging  to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Heath, 
at  Enfield.  [This  collection  is  dispersed.] 

[JAN  or  JANNYN  GOSSART  of  Maubeuge8  is  the  first  of  the 
Flemings  whose  style  was  seriously  modified  by  a  journey 
to  Italy.  He  was  the  earliest  of  that  numerous  class  of 
artists  "who  transferred  to  Flanders  the  habit,  then  peculiar 
to  the  Italians,  of  painting  nudities."4  The  date  of  his 
birth  is  unknown ;  equally  so  that  of  his  master ;  but  he 
was  admitted  into  the  Guild  of  Antwerp  in  1503 ;  and  he 
practised  at  Antwerp  till  1507,6  After  1508,  and  before 
1518,  he  visited  Borne  in  the  suite  of  Philip,  natural  son  of 
Philip  the  Good,  who  successively  filled  the  offices  of  high 
admiral  in  Zeeland  and  (1516)  bishop  at  Utrecht.  Till  the 

1  [See  Van  der  WilKgen's  'Artistes  de  Harlem,'  8vo.   Harlem,  1870. p. 
228.] 

2  Judging  from  the  armorial  bearings  upon  them,  these  two  portraits 
were  erroneously  taken  for  those  of  Jacqueline  of  Bavaria,  died  1436  ; 
and  of  her  husband,  F.  van  Borselen,  died  1470. 

3  ["Johannes  Malbodius,"  he  signs  himself ;  and  he  is  registered  in 
the  Antwerp  Guild  as  Jannyn  van  Hennegouwe  (Hainaut).] 

4  [Van  Mander,  ed.  of  1618,  p.  146  retro.] 

5  [De  Liggeren,  Part  i.,  pp.  58,  63,  66.] 


Chap.  III.  JAX   VAN  MABUSE.  11<> 


death  of  Philip,  in  1524,  Mabuse  remained  in  the  service  of 
his  princely  protector,  the  -colleague  and  associate  for  a  time 
of  a  Venetian,  named  Jacopo  de  Barbaris,  who  grafted  the 
style  of  Memling  on  that  of  the  Bellini,  in  the  same  way  as 
Mabuse  engrafted  the  manner  of  Filippino  Lippi  on  that  of 
Quentin  Massys.1  So  long  as  this  patronage  lasted  the 
painter  prospered.  He  was  known  as  "peintre  de  1'amiral; " 
he  painted  for  Christian  II.  of  Denmark  his  dwarfs  and 
his  children ;  he  made  likenesses  of  royal  personages  for 
Charles  the  Fifth,2  and  restored  the  pictures  of  Margaret  of 
Austria  at  Malines.  He  died  at  Antwerp  on  the  1st  of 
October,  1541.3] 

This  painter,  up  to  the  period  of  his  departure  for  Italy, 
belongs  to  the  style  of  the  later  Van  Eyck  school.  Till 
then  he  was  unquestionably  one  of  the  first  painters  of  the 
Netherlands,  displaying  great  knowledge  of  composition,  able 
drawing,  warm  colouring,  an  unusual  mastery  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  brush,  and  a  solidity  in  the  carrying  out  of 
every  portion  such  as  few  of  his  contemporaries  attained. 
His  only  deficiency  consists  sometimes  in  a  certain  coldness 
of  religious  feeling.  His  principal  picture  belonging  to  this 
period,  and  one  inscribed  with  his  name,  is  an  Adoration  of 
the  Kings,  at  Castle  Howard,  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Carlisle ; 
a  rich  composition,  of  considerable  size,  and  admirable 
preservation.  Next  to  this  may  be  placed  a  picture  repre- 
senting the  legend  of  the  Count  of  Toulouse,  who  journeyed 
as  a  pilgrim  to  Jerusalem.  The  event  is  represented  with 
the  utmost  truth.  Now  in  the  possession  of  Sir  John 
Nelthorpe,  at  his  seat,  Scawby,  Lincolnshire.  Finally,  two 
pictures  in  the  Antwerp  Museum — the  Virgin  lamenting, 
with  St.  John,  and  other  women,  and  the  righteous  judges, 
a  group  of  horsemen. 

[A  fine  triptych  in  the  Brussels  Museum,  of  Christ  in  the 

1  [Consult '  Germanicarum  rerum  Scriptores,'  fol.  (Frankfort,  1611) ; 
W.  Hedse,  Hist.  Episc.  Ultraject.,  and  Chronic.  Johannis  de  Beka.] 

2  [See  George  Scharf's  Eoyal  Picture  Galleries  in  '  History  of  Old 
London,'  p.   288,  and  his  exhaustive  statement  in  vol.  xxxix  of  the 
'  Archaeologia.'    There  are  several  replicas  of  the  picture  in  various 
collections.] 

3  Pinchart,  Annot,.,  p.  319,  and  Van  Even's  Ecole  de  Louvain,p.  240. 


120  THE   DECLINE   IN   FLANDERS.  Book  IK. 


house  of  Simeon,  displays  the  style  acquired  abroad  by 
Mabuse,  but  of  this  period  it  will  be  necessary  to  speak  at 
more  length  in  a  subsequent  chapter.]1 

[JEAN  BELLEGAMBE  of  Douai,  a  contemporary  of  Mabuse, 
whose  style  oscillates  between  that  of  Gossart  and  the  dis- 
ciples of  Roger  van  der  Weyden,  is  mentioned  by  Guic- 
ciardini  and  Vasari.  His  great  altarpiece,  originally  placed 
(1511 — 1519)  on  the  high  altar  of  the  abbey  church  of 
Anchin,  is  now  in  the  sacristy  of  Notre  Dame  at  Douai,  and 
is  well  worthy  of  a  visit.  It  represents  the  Trinity,  between 
the  Virgin  and  the  Baptist,  and  a  whole  court  of  Saints. 
On  the  outer  wings  are  portraits  of  the  Abbot  Charles  Cokin, 
attended  by  St.  Charlemagne  ;  of  the  prior,  supported  by  St. 
Benedict ;  and  of  numerous  monks.2  Another  example  (1526), 
in  the  Museum  of  Douai,  represents  the  legend  of  Joachim 
and  Anna.] 

CORNELIS  ENGELBRECHTSEN,  born  at  Leyden  1468  ;  died 
1533.  His  only  authenticated  work  is  an  altarpiece  in  the 
Town  Hall  at  Leyden :  the  centre  picture  representing  the 
Crucifixion ;  the  wings,  the  Sacrifice  of  Abraham,  and  the 
Brazen  Serpent,  in  their  well-known  symbolic  meaning ;  and 
the  Predella,  the  Restoration  of  the  race  of  Adam  by  the 
Atonement  of  Christ.  In  this  picture  the  master  departs 
much  from  the  painters  preceding  him.  The  heads  of  his 
women,  of  a  longish  oval  form,  and  with  straight,  pointed 
noses,  have  a  pleasing  but  monotonous  type.  The  flesh- 
tones  are  of  a  warm  brown  colour,  but  heavy,  the  outlines 
hard,  the  effects  crud'e,  and  the  drawing  moderate. 

In  Bruges  the  style  of  religious  expression  in  art  was  pre- 
served in  the  early  Netherlandish  form  even  up  to  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  though  with  greatly  inferior  feeling 
and  skill,  by  various  masters.  The  most  considerable  painter 
of  this  class  is  PETER  CLAEISSENS,  by  whom  is  a  large  work, 
dated  1608,  representing  the  Virgin  and  Child,  the  Almighty 

1  See  chap.  i.  of  Book  iv. 

2  [Vasari,   u.s.   xiii.    151.      Guicciardini,   Dcscrittione,   p.    143.      A. 
Wauters,  'Jean  Bellegambe  de  Douai,'  8vo.,  Brux.  1861.     This  picture 
was  usually  assigned  to  Memling.     See  Viardot's  '  Musees  de  Belgique/ 
8vo.,  Paris,  1855,  and  M.  Escallier's  'Abbaye  d'Anchiii.'j 


Chap.  III.  LUCAS  VAN   LEYDEN.  121 

with  angels,  and  the  founder,  in  the  Hospital  of  the  Poterie 
at  Bruges. 

[HIERONYMUS  VAN  AEKEN,  commonly  known  as  Jerom 
Bosch,  was  born  about  1460,  at  Herzogenbusch,  where  he 
died  in  1516.1]  He  distorted  the  fantastic  element  which 
.already  existed  in  the  school  into  a  form  of  the  ghostly  and 
demoniacal,  in  which  he  showed  great  talent.  A  Last  Judg- 
ment by  him  is  in  the  [Academy  at  Vienna]  ;  a  Tempta- 
tion of  St.  Anthony,  in  the  Antwerp  Museum,  No.  25.  [There 
are  numerous  pictures  by  Bosch  in  the  Madrid  Museum,  some 
of  them  careful,  and  finished  to  such  an  extent  as  to  suggest 
that  but  for  the  fantastic  element  which  dwelt  in  the  painter 
he  might  have  been  a  worthy  rival  of  Hans  Memling.  The 
.gloomy  character  of  his  works  is  indeed  frequently  lost  in 
the  grotesqueness  of  an  exaggerated  fancy ;  but  Philip  II. 
of  Spain  found  a  peculiar  delight  in  this  curious  mixture, 
.and  had  one  of  Van  Aeken's  altarpieces  in  his  oratory.]  He 
.adopted  the  early  technical  process,  and  his  execution  was 
sharp  and  careful. 

Luc  JACOBSZ,  called  LUCAS  VAN  LEYDEN,  born  1494 ;  died 
1533.  Scholar  of  Engelbrechtsen,  an  artist  of  multifarious 
powers  and  very  early  development.  He  painted  admirably,8 
•drew,  and  engraved.  He  followed  that  realistic  tendency  in 
the  treatment  of  sacred  subjects  which  Hubert  van  Eyck  had 
so  grandly  tracked,  and  lowered  it  greatly  from  its  previous 
elevation.  His  heads,  for  instance,  are  generally  of  very 
ugly  character.  At  the  same  time  his  form  of  art  found 
sympathy  in  the  feeling  of  the  period ;  and  by  the  skill  with 
which  it  was  expressed,  especially  in  his  engravings,  attracted 
.a  number  of  followers.  In  scenes  from  common  life  he  is 
frequently  full  of  truth  and  delicate  observation  of  nature, 
showing  occasionally  a  coarse  humour.  Pictures  by  him 
.are  very  rare.  One  of  the  most  important,  at  least  in  size, 
though  not  a  pleasing  specimen,  is  a  Last  Judgment,  in  the 


1  [See  A.  Pinchart's  notices  in  'Archives  des  Arts,'  i.  268,  and  Dr.  Julius 
Meyer's  '  Kiinstr.  Lexikon.'] 

2  [It  cannot  be  said  with  truth  that  he  painted  admirably.     His  pic- 
ture at  Wilton  House  shows  that  he  was  an  imitator  of  Massys,  that  of 
1522  at  Munich  proves  that  he  was  then  an  imitator  of  Mabuse.] 


122  THE  DECLINE  IN   FLANDERS.  Book  IIL 

Town  House  at  Leyden.  The  old  arrangement  is  adopted 
in  this  picture  :  in  the  centre  is  the  Judgment  itself,  and  on- 
the  wings  Heaven  and  Hell;  the  composition  is  strikingly- 
poor  and  scattered ;  the  expression  of  heavenly  joy  singularly 
flat  and  weak :  in  the  figures  of  those  risen  from  the  dead 
there  is  little  more  than  a  careful  study  of  the  nude.  It  is- 
only  in  a  few  instances,  and  those  chiefly  in  the  representa- 
tion of  Hell,  that  the  figures  or  heads  have  any  striking- 
expression.  On  the  contrary,  two  figures  of  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul,  on  the  outside  of  the  wings,  have  great  dignity,, 
both  in  attitude  and  drapery.  A  small  and  interesting  pic- 
ture, a  company  of  men  and  women  at  a  card- table,  see- 
woodcut,  is  in  the  possession  of  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  at 
Wilton  House  ;  the  outline  is  spirited,  but  rather  sharp.  A 
beautiful  work,  of  1522  [is  No.  148-9  in  the  Munich  Gallery : 
the  Virgin  and  Saints  and  the  Annunciation.  These  were 
produced  at  the  time  of  Albert  Diirer's  visit  to  the  Nether- 
lands, and  when  Lucas  was  living  free  of  the  Guild  at  Ant- 
werp.]1 The  composition  consists  of  the  Virgin  and  Child, 
with  Mary  Magdalen,  and  a  man  praying  at  their  side.  Both 
the  style  and  the  activity  of  this  artist  are  far  better  estimated 
by  his  numerous  engravings,  of  which  Bartsch  cites  no  fewer 
than  174,2  some  of  which  show  considerable  power.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  most  remarkable :  Esther  and 
Ahasuerus,  No.  31 ;  the  Adoration  of  the  Kings,  No.  37 ;: 
Christ  shown  to  the  People,  No.  71 ;  the  Crucifixion,  No. 
74;  the  Return  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  No.  78;  the  Dance  of 
the  Magdalen,  see  woodcut,  No.  122 ;  and  the  Milkmaid,  No. 
158.  The  "Eulenspiegel,"  No.  159,  is  more  celebrated  for 
its  great  rarity  than  for  its  artistic  merits.  The  Temptation 
of  St.  Anthony,  No.  117,  see  woodcut,  is  remarkable  as  the 
work  of  a  boy  of  fifteen.8 

[JOACHIM  PATENIER  of  Dinant  or  Bouvignes,  though  he  was 

1  [At  Antwerp,  no  doubt,  Lucas  formed  his  pictorial  style.    Here  he- 
had  occasion  to  know  Massys.     He  was  just  fresh  from  Middelburg,, 
where  he  had  kept  company  with  Mabuse.     See  Campe's  'Reliquien,'  p. 
136.    Van  Mander,  u.s.  136,  retro.,  and  De  Liggeren,  i.  99.] 

2  'Le  Peintre  Graveur,'  vol.  vii:  p.  331. 

3  [Admirable  as  a  specimen  of  portrait  is  Lucas's  portrait  of 
in  the  edition  of  Van  Mander,  published  in  1618.] 


A  CARD   PARTY. 
By  Lucas  van  Leyden.     At  Wilton  House. 


ee    123.  No.  1. 


From  an  Engraving  by  Lucas  van  Leyden 
in  tne  British  Museum. 


page   122,  No.  3. 


Chap.  III.  JOACHIM  PATENIER.  123 

not  apprenticed  at  Antwerp,  matriculated  in  the  guild  of  that 
eity  in  1515,  having  previously  served,  as  we  may  believe, 
under  Gheerardt  David  at  Bruges.  In  the  short  space  of 
eight  years  he  was  widowed  and  left  a  widow.  Albert  Diirer 
was  present  at  his  second  marriage  in  1521  ;  two  of  his 
children  were  left  at  his  death  (1524)  under  the  guardianship 
of  Quentin  Massys.  Joachim  became  justly  celebrated  as  a 
painter,  unjustly  as  a  toper ;  for  it  can  be  shown  that  Van 
Mander  was  in  error  when  he  told  how  Patenier  in  his  drunken 
fits  ill-treated  Franz  Mostaert.  Franz  was^perhaps  the  pupil 
of  Henry  Patenier,  who  was  free  of  the  Antwerp  Guild  in  1535. 
He  only  joined  the  guild  himself  in  1553.  Patenier  modified 
the  style  of  Gheerardt  David  in  so  far  that  he  intensified  the 
contrast  already  magnified  by  David  between  the  breadth  of 
distance  and  the  proportions  of  figures.  He  painted  gospel 
subjects  in  which  the  dramatis  persona  were  subordinate  to 
wide  expanses  of  landscape,  derived,  as  Van  Lokeren  truly 
observes,  from  the  grand  broken  scenery  of  the  valley  of 
the  Meuse  or  the  district  of  Ardennes.1  In  some  pieces  he 
was  fanciful,  after  the  fashion  of  Jerom  Bosch.  The 
most  striking  peculiarities  of  his  style  are  stiffness  in  figures 
and  drapery,  and  minute  detail  in  distances,  unrelieved  by 
play  of  light  and  shade.  Atmosphere  and  linear  perspec- 
tive are  both  wanting,  and  so  the  decline  of  Flemish  art 
from  the  standard  of  the  Van  Eycks  is  very  apparent.  At 
Madrid,  where  there  are  six  of  his  masterpieces,  the  Temp- 
tation of  St.  Anthony  is  a  lively  example  of  the  painter's 
fantastic  style,  whilst  the  ''Rest  of  the  Virgin  during  the 
Flight  into  Egypt  "  illustrates  the  quieter  form  of  the  master. 
Another  large  landscape  in  the  same  collection  represents 
the  Styx,  across-  which  Charon  is  taking  the  souls  of  the 
departed.  The  first  of  these  examples  is  repeated  in  a  smaller 
form  in  the  Museum  of  Berlin.] 

As  an  example  of  Patenier 's  earlier  style  as  historical 
painter,  I  may  mention  the  Virgin  with  the  Seven  Sorrows, 
holding  the  stiff  and  meagre  body  of  the  Saviour  on  her  lap, 

1  [See  De  Liggeren,  i.  83,  124;  Pinchart,  Annot.  cclxxxiii.;  Campe's 
'  Reliquien,'  82,  119,  125,  126  ;  and  A.  van  Lokeren  in  'Messager  des 
Sciences,'  anno  1845,  pp.  403—407.] 


124  THE  DECLINE  IN   FLANDERS.  Book  III. 

No.  48,  in  the  Museum  at  Brussels.  His  Flight  into  Egypt, 
in  the  Museum  at  Antwerp,  No.  64;  and  his  Crucifixion, 
executed  at  a  later  time,  [in  the  National  Gallery,  No.  715], 
exhibit  him  more  as  a  landscape  painter. 

[HEBRI  DE  BLES  may  be  identical  with  Herri  de  Patenier, 
who  took  the  freedom  of  the  Guild  of  Antwerp  in  1535.1 
His  treatment  of  landscape  is  that  of  a  follower  of  Joachim 
Patenier.  His  conception  of  form  and  treatment  of  flesh 
recall  Mabuse.  The  dates  usually  assigned  to  his  birth  and 
death,  1480  and  1550,  are  not  to  be  relied  upon.  It  is 
possible  to  distinguish  amongst  the  pictures  attributable  to 
De  Bles  (they  are  all  authenticated  by  the  owl)  a  later  and 
an  earlier  period.  In  the  latter  he  is  careful  enough,  in  the 
former  the  human  shape  assumes  an  exaggerated  type  of 
slenderness  and  mannered  action.  The  colouring  is  usually 
grey,  but  his  late  examples  verge  to  a  cold  and  unpleasant 
dun.  Van  Mander  describes  a  picture  of  a  pedlar  whose 
store  has  been  plundered  by  monkeys  as  a  characteristic 
work  of  the  master.  This  picture  is  now  in  the  Museum  of 
Dresden.]  A  male  portrait,  with  landscape  background,  in 
the  Museum  at  Berlin,  No.  624,  is  of  his  earlier  time.  A 
Crucifixion  (No.  718,  in  the  National  Gallery)  is  a  particularly 
good  work  of  his  middle  period.  An  Adoration  of  the  Kings, 
in  the  Munich  Gallery,  old  91,  now  145,  belongs  to  His 
latest  productions.  Several  examples  are  in  the  gallery 
of  Vienna. 

All  these  masters,  from  Quentin  Massys  downward,  belong, 
it  is  true,  in  colouring  and  technical  characteristics,  and 
also  partially  in  mode  of  conception,  to  the  later  branches 
of  the  Van  Eyck  school ;  at  the  same  time  in  many  respects 
they  form  the  transition  to  the  masters  of  the  following 
epoch. 

1  [Consult  De  Liggeren,  i.  p.  124.] 


Chap.  IV.  GERJVIAN  ART.  125 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE    GERMAN    SCHOOL,  IN   ITS    TRANSITION    FROM   THE    STYLE    OF 
THE  PRECEDING  PERIOD  TO  THE  REALISTIC  TENDENCY. 

1410— 14GO. 

WHILE  Art  in  the  Netherlands  was  carried,  by  means  of  the 
brothers  Van  Eyck,  to  a  high  development  of  realism,  the 
Germans  in  all  essentials  continued  to  adhere  to  the  style  of 
the  former  period,  only  admitting  the  influence  of  their 
neighbours  as  far  as  it  served  to  impart  greater  perfection 
to  their  own  modes  of  expression.  The  same  noble  type  of 
head,  and  feeling  of  spiritual  purity,  which  distinguished 
their  conceptions  of  the  Virgin,  and  of  many  of  the  saints,  was 
retained,  and  fuller  and  more  natural  forms  superadded. 
In  some  heads,  however,  a  more  portrait-like  and  often- 
repeated  physiognomy  was  introduced,  and  one  which  a 
thick  and  large  nose  rendered  by  no  means  beautiful.  The 
proportions  of  the  human  figure,  which  before  this  epoch 
were  too  long,  became  truer  to  nature,  the  separate  forms 
fuller  and  more  correct,  and  the  movements  freer.  The 
rendering  also  of  the  quality  of  the  draperies — such  as  gold 
brocades,  velvets,  etc. — was  introduced  ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  the-  sharp  and  angular  breaks  were  but  occasionally 
admitted.  Weapons,  crowns,  and  such  articles  became  more 
individual  in  character.  Neither  in  colouring  nor  execution, 
it  is  true,  was  the  same  power,  and  truth,  and  modelling,  or 
the  same  rendering  of  minute  detail,  aimed  at  as  by  the  Van 
Eycks  ;  at  the  same  time  their  colouring,  which  shows  much 
feeling  for  harmony,  became  more  vigorous,  their  modelling 
more  powerful,  and  their  execution  softer  than  in  the  pre- 
ceding period.  Least  of  all  did  they  copy  the  Netherlandish 
painters  in  the  close  delineation  of  the  backgrounds,  but  con- 
tented themselves  with  a  general  indication,  retaining  the 
gold  ground  principally  for  the  sky. 

At  this  time  the   school  of  Cologne  distinguished   itself 


126  THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

before  every  other  in  Germany,  and  attained,  in  the  person 
of  STEPHAN  LOCHNER,  of  Constance,  called  MEISTER  STEPHAN, 
whose  later  prime  dates  from  1442  to  1451  (the  year  of  his 
death),  its  highest  form  of  originality.  Although  there  is 
no  proof  of  his  having  been  a  scholar  of  Meister  Wilhelm, 
yet  it  is  obvious  that  he  formed  himself  from  him.  This 
appears  especially  in  his  small  Madonna,  with  the  hedge  of 
roses,  in  the  Museum  at  Cologne,  which,  in  accordance  with 
M.  Hotho,1  I  consider  the  earliest  work  we  know  by  him. 
Here  much  of  the  form  of  art  and  style  of  feeling  belonging 
to  Meister  Wilhelm  is  seen,  only  combined  with  greater  ani- 
mation and  truth  of  nature.  Next  in  date  to  this  I  place  a 
colossal  Virgin  and  Child,  which  has  been  recently  discovered 
and  which  is  now  in  the  collection  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Cologne.  This  picture  shows  a  rare  union  of  grandeur  and 
mildness  of  expression.  But  the  most  authentic,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  principal,  work  of  the  master  is  the  well-known 
picture2  which  was  originally  painted  for  the  chapel  of  the 
Hotel  de  Yille,  but  has  been  for  many  years  in  a  chapel  of 
the  choir  of  Cologne  Cathedral.  It  consists,  as  the  accom- 
panying woodcut  shows,  of  a  centre-piece  with  wings,  on 
which  last,  when  closed,  is  seen  the  Annunciation.  In  the 
inside,  on  the  centre  picture,  is  the  Adoration  of  the  Kings — 
the  Virgin  is  seated  on  a  throne,  in  a  dark-blue  mantle  lined 
with  ermine ;  at  her  side  are  the  two  elder  kings  kneeling : 
the  younger  one  and  the  attendants  stand  around.  On  the 
fiide  panels  are  the  patrons  of  the  city — on  the  right  St. 

1  '  Malerschule  Hubert's  van  Eyck,'  vol.  i.  p.  398. 

2  That  the  statement  in  Albert  Diirer's  Journal  of  his  having  paid 
two  silver  pennies  for  the  unlocking  of  the  picture  refers  to  this  cathe- 
dral picture  may  be  now  accepted  as  certain.     In  addition  to  this,  M. 
Merlo  (see  'Die  Meister  der  Altcb'lnischen  Schule/  Coin,  1852)   has 
recently  discovered  in  old  registers,  of  the  years  1442  and  1448,  the 
name  of  a  painter,  Stephan  I/ochner,  of  Constance,  who  owned  a  house 
in  Cologne ;  also,  in  the  protocols  of  the  Council- chamber,  it  appears 
that  the  same  was  twice  chosen  by  his  guild  as  councillor,  and  that  he 
died  in  1451,  the  last  year  of  his  office.     It  being  thus  proved  that  this 
Stephan  Lochner  was  a  painter  of  great  consideration  in  his  time,  I 
quite  agree  with  that  profound  art-critic,  M.  Sotzmann  (see  '  Deutches 
Kunstblatt,'   1853,   No.    6),  that  he  was  identical  with  the  Meister 
Stephan  mentioned  by  Albert  Diirer,  and  therefore  the  painter  of  the 
cathedral  picture. 


•Cliap.  IV.  STEPHAN  LOCHNER.  127 

Oereon,  in  his  armour  of  gold  and  surcoat  of  blue  velvet, 
.surrounded  by  his  men-at-arms ;  on  the  left  St.  Ursula,  with 
her  escort  and  her  host  of  virgins. 

This  picture  is  remarkable  for  its  solemnity  and  simple 
dignity  of  composition,  for  the  depth  and  force  of  tone,  and 
the  beauty  and  harmony  of  its  colour,  which,  in  spite  of  the 
visual  disadvantages  of  tempera,  here  approaches  in  splen- 
dour the  effects  of  Venetian  oil-painting.  The  arrangement 
of  the  figures  is  grand  and  simple,  and  the  execution  of  the 
rich  details  finished  with  the  greatest  care.  A  feeling  of 
ideal  grace  and  beauty  is  breathed  over  the'whole  work,  and 
is  just  as  conspicuous  in  the  loveliness  of  the  Virgin  with 
the  divine  Child  as  in  the  serene  dignity  of  the  kings  who 
worship,  and  the  youthful  fulness  of  form  and  tenderness  of 
•expression  in  the  holy  virgins  and  the  knights  who  accom- 
pany them. 

Judging  from  the  strong  influence  of  the  Van  Eyck  school 
eeen  in  this  work — from  the  individuality  of  many  of  the 
heads,  the  rendering  of  the  materials  of  the  draperies,  and 
the  sharp  and  angular  breaks  of  the  folds  in  the  Annuncia- 
tion— it  may  be  considered  to  have  belonged  to  the  latest 
and  maturest  time  of  the  master.  This  is  corroborated  by 
a  work  in  the  Darmstadt  Museum — the  Presentation  in  the 
Temple,  bearing  date  1447 — which,  although  nearly  related 
to  the  cathedral  picture,  is  less  developed  in  form  of  art. 
England  also  possesses  at  least  one  specimen  of  this  rare 
master,  of  his  somewhat  earlier  time,  representing  SS. 
Catherine,  Matthew,  and  John  the  Evangelist  [No.  705  in  the 
National  Gallery]. 

Among  the  number  of  pictures  executed  in  part  under  the 
direction  of  Meister  Stephan,  and  partly  under  his  influence, 
and  which  are  now  distributed  principally  in  the  galleries  of 
Cologne  and  Munich,  and  in  the  Germanic  Museum  afc 
Nuremburg,  the  compartments  of  a  former  altar-picture 
belonging  to  the  Abbey  of  Heisterbach,  near  Bonn,  are 
particularly  remarkable.  The  single  figures  of  saints  in  the 
Munich  Gallery,  [now]  Nos.  9  and  10,  approach  nearest  in 
character  to  Meister  Wilhelm ;  the  Annunciation,  Visitation, 
Nativity,  and  the  Adoration  of  the  Kings,  [now]  Nos.  11, 


128  THE  FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  Hi; 

12 — 14,  show,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  rounder  forms  of 
the  heads,  and  in  other  respects,  the  prevailing  influence  of 
Meister  Stephan.1  The  same  may  be  said  of  two  pictures  in 
the  Berlin  Museum — the  Adoration  of  the  Cross  and  of  the 
Kings,  JSTos.  1205  and  1206. 

Very  characteristic  of  the  course  taken  by  the  Cologne 
school  of  painters  at  this  time  is  the  altar-picture,  the 
centre-piece  of  which  is  the  Last  Judgment,  in  the  Museum 
at  Cologne.2  Although  the  character  of  Meister  Stephan 
is  still  somewhat  retained  in  the  ideal  figures  of  Christ, 
the  Virgin,  John  the  Baptist,  etc.,  yet  the  early  refinement 
of  religious  feeling  is  wanting  in  them,  and  also  in  the 
otherwise  admirably  rendered  saints  on  the  wings,  in  the 
Munich  Gallery,  [now]  Nos.  3  and  4.  At  the  same  time,  in 
the  figures  of  those  risen  from  the  grave,  and  especially  in 
those  of  the  condemned,  as  well  as  in  the  accessories,  a 
decidedly  realistic  feeling  prevails.  Side  by  side  with  the 
most  surprising  freedom  of  action  and  truth  of  expression 
are  seen  disgusting  exaggerations  and  great  coarseness  of 
form  and  colour.  According  to  the  costume  worn  by  the 
excellently-portrayed  founder,  the  execution  of  the  picture 
may  be  assigned  to  about  1450-60.2  How  long,  in  some 
instances,  the  early  tendency  was  still  retained  is  shown  by 
a  Crucifixion,  dated  1458,  in  the  Museum  at  Cologne,  and 
also  by  a  Virgin  and  Child  with  two  saints,  and  the  numerous 
family  of  the  founder,  dated  1474,  in  the  church  of  St.  Andrew 
in  the  same  city. 

Next  in  succession  to  Cologne,  the  town  of  Nuremberg, 
judging  from'  the  few  specimens  preserved,  seems  to  have 
done  most  in  the  way  of  painting  at  this  period,  although  not 
a  single  name  of  a  master  has  descended  to  us.  I  proceed 
to  mention  a  few  of  the  most  notable  pictures.  On  a  pier 
in  the  nave  of  the  church  of  St.  Sebaldus  is  a  Crucifixion, 
with  the  Virgin  and  St.  John;  on  the  inner  sides  of  the 

2  I  agree  with  M.  Hotho,  '  Malerschule  Hubert's  van  Eyck,'  vol.  i. 
p.  413.  in  not  attributing  this  work  to  Stephan  Lothener,  as  others  have 
done. 

1  [The  rest  of  this  altarpiece,  representing  the  martyrdoms  of  the 
twelve  Apostles,  is  No.  62,  63,  in  the  Stiidel  collection  at  Frankfort.] 


Chap.  H .  GERMAN  SCHOOLS.  129 

wings  SS.  Barbara  and  Catherine ;  on  the  outer  sides  Christ 
on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  and  the  portrait  of  the  foundei ; 
and  on  a  pair  of  stationary  wings  St.  Erasmus  and  another 
Bishop. 

An  altarpiece,  formerly  on  the  high  altar  in  the  church 
of  the  Chartreuse,  now  in  the  church  of  our  Lady. 
The  centre  contains  the  Crucifixion,  the  Annunciation, 
and  the  Eesurection  of  Christ;  the  wings  the  Nativity 
and  the  Apostle  Peter.  This  may  be  a  somewhat  later 
work  by  the  same  hand.1  It  shows  many  features  taken 
from  nature,  and  careful  modelling.  The  master  also, 
who  painted  an  obituary  picture — the  Nativity — dated 
1430,  dedicated  to  the  memory  of  Frau  Waldburg  Priin- 
sterin,  in  the  church  of  our  Lady  at  Nuremberg,  deserves 
notice. 

An  altarpiece,  dedicated  to  St.  Theocarus,  in  the  church 
of  St.  Lawrence,  containing  the  Transfiguration,  the  Mira- 
culous Draught  of  Fishes,  and  four  events  from  the  life  of 
the  Saint.  Though  still  essentially  adhering  to  the  forms  of 
the  former  epoch,  this  picture  shows  a  respectable  stage  of 
advancement. 

Finally,  a  Virgin  and  Child  in  the  Sacristy  of  the  church 
of  St.  Lawrence,  dedicated  to  Margaretta  Imhof  (died 
1449)  and  her  son,  is  remarkable  for  the  elevation  of  con- 
ception in  the  head  of  the  Virgin,  for  the  far  advanced 
individuality  of  the  portraits,  and  for  good  modelling  in  a 
transparent  tone. 

It  is  evident  also  that  in  Swabia,  at  this  period,  there 
was  a  successful  effort  to  combine  a  more  natural  treat- 
ment of  detail  with  the  ecclesiastical  forms  of  conception 
belonging  to  the  former  epoch.  This  appears  especially 
in  an  altar- picture,  dedicated  to  the  Magdalen,  at  Tiefen- 
bronn,  executed  in  1431  by  LUCAS  MOSEB.  The  wings  con- 
tain events  from  the  legends  of  the  Magdalen,  and  also 
from  those  of  Martha  and  Lazarus ;  the  predella  repre- 
sents Christ,  and  the  five  wise  and  five  foolish  Virgins. 
The  modelling  in  a  warm  colour  of  the  pleasing  heads  la 

1  Hotho,  vol.  i.  p.  478,  etc. 


130  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Book  III. 

very  careful,  and  hands  and  feet  are  of  striking  truth  of 
nature.1 

As  regards  the  neighbouring  territory  of  Alsace,  a  similar 
stage  of  painting  is  shown  by  a  Bible  with  miniatures,  com- 
pleted in  1428,  and  now  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Munich. 
The  portrait  of  a  Bishop,  for  whom  it  was  executed,  is  already 
very  individual.  One  JOHANN  FREYBECHK,  from  the  convent 
of  Konigsbriick,  in  Alsace,  mentions  himself  at  the  close  of 
the  MS.  as  its  author ;  whether  he  took  part  in  the  pictures 
it  contains  would  be  difficult  to  say.2 

A  large  Missal,  executed  in  the  years  1447-8,  for  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  III.,  and  now  in  the  Imperial  Library  at 
Vienna,  No.  1767,  gives  the  same  evidence  as  regards  the  art 
of  painting  in  Austria.8 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE    GEBMAN    SCHOOLS    WHICH   ADOPTED    THE    BEALISTIO 
TENDENCY   OF    THE    VAN   EYCKS. 

1460—1500. 

OF  the  numerous  Germans  who  were  induced  to  wander  to 
Brussels  to  study  under  Roger  van  der  Weyden,  two — Martin 
Schongauer  and  Friedrich  Herlen — are  known  to  us  by 
name ;  but  it  is  probable  that  these  were  only  the  chief  of  a 
large  band,  which,  returning  to  its  home  after  1460,  gave 
currency  to  the  style  of  the  Flemish  master.  In  various  parts 
of  Germany  local  art  was  deeply  modified  by  this  infusion 
of  new  elements,  and  German  painting  received  quite  a  new 
impress  from  them,  but  the  change  was  effected  on  the  whole 
without  detriment  to  the  development  of  peculiar  German  feel- 
ing. Looking  at  the  painters  of  the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth 
•century  in  the  mass,  we  observe  that  they  were  better  trained 

1  Hotho,  vol.  i.  p.  460,  etc. 

2  See  article  by  me  in  'Kunstblatt'  of  1850.  p.  323. 
8  Ibid.,  p.  324. 


Chap.  V.    SCHOOL  OF  COLOGNE  AND  LOWER  RHINE.          131 

as  composers,  and  preserved,  far  more  than  the  Flemings,  the 
art  of  conceiving  and  distributing  figures  in  a  given  space. 
They  displayed  more  cleverness  as  draughtsmen,  and  a  nobler 
sense  as  designers  of  heads  of  a  higher  and  more  ideal  beauty ; 
whilst  in  the  attempt  to  contrast  the  dignified  form  of  sacred 
personages  with  the  coarser  one  of  common  individuals,  they 
fell  into  caricatures  much  more  repulsive  than  those  of  their 
Flemish  brethren.  In  their  arrangement  of  drapery  they  pre- 
served and  exaggerated  the  tendency  of  the  Van  Eycks  to 
break  the  folds  into  angular  corners.  In  many  respects  they 
remained  far  behind  their  originals :  namely,  in  graceful  motion 
and  attitude,  their  figures  being  more  awkward  and  lame  ;  in 
feeling  for  colour,  their  tints  being  more  garish,  heavy,  or  dull ; 
in  light  and  shade,  or  distribution,  their  incapacity  for  produc- 
ing effect  by  a  vivid  flash  of  light  being  very  marked.  For  a 
long  time  they  kept  the  habit  of  gold  grounds,  or  confined 
themselves  to  the  simplest  lines  as  indications  of  space.  In 
their  treatment  they  were  also  defective.  Their  outlines 
were  harder,  their  power  of  rendering  detail  was  slighter. 
Painting  was  carried  on  mechanically  so  far  that  the  best 
masters  rarely  carried  out  the  works  entrusted  to  them  with 
their  own  hands,  confiding,  some  more,  some  less,  to  their 
assistants.  We  must  ascribe  to  this  cause  the  startling  in- 
(3quality  apparent  in  pictures  authenticated  alike  by  inscrip- 
tions and  by  records.  If,  however,  in  the  main,  all  the  German 
schools  show  the  same  results  of  Flemish  teaching,  the  in- 
fluence of  that  teaching  upon  each  of  them  was  varied  and 
diverse. 


THE  SCHOOL  OF  COLOGNE  AND  THE  LOWEB  KHINE. 

In  point  of  power  of  colouring  and  solidity  of  technical 
execution,  the  masters  of  this  part  of  Germany  approach  very 
nearly  to  the  Van  Eyck  school,  though  possessing  slight 
peculiarities  of  their  own. 

In  Cologne  we  are  met  by  an  anonymous  painter,  who, 
according  to  inscriptions  on  his  pictures,  flourished  from 
1463  to  1480,  and  who,  from  one  of  his  chefs-d'oeuvre,  once 


132  THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

in  possession  of  M.  Lyversberg  of  Cologne,1  representing 
the  Passion  in  eight  compartments,  has  received  the  name  of 
the  Master  of  the  Lyversberg  Passion.3  It  is  true  that  most 
of  the  compositions  are  arbitrary  in  arrangement,  the  effect 
of  colour  hard,  and  the  figures  of  the  guards  of  repelling 
coarseness ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  head  of  Christ  is 
dignified,  and  there  is  an  elevated  pathos  in  many  of  the 
other  heads.  Another  altarpiece  by  the  same  hand,  in  the 
church  of  Linz  on  the  Rhine,  dated  1462,  containing  scenes 
from  the  life  of  the  Virgin,  the  Passion,  and  the  portrait  of 
the  founder,  the  Canon  Tilmann  Jael,  shows  a  more  advanced 
stage  of  art.  In  some  of  the  pictures,  for  instance  in  the 
Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  a  more  successful  general  effect  is 
apparent ;  the  Virgin  herself  also  is  of  a  lofty  character  of 
physiognomy.  In  another  large  altarpiece,  at  Sinzig  on  the 
Rhine,  with  the  Crucifixion  as  centre  piece,  he  again  appears 
to  more  advantage.  But  his  best  work,  as  respects  compo- 
sition, beauty,  and  originality  of  motives,  and  animated  and 
truthful  heads  of  striking  expression,  is  a  Descent  from  the 
Cross,  dated  1480,  in  the  Museum  of  Cologne.  (The  wings 
are  a  later  addition.)  Of  his  numerous  specimens  in  the 
Munich  Gallery,  an  altarpiece  with  wings  [from  St.  Ursula  at 
Cologne],  on  which  are  the  Apostles  and  John  the  Baptist, 
the  Marriage  and  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  and  Joachim  and 
Anna  at  the  Golden  Gate,  Nos.  22 — 27,  is  the  most  remark- 
able. On  the  last-mentioned  number  appears  the  animated 
portrait  of  the  founder  of  the  whole  series,  an  ecclesiastic  of 
the  name  of  Johann  de  Mechlinn.  The  master  we  have  been 
describing  had  a  large  number  of  followers,  but  one  and  all 
so  far  inferior  and  more  mechanical,  that  it  is  not  necessary 
to  instance  a  single  example  of  the  many  pictures  by  them  in 
the  Cologne  Museum  and  elsewhere.  They  show  a  decided 
degeneration  of  the  school  to  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

Another  master  of  merit  is  Jan  Joest,  painter  of  the  picture 

1  [Since]  the  property  of  Mr.  Baumeister,  at  Cologne. 

2  According  to  the  arbitrary  designation  given  by  the  Messrs.  Boissere'e 
to  the  works  of  this  master  in  the  gallery  at  Munich,  and  in  the  chapel 
of  St.  Maurice  at  Nuremberg,  they  continued  till  quite  lately  to  bear 
the  name  o*.  Israel  van  Meckenen. 


Chap.V.  SCHOOL   OF   WESTPHALIA.  133 

on  the  high  altar  of  the  church  at  Calcar,  representing  the 
Death  of  the  Virgin.     Joest  died  at  Harlem,  1519. 

In  the  adjacent  district  of  Westphalia  a  style  of  art  was 
developed,  which,  in  many  respects,  succeeded  in  combining 
the  ideal  feeling  of  the  last  epoch  with  the  more  realistic 
tendency  which  succeeded  it.  The  most  remarkable  speci- 
mens of  this  kind  are  the  relics  of  a  large  altarpiece  in  the 
former  monastery  of  Liesborn,  near  Minister,  dated  1465, 
which  were  long  in  the  possession  of  M.  Kriiger  at  Minden, 
and  some  of  which  are  in  the  National  Gallery,  Nos.  260  and 
261.  They  consist  principally  of  the  half-length  figures  of 
six  saints,  and  of  the  subjects  of  the  Annunciation  and  Pre- 
sentation. The  heads  are  attractive  for  the  purity  of  religious 
feeling  and  the  expression  of  peace  which  pervade  them,  with 
which  the  clear  and  cheerful  colouring  is  in  unison.  As 
regards  truth  of  nature  in  the  rendering  of  parts,  however, 
they  bear  no  comparison  with  the  contemporary  Netherlandish 
painters.  The  pictures  of  a  Soest  master,  who  has  signed  his 
name  as  "  Jarenus  "  on  a  Pieta  in  the  collection  of  the  Earl 
of  Pembroke  at  Wilton  House,  show  the  fusion  of  the  qualities 
of  both  schools  to  less  advantage.  The  centre  picture  of  a 
large  altarpiece  by  this  master,  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No. 
1222,1  representing  several  scenes  from  the  Passion,  is 
especially  overladen  and  confused.  The  most  successful  in 
composition,  colour,  and  execution,  are  four  pictures  belong- 
ing to  one  wing  of  this  altarpiece  [at  Munster],  the  Annun- 
ciation, the  Nativity,  the  Presentation,  and  the  Adoration  of 
the  Kings.  At  a  later  period  the  school  of  Westphalia  takes 
a  lower  place  than  the  other  schools  of  Germany  ;  as  examples 
of  which  I  may  mention  a  large  altar-picture  by  the  brothers 
VICTOR  and  HEINRICH  DUNWEGE,  in  the  parish  church  of 
Dortmund,  the  centre  of  which  contains  the  Crucifixion,  and 
the  inner  sides  of  the  wings  the  Adoration  of  the  Kings,  the 
Virgin  and  Child,  and  the  Mother  of  Zebedee's  children, 
with  her  sons,  and  other  relatives  of  the  Virgin ;  a  subject 
which  is  called  in  Germany  "a  Holy  Kith-and-Kin picture." 
Although  the  picture  is  known  to  have  been  painted  in 
1523,  it  shows  in  its  gold  background,  its  hard  and  crude 
1  'Jarenus '  is  a  false  reading  for  Nazarenus. 


134  THE  FIFTEENTH    CENTURY.  Book  III, 

colouring,  and  in  the  style  of  treatment,  quite  the  form  of 
art  belonging  to  the  fifteenth  century.  At  the  same  time 
many  of  the  heads  are  very  animated,  and  of  warm  and 
vigorous  colour.  A  Crucifixion  nearly  related  to  the  above- 
mentioned  pictures,  only  with  a  landscape  background,  is  in 
the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  1194  [now  withdrawn], 

A  similar  absence  of  participation  in  the  progress  of  the 
period  is  betrayed,  as  regards  Lower  Saxony,  by  the  painter 
JOHANN  RAPHON  VON  EIMBECK,  by  whose  hand  is  an  altar- 
piece,  dated  1508,  in  the  choir  of  Halberstadt  Cathedral. 
The  centre  represents  the  Crucifixion — a  rather  over- crowded 
composition — the  wings,  the  Annunciation,  Adoration  of  the 
Shepherds,  of  the  Kings,  and  the  Presentation.  The  heads 
are  lively  and  various  in  character,  but  at  the  same  time 
somewhat  coarse ;  the  colouring  of  the  flesh  rather  heavy 
and  untrue,  and  cold  in  the  lights. 

In  the  department  of  the  Middle  Rhine,  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Maine,  we  meet  with  the  painter  CONRAD  FYOLL,  the 
notices  of  whom  extend  from  1461  to  1476.1  He  has  some- 
thing tender  and  mild  in  his  heads,  and  a  delicate,  silvery, 
and,  upon  the  whole,  cool  tone  in  his  flesh.  A  large  altar- 
piece  in  the  Stadel  Institute  at  Frankfort  is  a  principal  pic- 
ture by  him.  (?)  The  centre  contains  the  family  of  St.  Anna, 
the  wings  the  Birth  and  Death  of  the  Virgin.  A  smaller 
altarpiece,  with  St.  Anna  and  the  Virgin  and  Child  in  the 
centre,  No.  575,  and  SS.  Barbara  and  Catherine  and  the 
Annunciation  on  the  wings,  No.  575,  a,  b,  are  in  the  Berlin 
Museum.  [The  attribution  to  Fyoll  is  somewhat  doubtful.] 

By  far  the  greatest  German  painter  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury was  MARTIN  SCHONGAUER,  commonly  called  MARTIN 
SCHON,  who  flourished  on  the  Upper  Rhine.  [The  placr 
of  his  birth  is  contested ;  it  has  been  described  alternately 
as  Augsburg,  Colmar,  and  Ulm.  Hassler  concedes  that 
antiquarian  research  has  not  given  any  support  as  yet 
to  the  claim  of  Ulm,  and  Augsburg  seems  at  best  to  have 
been  the  residence  of  the  family  from  which  he  descended.3 

1  Passavant  Kunstblatt,  1841,  No.  101. 

2  [Dr.  R.  D.  Hassler,  Ulm's  Kunstgeschichte  ia  C.  Heideloff  s  Die 
Kunst  des  Mittelalters  in  Schwaben,  u.  s.,  p.  118=] 


Chap.  V.  MARTIN  SCHONGAUER.  1S5 

In  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich  we  find  a  portrait  of  Schon- 
gauer,  inscribed  "  Hipsch  Martin  Schongauer  Maler,  1458," 
the  counterpart  of  one  with  the  same  inscription  ascribed  to 
"Giovanni  Larkmair"  (!)  in  the  Spannocchi  collection  at 
Sienna.  The  Munich  replica  is  catalogued  in  Murr's  catalogue 
of  the  Praun  collection  at  Nuremberg,  under  the  name  of 
Hans  Leykmann(I).  It  bore  then,  as  it  does  now,  a  paper 
pasted  on  the  back  of  the  panel,  with  words  in  German  writ- 
ing of  the  sixteenth  century,  to  this  effect :  that  "  Master 
Martin  Schongauer,  called  Hiipsch  Martin,  by  reason  of  his 
skill  as  an  artist,  was  born  at  Colmar  of  a  family  of  Augsburg 
citizens,  and  died  at  Colmar,  on  the  day  of  Mary's  Purification 
(Feb.  2nd),  in  1499 ;  that  the  writer  was  Hans  Leykmann, 
Schongauer's  pupil  in  1483. "x  Modern  critics,  and  particu- 
larly Marggraff,  read  the  last  sentence  of  this  statement 
so  that  the  writer  was  "  Hans  Burgkmair,  Schongauer's 
pupil  in  1488 ;  "  but  there  is  no  reason  why  we  should 
not  read  1483  instead  of  1488,  for  Burgkmair  may  well 
have  been  apprenticed  as  a  boy  to  Schongauer,  and  the 
reading  of  "  Burgkmair"  might  explain  the  ascription  of  the 
portrait  at  Sienna  to  " Larkmair."2  Waagen  was  not  inclined 
to  accept  the  paper  on  the  back  of  the  Munich  portrait  as  a 
genuine  document ;  and  he  was  supported  in  his  view  by  an 
entry  in  the  register  of  the  parish  of  St.  Martin  of  Colmar, 
discovered  by  Mr.  Hugot,  stating  that  Schongauer  died  at 
Colmar  on  the  day  of  Mary's  Purification,  Ixxxviii.8  It 
may  be,  however,  that  Mr.  Hugot's  entry  is  falsified  by  the 
neglect  of  some  ciphers,  and  this  is  considered  probable, 
amongst  others,  by  as  able  a  judge  as  Schnaase.4  The  age 
of  "  Hipsch  Martin,"  in  the  portraits  of  Sienna  and  Munich, 
has  been  guessed  at  thirty-three  by  Passavant,  who  so  dates 

1  [C.  T.  de  Murr,  '  Description  du  Cabinet  de  M.  P.  de  Praun,'  8vo. 
Nuremberg,  1797,  p.  20.] 

2  [Dr.  Rudolf  Marggraff,  '  Die  altere  Kgl.  Pinakothek  zu  Miinchen,' 
12mo,  1869,  note  to  p.  161,  reads  1488.     Others,  ex.  gr.,  Woltmann,  read 
1483,  which  is  the  version  in  Murr.] 

3  [Waagen, ' Handbook,'  p.  130.  Hugot  in  'Kunstblatt,'  1841,  p.  59 ;  but 
see  a  modification  of  Waagen's  opinions  in  his  '  Handbuch,'  1862,  p. 
173.] 

4  [Schnaase  (K.)  Mittheilungen  der  Central  Commission,  Juli,  1803, 
p.  185  and  following.] 


136  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  BookllL 

his  birth  in  1420,  hut  this  is  not  acquiesced  in  by  other 
writers.1  There  is  no  doubt  that  Schongauer  was  a  pupil  of 
Van  der  Weyden,  for  the  fact  is  stated  by  Lambert  Lombard, 
a  painter  of  the  sixteenth  century,  in  a  long  and  interesting 
letter  to  Vasari,  containing  valuable  information  as  to  this  and 
other  craftsmen  in  the  Netherlands.2  What  we  know  of 
Schongauer  as  a  painter  is  very  slight ;  and  although  it  is 
usual  to  ascribe  a  few  pictures  to  him,  and  a  description  of 
some  of  these  may  be  attempted  here,  it  is  well  to  bear  in 
mind  that  there  is  no  authority  for  assigning  them  to  the 
master  except  tradition.] 

In  a  number  of  engravings  from  designs  of  his  own, 
Schongauer  appears  as  an  artist  of  great  powers  of  invention 
in  the  department  of  ecclesiastical  art,  both  in  the  representa- 
tion of  single  figures,  and  also  frequently  in  that  of  very 
animated  compositions.  In  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  his 
feeling  for  beauty  and  spirituality,  in  which  he  greatly  refined 
and  individualised  the  tendency  of  the  former  period,  he 
excels  his  great  master  Eoger,  and  attained  a  European 
reputation.  Among  his  most  admirable  engravings  are  the 
Death  of  the  Virgin  (Bartsch,  No.  33) ;  the  Bearing  of  the 
Cross  (No.  21) ;  the  Annunciation,  see  woodcut  No.  1 ;  those 
of  the  Passion  (Nos.  9 — 20),  of  which  see  woodcut  No.  2,  of 
Christ  appearing  to  the  Magdalen ;  the  Wise  and  Foolish 
Virgins  (Nos.  77 — 86).  Fantastic  subjects  he  treats  very 
rarely,  though  with  great  energy,  as  hi  his  plate  of  the  Temp- 
tation of  St.  Anthony  (Bartsch,  No.  47)>  see  woodcut,  of 
which  Vasari  testifies  that  Michael  Angelo  made  a  pen  copy 
in  his  youth.  Occasionally  this  great  master  exhibits  a 
sound  vein  of  humour  in  scenes  from  common  life ;  as,  for 
instance,  in  his  Donkey  Driver  (Bartsch,  No.  89).  He  is 
powerful  in  drawing,  although  his  limbs,  and  especially  his 
hands,  are  meagre.  His  drapery  is  more  or  less  disfigured 
by  sharp  and  angular  breaks.  His  pictures  show  a  warm, 
powerful,  and  transparent  colour.  His  outlines  are  more 

1  [Passavant  in  '  Kunstblatt,'  1846  p.  167,  and  Harzen,  contra,  in  a  life 
of  Zeitblom  in  Naumann's  Archiv,  1860,  p.  8.] 

2  [Lambert  Lombard  to  Vasari,  Liege,  April  27th,  1565,  in  Gaye's 
'  Carteggio,"  iii.  173  and  following.] 


THE   ANNUNCIATION. 
From  an  Engraving  by  Martin  Schongauer  in  the  British  Mxiseum. 

page    13«.  No.  1. 


From  an  Engraving  by  Martin  Schongauer  in  the   British   Museum. 

page  136,  No.  2. 


L 


ST.    ANTHONY    TORMENTED    BY   -DEMONS. 
An  Engraving  by  Martin  Schongauer,  which  Michael  Angelo  is  said  to  have  copied. 

From  the  British  Museum.  page  I'M.  No.  3. 


€hap.  V.  MARTIN  SCHONGAUER.  137 

flowing,  but  his  treatment  is  less  true  and  less  blended,  than 
that  of  Van  der  Weyden.  He  cared  little  for  finish  in  dis- 
tances, and  sometimes  even  resorts  to  gold  ground.  Of  the 
number  of  pictures  attributed  to  him  in  various  public  and 
private  galleries  the  majority  are  by  other  painters  after  his 
engravings.  The  following  alone  I  am  inclined  to  consider 
genuine : — 

The  Death  of  the  Virgin,  a  small  picture,  from  the  gallery 
of  the  King  of  Holland,  afterwards  in  the  collection  of  M.  de 
Beaucousin  at  Paris,  and  now  in  the  National  Gallery.  I 
believe  this  to  be  the  earliest  work  we  know  by  him.  It  is 
of  the  rarest  beauty,  but  at  the  same  time  displays,  in  con- 
ception, glow  of  colour,  and  exactitude  of  execution,  some- 
thing of  Roger  van  der  Weyden  ;  belonging  therefore  to  a 
time  when  the  influence  of  that  master  was  still  fresh  upon 
•him.  Martin  Schongauer's  peculiar  type  of  head  is,  however, 
already  very  distinctly  visible  in  those  of  the  Virgin,  and  of 
the  Almighty,  who  appears  in  the  sky. 

[Better  still,  if  it  be  possible,  is  the  Nativity,  a  small  panel 
•of  great  power  and  feeling,  in  the  palace  of  the  Duke  della 
Grazia  at  Palermo.] 

But  Schongauer's  most  important  picture,  and  the  one 
which,  by  comparison  with  his  engravings,  is  the  best 
authenticated,  is  that  of  the  Virgin  in  a  bower  of  roses  in 
St.  Martin's  church  at  Colmar.  The  Virgin — fully  the  size 
of  life — is  seated  on  a  grass-bank,  with  the  Child  on  her  lap; 
Jier  features  are  noble  and  pure  in  expression,  and  her  red 
drapery  has  a  very  luminous  effect.  The  two  angels  sus- 
pending the  crown  over  her  head  are  very  graceful  ;  the 
hedge  of  roses,  with  the  birds  nestling  in  it,  completes  the 
•cheerful  na'ive  impression  of  the  picture  ;  the  flesh-tones  are 
•clear  and  warm,  and  the  painting  of  great  finish. 

Next  to  this  we  may  place  two  wings  from  the  monastery 
•of  St.  Anthony  at  Issenheim,  now  in  the  Civic  Library  at 
Colmar ;  the  inner  sides  containing  the  Child  adored  by  the 
Virgin,  and  St.  Anthony  the  Hermit,  with  the  donor;  the 
outer,  the  Annunciation.  The  ideal  and  slightly  longing 
expression  reminds  us  of  Perugino ;  the  Virgin  in  both  the 
.pictures  has  finely  arched  eyelids,  and  features  of  regular 


138  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Book  III. 

beauty.  The  Child,  on  the  other  hand,  T-7hich  is  of  masterly 
modelling,  and  obviously  painted  closely  from  nature,  exhibits 
a  very  forcible  realistic  feeling.  The  colouring  is  warm,  and, 
in  the  dignified  St.  Anthony,  of  great  depth.  The  treatment 
is  somewhat  broad,  and,  in  the  rendering  of  the  outlines,  a 
more  draughtsmanlike  hand  is  distinctly  seen. 

Slighter  works,  but  of  spirited  character,  are  the  Descent 
from  the  Cross,  and  the  Entombment,  part  of  a  series  of 
pictures  in  the  same  place ;  the  other  twelve  of  which  were 
executed  partly  by  a  tolerably  skilful  artist,  and  partly  by 
one  of  a  more  mechanical  character. 

A  good,  though  not  important  work,  is  the  youthful  David 
with  the  head  of  Goliath,  returning  surrounded  by  warriors, 
and  greeted  with  music  by  the  maidens.  In  the  Munich. 
Gallery,  No.  183.1 

Another  picture,  representing  Pilate  asking  the  Jew* 
whether  he  shall  deliver  to  them  Christ  or  Barabbas,  in  the 
collection  of  Mr.  Green,  of  Hadley,  near  Barnet,  agrees  in  so 
many  respects  with  Martin  Schon's  engraving,  that,  in  spite 
of  the  feebleness  of  the  colour,  I  am  inclined  to  consider  it 
his  work.2 

FREDERICK  HERLEN  is  a  master  who  acted  very  decidedly 
upon  the  character  of  Swabian  art.  [As  early  as  1449,  and 
up  to  1454,  he  was  a  citizen  of  Ulm.]3  A  contemporary 
record  of  the  year  1467,  which  states  that,  owing  to  his- 
knowledge  of  the  Netherlandish  practice,  he  was  admitted 
gratuitously  to  the  privileges  of  a  citizen  of  Nordlingen,4  and 
the  striking  imitation  of  well-known  works  by  Roger  van  der 
Weyden  the  elder  in  his  pictures,  leave  no  doubt  of  his 
having  learned  his  art  from  that  master.  His  real  significance 
seems,  indeed,  to  have  consisted  in  his  thus  importing  the 
art  of  the  Yan  Eyck  school  into  Upper  Germany;  for  he 
neither  displays  any  particular  originality  of  his  own,  nor 
does  he  attain  to  the  feeling  and  conscientious  execution  of 

1  [This  picture  is  now  assigned  in  the  Munich  catalogue  to  Bernard' 
Strigel.] 

1  '  Treasures  of  Art/  vol.  ii.  p.  459. 

3  [See  Professor  Hassler's '  Ulm's  Kunstgeschichte,'  1864,  in  Heideloff's- 
'Kunst  in  Schwaben,'  u.  s.,  p.  117.] 

4  •  Kunatwerke  und  Kunstler  in  Deutschland,'  vol.  i.  p.  353. 


Chap.  V.  FREDERICK  HERLEN.  139 

his  model.  Suffice  it,  therefore,  to  mention  a  few  of  his  chief 
works  :  as,  for  instance,  the  separately-placed  wings  of  an 
altar  in  the  church  at  Nordlingen,  dated  1462,1  representing 
the  Annunciation,  the  Visitation,  the  Adoration  of  the  Kings 
and  of  the  Shepherds,  the  Presentation  in  the  Temple,  the 
Circumcision,  the  Flight  into  Egypt,  and  the  youthful  Christ 
teaching  in  the  Temple.  The  wings  of  the  high  altar  in  the 
church  at  Rothenburg  on  the  Tauber,  chiefly  the  same  sub- 
jects, but  less  delicately  painted.2  Pilate  showing  Christ  to 
the  people,  dated  1468,  in  the  church  at  Nordlingen  ;8  and 
finally,  in  the  same  church,  the  Virgin  enthroned  with  the 
Child,  with  the  kneeling  figure  of  Herlen  himself  with  four 
sons  presented  by  St.  Joseph,  and  his  wife  with  five  daughters 
presented  by  St.  Margaret — doubtless  the  offering  of  the 
painter.  This  picture,  which  bears  date  1488,  shows  that 
his  art  had  become  coarser  in  character.  He  died  1491. 

The  painters  of  the  Swabian  school  retained  in  a  higher 
degree  than  any  other  the  style  of  art  thus  introduced  by 
Frederick  Herlen.  This  is  evidenced  by  their  realistic  concep- 
tion in  its  nobler  form,  by  their  feeling  for  warm  flesh  tints, 
by  harmonious  contrasts  of  colours,  by  their  soft  and  blend- 
ing, more  than  draughtsmanlike,  use  of  the  brush.  Nor  in 
their  drapery  did  they  fall  into  such  numerous,  arbitrary, 
and  sharp  breaks  as  are  shown  in  the  productions  of  the 
other  provinces  of  Germany.  On  the  other  hand,  they  may 
be  distinguished  from  their  Netherlandish  models  in  many 
instances  by  a  greater  feeling  for  spirituality  and  beauty  in 
their  sacred  personages,  by  a  cooler  scale  of  colour — a  cool 
brown-red  and  a  full  green  being  favourite  hues  in  their 
drapery — and,  finally,  by  a  less  close  rendering  of  detail. 
At  the  same  time  two  chief  divisions  may  be  distinguished 
within  the  Swabian  school ;  the  one,  which  is  the  richest  as 
to  number  of  painters,  had  its  seat  at  Augsburg,  and  early 
developed  a  decidedly  realistic  tendency ;  the  other,  belong- 
ing to  Ulm,  showed  a  purer  and  tenderer  feeling  for  religion, 
and  more  sense  of  beauty. 

1  '  Kunstwerke  und  Kiiustler  in  Deutschland/  vol.  L  p.  347. 

2  Ibid.,  p   324,  etc. 
8  Ibid.,  p.  353. 


140  THE   FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Book  III. 


[In  Augsburg  the  family  of  HOLBEIN  is  the  first  -to  attract 
attention  in  the  person  of  Michael,  the  father  of  Sigmund  and 
HANS  HOLBEIN  the  elder.  Hans  the  elder  afterwards  married 
and  had  two  sons,  the  second  of  whom,  Hans,  is  justly 
celebrated  in  the  annals  of  German  art.1  The  tendency  of 
criticism  has  been  to  lower  the  reputation  of  the  elder  for 
the  benefit  of  the  younger  Holbein,  and  this  was  done  suc- 
cessfully by  means  of  forged  documents  and  inscriptions. 
In  the  process  of  cleaning  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Catherine, 
and  Christ  with  His  mother,  and  St.  Anne,  an  altarpiece  of 
1512,,  by  "  Hans  Holba,"  in  the  gallery  of  Augsburg,  an  in- 
scription was  "  brought  (1854)  to  light,"  declaring  that  the 
painter  of  the  picture  was  Hans  Holbein  the  younger,  at  the 
age  of  seventeen.2  In  consequence  of  this  forgery,  which 
was  only  discovered  in  1871,8  all  the  pictures  in  the  style  of 
the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Catherine  were  assigned  to  the  son 
instead  of  the  father;  and  consistence  was  given  to  this 
fiction  by  a  forgery  of  records  assigning  to  Hans  Holbein  the 
younger  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Sebastian  at  Munich.4  This 
also  was  in  due  course  discovered ;  and  since  that  time  the 
elder  Holbein  has  been  restored  to  the  place  which  he 
naturally  fills  in  the  annals  of  his  country.  We  recognize  in 
him  a  clever  master,  who  first  formed  his  style  upon  the 
models  of  the  school  of  Van  der  Weyden,  and  subsequently 
tempered  that  style  by  studying  Italian  and  local  tradition. 
It  is  hard  to  say  at  what  time  Hans  Holbein  the  elder  began 
practice  as  a  painter^in  Augsburg,  but  of  this  we  are  sure, 
that  he  was  inscribed  on  the  rolls  of  the  city  in  place  of 
Michael  Holbein  in  1494.  From  that  time  till  his  death  at 
Isenheim,  in  1524,  he  spent  years  of  prosperity  alternating 

1  [Dr.  Waagen  believed  in  the  existence  of  Hans  Holbein  the  grand- 
father, and  describes  a  picture  in  possession  of  Mr.   Samm  of  Mer- 
genthau,  inscribed  "Hans  Holbein,  C.  A.,  1459."     This  picture  is  now 
in  the  Museum  of  Augsburg ;  its  signature  is  a  forgery,  but  consult 
Woltmann  (Dr.  A.),  '  Holbein  und  Seine  Zeit,'  i.   363,  and  Mr.  His- 
Heussler's  contributions  to  Zahn's  '  Jahrbticher,'  i.  p.  187.] 

2  [The  picture  was  at  the  time  in  the  atelier  of  Mr.   Eigner,  the 
restorer  of  Augsburg.] 

3  [It  is  but  fair  to  state  that  Herman  Grimm  (Holbein's  '  Geburf 8 
Jahr,'  Berlin,  1867)  declared  the  inscription  a  forgery.] 

4  [See  Woltmann's  'Holbein,'  i.  165.] 


Chap.  V.  HANS  HOLBEIN  THE  ELDER.  14  J 


with  years  of  depression.  He  was  made  a  citizen  of  Ulm  in 
1499.  He  visited  Frankfort  in  1501.  After  1516  he  lived 
in  debt  and  in  trouble  at  Augsburg ;  and  when  he  wandered 
away  at  last  to  paint  an  altarpiece  at  Isenheim,1  bailiffs  had 
been  more  than  once  unbidden  guests  in  his  house.2  The 
earliest  creations  of  Hans  Holbein  the  elder  are  those  in 
which  he  exhibits  dependence  on  the  models  of  Van  der 
Weyden.  Without  losing  altogether  the  smooth  type  of  the 
German,  or  rather  of  the  Rhenish,  schools,  he  first  produced 
pictures  remarkable  for  slender  figures,  of  mild  and  regular 
features,  dressed  in  drapery  of  natural  Tall.  Peculiarly 
characteristic  of  this  period  is  the  staidness  of  the  attitudes 
and  the  clear  transparence  of  tones,  unrelieved  by  depth  of 
shadow.  Foremost  amongst  the  pictures  in  this  class  is  the 
Virgin  and  Child,  with  two  angels,  No.  152  in  the  Germanic 
Museum,  signed  "Hans  Holbon,  14  .  . "  and  a  Virgin  and 
Child  enthroned  with  angels,  inscribed  "  .  .  .  s  Holbaini," 
in  the  same  collection,  No.  1 5 1 ,  a*  Nuremberg.3  Of  a  similar 
stamp,  but  with  a  still  more  decided  leaning  to  Van  der 
Weyden,  are  two  wings  of  an  altarpiece  from  the  Abbey  of 
Weingarten,  now  distributed  to  four  altars  in  the  Cathedral 
of  Augsburg,  representing  Joachim's  Sacrifice,  the  Birth  and 
Presentation  of  Mary,  and  the  Presentation  of  Christ.4  From 
these  examples  we  proceed  to  others,  in  which  the  Flemish 
origin  of  the  master's  manner,  though  still  apparent,  is  less 
distinctly  marked,  and  of  these  the  chief  are  the  following  : 
The  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  with  the  Nativity  and  Martyrdom 
of  St.  Dorothea  in  the  wings,  inscribed  "  1499,  Hans  Holba  ;  " 
and  a  series  of  scenes  from  the  Passion  in  one  frame,  in  the 
Augsburg  Gallery ;  a  large  composite  altarpicee,  completed  in 
1501,  for  the  Dominicans  of  Frankfort,  comprising  the  Last 
Supper,  Christ  entering  Jerusalem,  the  Jews  expelled  from 

1  [Woltmann,  u.  s.,  i.  341,  342.] 

2  [Edward  His,  in  Zahn's  '  Jahrblicher,'  iv.  p.  219,  gives  the  proofs 
taken  from  Dr.  Meyer's  contributions  to  the  'Augsburger  allg.  Zeitg.' 
for  August  14th,  1871.     See  also  '  Jahrbiicher,'  iv.  p.  267.] 

3  [It  is  proper  to  state  that  this  picture  has  been  assigned  to  Sig- 
mund  Holbein,  on  the  supposition  that  S.  Holbaini  means  Sigmund 
Holbein,  yet,  as  the  inscription  stands,  S  is  but  the  last  letter  of  th« 
word  Hans,  the  three  first  letters  being  concealed.] 

4  [Woltmann,  u.  s.,  i.  75.] 


142  THE  FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

the  Temple,  a  Root  of  Jesse,  the  Tree  of  the  Dominican 
order,  and  seven  scenes  from  the  Passion — all  in  the  Stadel 
Gallery  at  Frankfort.1  The  Crucifixion,  Descent  from  the 
Cross,  and  Entombment,  at  Munich,  part  of  an  altarpiece  of 
eighteen  or  twenty  panels,  painted  in  1502,  and  originally  in 
the  Abbey  of  Keisheim.  The  Transfiguration,  of  the  same 
year,  with  a  Christ  Crowned  with  Thorns,  and  scenes  from 
the  life  of  St.  Paul,  a  large  picture  of  1504,  in  the  Augsburg 
Gallery.  To  these  we  should  add,  as  specimens  of  a  more 
thoroughly  German  stamp,  the  grey  panel  of  Christ  carrying 
his  Cross,  belonging  to  Mr.  Ahorner,  at  Munich ;  two  parts  of 
an  altarpiece  containing  saints,  in  the  Gallery  of  Prague  ;  and 
twelve  scenes  of  the  Passion,  in  the  Fiirstenberg  collection 
at  Donaueschingen.  About  1508,  Hans  Holbein  probably 
painted  the  votive  epitaph  of  Burgomaster  Schwarz  of 
Augsburg,  now  belonging  to  Mr.  Paul  von  Stetten  at  Augs- 
burg, a  panel  in  which  three  figures  of  the  Eternal,  of  Christ, 
and  the  Virgin  are  placed  above  a  company  of  members  of 
the  Schwarz  family.  The  faces  here  are  portrayed  with 
far  more  nature  than  in  earlier  efforts  of  the  master ;  and 
many  have  held  that  these  likenesses  could  only  have  been 
executed  by  the  younger  Hans  Holbein,  as  helpmate  to  his 
father.  There  is  no  doubt  that  we  trace  in  them  something 
of  the  rare  finesse  of  observation  and  power  of  reproduction 
which  were  developed  in  that  wonderful  master  of  portrait ; 
but  since  it  has  become  necessary  to  substitute  the  name  of 
the  father  for  that  of  the  son,  in  the  altarpiece  of  1512, 
there  is  no  alternative  but  to  assign  to  Hans  the  elder  the 
whole  of  the  Schwartz  epitaph ;  and  in  doing  so  we  greatly 
lighten  the  task  of  those  who  have  to  prove  how  the  style 
of  Hans  the  younger  was  modelled  to  the  form  which  it 
assumed  in  1516-17  at  Bale.  It  is  clear  that  during  the 
earlier  years  of  the  sixteenth  century  a  strong  Italian  in- 
fluence was  felt  in  South  Germany,  and  that,  probably  in  conse- 
quence of  the  relations  which  large  mercantile  houses  like 
the  Fuggers  kept  up  with  Augsburg  and  Nuremberg,  painters 


1  [See  Woltmann's  ' Holbein,'   i.  82,  83,  and  '  Zeitschrift  fur  bild. 
Kunst.,'  i.,  108.] 


Chap.  V.  HANS  HOLBEIN  THE  ELDER.  143 


of  German  schools  gradually  became  familiar  with  Venetian 
and  Paduan  forms  of  art.  The  elder  Holbein  was  one  of 
those  who  derived  advantage  from  this  intercourse.  With- 
out abandoning  the  German  mould  of  form,  he  stripped  it, 
especially  in  drapery,  of  many  hardnesses,  and — curious  as 
the  fact  may  appear — he  threw  off,  to  some  extent,  the 
impress  of  Van  der  Weyden's  school,  which  he  had  received 
direct  by  way  of  the  Rhine,  for  that  of  the  Van  Eycks,  which 
he  took,  modified  as  it  came  to  him,  through  the  medium 
of  Antonello  and  the  Venetians  from  Italy.  With  this, 
and  the  feeling  for  architectural  surface  decoration  derived 
from  the  Mantegnesques  and  Bellinesques,  he  took  a  serious 
part  in  producing  a  revolution  in  German  art.  How  these 
influences  were  brought  to  bear  on  the  elder  Holbein  it  is 
not  easy  to  prove ;  but  we  may  keep  in  mind  that  Anton 
Kolb,  of  Nuremberg,  was  an  art  publisher  at  Venice  in  the 
first  years  of  the  century,  who  had  business  relations  alike 
with  Jacob  de  Barbaris  and  Diirer;  that  Diirer  and  Hans 
Burgkmair  paid  visits  to  Venice  in  1506  and  1508 ;  that 
there  was  a  brisk  interchange  of  thought  and  of  trade 
between  the  northern  parts  of  Italy  and  the  southern  parts 
of  Germany;  and  that  Hans  Holbein  the  elder  was  not 
unacquainted  with  the  Fuggers,  who  were  the  most  influential 
merchants  of  their  time.  It  will  be  worth  a  journey  to 
Berlin  for  any  lover  of  art  to  take  a  look  at  Holbein's 
sketches,  too  long  assigned  to  Hans  the  younger, — sketches 
which,  taken  in  conjunction  with  those  of  Copenhagen, 
reveal  to  us  the  features  and  faces  of  the  most  important 
persons  in  Augsburg.  If  we  turn  to  the  sheets  which  illus- 
trate the  life  of  the  painter's  own  family,  we  find  there  the 
likenesses  of  his  sons  Hans  and  Ambrose,  aged  fourteen  and 
fifteen  respectively.  Amongst  the  celebrities  we  discover  the 
Emperor  Maximilian,  his  adviser,  Kunz  von  der  Rosen,  and 
the  boy  Karl,  afterwards  Kaiser,  with  a  falcon  on  his  wrist. 
The  whole  kith  and  kin  of  the  Fuggers  is  there,  Jacob, 
Raimund,  Anton,  Ulrich,  with  Hans  Schwartz,  the  sculptor, 
and  ever  so  many  citizens,  monks,  and  shopkeepers.  If  in 
Italian  art  we  have  underrated  the  relations  of  Raphael  to  his 
father  Santi,  in  German  art  we  have  altogether  underrated 


144  THE  FIFTEENTH   CENTUK1.  Book  III. 

the  influence  of  Hans  Holbein  the  elder  on  Hans  Holbein 
the  younger. 

The  feeling  which  appears  so  prominently  in  the  epitaph  of 
the  Burgomaster  Schwarz  becomes  intensified  in  later  works 
of  the  elder  Holbein.  In  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Catherine, 
and  Christ  with  St.  Anne  and  the  Virgin,  St.  Ulrich,  and  the 
Martyrdom  of  St.  Peter,  an  altarpiece  of  1512,  in  the  Gallery 
of  Augsburg,  the  same  upon  which  the  name  of  Hans  Holbein 
the  younger  was  forged,  the  same  of  which  we  have  Hans 
the  elder's  original  sketch  in  the  Gallery  of  Bale.  In  the 
Virgin  and  Child  of  Mr.  Schmitter-Hug,  at  Sanct-Gallen, 
and  the  portrait  belonging  to  Count  Lanckoronski,  at  Vienna, 
both  panels  of  a  diptych,  dated  1513,  and  last,  not  least,  the 
Martyrdom  of  St.  Sebastian,  with  St.  Barbara  and  St.  Eliza- 
beth, in  the  Pinakothek  at  Munich,  a  triptych,  executed  in 
1516  for  the  convent  of  St.  Catherine  at  Augsburg — a  triptych 
in  which  we  are  introduced  to  the  first  bloom  of  the  German 
renaissance.]1 

SIGISMUND  HOLBEIN,  brother  of  the  elder  Hans,  was  also 
a  [painter,  but  the  pictures  assigned  to  him  are  not  authen- 
ticated in  any  way.  He  died  at  Berne  in  1540.]2 

After  the  family  of  Holbein,  that  of  Burgkmair  plays  the 
most  important  part  in  the  art  of  Augsburg.  THOMAN  BUEGK- 
MAIE,  mentioned  in  public  documents  in  the  year  1479, 
may  be  considered  first.  Though  possessing  a  certain  ability 
and  energy,  he  is  inferior  to  Holbein.  His  figures  are  short, 
his  flesh-tones  of  a  heavy  brown,  his  outlines  hard.  In  the 
Augsburg  Cathedral  are  two  pictures,  presented  in  1480,  on 
the  columns  of  the  choir :  one  is  Christ  conversing  with  St. 
Ulric,  the  other  the  Virgin  with  St.  Elizabeth  of  Thuringen, 
and  the  wife  of  the  donor,  the  Burgomaster  Walther.  The 

1  '[Consult  for  Holbein  the  elder  the  sources  already  named ;   also 
Woltmann's  Catalogue  of  the  Fiirstenberg  collection  at  Donaueschingen, 
and  the  numerous  articles  by  His-Heussler,  Wilhelm  Schmidt,  Herman 
Grimm,  and  von  Zabn,  in  '  Jahrbiicher,'  u.  s.] 

2  [The  Virgin  and  Child,  in  the  Landauer  Briiderhaus,  is  assigned,  as 
v,'e  saw,  erroneously  to  Sigmund.     There  is  no  authority  for  attributing 
to  Sigmund  the  fine  female  portrait,  No.  722,  in  the  National  Gallery. 
See  His-Heussler,  in  'Jahrbucher,'  i. ,  1 87,  and  Sigmund's  will  in  Woltmann's 
'Holbein,'  i.  368.] 


Chap.  V.  BARTHOLOMEW  ZEITBLOM.  145 

X 

Gallery  at  Augsburg  also  contains  a  large  picture,  with  the 
Martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen,  St.  Lawrence,  and  scenes  from 
the  Passion.1  [Thoman's  death  is  registered  in  the  Augsburg 
Guild  roll  for  1523.] 2 

[The  oldest  representative  of  the  Swabian  school,  which 
flourished  in  Ulm,  is  HANS  SCHUHLEIN,  or  SCHUCHLIN,  whose 
existence  may  be  traced  in  the  rolls  of  taxes  for  Ulm  between 
1468  and  1502.3  Harzen,  who  describes  Schiihlein's  altar- 
piece,  of  1469 — and  particularly  Pilate  washing  his  hands, 
the  Crucifixion,  and  the  Resurrection,  in  the  church  of  Tiefen- 
bronn — notes  a  striking  resemblance  between  the  treatment 
of  this  painter  and  that  of  Roger  van  der  Weyden.4  He 
ascribes  to  Schiihlein  parts  of  an  altarpiece  representing 
the  "  Kith-and-Kin  "  of  Jesus,  [now  assigned  to  B.  Strigel 
in  Munich  (Nos.  184,  185,  186,  and  187) ;  Schleissheim, 
and  the  Museum  at  Nuremburg  (169,  170-4),  and  two 
wings  of  an  altarpiece,  with  eight  scenes  from  the  lives  of 
Joachim,  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  Christ,  in  the  collection  of 
Prince  Hohenzollern  Sigmaringen.]5 

[Schiihlein's  son-in-law,  BARTHOLOMEW  ZEITBLOM,  was 
born,  it  is  supposed,  between  1440  and  1450,  and  studied 
engraving  under  Martin  Schongauer ;  he  afterwards  became 
a  painter  under  the  tuition  of  Schiihlein,  whose  daughter  he 
married  in  1483.6  Fragments  of  an  inscription :  "  .  .  .  von 
Hans  Schiilein  v.  B.  Zeitblom  zu  Ulm  mitgemacht  14  ..." 
have  been  read 7  on  the  wing  of  an  altarpiece  originally  in 
the  village  church  of  Miinster,  and  later  in  possession  of  Mr. 
Eigner,  at  Augsburg.] 

In  the  elevated  and  spiritual  tendency  of  Zeitblom' s  art, 

1  See  Passavant,  '  Kunstblatt '  of  1846,  p.  186,  [and  the  rolls  of  taxes 
in  Woltmann,  i.  363.] 

2  [See  Guild  roll  in  Woltmann's  '  Holbein,'  i.  358.] 

3  [Griineisen  and  Mauch,  Ulm's  'Kunstleben,'  u.s.  42  ;  and  Harzen  in 
Naumann's  '  Archiv,'  1860,  p.  27  and  foil.  ;  and  Professor  Hassler  in 
Heideloff,  u.  s.,  p.  117.] 

4  [The  Tiefenbronn  altarpiece  is  inscribed  on  the  back  of  the  frame  : 
"  Gemacht  zu  Ulm  vo  Hansisse  Schuchlin  maler,  MCCCCLXvnu.,  Jare.] 

5  [Harzen,  u.  s.  These  panels  Dr.  Waagen  assigned  to  Zeitblom  before 
he  was  aware  of  the  connection  between  that  painter  and  Schiihlein.  ] 

6  [Harzen,  u.  s.] 

7  [Harzen,  u.s.,  and  Woltmann,  Catalogue  of  the  Fiirstenberg  Coll., 
p.  6.] 

10 


146  THE  FIFTEENTH   CENTURY.  Book  III. 

as  well  as  in  the  style  of  his  flesh  painting,  it  is  obvious  that 
Martin  Schongauer  exercised  no  small  influence  over  him. 
Though  inferior  to  him  in  sense  of  beauty,  he  has  a  power  of 
attraction  in  the  simplicity,  purity,  and  earnestness  of  his 
religious  feeling,  which  few  possess.  At  the  same  time  his 
limbs  are  still,  for  the  most  part,  meagre  and  inflexible,  and 
a  favourite  type  of  head  is  too  often  repeated  ;  this,  however, 
is  rendered  with  so  much  care,  and  with  such  warm,  trans- 
parent, and,  in  his  later  pictures,  refined  colouring,  as  to 
rival  the  works  of  Quentin  Massy s.  Finally,  his  broad 
drapery,  devoid  of  the  sharp  and  angular  character,  has  a 
peculiar  and  harmonious  combination  of  colour. 

[Among  his  early  works  are  two  wings  of  an  altarpiece, 
commissioned  in  1473  for  the  church  of  Kilchberg,  near 
Tubingen  (Nos.  423,  429,  440,  and  444  of  the  Stuttgardt 
Gallery),  in  which  the  heads  are  worked  in  with  great  care, 
and  painted  in  warm  and  pleasing  tones.]1 

Two  wings  of  an  altar  from  the  monastery  of  Koggenburg, 
near  Ulm,  formerly  in  possession  of  M.  Abel  of  Ludwigsburg, 
containing  figures  of  the  Virgin,  the  Magdalen,  SS.  Helena 
and  John,  are  of  this  period.  The  wings  of  an  altar- chest, 
with  carved  work  in  the  centre,  dated  1488,  show  already  a 
more  original  development.  They  were  formerly  in  the 
village  of  Hausen,  near  Ulm,  and  passed  into  the  possession 
of  the  late  Professor  Hassler  at  Ulm :  they  represent  SS. 
Nicholas  and  Francis,  and  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives. 
The  master,  however,  appears  in  the  highest  form  of  his  art 
in  the  wings  of  a  'large  altarpiece  painted  for  the  parish 
church  of  Esehach  in  1495,  [now  Nos.  411,  412,  421,  422, 
in  the  Stuttgardt  Gallery] ;  the  inner  sides  containing  the 
Annunciation  and  the  Salutation ;  the  outer,  in  figures  some- 
what larger  than  life,  both  the  SS.  John.  These  last,  in 
point  of  dignity,  tenderness  of  feeling,  and  delicately-balanced 
harmony  of  the  warm  and  clear  colouring,  are  among  the 
most  important  works  which  the  German  school,  taken  alto- 
gether, produced  at  this  time.  Two  angels  holding  a  suda- 

1  [Griineisen  and  Mauch,  u.  s.  44.  These  pictures  were  in  the  Abel 
collection  ;  they  represent  St.  Margaret,  St.  John  the  Baptist,  St.  George, 
and  St.  Florian.] 


Chap.  V.  JACOB  ACKER.  147 

rium,  of  uncommon  grandeur  of  character,  formed  once  a 
portion  of  the  predella  of  the  same  altarpiece.  This  is  now 
in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  606  A.  [Of  the  same  year,  pro- 
bably, are  twelve  scenes  from  the  life  of  the  Baptist,  on  the 
inner  sides  of  the  high  altarpiece  in  the  church  of  Blaubeuren, 
and  the  Crucifixion  and  Carrying  of  the  Cross  on  the  outer 
sides  of  the  same  piese.  There  is  much  power,  too,  in  the 
fresco  on  the  side  of  the  church  of  Blaubeuren,  dated  1490, 
representing  the  Baptist,  of  colossal  dimensions.1  Fine,  like- 
wise, are  the  four  doctors  of  the  church  from  Eschach  (1490), 
Nos.  426,  427,  439,  and  443,  in  the  Stuttgardt  Museum.] 
To  this,  Zeitblom's  maturest  time,  belong  also  the  wings, 
executed  1497,  of  an  altarpiece,  at  the  church  of  Heerberg, 
a  small  place  in  Swabia,  representing  scenes  from  the  life  oi 
the  Virgin.  A  head  also  of  St.  Anna,  in  the  Berlin  Museum 
[withdrawn],  of  delicate  feeling  and  warm  and  clear  colour- 
ing, shows  this  master  in  his  full  excellence.  [It  has  not 
been  ascertained  in  what  year  Zeitbloin  died,  but  he  was 
still  on  the  rolls  as  a  tax-payer  in  Ulm  in  1517.] 2 

[Companion  to  Zeitblom,  and  of  the  same  period,  is  JACOB 
ACKER,  described  by  Hassler  as  the  painter  of  an  altarpiece 
in  the  church  of  Ristissen  in  Swabia.] s 

The  Franconian  school,  of  which  Nuremberg,  as  in  the 
former  epoch,  constituted  the  centre,  received  with  the  oil 
painting  of  the  Netherlands  also  the  realistic  modes  of  con- 
ception proper  to  that  country.  In  many  of  their  composi- 
tions also  the  influence  of  Roger  van  der  Weyden  is  percep- 
tible. As  compared  with  the  Swabian  school,  however,  this 
school  remained  more  true  to  the  traditional  treatment  of 
ecclesiastical  subjects ;  its  compositions  are  also  more  con- 
formable to  style.  At  the  same  time  the  draughtsmanlike 
character  prevails  infinitely  more  here,  the  outlines  not  being, 
as  in  Swabia,  lost  and  fused  in  the  forms.  Separate  colours 

1  Harzen,  u.  s.] 

2  "Griineisen  and  Mauch,  ti.  s.  43.] 

8  Hassler,  Ulm's  Kunstgeschtchte,'  in  Heideloff's  'Kunst  des  Mittel- 
aHers  in  Schwaben,'  p.  119,  and  Griineiseu  and  Mauch,  u.  s.,  p.  41. 
Acker  painted  the  doors  of  the  organ  loft  at  Miinster  in  Swabia  in  1473, 
and  the  altarpiece  of  Ristissen  in  1  483.] 

1  'Kunstworke  urid  Kunstler  in  Deutschland,'  vol.  i  p.  117. 


148  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Book  HI. 

are  more  lively,  but  far  less .,  harmonious  in  relation  to  each 
other,  so  that  Franconian  pictures  have  generally  a  gaudy 
look.  The  action  also  is  more  angular,  the  drapery  sharper 
and  more  arbitrary  in  the  breaks  ;  and  if  the  heads  of  many 
a  saintly  personage  show  that  an  attempt  at  ideal  beauty  has 
been  preserved  from  the  former  period,  the  vulgarity  and 
coarseness  of  the  caricatured  heads,  especially  of  the  soldiers, 
are  much  more  objectionable  than  in  the  Swabian  school. 

Belonging  to  the  beginning  of  this  epoch  are  the  pictures 
,on  the  wings  of  the  altar,  executed  1453,  in  the  chapel  of 
the  noble  family  of  Loffelholz,  in  the  church  of  St.  Sebaldus 
at  Nuremberg.  The  inner  sides  contain  events  from  the 
legends  of  the  Emperor  Henry  II.  and  his  consort  Kuni- 
gunda,  the  outer  the  Adoration  of  the  three  Kings  and  St. 
George  killing  the  Dragon.  On  the  inner  side  of  the  pre- 
della  are  Christ  and  Saints,  on  the  outer  the  portraits  of  the 
numerous  family  of  Loffelholz.  The  motives  in  some  cases 
are  very  successful,  and  in  those  heads  which  have  not  been 
painted  over  may  be  seen  a  thorough  study,  good  warm 
colouring,  and  conscientious  technical  execution. 

The  chief  master  of  this  period  was  MICHAEL  WOHLGE- 
MUTH,  born  1434,  died  1519.  All  his  pictures  show  great 
power  and  clearness  of  colouring :  otherwise  there  are  few 
painters  so  unequal  in  merit.  This  arises  not  only  from  the 
circumstance  that,  being  sought  far  and  near  to  execute  large 
altar- chests,  in  which  the  charge  of  colouring  the  figures  or 
reliefs  in  wood  was  also  included,  he  left  much  to  the  work- 
manship of  rude  assistants,  but  also  because  he  himself 
devoted  his  own  powers  very  capriciously  to  the  task.  The 
following  are  some  of  his  principal  works : — Four  pictures 
representing  scenes  from  the  Passion,  of  somewhat  coarse 
character,  belonging  to  his  earlier  time  [inscribed  1465], 
originally  in  the  church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  at  Hof,  in 
Bavaria,  now  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  Nbs.  229-32  [and 
Christ's  Mission  to  the  Apostles,  in  the  Frauenkirche  at 
Munich].  The  large  altarpiece  at  Zwickau,  executed  1479, 
is  an  improvement  on  that  of  Hof  in  some  of  the  panels, 
especially  in  the  four  of  the  life  of  the  Virgin.1  He 
1  '  Kunstwerke  und  Kiinstler  in  Deutschland,'  vol.  i.  p.  56. 


Chap.  V.  MICHAEL  WOHLGEMUTH.  149 

is  seen,  however,  to  most  advantage  in  single  figures,  of 
saints,  life-size,  portions  of  an  altarpiece,  painted  in  1487 
for  the  Augustin  church,  now  in  the  Germanic  Museum  at 
Nuremberg,  Nos.  45,  53,  74,  and  SO.1  Of  the  altarpiece  in 
the  church  at  Schwabach,  not  far  from  Nuremberg,  painted 
from  1506  to  1508,  only  the  stately  figures  of  John  the 
Baptist  and  St.  Martin  are  probably  by  the  master's  hand.2 
His  best  work  I  am  inclined  to  consider  the  paintings  on  an 
altarpiece  in  the  church  of  Heilsbronn,  also  in  the  same  part 
of  Franconia.  They  represent  scenes  from  the  life  of  Christ, 
the  Mass  of  Pope  Gregory,  and  the  portraits  of  the  donor, 
the  Markgraf  Frederick  IV.,  and  his  family.  The  heads  of 
the  sacred  personages  are  here  of  higher  and  more  varied 
character,  and  the  portraits  more  living  than  usual.3  In 
England  I  only  met  with  one  notable  picture  by  Wohl- 
gemuth,  formerly  in  the  Campe  collection-at  Nuremberg,  later 
in  that  of  the  Rev.  J.  Fuller  Russell;  It  represents  in  a  rich 
composition  the  Bearing  of  the*  Cross,  and  belongs  to  his 
most  careful  "works.  The  same  may  be  said  of  two  pictures 
in  the  Liverpool  Institution,  representing  Pilate  washing  his 
hands,  and  the  Descent  from  the  Cross.  This  master  also 
made  the  designs  [1491]  for  a  series  of  woodcuts  in  the  now 
rare  Chronicle  of  Nuremberg  by  Schedel,  a  copy  of  which 
was  also  in  Mr.  Russell's  possession.-4 

In  Nuremberg  and  .other  towns  in  Franconia  may  be  seen 
many  a  picture,  obviously  of  the  school  of  Wohlgemuth, 
though  collectively  falling  short  of  his  excellence  in  art. 
They  serve  to  show  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  great 
Albert  purer,  he  attracted  no  other  scholar  of  any  repute. 

The  contemporary  artists  of  Bavaria  are  still  less  interest- 
ing. By  one  of  them,  GABRIEL  MAHSELKIRCHER,  of  Munich, 
who  flourished  about  1470,  are  two  pictures  of  very  large 
dimensions  in  the  Gallery  of  Schleissheim,  representing  Christ 

1  *  Kunstwerke  und  Kiinstler  in  Deutschland/  vol.  i.  pp.  184, 190. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  294. 

3  Ibid.,  p.  307,  etc.  The  large  picture  attributed  to  him  in  the  Gallery 
at  Vienna  differs,  to  my  view,  both  in  conception  and  technical  qualities, 
too  much  from  all  his  authenticated  works  to  be  by  his  hand. 

4  [See  the  records  given  by  J.  Baader,  in  Zahn's  '  Jahrbucher,'  ii.  73.] 


150  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Book  III. 

bearing  the  Cross,  and  the  Crucifixion,  which  are  marked 
with  a  sort  of  wild  barbarism  and  fantastic  extravagance. 
In  the  same  collection  is  a  large  and  rude  Crucifixion  by 
ULBICH  FUTERER  of  Landshut,  about  1480,  painted  to  imitate 
sculpture  in  compartments  of  Gothic  architecture. 

Nor  are  the  pictures  by  HANS  VON  OLENDORF,  at  Schleiss- 
heim,  of  a  higher  character.  They  exhibit  no  feeling,  the 
drawing  is  feeble,  and  the  colour  very  hard. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  GERMAN  SCHOOLS  FROM  1500  TO  1550. 

DURING  this  period  the  realistic  tendency  adopted  in  Ger- 
many attained,  by  means  of  a  greater  command  of  the  materials 
and  qualities  of  art,  partly  founded  on  the  improved  sciences 
of  proportion  and  perspective,  to  a  higher  truthfulness  of 
representation.  A  number  of  spirited  inventions,  embodying 
scenes  not  only  of  a  religious  character,  but  taken  also  from 
allegory  and  from  common  life,  thus  found  expression.  In 
the  abundance  of  these  inventions,  in  the  feeling  for  style 
with  which  they  were  composed,  and  in  mastery  of  drawing, 
the  German  artists  decidedly  surpassed  their  Netherlandish 
contemporaries,  such  as  Quentin  Massys,  Lucas  van  Leyden, 
etc.  On  the  other  hand,  as  regards  colour,  they  are  found, 
with  few  exceptions, "to  be  in  arrear  of  the  Netherlands  ;  in 
their  treatment,  also,  the  draughtsmanlike  feeling  prevails 
in  the  indication  of  the  outline,  and  the  frequently  hatched 
shadows,  which  give  a  certain  hardness  peculiar  to  their 
pictures.  Nor  do  they  stand  quite  on  an  equality  with  the 
painters  of  the  Netherlands  in  management  of  detail,  though 
gold  grounds,  with  few  exceptions,  had  been  abolished,  and 
landscape  backgrounds,  frequently  of  great  finish,  introduced. 
Indeed  we  find  them,  in  some  cases,  painting  landscape  for 
its  own  sake.  Still  more  do  the  Germans  fall  short  of  the 
excellence  of  contemporary  Italian  masters.  But  while 
admitting  that  their  inferiority  in  those  qualities — ideality 


Chap.  VI.  SPIRIT   OF   GERMAN  ART.  151 

of  conception,  simplification  and  beauty  of  forms,  and  grace 
of  movement — which  give  the  highest  charm  to  the  works 
of  a  Leonardo,  a  Raphael,  and  a  Correggio,  is  partly  owing  to 
a  difference  in  their  innate  feeling  for  art,  partly  to  the  less 
favourable  conditions  of  beauty  in  man,  nature,  and  climate, 
yet  the  fact  itself,  that  German  painters  did  not,  even  in  the 
mode  of  art  peculiar  to  themselves,  arrive  at  that  perfectly 
harmonious  development  of  every  quality, — form,  colour,  and 
chiaroscuro, — which  distinguishes  the  Italian,  must  be  sought 
for  in  various  other  causes.  The  taste  for  the  fantastic  in 
art  peculiar  to  the  middle  ages,  though  it  engendered  clever 
and  spirited  works,  was  still  unfavourable  to  the  cultivation 
of  pure  beauty.  This  taste,  which  the  Italians  had  long 
thrown  off,  found,  even  in  this  period,  favour  with  the  Ger- 
mans :  scenes  from  the  Apocalypse,  Dances  of  Death,  etc.r 
being  among  their  favourite  subjects  for  art.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  pictorial  treatment  of  antique  literature,  a  world 
suggestive  of  beautiful  conceptions,  was  so  little  comprehended 
by  the  Germans,  that  they  only  sought  to  express  it  through 
the  medium  of  those  fantastic  forms,  with  very  childish  and 
even  tasteless  results.  We  must  also  remember  that  that 
average  education  of  the  various  classes  of  society,  of  princes, 
nobles,  burghers,  which  the  fine  arts  require  for  their  protec- 
tion, stood  on  a  far  lower  footing  in  Germany  than  in  that 
then  favoured  land  which,  from  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  had  taken  the  lead  of  all  others.  In  Italy,  conse- 
quently, the  favour  with  which  works  of  art  were  regarded 
was  far  more  widely  extended,  and  entailed  a  far  higher 
standard  of  merit.  This  again  gave  rise  to  a  more  elevated 
personal  position  on  the  part  of  the  artist,  which  in  Italy 
was  not  only  one  of  more  consideration,  but,  owing  to  its 
pecuniary  rewards,  of  incomparably  greater  independence. 
In  this  latter  respect  Germany  was  so  deficient  that  the 
genius  even  of  an  Albert  Durer  and  Holbein  was  miserably 
cramped  and  hindered  in  development  by  the  poverty  and 
littleness  of  surrounding  circumstances.  It  is  known  that  of 
all  the  German  princes  no  one  but  the  Elector  Frederic  the 
Wise  ever  gave  Albert  Durer  a  commission  for  pictures,1  while 
1  '  Reliquien  von  Albrecht  Diirer,  von  Campe,'  Niirnberg,  1818,  p.  59. 


152  THE  FRANCONIAN  SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

a  writing,  addressed  by  the  great  painter  to  the  magistracy 
of  Nuremberg,  tells  us  that  his  native  city  never  gave  him 
employment  even  to  the  value  of  500  florins.1  At  the  same 
time  his  pictures  were  so  meanly  paid,  that  for  the  means  of 
subsistence,  as  he  says  himself,  he  was  compelled  to  devote 
himself  to  engraving.2  How  far  more  such  a  man  as  Albert 
Durer  would  have  been  appreciated  in  Italy  and  in  the  Nether- 
lands is  further  evidenced  in  the  above-mentioned  writing, 
where  he  states  that  he  was  offered  200  ducats  a  year  in 
Venice,  and  300  Philipsgulden  in  Antwerp,  if  he  would  settle 
in  either  of  those  cities.  And  Holbein  fared  still  worse  : 
there  is  no  evidence  whatever  that  any  German  prince  ever 
troubled  himself  at  all  about  the  great  painter  ;  while  in  the 
city  of  Basle  his  art  was  so  little  cared  for  that  necessity 
compelled  him  to  go  to  England,3  where  a  genius  fitted  for 
the  highest  undertakings  of  historical  painting  was  limited  to 
the  sphere  of  portraiture.  The  crowning  impediments,  finally, 
which  hindered  the  progress  of  German  art,  and  also  per- 
verted it  from  its  true  aim,  were  the  Keformation,  which 
narrowed  the  sphere  of  ecclesiastical  works,  and  the  perni- 
cious imitation  of  the  great  Italian  masters  which  ensued. 


THE  FRANCONIAN  SCHOOL. 

The  head  of  this  school,  at  this  period,  was  the  celebrated 
ALBERT  DURER.*  In  him  the  style  of  art  already  existing 
attained  its  most  original  and  highest  perfection.  He  be- 
came the  representative  of  German  art  of  this  period.  His 

1  *  Reliquien  von  Albreciit  Diirer,  von  Campe/  Niirnberg,  1818,  pp.  34 
and  37.  2  Same  work,  p.  49. 

"  Hie  frigent  artes.  Petit  Asgliam  ut  corradat  aliquot  Angelatus," 
says  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam,  in  a  letter  he  gave  Holbein  in  Basle  to  bis 
friend  Petrus  Egydius  in  Antwerp,  in  1526. 

4  There  are  several  special  works  on  Durer.  The  oldest  is  by  H.  C. 
Arend,  'Das  Gedachtniss  der  Ehren  Albrecht  Durer's,'  Gosslar,  1728. 
Later  ones  are  :  Weisse,  'A.  DUrer  und  sein  Zeitalter.'  Leipzig,  1819 ; 
'  Reliquien  von  A.  Diirer,'  NUrnberg,  1828,  J.  Heller,  '  Das  Leben  und 
die  Werke  A.  Diirer's,'  Leipzig,  1831.  [A.  v  Eye,  'Leben  und  Wirken 
A.  Durer's.'  Nordlingefj,  1 800,  Stark,  'Albrecht  Diirer  und  seine  Zeit,' in 
the  Germania,  Leipzig,  1851,  and  'Diirer's  Kunstlehre,'  von  Dr.  A.  v. 
Zahn,  8vo,  Leipzig,  1866.]  ['Life,  etc.,  of  A.  Diirer,'  by  W.  B.  Scott, 
1869.  'The  History,  etc.,  of  A.  Diirer,'  by  Mrs.  Heaton,  and  'A  New 
Life  of  A.  Durer,'  etc.,  by  Morite  Thausing,  1879.  Translated  from 
the  German  "j 


Chap.  VL  ALBERT  DURER.  153 

spirit  was  rich  and  inexhaustible  :  not  content  with  painting 
and  the  other  arts  of  design,  he  exerted  his  powers  in  the 
kindred  studies  of  sculpture  and  architecture ;  he  was  gifted 
with  a  power  of  conception  which  traced  Nature  through  all 
her  finest  shades,  and  with  a  lively  sense,  as  well  for  the 
solemn  and  the  sublime,  as  for  simple  grace  and  tenderness ; 
above  all,  he  had  an  earnest  and  truthful  feeling  in  art, 
united  with  a  capacity  for  the  severest  study,  such  as  is 
sliown  in  the  composition  of  his  various  theoretical  works.1 
These  qualities  were  sufficient  to  place  him  by  the  side  of 
the  greatest  artists  whom  the  world  has  ever  seen.  But  he 
again  was  unable  wholly  to  renounce  the  general  tendency 
to  the  fantastic — a  tendency "  which  essentially  obstructed 
the  pure  development  of  his  power  as  an  artist.  It  must  be 
a'dmitted  that  in  his  hands  this  principle  gave  birth  to  single 
(productions-  of  such  beauty  and  importance  as  we  rarely 
meet  with  elsewhere;  calling  into  life  works  which  may 
truly  be  called  "  ^oems,"  and  of  which  the  mysterious 
subjects  excite  the  liveliest  interest.  Albert  Durer's  drawing 
is  full  of  life  and  character ;  he  fails,  however,  in  feeling  for/ 
beauty,  and  his  nude  is  vulgar  and  sometimes  even  ugly  in 
•character ;  his  drapery,  too,  is  frequently  cut  up  into  those  t 
sharp  forms  which  were  the  fashion  of  his  day,  but  by  no 
means  favourable  to  the  development  of  the  figure.  In  ideal  ^ 
drapery  his  folds  are  almost  always  cast  in  large  and  .beauti- 
ful masses ;  but  even  here,  in  the  breaks  and  angles,  he 
cannot  wholly  discard  that  singular  mannerism  which  con- 
fuses the  eye,  and  disturbs  the  noble  impression  of  the 
principal  forms.  His  colouring  is  unequal :  sometimes  very 
brilliant,  but  generally  wanting  in  truth  and  transparency ; 
while  the  hard  outlines  show  rather  the  hand  of  a  great* 
draughtsman.  Even  in  the  expression  and  form  of  the 
countenance,  Durer  follows  a  certain  form,  which  cannot  be 
•called  the  normal  type  of  ideal  beauty,  nor,  in  some  instances,  ^ 
even  a  faithful  copy  of  common  life  after  the  manner  of  his 

1  '  UnderweysuDg  der  messung  mit  dem  zirckei  und  richtscheyt,'  etc., 
1525  ;  'Etliche  underricht  zu befestigung der  Stett,  Schlosz,  und  Flecken, 
1527  ;  *  Vier  biicher  von  menschlicher  Proportion,'  1518.  There  are 
•different  editions  and  translations  of  all  the  above,  of  a  later  date. 


154  THE  FRANCONIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  III. 


predecessors-,  but  can  only  be  explained  from  his  prevailing 
tendency  towards  what  is  singular.  When,  however,  in 
spite  of  all  this,  the  greater  number  of  his  works  make  a 
deep  impression  on  the  mind  and  feelings  of  the  spectator, 
it  is  a  strong  proof  of  the  peculiar  greatness  of  his  abilities 
as  an  artist. 

The  consideration  of  the  single  works  of  this  master,  to 
which  we  now  pass,  will  explain  more  clearly  the  observa- 
tions just  made,  and  the  chronological  arrangement  of  these 
works  will  afford  an  opportunity  for  some  interesting  notices 
of  his  progress  as  an  artist.  I  shall  especially  consider  his 
pictures  (so  far  at  least  as  they  have  come  under  my  own 
observation),  since  it  is  only  in  them  that  the  full  extent 
of  his  unwearied  powers  can  be  recognized.  The  most  im- 
portant of  rhis  numerous  woodcuts  and  engravings  must  also 
be  noticed  with  a  particular  reference  to  their  dates  when 
known. 

[Albert  Durer  was  born  on  the  21st  of  May,  1471,  at 
Nuremberg,  and  died  suddenly  in  that  city  on  the  6th  of 
April,  1528.1  His  father,  a  goldsmith,  sent  him,  when  quite 
a  boy  (1484),  to  Martin  Schon,2in  whose  atelier  he  doubtless 
met  Hans  Burgkmair,  who,  in  after  life  was  his  most  active 
assistant.  Later  on  Durer  took  lessons  from  Michael 
Wohlgemuth,  to  whom  he  was  apprenticed  (1486)  for  three 
years.3  In  1490 — 1494,  he  went  wandering  as  a  painter 
companion,  and  so  got  a  first  glimpse  of  Venice,  to  which 
he  was  afterwards  to  return,  when  his  talents  became 
mature.] 

The  earliest  portrait  by  Albert  Durer  known  to  me  is  that 
of  his  father,  Albrecht  Durer  the  goldsmith,  dated  1497. 
In  the  year  1644  this  picture,  which  is  engraved  by  Hollar, 
was  in  the  collection  of  the  Earl  of  Arundel ;  it  is  now  in 

1  [See  Liitzelberger's  proofs  in  the  Niirnberger   correspondent  for 
May  1871]. 

2  [Neudorffer,    'Nachrichten    von  Niirnberger  Kiinstlern,'    MS.    of 
1546,  Campe's   ed.,  12mo.,  Nuremberg,  1828,  p.  36,  states  this  factr 
which  Durer  himself  has  not  noted  in  his  diary.     It  is  probably  correct, 
because  we  see  Schon's  influence  in  Durer's  prints.] 

8  [Durer's  diary  in  Campe's  'Keliquien,'  p.  7,  and  Durer  to  Pirckheimer, 
from  Venice,  in  1506.  Ib.  ib.,  p.  13.] 


ALBEET   DURER, 
Painted  by  himself.    In  the  Collection  of  Artists' Portraits  at  Florence.         pa£a  155. 


Chap.  VI.  ALBERT  DURER.  155 

that  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland.  It  is  very  fine  and 
of  most  animated  conception ;  the  execution  light  but  spirited, 
and  of  a  draughtsmanlike  character;  the  colouring  warm, 
and  truly  harmonious.1 

The  same  portrait,  bearing  the  same  date  (1497),  but 
differing  in  many  respects,  and  with  the  following  inscrip- 
tion— 

"  Das  malt  ich  nach  meines  vatters  gestalt, 
Da  Er  war  siebenzich  Jar  alt," — 

Albrccht  Durer  Der  elter. 

is  now  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  Cabinets,  *  No.  128.  It  is 
closely  allied  to  the  former  in  conception  and  treatment,  and 
is  also  of  great  excellence,  though  of  less  force  of  colour. 

Again,  the  same  portrait,  bearing  date  1498,  is  in  the 
gallery  of  the  Uffizj  at  Florence.2  This  one  is  yellower  in 
the  flesh-tones,  and  with  a  greenish  background;  also  of 
more  body  than  the  two  preceding.  It  was  presented,  with 
the  next- mentioned  portrait,  its  companion,  by  the  city  of 
Nuremberg  to  Charles  I.  of  England,  at  the  sale  of  whose 
gallery  both  pictures  were  purchased  for  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Tuscany. 

[A  very  interesting  work  of  this  time  is  the  likeness  of  a 
young  girl,  dated  1497,  in  the  collection  of  Baron  Speck  von 
Sternburg,  near  Leipzig ;  a  clear  and  highly  finished  bust, 
once  an  ornament  of  the  Arundel  collection,  and  engraved 
by  Hollar.] 

The  next  picture  by  the  master  known  to  us  is  his  own 
portrait,  of  the  year  1498,  in  the  Florentine  collection  of 
artists'  portraits  painted  by  themselves,  in  the  Uffizj  ;  the 
arrangement  of  the  picture  is  well  known — the  artist,  a  half- 
length  figure,  stands  at  a  window,  the  hands  resting  on  the 
window-sill.  He  is  arrayed  in  a  peculiar  holiday  dress — a 
shirt  neatly  plaited  and  cut  low  in  the  neck,  a  white  jerkin 

1  A  good  school  copy  of  this  picture  is  in  the  Stiidel  Gallery  at 
Frankfort  [No.  106]. 

2  [Otto  Miiudler  very  properly  observes  that  the  date  on  this  picture 
is  a  forgery.     On  the  back  of  the  panel  are  the  arms  of  Durer  and  the 
ciphers  1490  ;  and  so  the  Uffizi  portrait  is  the  earliest  one  that  Durer 
painted  of  his  father.    See  '  Beitrage  zu  Burckhardt's  Cicerone,'  Leipzig, 
1870,  p.  30.] 


156  THE  FKANCONIA.N  SCHOOL.  Book  lit '; 

striped  with  black,  a  pointed  cap,  and  a  brown  mantle  over 
the  left  shoulder,  the  hair  falling  in  carefully  arranged  curls. 
The  painting,  with  some  sharpness  in  the  drawing,  has  a 
breadth  and  softness,  especially  in  the  lights,  which  we 
rarely  find  at  a  later  period;  the  shadows  of  the  carnation 
have  a  light  bronze  tint.  The  expression  of  the  coun- 
tenance is  honest  and  homely,  with  a  certain  naive  self-com- 
placency, which  is  indeed  tolerably  manifest  in  the  letters 
written  by  him  to  Pirckheimer  about  eight  years  later.1 

[Turning  from  portrait  to  composition,  we  assign  to  1498 
the  Nativity,  with  kneeling  figures  of  patricians,  an  altarpiece 
from  St.  Catherine   of   Nuremberg,   Nos.    241-43,   in   the, 
Munich  Pinakothek.]        ,  : 

In  the  same  year,  1498,  appeared  his  woodcuts,  illus- 
trating the  Book  of  Revelation,  and  which  we  should  perhaps 
regard  as  proofs  of  his  activity  in  the  years  immediately , 
preceding.  Here  the  artist  already  exhibits  a  great  and 
peculiar  excellence,  though,  as  might  be  expected  from :  the " 
subject,  the  fantastic  element  forms  the  groundwork  of  the 
whole.  These  mystical  subjects  are  conceived  in  a  singularly 
poetic  spirit :  the  marvellous  and  the  monstrous  me,et  us  in 
living  bodily  forms.  Some  ;  of  them  exhibit  a  power  of 
representation  to  the  eye,  and  a  grandeur  pf  conception,  the 
more  surprising,  since  the  shapeless  exuberance  of  the 
scriptural  visions  might  easily  have  led  the  artist  astray,  as 
has  indeed  frequently  happened  in  the  case  of  others  who 
have  attempted  these  subjects.  How  powerful  is  that  second 
plate,  in  which  He  with  eyes  of  flaming  fire?  the  seyen  stars 
in  His  right  hand,  and  a  two-edged  sword  in  His  mouth,  sits 
enthroned  among  the  seven  golden  candlesticks,  with  St.; 
John  kneeling  in  adoration  before  Him!  In  the  fourth 
plate,  how  mighty  is  the  descent  upon  the  earth, of  the  four 
riders,  with  scales,  bows,  swords,  and  other  weapons  of 
death !  In  the  eighth,  how  the  four  angels  of  the  Euphrates 
dash  to  the  ground  with  their  swords  the  mighty  and  the 

1  Dr.  Waagen  holds  that  this  portrait  is  the  original,  of  which  there 
is  a  copy  in  the  Madrid  Museum.  See  his  opinion  in  Zahn's '  Jahrbiicher,' 
i.  p.  54.  Otto  Miindler  believed  (Beitrage,  u.s.  30)  the  original  to  be 
at  Madrid  and  the  copy  at  the  Uffizj.] 


Chap.  VI.  ALBERT  DURER.  157 


proud  of  the  earth,  whilst  over  them  ride  the  awful  company 
of  horsemen  on  the  lion-headed  horses,  spitting  forth  fire  ! 
But  it  would  occupy  too  mu,ch  time  to  enter  upon  all  the 
details  of  these  remarkable  works.  We  now  return  to  his 
pictures.  ,  . .;  .;.. 

Several  of  Albert  Durer's  pictures  of  the  year  1500  are 
known  to  us.  The  first  and  most  important  is  his  own 
portrait  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  Cabinets,  No.  239,  which 
represents  him  in  front,  with  his  hand  laid  on  the  fur 
trimming  of  his  robe.  There  is  a  considerable  difference 
between  this  and  the  Florence  portrait,  although  ;the  artist 
is  here  but  two  years  older — a  difference  from  which  we 
may  infer  that  a  remarkable  crisis  had  taken  place  in  the 
development  of  his  mind.  In  the  Florence  picture  he  is  a 
good-natured  harmless  youth,  see  woodcut  :  in  that  at 
Munich  he  has  suddenly  ripened  into  manhood ;  his  features 
have  become  full  and  powerful,  they  have  gained  the  expres- 
sion of  a  formed  character ;  ihe  forehead  and  eyes  give 
evidence  of  an  earnest  and  deep-thinking  spirit.  The  tech- 
nical treatment,  too,  which  contributes  so  much  to  give  a 
peculiar  stamp  to  his  later  works,  is  here  fully  matured, 
particularly  the  thin  glazing  in  the  shadows  of  the  carnations, 
which  lends  to  the  picture  we  speak  of  an  almost  glassy 
transparency.  The  modelling  is  excellent,  although  still 
somewhat  severe,  and  although  considerable  restorations  are 
perceptible.  The  hair  falls  on  both  shoulders  in  beautiful 
profusion,  and  is  very  finely  painted  ;  the  hand  which  holds 
the  fur  of  the  upper  garment  over  the  breast  is  still  stiff  in 
the  drawing,  and,  what  is  in  striking  contrast  to  the  painting 
of  the  face,  the  colour  is  thickly  laid  on.1 

Of  the  same  year  is  a  Hercules  attacking  the  Harpies, 
painted  in  distemper ;  a  fine,  powerfully  drawn  figure,  but 
much  injured.  No.  190  in  the  collection  of  the  Germanic 
Museum  at  Nuremberg.2 

1  [There  is  a  fine  old  copy  of  this  portrait  in  the  Suermondt  collection 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle.]  [Now  at  Berlin,  No.  557  A.] 

•  [The  Wail  of  the  Marys  over  the  dead  body  of  Christ,  No.  238  in 
the  Munich  Gallery,  is  certified  by  a  monogram,  and  the  date  1500  't 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  either  is  genuine.] 


158  THE   FRANCONIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

In  the  gallery  of  the  Belvedere,  in  Vienna,  is  a  Virgin 
nursing  the  Infant,  of  the  year  1503.  It  contains  little  more 
than  the  heads  of  both  figures.  Though  lightly  and  very 
pleasingly  painted,  it  is  uninteresting  in  expression,  and 
seems  nothing  more  than  the  portrait  of  the  sturdy  wife  of 
some  burgher. 

But  the  engraving  of  the  same  date,  of  the  coat  of  arms 
with  the  Death's  head,  is  far  more  interesting.  The  two 
supporters — the  smiling  woman  with  the  braided  tresses  and 
fantastic  crown,  and  the  wild  man  who  grasps  her,  and 
turns,  as  if  to  kiss  her — have  a  peculiar  and  fantastic  charm 
about  them.  The  engraving,  too,  of  Adam  and  Eve,  of  the 
year  1504,  ranks  among  the  best  of  the  master's  works. 

The  finest  picture  of  the  year  1504  is  an  Adoration  of  the 
Kings  ;  originally  painted  for  Frederick  the  Wise,  Elector  of 
Saxony,  subsequently  presented  by  the  Elector  Christian  II. 
to  the  Emperor  Rudolph  II.,  and  finally,  on  the  occasion  of 
an  exchange  of  pictures,  transferred  from  Vienna  to  Florence, 
where  it  now  hangs  in  the  Tribune  of  the  Uffizj.  The  heads 
are  of  thoroughly  realistic  treatment ;  the  Virgin  a  portrait 
from  some  model  of  no  attractive  character;  the  second 
king  the  portrait  of  the  painter  himself.  The  landscape 
background  exactly  resembles  that  in  the  well-known  engrav- 
ing of  St.  Eustace,  the  period  of  which  is  thus  pretty  nearly 
defined.  It  is  carefully  painted  in  a  fine  body  of  colour. 

To  about  the  same  time  we  may  assign  the  fine  portrait 
of  a  man  with  broad-brimmed  hat  and  an  order  round  his 
neck,  now  in  the  collection  of  the  Duke  of  Eutland  at  Belvoir 
Castle. 

[Of  1505  is  a  fine  male  portrait  in  the  Borghese  Palace  at 
Rome.] 

In  the  year  1506  Albert  Durer  made  a  journey  into  Upper 
Italy,  and  remained  a  considerable  time  at  Venice.  Of  his 
occupations  in  this  city  the  letters  written  to  his  friend 
Wilibald  Pirckheimer,  which  have  come  down  to  us,  give 
many  interesting  particulars.  He  there  executed  for  the 
German  Company  a  picture  which  brought  him  great  fame, 
and  by  its  brilliant  colouring  silenced  the  assertion  of  his 
envious  adversaries,  "  that  he  was  a  good  engraver,  but 


Chap.  VI.  ALBERT  DURER.  159 

knew  not  how  to  deal  with  colours."  In  the  centre  of  the 
landscape  is  the  Virgin,  seated,  with  the  Child,  and  crowned 
by  two  Angels ;  on  her  right  is  a  Pope  with  priests,  kneel- 
ing ;  on  her  left  the  Emperor  Maximilian  L,  with  knights  ; 
various  members  of  the  German  Company  are  also  kneel- 
ing :  all  are  being  crowned  with  garlands  of  roses  by  the 
Virgin,  the  Child,  St.  Dominick — who  stands  behind  the 
Virgin — and  by  angels.  The  painter  and  his  friend  Pirck- 
heimer  are  seen  standing  in  the  background  on  the  right ; 
the  painter  holds  a  tablet,  with  the  inscription,  "  Exegit 
quinque  mestri  spatio,  Albertus  Durer  Gelrmanus,  MDVI," 
and  his  monogram.  This  picture,  which  is  one  of  his  largest 
and  finest,  was  purchased  of  the  church  at  a  high  price  by 
the  Emperor  Rudolph  II.  for  his  gallery  at  Prague,  where  it 
remained  until  sold  in  1782,  with  other  objects  from  the 
same  collection,  by  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  It  then  became 
the  property  of  the  Przemonstratensian  monastery  of  Strahow 
at  Prague,  where  it  still  exists, though  in  very  injured  con- 
dition and  greatly  over-painted.  In  the  Museum  at  Lyons 
may  be  seen  a  copy,  with  various  important  alterations, 
which  was  executed  towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and  which  there  passes  for  the  original.1 

[The  most  attractive  picture  of  the  year  is  the  crucified 
Saviour,  in  the  Gallery  of  Dresden,  an  exquisite  production, 
in  which  Durer  shows  how  thoroughly  he  was  master  of 
drawing,  proportion,  and  expression,  a  marvel  of  finish,  and 
full  of  effect. 

In  contrast  to  this,  and  done,  we  might  think,  to  prove 
how  quick  even  a  German  of  Durer's  type  could  work,  is 
a  Christ  amidst  the  Doctors,  in  the  Barberini  Palace  at 
Rome,  executed,  as  the  inscription  says,  and  the  spectator 
can  guess,  "  in  five  days."]8 

1  A  good  lithograph,  executed  with  the   pen  by  Bademann,  taken 
from  the  original,   was   published  in   Prague  in   1835.     For  further 
description  of  this  important  picture,  see  an  article  by  me   in   the 
'Kunstblatt'  of  1854,  p.  200,  etc.     [Compare  also  Grimm.  'Kiinstler 
und  Kunstwerke,'  1865,  i.  166-7,  and  De  His,  Les  Musees  de  Provence 
U.  379.] 

2  [Vasari  says  -that  the  cause  of  Durer's  journey  to  Venice  was 
Marcantonio's  issue  of  the  Passion  engravings  with  Durer's  monogram  : 
the  result  was  an  arrangement  between  the  two  engravers  to  issue  the 


160  THE  FRANCONIAN  SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

fLa.  the  Gallery  of. the  Belvedere,  at  Vienna,  is  a  portrait, 
of  the  year  1507,  of  a  young  man,  with  a  high  colour.  It  is 
wonderfully  beautiful,  true  to  life,  and  finely  painted,  so  as 
to  equal  Durer's  best  works  in  portraiture ;  but  it  is  unfor- 
tunately not  in  as  good  preservation  as  we  could  wish.  This 
picture  allows  us  to  judge  of  the  excellence  of  another  painted 
in  the  same  year,  and  which  afterwards  passed  from  the 
possession  of  the  Council  of  Nuremberg  into  the  gallery  of  the 
Emperor  Rudolph  II.  It  represents,  on  two  different  panels, 
Adam  and  Eve,  life-size,  at  the  moment  of  the  Fall.  On 
that  containing  Eve  is  the  inscription,  "  Albertus  Durer 
Alemanus  faciebat  post  Yirginis  partum,  1507,"  with  the 
monogram.  The  head  of  Eve  is  very  delicately  formed  for 
the  painter,  the  drawing  good,  the  outlines  animated,  and 
the  modelling  careful.  These  panels  are  now  in  the  Madrid 
Gallery.1  Another  example  of  the  same  subject,  of  great 
beauty,  and  proceeding  undoubtedly  from  the  studio  of  Albert 
Durer,  is  in  the  Pitti  Palace.  A  third,  also  called  an  original 
picture,  in  the  Mayence  Gallery,  is,  on  the  other  hand,  an 
early  copy.2 

With  these  productions  begins  the  zenith  of  this  master's 
fame,  in  which  a  great  number  of  distinguished  works  follow 
one  another  within  a  short  period.  Of  these  we  first  notice 
a  picture  of  1508,  in  the  Belvedere  Gallery  at  Vienna,  painted 
for  Duke  Frederick  of  Saxony,  and  which  afterwards  adorned 
the  gallery  of  the  Emperor  Rudolph  II.  It  represents  the 
Martyrdom  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Saints.  In  the  centre  of 
the  picture  stand  the  master  and  his  friend  Pirckheimer  as 
spectators,  both  in  black  dresses.  Albert  Durer  has  a  mantle 
thrown  over  the  shoulder  in  the  Italian  fashion,  and  stands 

Passion  as  a  joint  undertaking  (Vas.  ix.  265-7).  These  statements 
are  not  confirmed  by  Durer's  correspondence  ;  they  are  treated  as  fables 
by  most  writers.  But  Mr.  F.  Reiset  gives  reasons  for  thinking  that 
Marcantonio  did  copy  and  sell  as  Durer's  those  plates  of  the  Passion 
which  bear  dates  earlier  than  1507,  ex.  gr.  the  Meeting  of  Joachim  and 
Anna  (1504),  the  Annunciation  and  Epiphany  (1506).  Compare  F. 
Eeiset's  'Notice  des  Dessins,'  etc.,  Paris,  1866,  pp.  360—362.] 

1  Passavant's  'Christliche  Kunst  in  Spanien,'  p.  142. 

2  [The  Pitti  contains  the  originals  of  which  the  Madrid  pictures  are 
copies.     The  replica  at  Mayence,  No.  204,  is  very  unattractive,  and  looks 
like  a  work  of  the  school  of  Mabuse.] 


Chap.  VI.  ALBERT  DURER.  161 

in  a  firm  attitude.  He  folds  his  hands,  and  holds  a  small 
flag,  on  which  is  inscribed,  "Iste  faciebat  anno  domini  1508 
Albertus  Durer  Alemanus."  There  are  a  multitude  of  single 
groups  around,  exhibiting  every  species  of  martyrdom,  but 
there  is  a  want  of  general  connection  of  the  whole.  The 
scenes  in  the  background,  where  the  Christians  are  led  naked 
up  the  rocks,  and  are  precipitated  down  from  the  top,  appear 
to  me  particularly  excellent.  The  whole  is  very  minute  and 
miniature-like  ;  the  colouring  is  beautifully  brilliant,  and  it 
is  painted  (the  accessories  particularly)  with  extraordinary 
care.  There  is  also  much  that  is  good  in  the  drawing  of 
single  parts,  but  the  conception  wants  real  dignity,  power, 
and  individuality.  It  is  only  here  and  there  that  pain  is  well 
expressed ;  for  instance,  in  the  last  but  one  of  the  nude 
figures  who  are  led  up  the  mountain,  and  who  totters  along, 
weary  to  the  death,  with  a  deep  wound  in  the  head.  The 
background  forms  an  excellent  but  fanciful  landscape  of  rocks 
and  trees.  In  the  Schleissheim  Gallery  there  is  a  repetition 
of  this  picture — no  doubt  an  old  copy.1 

In  the  following  year  Albert  Durer  painted  the  celebrated 
Assumption  of  the  Virgin  for  Jacob  Heller  of  Frankfort,  a  pic- 
ture which  he  executed  with  the  most  persevering  diligence, 
and  the  centre-piece  without  any  assistance.  Here  again 
the  painter  himself  stands  in  the  centre,  leaning  upon  a  tablet 
inscribed  with  his  name,  and  with  the  date.  There  are 
numerous  ancient  testimonies  to  the  excellence  of  this  work. 
[It  was  purchased  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  by 
Maximilian,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  at  the  cost  of  10,000  florins 
and  a  copy  by  Paul  Juvenel  of  Nuremberg ;  and  it  subse- 
quently perished  by  fire  at  Munich  in  1674.  Juvenel's  copy 
was  preserved,  and  still  exists  in  the  Stahlhof  at  Frankfort, 
where  numerous  pieces  of  the  wings  were  recently  brought 
together  by  the  industry  of  an  excellent  art  critic,  Dr.  Mori& 
Thausing.  On  the  open  wings  are  the  Martyrdoms  of  St. 

1  [0.  Miindler  adds  to  our  list  of  pictures  for  this  year  a  small  one  in 
the  Santangelo  collection  at  Naples,  representing  a  woman  tying  a 
garland  at  a  window,  inscribed  with  Durer's  name,  the  date  1508,  and 
the  words  in  a  white  ribband  :  "  Ich  Tint  mit  Verges  mein  nit."  See 
'Beitrage,'p.  30.] 

11 


162  THE  FKANCONIAN  SCHOOL.  Book  III. 


James  and  St.  Catherine,  beneath  which  there  are  portraits 
of  Jacob  Heller  and  his  wife.  Of  four  pieces  forming 
the  outer  sides  of  the  wings  three  have  been  found:  one 
representing  two  canonized  kings,  another,  St.  Thomas  (?) 
and  St.  Christopher,  yet  another,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul. 
Moriz  Thausing  very  justly  observes  that  it  is  difficult  to 
say  to  which  of  Durer's  assistants  the  wing  pictures  can  be 
assigned.  They  were  too  poor  to  prove  attractive  to  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria.]1 

Two  excellent  woodcuts  may  also  be  mentioned  as  examples 
of  Durer's  activity  in  1510.  The  first  is  the  beautiful  plate 
which  represents  a  Penitent  kneeling  before  the  altar  and 
scourging  himself  on  his  naked  back,  and  the  second  that  in 
which  Death  seizes  upon  an  armed  warrior. 

In  1511  he  published  three  large  series  of  woodcuts,  some 
of  which,  as  shown  by  their  dates,  had  been  executed  in  the 
two  preceding  years.  These  were  the  greater  and  the 
lesser  Passion,  and  the  Life  of  the  Virgin.  They  are  some 
of  the  best  of  Albert  Durer's  works  which  have  descended  to 
us  ;  in  them  we  find,  almost  more  than  in  any  others,  intima- 
tions of  a  lively  feeling  for  beauty  and  simple  dignity,  whilst 
the  fantastic  features  of  his  style  and  the  homeliness  of  his 
conception  are  less  offensively  prominent.  We  can  take  but 
a  rapid  glance  at  a  few  of  this  rich  series. 

The  Great  Passion. — The  title-page  represents  Christ  sit- 
ting naked  on  a  stone,  with  the  crown  of  thorns,  whilst  one 
of  the  soldiers  thrusts  into  his  hand  the  reed.  The  form  of 
Christ  is  most  noble,  full,  and  beautiful ;  the  soldier,  in  the 
costume  of  the  middle  ages,  is  fierce  and  scornful,  but  also  a 
finely  formed  and  well-developed  figure.  The  Saviour  is 
wringing  his  hands,  while  he  turns  his  majestic  head,  full  of 
divine  compassion,  towards  the  spectator — for,  as  a  frontis- 
piece, this  representation  has  here  a  symbolical  meaning  :  it 
is  not  the  mockery  of  Christ,  as  an  event  of  history,  but  the 
lasting  reproach  cast  upon  the  Saviour  by  sinners ;  hence  the 
wounds  on  the  hands  and  feet  are  already  marked.  The 
Bearing  of  the  Cross  is  a  composition  with  numerous  figures 

1  [See  'Der  Hellersche  Altar,'  by  Moriz  Thausing,  in  «  Zeitschiift,' 
b.  Kunst,  vi.,  pp.  93  and  135.] 


Chap.  VI.  ALBERT   DURER.  163 

thickly  grouped,  yet  conveying  the  most  perfect  view  of  the 
subject,  and  the  clearest  development  of  the  action.     In  the 
centre  the  Saviour  sinks  on  his  knee  under  the  weight  of  the 
cross ;  on  the  right  the  executioner,  in  whose  figure  there  is 
an  ostentatious  display  of  muscular  power,  drags  him  up  by 
the  rope  ;  on  the  left   is  St.   Veronica  kneeling,  with  the 
handkerchief  in  her  hands,  while  Christ  turns  to  her  with  an 
expression  of  tender  love.     Behind  him  is  another  execu- 
tioner, who  with  savage  haste  appears  to  throw  Jesus  forward 
among   stones   and    thistles ;   whilst    Simon,  of    Cyrene,    a 
benevolent  old  man,  is  in  the  act  of  taking  the  weight  of  the 
cross  from  his  shoulders.     Further  back,  on  one  side,  are  the 
centurion  and  soldiers,  and  on  the  other  the  Virgin  and  the 
friends  of  Jesus  :  behind  them  the  Thieves  are  being  led 
through  the  city-gate.     The  composition  bears  a  similarity, 
not  to  be  mistaken,  to  Raphael's  picture,  Lo  Spasimo  di 
Sicilia;  and  though -in  this  latter  work  we  acknowledge  the 
hand  of  a  more  matured  artist,  yet,  in  single  parts,  the  com- 
parison is  certainly  favourable  to  the  older  German  compo- 
sition.    The  figure  of  Christ,  particularly,  is  more  important, 
more  dignified,  and   more   decidedly  the   central   point   of 
interest  in  the  action.     Christ's  Descent  into  Hell  displays 
the  wildest   fancy   in   the   figures    of  the  demons,  perfect 
majesty  in  that  of  the  Redeemer,  and  excellent  drawing  of 
the  nude  in  the  figures  of  those  released.     The  Body  of 
Christ  taken  down  from  the  Cross,  and  mourned  over  by  his 
followers,  is   a   composition   which   may  unhesitatingly  be 
placed  by  the  side  of  the  most  profound  works  of  the  great 
Italian  masters.     The  most  perfect  grouping  is  made  consist- 
ent with  the  greatest  simplicity  of  design;   and,  however 
indifferently  the  engraver  has  executed  his  part,  the  varied 
expression  of  the  single  figures,  and  the  peculiar  grace  of  the 
lines  and  movements,  cannot  be  concealed.     When  we  look 
at  such  works  we  easily  comprehend  why  the  later  Italians 
valued  Albert  Durer's  compositions  so  highly,  and  how  it  was 
that  a  translation  of  them,  as  it  were,  into  Italian  was  so 
much  desired. 

The  Lesser  Passion. — Of  this  series  the  most  beautiful 
compositions  are — Christ  taking  leave  of  his  Mother ;  distin- 


164  THE  FEANCONIAN  SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

guished  by  the  dignity  and  beauty  of  the  drapery.  Christ 
washing  the  feet  of  his  disciples;  remarkable  for  the  ex- 
cellent and  simple  arrangement  of  a  large  number  of  figures 
in  a  small  space,  whilst  the  principal  group  in  the  foreground 
is  beautiful  and  full  of  feeling.  Christ  praying  on  the  Mount 
of  Olives, — which  is  extremely  simple,  and,  with  the  highest 
dignity  and  beauty,  full  of  the  most  profound  and  tender 
feeling.  Christ  appearing  to  his  Mother  in  her  chamber,  and 
to  Mary  Magdalen  as  the  gardener,  after  his  resurrection,  are 
both,  the  latter  particularly,  compositions  of  peculiar  grace 
and  simple  beauty. 

The  Life  of  the  Virgin. — The  leading  character  of  the  last- 
mentioned  works  is  grand  and  tragic ;  that  of  this  series  is 
graceful  and  pleasing.     In  these  we  are  introduced  into  the 
more  tender  relations  of  family  life,  where  the  master  shows 
a  refinement  of  amiable  feeling  in  which  he  has  few  equals. 
It  appears  almost  superfluous  to  enter  into  the  details  of  a 
work  so  well  known,  but  we  shall  briefly  notice  a  few  com- 
positions of  particular  beauty.     The  Golden  Gate — Joachi 
and  Anna  support  one  another,  after  their  mournful  sepan 
tion,  with  the  expectation  of  a  joyful  futurity;  the  former  it 
a  mild-looking,  aged  man — Anna  full  of  womanly  softness 
and  resignation.     In  the  background  the  steward  and  othc 
servants  of  Joachim,  who  had  come  to  welcome  their  lord, 
are  engaged  in  talking  over  the  event.     The  birth  of  tl 
Virgin — a  composition  of  the  most  attractive  na'ivett. 
scene  is  the  lying-in  chamber  of  a  Nuremberg  house,  with 
numerous  company  of  women  and  maidens,  offering  an  in- 
teresting comparison  with  Florentine  life,  in  similar  scenes, 
by  Ghirlandajo  and  others.     The  Circumcision : — this  subject 
frequently  so  disagreeable,  and  bordering,  even  in  the  hanc 
of  great  masters,  on  the  absurd,  here  offers  a  pleasing 
presentation  of  a  characteristic  national  custom.     Numeroi 
as  are  the  figures  in  this  composition,  nothing  is  superfluous 
each  seems  necessarily  and  individually  interested  in  th< 
action;  and  the  whole  is  formed  into  simple  and  nature 
groups.     The  Flight  into  Egypt : — in  contrast  to  the  Circui 
cision  the  space  is  here  skilfully  filled  up  with  few  figures 
the  pleasant  aspect  of  a  thick  and  fruitful  wood,  throsgl 


ADORATION   OF  THE    TRINITY. 
Painted  by  Albert  Durer.     Now  in  the  Belvedere  at  Vienna  pa&e  165. 


Chap.  VI.  ALEERJ  DURER.  165 

which  the  Holy  Family  are  journeying,  adds  to  the  charm  of 
this  attractive  subject.  The  Repose  in  Egypt : — a  courtyard, 
with  a  dwelling  built  into  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  palace ;  the 
Virgin,  with  a  spindle,  sits  beside  the  cradle ;  beautiful  angels 
worship  at  her  side  ;  Joseph  is  employed  in  carpenter's  work, 
with  a  number  of  little  angels,  who,  in  merry  sport,  assist 
him  in  his  labour.  This  is  a  scene  of  the  most  graceful  repose 
and  undisturbed  serenity.  The  Death  of  the  Virgin : — the 
perfect  composition,  simple  division  of  the  principal  groups, 
fine  forms,  and  deep  feeling,  combine  to  place  this  design 
very  high  amongst  the  works  of  Albert  Durer.  It  has  fre- 
quently been  copied  in  colours  by  his  followers ;  and,  in 
many  galleries,  pictures  of  this  kind  bear  his  name. 

There  are  also  other  woodcuts  by  the  master  inscribed  with 
the  date  1511,  such  as  the  well-known  and  grand  composition 
of  the  Trinity,  several  Holy  Families,  etc. 

Between  the  years  1507  and  1513,  but  principally  in  1512, 
were  executed  the  large  series  of  kmall  engravings  which  con- 
tain a  third  representation  of  the  Passion.  Among  these  are 
many  of  much  merit,  the  more  interesting  from  the  delicate 
execution  of  the  master's  own  hand  being  visible  throughout. 
In  order  not  to  weary  the  reader,  I  shall  refrain  from  going 
into  the  details  of  single  plates. 

To  this  fruitful  time,  1511,  belongs  also  one  of  his  most 
celebrated  pictures,  the  Adoration  of  the  Trinity,  see  wood- 
cut. It  was  painted  for  the  chapel  of  the  Landauer  Briider- 
haus,  in  Nuremberg,  whence,  like  many  of  his  works,  it  was 
removed  to  Prague,  where  it  was  presented  [April,  1585]1  to 
the  Emperor  Eodolph  II. ;  at  present  it  is  in  the  Belvedere 
at  Vienna.  Above,  in  the  centre  of  the  picture,  are  seen  the 
First  Person,  who  holds  the  Saviour  in  his  arms,  while  the 
Holy  Spirit  is  seen  above  ;  some  angels  spread  out  the  priestly 
mantle  of  the  Almighty,  whilst  others  hover  near  with  the  in- 
struments of  Christ's  Passion .  On  the  left  hand,  a  little  lower 
down,  is  a  choir  of  females  with  the  Virgin  at  their  head ; 
on  the  right  are  the  male  saints  with  St.  John  the  Baptist. 
Below  all  these  kneel  a  host  of  the  blessed,  of  all  ranks  and 

[1  See  Josef  Eaader's  Beitrage  sSr  EuastgescMchte  iTtirnbeige,  in 
Zahn's  '  Jahrbiicher,'  i.  224.] 


166  THE  FRANCONIAN  SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

nations,  extending  over  the  whole  of  this  part  of  the  picture. 
Underneath  the  whole  is  a  beautiful  landscape,  and  in  a 
corner  of  the  picture  the  artist  himself,  richly  clothed  in  a 
fur  mantle,  with  a  tablet  next  him,  with  the  words  "  Albertus 
Durer  Noricus  faciebat  anno  a  Virginis  partu,  1511."  The 
execution  here  also  is  masterly  and  of  exceeding  delicacy, 
but  again  with  the  same  glazing  of  the  colours.  The  cast  of 
the  drapery  is  in  general  grand ;  the  figures  in  the  Trinity 
are  dignified,  and  not  without  beauty.  In  other  parts  the 
picture  is  deficient  in  loftiness  of  conception,  and  a  few  only 
of  the  other  heads — that  of  David,  for  instance — can  be 
called  beautiful.  In  the  greater  number,  even  in  the  figures 
of  the  saints,  we  again  find  a  feeling  of  common  life,  border- 
ing on  caricature.  It  may  be  assumed  beyond  doubt  that  he 
held  in  particular  esteem  those  pictures  into  which  he  intro- 
duced his  own  portrait. 

In  the  Belvedere  is  a  picture  of  the  following  year,  1512, 
the  Virgin  holding  the  naked  Child  in  her  arms.  She  has  a 
veil  over  her  head,  and  blue  drapery.  Her  face  is  of  the 
form  usual  with  Albert  Durer,  but  of  a  soft  and  maidenly 
character ;  the  Child  is  beautiful — the  countenance  parti- 
cularly so.  It  is  painted  with  exceeding  delicacy  of  finish, 
but,  unfortunately,  with  grayish  shadows  in  the  flesh. 

[In  the  Trivulzi  collection  at  Milan  is  a  small  and  well- 
preserved  bust-figure  of  Christ  crowned  with  thorns,  with 
the  monogram  and  the  date  of  1514. *] 

A  series  of  his  pictures,  to  which  there  is  no  precise  date, 
may  be  mentioned  here,  sinc"e  the  greater  number  of  them 
must  belong  to  the  middle  period  of  the  artist's  career  : — 

A  Mater  Dolorosa,  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  Cabinets,  No. 
250,  standing  with  folded  hands,  is  beautiful,  simple,  and 
dignified.2 

The  Body  of  our  Lord  taken  down  from  the  Cross  and 
mourned  by  his  followers,  is  No.  191  in  the  Germanic  Museum 
at  Nuremberg.  It  was  originally  ordered  by  the  family  of 
Holzschuher  for  the  church  of  St.  Sebaldus ;  it  then  came 

1  [See  Handler's  '  Beitrage,'  n.  s.,  p.  30.] 

2  [This  picture  was  painted  by  an  imitator  of  Durer,  and  the  mono- 
gram as  well  as  the  date  is  false.] 


THE   KNIGHT,  DEATH,  AND  THE  DEVIL. 
An  Engraving  by  Albert  Durer. 


page  1(57. 


Chap.  VI.  ALBERT  DURER.  167 

into  the  possession  of  the  Peller  family,  and  at  a  later  period 
into  the  Boisseree  Gallery.  The  composition  consists  of 
numerous  figures,  beautifully  arranged,  particularly  the  dead 
body,  the  drawing  of  which,  though  stiff,  is  of  a  fine  cha- 
racter. There  is  no  great  depth  of  expression  in  the  heads  ; 
the  background  is  a  rich  mountain-landscape.  This  picture 
was  probably  executed  between  1515  and  1518.1  A  repeti- 
tion, which  is  in  the  original  place  in  St.  Sebaldus,  is  un- 
doubtedly an  old,  but  not  worthless  copy ;  the  colouring, 
particularly  in  the  body  of  Christ,  is,  however,  much  drier. 

The  portraits  of  the  Emperors  Charlemagne  and  Sigismund, 
in  the  castle  at  Nuremberg,  are  two  powerful  and  dignified 
figures,  executed  in  Albert  Durer's  forcible  outline  and  free 
painting.2 

A  portrait,  in  distemper,  of  Jacob  Fuggers,  in  the  Munich 
Gallery,  is  a  clever  picture,  No.  249. 3 

Some  engravings,  which  our  historical  survey  now  leads 
us  to  notice,  are  more  interesting  than  the  greater  part  of  the 
pictures  just  described. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  celebrated  plate  of  The  Knight, 
Death,  and  the  Devil,  inscribed  with  the  date  1513  (see 
woodcut).  I  believe  that  I  do  not  exaggerate  when  I 
particularize  this  print  as  the  most  important  work  which 
the  fantastic  spirit  of  German  Art  has  ever  produced.  The 
invention  may  be  ascribed  unreservedly  to  the  imagination 
of  the  master.  We  see  a  solitary  Knight  riding  through  a 
dark  glen ;  two  demons  rise  up  before  him,  the  most  fearful 
which  the  human  breast  can  conceive — the  personification  of 
thoughts  at  which  the  cheek  grows  pale— the  horrible  figure 
of  Death  on  the  lame  horse,  and  the  bewildering  apparition 
of  the  Devil.  But  the  Knight,  prepared  for  combat  wherever 
resistance  can  avail,  with  a  countenance  on  which  Time  has 
imprinted  his  furrows,  and  to  which  care  and  self-denial 
have  imparted  an  expression  of  deep  and  unconquerable 
determination,  looks  steadily  forward  on  the  path  which  he 
has  chosen,  and  allows  these  creations  of  a  delusive  dream 

1  '  Kiinstler  und  Kunstwerke  in  Deutschland,'  vol.  i.  p.  186. 

:  '  Kiinstler  und  Kunstwerke  in  Deutschlancl,'  vol.  i.,  p.  201,  etc. 

3  [This  is  a  clever  portrait,  but  not  by  Albert  Durer.} 


168  THE  FRANCONIAN  SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

to  sink  again  into  their  visionary  kingdom.  The  masterly 
execution  of  the  engraving  is  well  known. 

Several  excellent  plates  were  also  executed  by  Albert 
Durer  in  the  year  1514.  Of  these  we  may  first  name  his 
"Melancholy."  In  the  seated  figure  of  this  grand  winged 
woman,  absorbed  in  thought  (see  woodcut),  he  has  expressed, 
in  a  highly  original  and  intellectual  manner,  the  insufficiency 
of  the  human  reason,  either  to  explore  the  secrets  of  life, 
fortune,  and  science,  or  to  unravel  those  of  the  past.  Sym- 
bolical allusions  of  various  kinds  lie  around,  in  the  shape  of 
the  sphere,  the  book,  the  crystal  polygon,  the  crucible,  the 
bell,  the  hour-glass,  etc.,  with  many  implements  of  human 
activity,  such  as  the  plane,  the  hammer,  and  the  rule.  The 
intention  of  the  plate  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  grandly 
melancholy  character  of  the  landscape  background. 

A  perfect  contrast  to  the  Melancholy  is  to  be  found  in  its 
contemporary  print  of  St.  Jerome  in  his  study.  There,  too, 
we  see  the  figure  of  a  man  sunk  in  deep  thought,  and  a  chamber 
filled  with  various  apparatus.  The  whole  is  arranged  with 
the  most  ingenious  fancy,  but  pervaded  by  a  serenity  and 
grace  which  keep  aloof  all  the  dreams  and  visionary  forms 
created  by  the  imagination,  and  bring  before  us  the  simple 
reality  of  homely  life  in  its  most  pleasing  form.  Gerard 
Dow,  the  most  feeling  of  the  Dutch  genre-painters,  has  pro- 
duced nothing  so  pleasing  and  touching  as  this  print,  which, 
even  in  the  most  trifling  accessories,  bears  the  impress  of  a 
lofty  and  gentle  nature. 

After  the  year  1520  Albert  Durer  engraved  various  plates 
of  Madonnas  and  Apostles,  among  which  occur  additional 
examples  of  dignity  and  fine  feeling. 

The  largest  woodcut  executed  by  this  master  is  inscribed 
with  the  year  1515.  It  is  the  Triumphal  Arch  of  the  Em- 
peror Maximilian  :  a  strange  work,  with  an  endless  variety 
of  historical  representations,  portraits,  and  fanciful  ornaments. 
In  spite,  however,  of  the  immense  amount  of  details,  the 
effect  of  the  whole  is  very  stately.  To  the  architectural 
parts  the  artist  has  given  the  most  grotesque  and  fantastic 
forms,  yet  they  are  often  composed  with  singular  ingenuity 
and  skill :  this  applies  particularly  to  the  principal  columns. 


MELANCHOLY. 
Engraving  by  Albert  Durer. 


page  168. 


BOBBER  FROM  THE  PRAYER-BOOK  OF  MAXIMILIAN. 
Drawn  by  Albert  Durer.      In  the  Royal  Library,  Munich, 


page  169. 


BORDER  FROM   THE   PRAYER-BOOK  OF  MAXIMILIAN. 
Drawn  by  Albert  Durer.      In  the  Royal  Library,  Munich. 


page 


Chap.  VI.  ALBERT  DURER.  160 

which  are  arranged  in  pairs ;  their  composition  is  remarkable 
throughout  for  its  strict  consistency  and  its  reference  to  the 
office  assigned  to  them ;  they  have  not  the  weight  of  a  con- 
tinuous entablature  to  support,  but  in  reality  each  pair  only 
sustains  isolated  niches,  which  contain  statues.  The  orna- 
ments, taken  singly,  are  very  tasteful,  and  drawn  with 
much  force  and  spirit ;  the  series  of  portraits — which  repre- 
sent the  predecessors  and  ancestors  of  the  Emperor,  from 
Julius  Caesar  and  the  Merovingian  Clodovic,  with  all  his  kin- 
dred— is  very  remarkable  for  the  extraordinary  variety  and 
character  of  the  heads,  which  the  artist,  having  no  existing 
originals  to  work  from,  was  obliged  himself  to  invent.  The 
historical  representations  relate  to  the  most  brilliant  events 
of  the  Emperor's  life,  but  in  them  we  trace  the  hand  of  the 
imperial  historiographer  who  arranged,  rather  than  that  of 
the  artist  who  executed  them.  Very  few  of  these  composi- 
tions are  remarkable  for  the  qualities  which  we  look  for  in 
works  of  art,  yet  there  are  parts,  particularly  where  the 
action  consists  of  few  figures,  which  are  very  striking.  The 
whole  work  proves  in  a  brilliant  manner  the  singular  versa- 
tility of  this  master's  powers. 

In  the  year  1515  Albert  Durer  executed  also  the  celebrated 
borders  for  the  Prayer-book  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  see 
woodcuts,  now  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Munich.  In  these 
spirited  pen-and-ink  drawings  the  fancy  of  the  artist  revels 
in  perfect  liberty,  sometimes  serious  and  dignified,  sometimes 
gracefully  playful,  sometimes  humorous  and  gay.  Here 
his  task  was  not  to  represent  a  given  subject  of  particular 
depth  of  meaning,  but  merely  to  fill  up  tastefully  an  allotted 
space :  and  if  he  does  not  always  seem  to  keep  in  mind  the 
full  meaning  of  the  text  which  he  has  adorned  with  his 
arabesques,  still  the  play  of  fancy  is  neither  whimsical  nor 
extravagant,  the  humour  never  degenerates  into  vulgarity, 
as  is  often  the  case  in  this  kind  of  ornament ;  and  the  com- 
bined effect  makes  so  pleasing  an  impression  on  the  spec- 
tator that  criticism  is  content  to  be  silent. 

Two  of  his  pictures  in  the  Florentine  Gallery  of  the  Uffizj, 
which  represent  the  Apostles  Philip  and  James,  bear  the  date 
of  1516.  They  were  gifts  from  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  HI., 


170  THE  FRANCONLAN   SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  to  the  Duke  of 
Tuscany.  Both  are  painted  in  tempera,  and  powerfully 
modelled ;  the  character  is  forcible  and  energetic. 

Of  the  same  year  is  the  portrait  of  his  master,  Wohlge- 
muth,  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  Cabinets,  No.  243,  a  strangely 
sharp  and  bony  countenance.  It  is  of  masterly  painting,  in 
a  draughtsmanlike  style. 

The  fantastic  composition,  consisting  of  four  woodcuts  of 
a  pillar  on  which  a  Satyr  is  seated,  was  executed  in  1517. 

In  1518  occurs  the  charming  woodcut  of  the  Virgin  as 
Queen  of  Heaven,  surrounded  by  Angels. 

A  Lucretia,  the  size  of  life,  in  the  Munich  G-allery  (No. 
244),  was  taken  from  some  very  unattractive  original  in 
Nuremberg.  It  is,  however,  of  masterly  modelling  in  all 
parts,  and  worthy  of  Leonardo  da  Yinci. 

In  the  year  1519  Albert  Durer  executed  a  portrait  of  the 
Emperor  Maximilian;  a  half-length,  with  a  pomegranate, 
the  imperial  symbol,  in  the  left  hand.  It  is  in  the  Gallery 
of  the  Belvedere  in  Vienna.  The  conception  is  fine,  and  the 
execution,  in  a  warm  tone,  very  careful.  A  good  original 
repetition  was  in  the  collection  of  the  late  Lord  Northwick 
at  Thirlestain  Hall.1 

In  the  year  1520-21  he  undertook  a  journey  to  the  Nether- 
lands. His  journal  is  still  preserved,  and  tells  us  of  the 
great  honours  with  which  he  was  received  there  by  the 
native  artists.  He  appears  at  this  time  as  a  man  conscious 
of  his  long  and  ardent  labours,  and  anxious  to  derive  from 
those  labours  only  such  advantages  as  every  honourable  man 
must  wish  to '  enjoy.  This  journey,  however,  it  appears, 
must  have  exercised  an  important  influence  on  his  tendency 
in  art,  and  perhaps  opened  his  eyes  to  the  peculiarity  of  his 
manner.  There  are  at  least  changes  in  the  feeling  and  treat- 
ment visible  in  his  later  works,  and  Melancthon  tells  us, 
from  the  painter's  own  confession,  that  the  beauty  of  nature 
had  not  unfolded  itself  to  him  until  a  late  period ;  that  he 
had  then  only  learned  that  simplicity  is  the  greatest  charm 
of  art ;  that  he  sighed  over  the  motley  pictures  of  his  early 

1  *  Treasures  of  Art,'  etc.,  vol.  iii.  p.  210. 


from  Albert  Eurer's  Woodcut  of  the  "  CAR  OF  MAXIMILIAN,"  in  tlie  Biitieli  Museum. 

page  171. 


^   *3*i; 

/rcim  i-l's-rr1.  £urer  s  Woodcut  of  the  "  CAK  OF  MAXIMILIAN,"  in  the  British  Museut 


Chap.  VI.  ALBERT  DURER.  171 

days,  and  mourned  that  he  could  no  longer  hope  to  emulate 
the  great  prototype — Nature.1 

In  the  Gallery  of  the  Belvedere,  in  Vienna,  is  a  singular 
picture  by  Albert  Durer,  of  the  year  1520,  which  differs  in 
a  striking  manner  from  the  rest  of  his  works.  In  execution 
and  conception  it  bears  a  likeness,  not  to  be  mistaken,  to 
the  works  of  the  artists  of  the  Low  Countries  of  that  period, 
particularly  to  those  of  Quentin  Massys.  It  was  probably 
executed  whilst  he  was  on  the  journey,  under  the  influence 
of  the  new  objects  around  him.  The  subject  is  the  Virgin, 
a  half-length  figure  in  a  fur  mantle ;  the  Child,  naked,  with 
a  string  of  amber  round  his  neck,  is  on  her  lap ;  on  the 
green  table  before  her  lies  a  cut  lemon.  The  head  of  the 
Virgin  is  particularly  soft  and  mild ;  the  Child  is  not  remark- 
ably beautiful.2 

In  1522  he  published  the  series  of  woodcuts  which  form 
the  Triumphal  Car  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  see  wood- 
cuts. The  allegory  is  rather  pdor,  and  the  elaborate  orna- 
ments of  the  car  are  whimsical  and  even  tasteless ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  allegorical  female  figures,  despite  the  dis- 
agreeable crumpled  appearance  of  the  drapery,  display 
motives  of  extraordinary  beauty,  such  as  might  have  pro- 
ceeded from  the  graceful  simplicity  of  Eaphael.  This  cir- 
cumstance also  must  not  be  overlooked  with  reference  to  the 
change  in  the  tendency  of  Albert  Durer's  feeling  in  his  later 
time.8 

The  two  half-length  pictures  of  SS.  Joseph  and  Joachim, 
and  Simeon  and  Lazarus,  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  Cabinets, 

1  Memini  virum  excellentera  ingenio  et  virtute  Albertum  Durerum 
pictorem  dicere,  se  juvenem  floridas  et  maxime  varias  picturas  amasse, 
seque  admiratorem  suorum  operuin  valde  Isetatum  esse,  contemplatem 
hanc  varietatem  in  sua  aliqua  pictura.     Postea  se  senem  ccepisse  intueri 
Naturam,  et  illius  nativain  faciem  intueri  conatum  esse,  eamque  simpli- 
citatem  tune  iutellexisse  summuni  artis  decus  esse.     Quam  cum  non 
prorsus  adsequi  posset,  dicebat  se  jam  non  esse  admiratorem  operum 
suorum  ut  olirn,  sed  scepe  gemere  intuentem  suas  tabulas,  et  cogitantem 
de  infirmitate  sua.  Etc.     (Epistolae  Ph.  Melanchthonis,  etc.,  Ep.  47,  p. 
42  E.  apud  Epist.  D.  Erasmi  Roter.  et  Ph.  Melanch.  Londini,  1642,  fol.) 

2  [This  picture,  No.  20,  Room  I,  second  floor,  bears  a  false  signature 
and  date,  and  is  by  a  Fleming,  imitating  Durer.] 

8  [This  series  was  drawn  under  Durer's  supervision  by  his  assistants, 
amongst  others  by  Hans  von  Kulmbach,  in  1518.  See  Moriz  Thausing'b 
'Laurea,'  in  Zahn's  '  Jahrbiicher,'  ii.,  178.] 


172  THE   FRANCONIAN   SCHOOL.-  Book  III. 

245,  246,  are  of  the  year  1523.  They  formed  the  side- 
wings  of  an  altarpiece  [painted  for  the  Jabach  family  at 
Cologne,  the  outer  sides  of  which  are  in  the  Cologne  and 
Frankfort  galleries].1  The  colouring  is  beautiful,  the  ex- 
pression dignified,  but  they  are  not  essentially  different  from 
his  earlier  works. 

Scarce  as  are  the  genuine  pictures  by  Albert  Durer  in 
England,  I  may  observe  that  a  Nativity  by  him,  under  the 
erroneous  name  of  Herri  de  Bles — a  small  but  fine  picture 
[was  till  quite  lately]  in  the  collection  of  the  Marquis  of 
Exeter  at  Buiieigh  House. 

During  this  period  he  engraved  on  copper  those  remark- 
able portraits  of  his  celebrated  contemporaries — Cardinal 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  the  Elector  Frederick  the  Wise, 
Pirckheimer,  Melancthon,  Erasmus  of  Kotterdam,  and  others 
— which  are  distinguished  by  the  most  spirited  conception 
of  life,  as  well  as  by  an  execution  of  wonderful  delicacy. 
This  was  the  time  at  which  religious  discord  had  burst  over 
Germany,  and  when  Nuremberg  especially  was  severely 
visited  by  it :  consequently  the  desire  for  religious  works  of 
art  may  naturally  have  decreased.  It  is  probable,  however, 
that  Albert  Durer,  whose  mind  had  imbibed  the  new  doctrine 
with  the  deepest  devotion,  may  have  laboured  with  more 
satisfaction  in  the  province  of  every-day  life  than  in  many  of 
the  subjects  which  art  had  previously  treated.  We  are  in- 
debted, at  any  rate,  to  these  circumstances  for  a  series  of 
most  admirable  works,  which  without  them  would  probably 
never  have  been  called  into  existence. 

Three  excellent  portraits  in  oil  exist,  of  the  year  1526. 
One  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Belvedere,  at  Vienna,  represents 
a  citizen  of  Nuremberg,  John  Kleeberger :  it  is  a  pale,  manly 
head,  with  large  black  eyes,  altogether  of  a  peculiar  beauty ; 
the  nose  only  is  rather  small ;  the  shadows  are  unfortunately 
of  a  strong  gray  tone.  The  second,  once  in  the  possession  of 
the  Holzschuher  family,  [now  in  the  National  Museum 
at]  [Berlin],  represents  one  of  their  ancestors,  Jerome 

1  [Frankfort,  Stiidel,  No.  104  :  Job's  wife  pours  water  on  Job's  head. 
Cologne  Museum,  No.  8  :  A  piper  and  a  drummer.  The  centre  of  this 
altarpiece  is  missing.] 


THE   APOSTLES  MARK   AND  PAUL. 
By  Albert  Durer.     In  ths  Munich  Gallery. 


pajS-3  173 


Chap.  VI.  ALBERT  DURER. 


Holzschuher,  painted  at  the  age  of  fifty-seven.  The  expres- 
sion of  this  head  is  very  fine  and  dignified ;  the  eyes  are 
brilliant,  and,  notwithstanding  the  white  hair,  the  face 
appears  to  possess  the  vigour  of  youth.  Strictly  speaking, 
this  picture  is  painted  in  the  master's  thin  glazed  manner, 
but  it  is  extraordinarily  well  executed.  It  combines  the 
most  perfect  modelling  with  the  freest  handling  of  the 
colours,  and  is  certainly  the  most  beautiful  of  all  this  master's 
portraits,  since  it  plainly  shows  how  well  he  could  seize 
Nature  in  her  happiest  moments,  and  represent  her  with 
irresistible  power.  The  third  portrait  is  thaf  of  Jacob  Muffel, 
Burgomaster  of  Nuremberg,  for  a  long  time  in  the  collection 
of  Count  Schonborn  at  Pommersfelden,  near  Bamberg.  It  is 
truthfully  conceived,  and  of  masterly  modelling,  but  some- 
what heavy  and  gray  in  colour. 

[Of  1526  likewise  is  a  Madonna  at  the  Pitti,  of  a  less  pleasing 
character  than  any  that  was  ever  produced  by  Durer.] 

The  same  year,  1526,  was-  distinguished  by  the  two 
pictures,  corresponding  with  each  other,  of  the  four  Apostles, 
John  and  Peter,  Mark  and  Paul,  see  woodcut ;  the  figures 
are  the  size  of  life.  This,  which  is  the  master's  grandest 
work,  and  the  last  of  importance  executed  by  him,  is  now 
(Nbs.  247  and  248)  in  the  Munich  Gallery.  We  know  with 
certainty  that  it  was  presented  by  Albert  Durer  himself  to 
the  council  of  his  native  city  in  remembrance  of  his.  career 
as  an  artist,  and  at  the  same  time  as  conveying  to  his  fellow- 
citizens  an  earnest  and  lasting  exhortation  suited  to  that 
stormy  period.  In  the  year  1627,  however,  the  pictures 
were  allowed  to  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  Elector  Maxi- 
milian I.  of  Bavaria.  The  inscriptions  selected  by  the  painter 
himself  might  have  given  offence  to  a  Catholic  prince,  and 
were  therefore  cut  off  and  joined  to  the  copies  by  John 
Fischer,  which  were  intended  to  indemnify  the  city  of 
Nuremberg  for  the  loss  of  the  originals.  These  copies  are 
still  in  the  Germanic  Museum  at  Nuremberg. 

These  pictures  are  the  fruit  of  the  deepest  thought  which 
then  stirred  the  mind  of  Albert  Durer,  and  are  executed 
with  overpowering  force.  Finished  as  they  are,  they  form 
the  first  complete  work  of  art  produced  by  Protestantism. 


THE  FKANCONIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  IIL 

As  the  inscription,  taken  from  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  of 
the  Apostles,  contains  pressing  warnings  not  to  swerve  from 
the  word  of  God,  nor  to  believe  in  the  doctrines  of  false 
prophets,  so  the  figures  themselves  represent  the  steadfast 
and  faithful  guardians  of  that  holy  Scripture  which  they  bear 
in  their  hands.  There  is  also  an  old  tradition,  handed  down 
from  the  master's  own  times,1  that  these  figures  represent 
the  four  temperaments.  This  notion  is  confirmed  by  the 
pictures  themselves  ;  and  though,  at  first  sight,  it  may  appear 
to  rest  on  a  mere  accidental  combination,  it  serves,  in  truth, 
to  carry  out  more  completely  the  artist's  thought,  and  gives 
to  the  figures  greater  individuality.  It  shows  how  every 
quality  of  the  human  mind  may  be  called  into  the  service  of 
the  Divine  Word.  Thus,  in  the  first  picture,  we  see  the 
whole  force  of  the  mind  absorbed  in  contemplation,  and  we 
are  taught  that  true  watchfulness  in  behalf  of  the  Scripture 
must  begin  by  devotion  to  its  study.  St.  John  stands  in 
front,  the  open  book  in  his  hand ;  his  high  forehead  and  his 
whole  countenance  bear  the  impress  of  earnest  and  deep 
thought.  This  is  the  melancholic  temperament,  which  does 
not  shrink  from  the  most  profound  inquiry.  Behind  him  St. 
Peter  bends  over  the  book,  and  gazes  earnestly  at  its  con- 
tents ;  a  hoary  head  full  of  meditative  repose.  This  figure 
represents  the  phlegmatic  temperament,  which  reviews  its 
own  thoughts  in  tranquil  reflection.  The  second  picture 
shows  the  outward  operation  of  the  conviction  thus  attained 
and  its  relation  to  daily  life.  St.  Mark,  in  the  background, 
is  the  man  of  sanguine  temperament ;  he  looks  boldly  round, 
and  appears  to 'speak  to  his  hearers  with  animation,  earnestly 
urging  them  to  share  those  advantages  which  he  has  himself 
derived  from  the  holy  Scriptures.  St  Paul,  on  the  contrary, 
in  the  foreground  holds  the  book  and  sword  in  his  hands  ;  he 
looks  angrily  and  severely  over  his  shoulder,  ready  to  defend 
the  Word,  and  to  annihilate  the  blasphemer  with  the  sword 
of  God's  power.  He  is  the  representative  of  the  choleric 
temperament.  Then  what  masterly  finish  there  is  in  the 
execution !  such  as  is  only  suited  to  a  subject  of  such  sub- 

1  Neudorffer,  '  Nachrichten,  n.  s.,  p.  37. 


Chap.  VI.  ALBERT  DURER.  175 

lime  meaning.  What  dignity  and  sublimity  pervade  these 
heads  of  varied  character !  What  simplicity  and  majesty 
in  the  lines  of  the  drapery  !  What  sublime  and  statue- 
like  repose  in  their  movements  !  Here  we  no  longer  find 
any  disturbing  element :  there  are  no  small  angular  breaks 
in  the  folds,  no  arbitrary  or  fantastic  features  in  the  coun- 
tenance, or  even  in  the  fall  of  the  hair.  The  colouring, 
too,  is  perfect :  true  to  nature  in  its  power  and  warmth. 
There  is  scarcely  any  trace  of  the  bright  glazing,  or  of 
those  sharply-defined  forms,  but  everywhere  a  free,  pure 
impasto.  Well  might  the  artist  now  close  his  eyes.  He  had 
in  this  picture  attained  the  summit  of  art :  here  he  stands 
side  by  side  with  the  greatest  masters  known  in  history. 

Albert  Durer  died,  as  we  saw,  in  1528.  I  know  of  no  im- 
portant work  of  a  later  date  than  that  just  described.  His 
portrait,  in  a  woodcut  of  the  year  1527,  represents  him 
earnest  and  serious  in  demeanour,  as  would  naturally  follow 
from  his  advancing  age  and  the*  pressure  of  eventful  times. 
His  head  is  no  longer  adorned  with  those  richly-flowing 
locks,  on  which,  in  his  earlier  days,  he  had  set  so  high  a 
value,  as  we  learn  from  his  pictures  and  from  jests  still 
recorded  of  him.  That  excellence  to  which  he  had  raised 
German  art  in  his  last  master-work  passed  away  with  him, 
and  centuries  saw  no  sign  of  its  revival.1 

A  large  number  of  pictures  in  galleries  and  private  collec- 
tions throughout  Europe  bearing  the  name  of  Albert  Durer 
are  here  purposely  omitted,  owing  to  the  number  of  painters, 
often  of  no  mean  technical  merit,  but  of  no  power  of  inven- 
tion, who  executed  pictures  from  the  engravings  and  woodcuts 
of  this  great  master,  which  are  systematically  given  out  for 
his  original  works.  No  man  has  had  so  many  pictures 
erroneously  assigned  to  him  as  Albert  Durer. 

1  Among  the  drawings  in  the  collection  of  the  Archduke  Charles  of 
Austria  there  is  a  study  of  drapery  for  the  figure  of  St.  Paul,  executed  so 
early  as  1523.  This  and  three  other  finely-draped  figures  in  the  same 
collection,  and  of  the  same  year,  are  beautifully  rendered.  Hence  it  is 
evident  that,  directly  after  the  journey  to  the  Netherlands,  Albert  Durer 
endeavoured  to  lay  aside  his  capricious  style  in  the  cast  of  his  drapery, 
and  was  eager  to  adopt  one  more  grand  and  noble,  and  grounded  upou 
the  study  of  Nature. 


176  THE  FRANCONIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  IIL 

His  scholars  and  followers  imbibed,  as  was  often  the  case 
in  other  schools,  the  external  characteristics  of  his  manner, 
particularly  the  peculiar  motives  of  his  drawing,  without  in 
general  catching  the  profound  spirit  of  their  master.  But 
even  among  them  the  fantastic  principle  of  art,  in  particular 
instances,  was  carried  out  with  wonderful  success.  Most  of 
these  artists,  like  himself,  are  known  both  as  painters  and 
engravers,  and  many  of  their  designs  exist  also  in  woodcuts. 

One  of  the  most  pleasing  of  Albert  Durer's  scholars  is 
HANS  VON  KULMBACH,  whose  name  was  HANS  WAGNER,  died 
1540,  and  who  came  to  him  from  the  school  of  Jacob  Walch.1 
Upon  the  whole,  he  adheres  faithfully  to  the  style  of  Albert 
Durer ;  but,  while  far  below  him  in  power  of  conception,  he 
surpasses  him  in  taste  and  pure  feeling  for  nature.  He  is 
also  more  equal  in  warmth  and  harmony  of  colour. 

[Hans  von  Kulmbach  was  an  assistant  to  Durer  for  many 
years  after  his  matriculation.  Von  Liitzow  describes  an 
Epiphany,  with  the  date  of  1511,  belonging  to  Mr.  Lippman, 
at  Vienna,  which  shows  that  Hans  was  at  that  time  an  inde- 
pendent master;  whilst  Thausing  proves  that  he  was  in 
Durer's  atelier  between  1511  and  1513,  as  well  as  in  1518.]2 

Among  his  numerous  pictures  preserved  in  Nuremberg  are 
two  remarkable  panels,  Nos.  195-9  in  the  Germanic  Museum 
— wing-pictures,  with  figures  of  saints — one  of  which, 
especially,  is  very  clever.  In  St.  Sebaldus,  also,  there  is  a 
very  remarkable  large  picture.  It  consists  of  three  panels  : 
in  the  centre  one  is  the  Virgin  enthroned  with  the  Child,  and 
angels  bearing  musical  instruments ;  SS.  Catherine  and 
Barbara  stand'  beside  them ;  other  saints,  and  the  kneeling 
figure  of  the  donor,  Lawrence  Tucher,  are  on  the  side  pictures, 
It  is  in  every  respect  the  master-piece  of  this  painter.3  In 

1  [See  Neudorffer,  n.  s.,  p.  36.] 

2  [See  '  Zeitschrift  fur  bildende  Kunst,'  vi.,  329,  and  Zahn's  '  Jahr- 
biicher,'  ii,  178  and  180.] 

3  Notwithstanding  Sandrart's  assertion  that  lie  possessed   Durer's 
design  for  the  picture,  I  find  the  composition  so  different  from  him,  that 
I  believe  the  whole  belongs  to  Kulmbach.  Compare  '  Kunst  und  Kunstler 
in  Deutschland/  vol.  i.  p.  231.    [Yet  Durer's  drawing  of  the  centre  of  this 
altarpiece  is  in  the  Berlin  Museum ;  it  bears  Durer's  monogram  and  the 
date  of  1511.     See  Thausing's  'Laurea,'  etc.,  in  Zahn's  '  Jahrbiicher,  * 
ii.,  179.] 


Chap.  VI.  HANS    SCHAUFFELIN.  177 

the  Munich  Gallery,  Nos.  254-5  and  258-9,  there  are- 
pictures  by  Hans  von  Kulmbach  of  beautiful  and  brilliant 
effect,  with  very  excellent  single  parts,  the  subjects  being 
chiefly  portrait-figures  of  saints,  viz.,  Joseph,  Zachariah,  and 
Joachim.  In  the  monastery  of  Heilsbronn,  between  Anspach 
and  Nuremberg,  there  are  some  pleasing  figures  of  saints 
by  his  hand. 

[In  the  St.  Gumpertus  Kirche,  at  Anspach,  we  find  Kulm- 
bach's  altarpiece  representing  the  Trinity,  with  the  Virgin 
and  angels,  the  patron  Mattias  von  Gulpen,  and  St.  Peter.  It 
was  executed  to  an  order  sent  to  Durer.]1 

HEINRICH  ALDEGKEVER,  born  at  [Paderborn  about  1502,  still 
living  at  Soest  in  1555],2  is,  as  a  painter,  a  less  important 
master.  Pictures  by  him  are  very  rare,  but  he  was  a  very 
clever  engraver.  [Most  authentic  is  his  picture  of  Christ  sit- 
ting on  his  tomb  (1529)  in  the  Museum  at  Prague.]  A  Last 
Judgment,  in  the  Berlin  Gallery,  deserves  notice.  The  upper 
group,  of  Christ  with  the  Virgin  and  John  the  Baptist,  is  very 
peculiar ;  their  draperies  are  agitated  by  the  storm  of  the 
Last  Day.  The  angels  with  the  trumpets,  and  the  fantastic 
figures  of  the  demons  among  the  damned,  are  of  merit.  The 
host  of  naked  figures  of  the  dead  who  have  risen  are  certainly 
very  drily  painted,  yet  there  is  something  striking  in  their 
solemn  measured  movements.  The  saints  in  the  foreground 
also  are  dignified  figures.  The  portraits  of  the  donors  are 
full  of  life.  A  clever  portrait  of  a  youth  is  in  the  Lichtenstein 
Gallery  at  Vienna  [dated  1544] ;  another,  of  an  older  man 
(1551),  in  the  Museum  at  Berlin  ;  [yet  another  of  1541,  in  the 
Brunswick  Museum,  and  one  of  Count  Philip  of  Waldeck, 
dated  1535,  in  the  Art  Union  of  Breslau.] 

Numerous  pictures  by  HANS  SCHAUFFELIN,  died  1549,  are 
dispersed  in  various  places.  He  was  a  clever  and  dexterous 
artist,  who  imitated  the  manner  of  his  master,  and,  in  his 
best  pictures,  successfully.  But  he  is  very  unequal,  and 
many  of  his  works  are  very  slight  productions.  Among  his 
paintings  preserved  in  Nuremberg,  a  St.  Bridget,  in  the 
[Germanic  Museum],  appeared  to  me  to  deserve  most  notice : 

1  [Consult  Zabn's  '  Jahrbiicher,'  i.  21,  361,  and  ii.  181.] 
*  [See  A.  Woltmann  in  Meyer's  Allgemeines  '  Kunst  Lexikon.'] 

12 


180  THE   FRANCONIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

cleverest  examples  art  has  preserved  to  us  of  the  manners 
and  customs  of  that  time. 

[ALBEET  ALTDOEFEE  was  born  before  1488,  and  settled  at 
Regensburg,  where  he  purchased  the  citizenship  in  1505, 
and  died  in  1538.]1  He  is  one  of  the  most  important  and 
original  of  all  Albert  Durer's  scholars  and  imitators.  He 
seized  the  fantastic  tendency  of  the  time  with  a  poetic  feel- 
ing at  once  rich  and  pleasing,  and  he  developed  it  so  as  to 
attain  a  perfection  in  this  sort  of  romantic  painting,  such  as 
no  other  artist  has  ever  reached.  In  general  he  knows  so 
well  how  to  give  to  his  representations  the  peculiar  charm 
of  the  fabulous,  and  sets  before  the  spectator  what  is  mar- 
vellous in  nature  in  such  fulness,  that  we  willingly  give 
ourselves  up  to  his  magic  influence,  and,  stopping  short  on 
the  way  to  the  highest  perfection,  we  repose  with  pleasure 
among  these  graceful  dreams.  As  a  draughtsman  he  displayed 
no  great  force,  and  is  frequently  deficient  in  good  taste  ;  he 
is,  howrever,  an  excellent  colourist.  In  his  later  period  he 
was  strongly  influenced  by  Italian  art.  Altdorfer's  [earliest 
work  is  a  Crucifixion,  dated  1506,  "No.  213  in  the  Germanic 
Museum  at  Nuremberg;  the  next  earliest  (1507),  a  small 
picture  of  St.  Francis  and  St.  Jerome,  in  the  Berlin  Museum. 
Next  to  these  is  a  landscape,  dated  1510  (No.  288  in  the 
Munich  Gallery),  in  which  St.  George  fights  with  the  Dragon. 
Altdorfer's  best  and  most  celebrated  picture]  is  in  the 
Munich  Gallery,  Cabinets,  No.  290.  "It  represents  the 
Victory  of  Alexander  the  Great  over  Darius,  [and  was  painted 
in  1529  for  Duke  William  IV.  of  Bavaria.]  The  costume  is 
that  of  the  artist's  own  day,  as  it  would  be  treated  in  the 
chivalrous  poems  of  the  middle  ages — man  and  horse  are 
sheathed  in  plate  and  mail,  with  surcoats  of  gold  or  em- 
broidery ;  the  chanfrons  upon  the  heads  of  the  horses,  the 
glittering  lances  and  stirrups,  and  the  variety  of  the  weapons, 
form  altogether  a  scene  of  indescribable  splendour  and 
richness.  There  is  no  blood  or  other  disgusting  object — no 
scattered  limbs  or  distortions  deform  this  picture  ; — only  in 
the  immediate  foreground,  if  we  examine  very  closely,  we 


[See  C.  W.  Neumann  in  Meyer's  Lexikon,  i.  540.] 


Chap.  VI.  ALBERT   ALTDORFER.  181 

see  under  the  feet  of  the  charging  hosts,  and  the  hoofs  of 
their  war-horses,  several  lines  of  bodies  lying  closely  to- 
gether, as  in  a  web,  forming  as  it  were  a  groundwork  to 
this  world  of  war  and  arms — of  dazzling  weapons  and  of  still 
brighter  fame  and  chivalry.  It  is,  in  truth,  a  little  world  on 
a  few  square  feet  of  canvas ;  the  hosts  of  combatants,  who 
advance  on  all  sides  against  each  other,  are  innumerable, 
and  the  view  into  the  background  appears  interminable.  In 
the  distance  is  the  ocean,  with  high  rocks,  and  a  rugged 
island  between  them  ;  ships  of  war  appear  in  the  offing,  and 
a  whole  fleet  of  vessels — on  the  left  the  moon'is  setting — on 
the  right  the  sun  rising ;  both  shining  through  the  opening 
clouds — a  clear  and  striking  image  of  the  events  represented. 
The  armies  are  arranged  in  rank  and  column,  without 
the  strange  attitudes,  contrasts,  and  distortions,  generally 
exhibited  in  so-called  battle-pieces.  How  indeed  would  this 
have  been  possible  with  such  a  vast  multitude  of  figures  ? 
The  whole  is  in  the  plain  and  severe,  or  it  may  be  the  stiff", 
manner  of  the  old  style.  At  the  same  time,  the  character 
ind  execution  of  these  little  figures  is  most  masterly  and 
profound.  And  what  variety,  what  expression  there  is,  not 
merely  in  the  character  of  the  single  warriors  and  knights, 
but  in  the  hosts  themselves  !  Here  crowds  of  black  archers 
rash  down,  troop  after  troop,  from  the  mountain  with  the 
rage  of  a  foaming  torrent ;  on  the  other  side,  high  upon,  the 
rocks  in  the  far  distance,  a  scattered  crowd  of  flying  men 
ire  turning  round  in  a  defile.  The  point  of  the  greatest 
interest  stands  out  brilliantly  from  the  centre  of  the  whole, — 
Alexander  and  Darius,  both  in  armour  of  burnished  gold : 
^exander,  on  Bucephalus,  with  his  lance  in  rest,  advances 
'ar  before  his  men,  and  presses  on  the  flying  Darius,  whose 
iharioteer  has  already  fallen  on  his  white  horses,  and  who 
ooks  back  upon  his  conqueror  with  all  the  despair  of  a 
vanquished  monarch."1  It  may  moreover  be  remarked  that 
he  landscape  rivals  the  works  of  the  contemporary  Nether- 
anders,  Patenier  and  others,  or  rather  it  surpasses  them  in 
ruth  and  grandeur.  A  rocky  mountain  in  the  centre  of  the 

1  Werke  von  Friedrich  Schlegel,  Wien,  1828,  vol.  vi.,  p.  166. 


182  THE  FRANCONIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  III 

picture,  with  beautiful  hanging  woods,  is  particularly  good  , 
above  is  a  castle  and  a  path  leading  to  it  ;  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain,  a  ruin  illuminated  by  the  setting  sun.  This  rum 
is  painted  with  so  true  a  feeling  for  the  beauties  of  nature, 
that  a  power  of  such  high  order  would  of  itself  have  qualified 
the  artist  for  the  most  masterly  productions.  A  fine  land- 
scape in  the  Germanic  Museum  at  Nuremberg  shows  him 
to  have  been  the  creator  of  landscape-painting  in  Germany. 

Another  picture  by  this  artist,  in  the  Munich  Gallery, 
Cabinets,  No.  289,  is  inscribed  with  his  monogram  and  the 
date  1526.  It  represents  the  history  of  Susanna.  The 
garden  with  the  bath,  on  the  left,  and  a  mass  of  varied 
architecture  on  the  right,  make  up  a  rich  and  fanciful 
composition. 

There  is  a  good  picture  from  the  hand  of  this  master 
in  the  Germanic  Museum  at  Nuremberg,  representing  a 
man  and  two  women  occupied  in  drawing  the  body  of  St. 
Quirinus  out  of  the  water,  and,  in  fact,  forms  a  well-arranged 
genre  scene.  The  thickly-covered  banks  of  the  river  are 
another  instance  of  his  happy  conception  of  nature.  The 
light  of  the  setting  sun — a  golden  tint  surrounded  by  a  circle 
of  clouds,  melting  away  into  shades  of  red — is  full  of  imagi- 
nation. A  chef-d'oeuvre  of  the  master  is  an  altarpiece  with 
wings,  in  the  Augsburg  Gallery,  executed  in  1517.  The 
interior  pictures  represent  the  Crucifixion,  the  exterior  the 
Annunciation.  This  latter  subject  exhibits  capital  figures, 
and  fine  features  and  expression.1 

Another  picture  by  him,  a  Nativity  of  the  Virgin,  shows 
him  to  be  a  skilful  architectural  painter  as  regards  lines  and 
aerial  perspective.  It  is  in  the  same  gallery.2 

Among  the  pictures  by  this  master  at  Kegensburg,  an 
Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,  in  the  collection  of  the  Historical 
Society,  is  remarkable  for  its  dramatic  character.3 

I  know  of  but  one  picture  by  him  in  England,  of  large 
size,  in  the  J.  F.  Russell  collection  [now  dispersed].  It 
represents  the  Saviour  taking  leave  of  his  Mother,  and  is 

1  '  Kunst  und  Kiinstler  in  Deutschland.'  vol.  ii.  p.  88.  etc. 

2  Ibid.  p.  38,  etc. 

3  Ibid.  p.  123. 


Chap.  VI.         MARTIN  FESELE — GEORGE   PENCZ.  183 

remarkable  for  its  powerful  colouring,  and  for  the  developed 
character  of  the  landscape.1  [There  were  once  two  character- 
istic panels  by  him  in  the  Lippmann  collection ,  j-  Vienna.] 

The  engravings  by  Altdorfer  are  not  inferior  to  his  paint- 
ings in  invention  and  clever  execution ;  [some  of  the  buildings 
which  he  planned  after  his  appointment  to  the  office  of  town 
architect  at  Regensburg  are  still  in  existence,  and  German 
patriots  may  still  boast  that  his  fortifications  made  the  city  of 
his  adoption  an  effectual  bulwark  against  the  Turks  (1529).2] 

A  master-work  of  such  interest  as  Altdorfer's  Battle  of 
Alexander  naturally  produced  many  imitations.  Thus,  in 
the  Munich  Gallery,  there  is  a  picture  by  MARTIN  FESELE, 
of  about  1530,  of  which  the  subject  is  the  siege  of  Rome 
under  Porsenna.  This  composition  possesses  the  same 
richness,  and  the  figures  are  as  fine  and  evince  as  much  taste 
as  those  in  Altdorfer's  picture,  but  it  is  inferior  to  the  latter 
work  in  poetic  feeling.3 

GEORGE  PENCZ,  born  at  Nuremberg  1500,  died  at  Breslau 
1550.  This  painter  was  one  of  Albert  Durer's  most  gifted 
scholars,  combining  excellent  drawing,  and  clear,  warm,  and 
vigorous  colouring,  with  a  felicitous  power  of  conception,  and 
a  decided  feeling  for  beauty.  Later  in  life  he  went  to  Italy, 
where  he  zealously  studied  the  works  of  Raphael,  without 
however  degenerating  into  the  tasteless  and  mistaken  manner 
of  most  of  the  Netherlandish  and  German  painters  who 
attempted  to  Italianize  their  style.4  On  the  contrary,  he 
never  departed  from  his  own  original  feeling,  but  only  gave 
a  higher  character  to  the  taste  of  his  compositions  and  to  his 
drawing.  In  the  art  of  engraving,  where  he  occupies  the 
first  place  among  Albert  Durer's  followers,  he  also  attained 

1  See  'Treasures,'  etc.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  463,  where  the  picture  is  erroneously 
attributed  to  Albert  Durer. 

2  [Neumann,  u.  s.  Erhart  Altdorfer,  Albrecht's  brother,  was  court 
painter  at  Schwerin  ;  but  his  pictures  are  all  missing.] 

3  [Fesele,  Hans  Burgkmair,    and   G.  Bren  were    all   employed    by 
William  IV.  of  Bavaria  to  paint  the  series  of  which  Altdorfer's  battle 
is  one.] 

4  [George  Pencz  cannot  be  acquitted  of  the  charge  of  Italianizing  his 
style,  nor  is  it  quite  correct  to  confine  his  studies  in  Italy  to  the  works 
of  Raphael.     He  looked  at  many  painters  in  Italy,  and  particularly  at 
the  Venetians,  as  we  see  by  a  portrait  at  the  Uffizi,  dated  1544,  erroneously 
supposed  to  be  his  own  likeness.] 


184  THE  FRANCONIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  III. 


such  perfection  under  the  guidance  of  Marc"  Antonio  as 
closely  to  approach  the  great  Italian  in  several  plates.  In 
the  great  rarity  of  his  historical  pictures,  we  can  only  judge 
from  his  engravings  of  the  success  with  which  he  treated 
"both  sacred  and  profane  history,  allegory  and  mythology, 
scenes  from  common  life,  and  the  department  of  ornamenta- 
tion. And  a  number  of  portraits  still  existing  serve  to  show 
that  for  animation  of  conception,  excellent  drawing  and 
modelling,  and  warm  transparent  colouring,  he  was  one  of 
the  first  German  painters  in  this  line. 

An  historical  picture  in  his  German  manner  is  a  St.  Jerome, 
in  the  Germanic  Museum  at  Nuremberg.  It  is  a  capital 
work;  at  the  same  time  I  am  inclined  to  attribute  the 
original  invention,  which  has  been  repeated  by  several 
painters,  to  Quentin  Massys. 

An  excellent  picture,  in  his  Italian  manner,  is  Yenus  and 
Cupid,  in  the  gallery  of  Schleissheim.  It  is  graceful,  pure 
in  form,  and  well  modelled.  The  following  are  masterly 
portraits  by  him  : — a  young  man,  No.  585,  and  the  painter 
Schwetzer  and  his  wife,  Nos.  582  and  587,  in  the  Berlin 
Museum ;  General  Sebaldus  Schirmer,  No.  257  in  the  Ger- 
manic Museum  at  Nuremberg ;  and  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam, 
after  Holbein,  at  Windsor  Castle.  Amongst  the  engravings 
by  Pencz,  a  series  of  plates  from  the  history  of  Tobit  are 
remarkable  for  beautiful  and  tender  feeling.  They  combine, 
very  happily  and  simply,  the  German  homeliness  and  naivete 
of  conception  with  that  higher  grace  which  may  be  considered 
as  an  inheritance  from  Eaphael.  What  he  also  accomplished 
as  an  engraver  in  the  way  of  portraits  is  proved  by  that  of 
the  Elector  John  Frederick  the  Generous,  of  Saxony.  How 
entirely  he  had  adopted  the  manner  of  Marc  Antonio  is  seen 
in  his  large  plate  of  the  Taking  of  Carthage,  from  a  drawing 
by  Julio  Romano,  the  only  instance  in  which  he  did  not  work 
from  his  own  compositions. 

JACOB  BINK  was  born  at  Cologne  either  1490  or  1504. 
Judging  from  his  engravings,  he  must  have  formed  himself 
from  Albert  Durer  ;  he  also  studied  in  Italy.  Further  than 
this  we  know  nothing  of  his  life,  except  that  he  was  in  the 
service  of  the  King  of  Denmark  as  a  portrait-painter  previous 


Chap.  VI.  GEORGE  GlyOCKENTHON.  185 

to  the  year  1546  j1  that  he  spent  some  time  at  Konigsberg,  at 
the  court  of  Albrecht  of  Hohenzollern,  Duke  of  Prussia,  and 
was  sent  by  that  prince,  in  1549,  to  the  Netherlands,  for  the 
purpose  of  erecting  a  monument  to  the  duke's  late  wife  ; 
that  he  entered  regularly  into  his  service  in  1551,  and  died 
at  Konigsberg  about  the  year  1560.  It  is  singular  that  no 
historical  picture  by  him  is  known;  also  of  the  portraits 
-attributed  to  him  I  have  seen  only  the  one  in  the  gallery  at 
Vienna.  It  is  of  energetic  conception  and  delicate  drawing, 
and  of  cool  but  harmonious  colouring.  In  the  Garderobe  at 
Copenhagen  are  preserved,  as  I  understand,  portraits  by  him 
-of  Christian  III.  of  Denmark,  and  of  his  Queen  Dorothea ; 
in  that  of  Konigsberg,  those  of  Duke  Albrecht,  of  the  duke's 
first  wife,  and  of  the  Chancellor  Fries,  dated  1549.  His 
-engravings  are  very  unequal  in  merit.2  The  best  of  them 
give  evidence  of  a  first-rate  artist,  who,  like  Pencz,  succeeded 
in  combining  German  feeling  and  treatment  with  the  nobler 
forms  and  purer  taste  of  the  Italians,  and  who  treated  sub- 
jects of  the  most  various  kinds  with  no  common  excellence. 
The  following  are  among  his  best  plates  :  Christ  with  the 
Woman  of  Samaria  (Bartsch,  No.  12) ;  the  Virgin  (No.  20) ; 
the  portraits  of  Christian  II.,  King  of  Denmark,  and  Elizabeth 
•his  queen  (Nos.  91,  92) ;  and  the  portrait  of  himself.  He 
ulso  frequently  copied  the  works  of  other  engravers. 

The  style  of  Albert  Durer,  as  may  be  easily  supposed;  was 
-also  variously  called  into  practice  in  the  form  of  miniature- 
.painting  ;  in  Nuremberg  especially,  by  the  numerous  family 
of  Glockenthon,  among  whom  GEORGE  GLOCKENTHON  the 
elder,  born  1492,  died  1553,  and  his  son  NICHOLAS,  died 
1560,  were  the  most  distinguished.3  A  missal  and  a  prayer- 
book,  with  miniatures  by  the  son,  executed  for  Albrecht, 
Archbishop  of  Mayence,  for  the  first  of  which  the  artist  re- 
ceived five  hundred  florins,  is  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Asch- 

1  [Jacob  Bink's  portraits  of  Christian  and  his  Queen  are  engraved  with 
.the  date  of  1525.] 

2  See  Bartsch,  '  Le  Peintre  Graveur,'  vol.  viii.,  p.  149,  etc.,  for  an 
account  of  this  master,  and  of  the  engravings  and  woodcuts  justly  attri- 
buted to  him. 

3  See  Johann  Neudorfer's  '  Nachrichten  alten  Kiinfjtlern  in  Niirnberg, 
•Campe,'  p.  41,  etc. 


186  THE  FRANCONIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  IIL 

affenburg.  He  appears  there  as  an  artist  of  first-rate  technical 
attainments,  but  of  feeble  powers  of  invention  and  uncertain 
drawing.1 

At  this  time  there  was  also  another  painter,  living 
in  the  northern  part  of  Franconia,  who  occupied  an  in- 
dependent position  by  the  side  of  Albert  Durer  and  his 
school.  This  was  [MATHIAS  GRUNEWALD,  of  Aschaffen- 
burg,  respecting  whom  very  contradictory  accounts  are 
found  in  art  history.  About  1518,  if  we  believe  certain- 
modern  authorities,  he  received  a  commission  to  paint- 
an  altarpiece  for  St.  Maurice  of  Halle  from  Albert  of 
Brandenburg,  Archbishop  of  Mayence,  who  after  war  dj 
caused  the  picture  to  be  transferred  to  the  church  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Alexander  of  Aschaffenburg.  The 
altarpiece,  which  bears  the  date  of  1529,  came  in  course- 
of  time  into  the  gallery  of  the  last-named  city,  and 
(with  the  exception  of  a  figure  of  Saint  Valentinian) 
was  transferred  in  1836  to  the  gallery  of  Munich.  The 
centre  picture,  No.  281,  represents  the  Conversion  of 
St.  Maurice  by  St.  Erasmus — the  latter  being  a  portrait 
of  the  Archbishop ; — and  the  wings  contain  figures  of 
St.  Mary  Magdalen,  No.  282,  St.  Lazarus,  No.  283, 
St.  Chrysostom,  No.  284,  and  St.  Martha,  No.  285.  It 
has  been  thought  that  these  pictures  display  such  a 
variety  of  style  as  might  point  to  the  existence  of  a 
master  assisted  by  a  journeyman,  such  as  Cranacli. 
Waagen  justly  said,  "the  figures  are  colossal,  drawn  with 
great  mastery,  and  of  earnest,  dignified,  and  grandly 
individual  character." 

Taking  this  altarpiece  as  a  test-picture,  critics  have 
assigned  to  its  author  two  large  triptychs  in  the  church  of 
Annaberg  in  Saxony,  an  altar-shrine  in  the  monastery  of 
Heilbronn,  and  several  pieces  in  the  museums  of  Mayence, 
Darmstadt,  Aschaffenburg,  Berlin,  and  Vienna;  and,  judging 
of  the  painter's  style  from  his  execution  of  these  works 
they  conclude  that  Grunewald  was  a  Saxon,  and  teacher 
Lucas  Cranach. 

1  'Kunst  und  Kiinstler  in  Deutschland,'  vol.  ii.,  p.  382,  etc. 


Chap.  VI.  MATHIAS  xGRUNEWALD.  187 

Different  opinions  are  held  by  those  who  refuse  to 
accept  these  conclusions  because  they  are  unsupported  by 
documentary  evidence.  Sandrart  and  Bernard  Jobin  of 
Strasburg  are  authorities  to  show  that  M.  Grunewald 
painted  an  altarpiece,  in  1516,  for  the  church  of  Issenheim, 
which  is  now  exhibited  in  the  gallery  of  Colmar;  and 
this  picture  is  considered  to  afford  proof  that  Grunewald 
was  not  a  Saxon,  but  a  South  German  contemporary  of 
Durer  and  Baldung  Grien,  and  that  he  cannot  have  painted 
the  altarpiece  of  Halle. 

The  altarpiece  of  Colmar  is  a  triptych  of  the  16th 
century  with  a  double  course  of  painted  shutters.  At 
the  sides  of  a  carved  centrepiece  are  the  Temptations  of 
St.  Anthony,  and  the  Hermits  Anthony  and  Paul. 
The  first  pair  of  wings,  being  closed,  display  the  Virgin 
and  Child  between  the  Annunciation  and  Resurrection. 
The  second  pair  of  wings  contains  the  Crucifixion,  with 
a  Piet&  as  a  predella,  between  St.  Anthony  and  St. 
Sebastian.  The  work  is  powerfully  executed  by  a  painter 
of  the  Swabian  school,  not  inferior  to  Grien,  but  distin- 
guished by  marked  peculiarities  of  his  own,  and  it  is 
apparent  that  these  peculiarities  are  more  nearly  trace- 
able to  the  school  of  Durer  than  to  any  other.  It 
is  evident,  likewise,  that  the  master  who  painted  the 
altarpiece  cannot  be  the  same  as  the  artist  who  exe- 
cuted the  altarpiece  of  Halle,  and  it  must  be  left  to 
future  research  to  settle  who  the  last-named  person 
was — the  theory  now  most  accepted  being  that  he  is 
no  other  than  Lucas  Cranach  the  elder  in  the  early 
stage  of  his  artistic  development.  Meanwhile  it  is 
well  to  remember  and  to  note  that  there  are  other 
pictures  by  the  same  hand  as  the  author  of  the  Issenheim 
altar,  and  these  are  St.  Cyriacus  and  St.  Lawrence  in 
monochrome  in  the  Saalhof  at  Frankfort,  and  a  Resur- 
rection in  the  Museum  of  Bale.  The  latter  is  registered 
in  an  old  inventory  of  the  16th  century  by  Amerbach 
as  "  work  of  Mathes  of  Aschaffenburg."  The  monochromes 
at  Frankfort  are  assigned  by  Sandrart  to  Grunewald, 


188  SAXON   PAINTERS.  Book  III. 

and  the  St.  Lawrence  is  authenticated  by  the  monogram — 
M.  G.1] 

HANS  GRIMMER. — Scholar  of  Mathias  Gnmewald.  Exist- 
ing pictures  show  him  to  have  been  a  portrait-painter  of 
lively  conception,  delicate  drawing,  clear  colouring,  and 
careful  finish.  This  description  is  especially  applicable  to 
the  portrait  of  a  woman  in  the  gallery  of  Nuremberg. 
The  companion  to  it,  a  man,  is  inferior  in  colouring. 

SAXON    PAINTERS. 

No  original  school  can  be  traced  in  Saxony,  or  in 
the  domain  of  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg;  but  various 
Franconian  artists  exercised  their  art  in  these  parts;  a 
proof  of  this  is  seen  in  the  works  [ass;gned  to]  Grune- 
wald,  above  mentioned,  executed  for  Halle.  The  figures 
of  saints  on  the  wings  of  the  altar  at  Brandenburg, 
dated  1518 — works  exhibiting  a  first-rate  master  in  the 
dignified  character  of  the  figures  and  elevated  taste  of 
the  drapery — point  also  for  their  author  to  Grunewald. 
And  even  the  master  who,  in  the  capacity  of  painter 
to  Frederick  the  Wise,  at  Wittenberg,  founded  a  kind 
of  school  in  Saxony,  namely  LUCAS  CRANACH,2  not  only 
owed  his  birth  to  Cranach,3  a  place  in  Northern  Franconia, 
but  his  early  works  bear  the  character  of  Franconian 
art.  Born  in  1472,  of  a  family  of  the  name  of  SUNDER, 
he  received  his  first  instructions  in  art  from  his  father, 
his  later  teaching  . probably  from  Mathias  Grunewald; 
at  all  events,  his  whole  style  of  art  bears  the  impress  of 
having  been  formed  from  the  works  of  that  master.4  If 

1  [Compare  "Waagen's  remarks  on  Forster's  '  Geschicbte  der  Malerei 
in  Deutschland,'  in  the  'Deutsches  Kunstblatt,'  1854,  p.  22;  Schuchardt's 
'L.    Cranach,'  ii.  69.     W.    Schmidt  in  'Zeitschr.   f.  bild.  Kunst.'   iv. 
p.  191.  Woltmann,  'Streifzvige  in  Elsass,'  in  Do.  viii.,  pp.   324-7,  and 
Merkel's  MS.  of  the  Court  Library  at  Aschaffenburg,  1836,  p.  11.] 

2  '  Lucas  Cranach  des  alteren  Leben  und  Werke,'  by  Christian  Schu- 
chardt,  2  vols.     Leipsic,  Brockhaus,  1851. 

3  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  pp.  240-55. 

4  [It  is  hazardous  to  assert  that  Lucas  Cranach  was  a  disciple  of  M 
Grunewald,  whose  picture  at  Halle  is  dated  1529.     They  may  have  been 
disciples  under  the  same  master.     The  name  of  Sunder,  as  Schu chard  t 
proves,  is  not  the  same  as  Cranach.     We  know  that  Cranach  was  born 
in  1472,  but  the  day  and  mouth  are  not  handed  down.] 


Chap.  VI.  LUCAS  CRANACH.  189 

inferior  to  him  in  grandeur  of  conception,  in  feeling  for  style, 
in  drawing  (his  weakest  part),  and  in  thoroughness  of  execu- 
tion, he  excels  him  in  richness  and  variety  of  invention,  in 
peculiar  clearness  of  colour,  and  finally,  though  often  dege- 
nerating into  a  mechanical  and  slight  manner,  in  the  light- 
ness of  his  treatment.  In  some  instances  he  attained  to  the- 
expression  of  dignity,  ea'rnestness,  and  feeling,  but  generally 
his  characteristics  are  a  naive  and  childlike  cheerfulness,  and 
a  gentle  and  almost  timid  grace.  A  certain  charm  of  anima- 
tion, and  a  warm,  blooming  colouring,  must  be  accepted  m 
most  of  his  works  as  substitutes  for  a  strict  understanding 
of  form.  In  these  respects  his  art  partakes  in  a  high  degree 
of  a  national  character ;  even  his  humour  has  something  of 
the  coarse  popular  wit  of  his  time.  The  impression  pro- 
duced by  his  style  of  representation  reminds  one  [as  Kugler 
remarks]  of  the  "  Yolksbiicher  "  and  "  Volkslieder  "  of  Hans 
Sachs ;  and,  as  in  those,  the  tenderest  flowers  of  art  are 
found  in  the  na'ivest  way  in  immediate  juxtaposition  with 
all  that  is  tasteless  and  even  childish.  Many  of  his  church 
pictures  have  a  very  peculiar  significance ;  in  these  he  stands 
forth,  properly  speaking,  as  the  painter  of  the  Reformation. 
Intimate  both  with  Luther  and  Melancthon,  he  seizes  on  the- 
essential  aim  of  their  doctrine,  viz.,  the  insufficiency  of  good 
works,  and  the  sole  efficacy  of  faith  in  a  Saviour,  and  endea- 
vours to  embody  it  in  the  form  of  art.  As  specimens  of  this 
kind  may  be  mentioned  a  dying  man,  dated  1518,  in  the- 
Town  Museum  of  Leipsic ;  the  Fall  and  the  Redemption  of 
man,  dated  1529,  in  the  Ducal  Gallery  of  Gotha;  a  large 
altarpiece  in  the  church  of  the  town  of  Schneeberg  in  Saxony ; 
and  a  picture  in  the  Gallery  of  the  Estates  at  Prague,  also 
dated  1529.  All  these  pictures,  some  of  them  accompanied 
with  explanatory  inscriptions,  are  at  the  same  time  excellent 
works  by  the  master.  Only  in  the  picture  at  Schneeberg  do 
we  remark  the  assistance  of  pupils.  Among  his  pictures  of 
Scriptural  subjects,  that  of  the  Woman  taken  in  Adultery,  in 
the  Munich  Gallery,  "No.  276,  deserves  particular  mention. 
The  heads  of  Christ  and  of  the  woman  are  admirable.  Lucas 
Cranach  is  especially  successful  in  affectionate  and  childlike 
subjects.  This  we  see  in  his  various  pictures  of  Christ 


190  SAXON  PAIXTEES.  Book  III. 


receiving  little  children,  one  of  the  finest  of  which  is  in 
the  [Northbrook  Collection],  in  London — another  in  the 
church  of  St.  Wenceslaus  at  Naumburg.  On  occasions  where 
he  treats  mythological  subjects,  the  result,  considered  in  that 
light,  must  be  looked  upon  rather  as  a  parody,  yet  even  these 
appeal  directly  to  the  eye,  like  real  portraits ;  and  sometimes 
also  by  means  of  a  certain  grace  and  naivete  of  motive.  We 
may  cite  as  an  instance  the  Diana  seated  on  a  stag,  in  a 
small  picture  in  the  Museum  at  Berlin,  No.  564,  where  she 
is  represented  with  her  less  happily  conceived  brother 
Apollo.  Occasionally,  it  is  true,  these  works  are  disfigured 
by  a  too  obvious  aim  at  grace,  and  by  means  of  a  laboured 
and  even  violently  distorted  action ;  as,  for  instance,  in  his 
Venus  and  Cupid,  where  the  latter  is  complaining  to  his 
mother  of  being  stung  by  a  bee — also  in  the  Berlin  Museum, 
Nos.  594,  1190,  and  1203— where  the  position  of  the  god- 
dess's lower  limbs  illustrates  what  we  have  said.  He  treated 
this  subject  frequently.  The  Hercules  and  Omphale  in  the 
same  gallery  [withdrawn]  is  very  na'ive.  As  specimens  ol 
his  coarse  humour  may  be  quoted  his  old  man  caressing  a  girl, 
dated  1531,  in  the  Estates  Gallery  at  Prague,  and  the  Foun- 
tain of  Youth  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  593.  This  last  is 
a  picture  of  peculiar  character:  a  large  basin,  surrounded 
l)y  steps,  and  with  a  richly  adorned  fountain,  forms  the 
centre.  On  one  side,  where  the  country  is  stony  and  barren, 
a  multitude  of  old  women  are  dragged  forward  on  horses, 
waggons,  or  carriages,  and  with  much  trouble  are  got  into 
the  water.  On  the  other  side  of  the  fountain  they  appear  as 
young  maidens,  splashing  about  and  amusing  themselves 
with  all  kinds  of  playful  mischief ;  close  by  is  a  large  pavi- 
lion, into  which  a  herald  courteously  invites  them  to  enter, 
=and  where  they  are  arrayed  in  costly  apparel.  A  feast  is 
prepared  in  a  smiling  meadow,  which  seems  to  be  followed 
by  a  dance ;  the  gay  crowd  loses  itself  in  a  neighbouring 
grove.  The  men  unfortunately  have  not  become  young, 
and  retain  their  gray  beards.  This  picture  is  of  the  year 
1546,  the  seventy-fourth  of  Cranach's  age. 

His  great  excellence  lies  in  purely  realistic  subjects,  to 
which  department  his  art  properly   belongs — such   as   his 


•Chap.  VI.  LUCAS  CRANACH.  191 


hunts  of  wild  animals,1  and  his  portraits.  A  small  but  first- 
rate  picture  of  a  stag-hunt  is  in  the  Lahonchere  collection ; 
[others  of  interest  in  the  Museum  of  Madrid,  and  in  the 
Moritzburg,  near  Dresden],  His  portraits  are  so  numerous 
that  I  can  only  particularise  a  few — for  instance,  the  Elector 
Albrecht  of  Mayence,  represented  full  length  as  St.  Jerome, 
of  the  year  1527,  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  589,  and  that 
of  the  unfortunate  Elector  John  Frederick  the  Generous,  No. 
590.  Also  the  portrait  of  the  Elector  John  the  Constant,  in 
the  Grand  Ducal  Gallery  at  Weimar,  is  one  of  his  best  male 
portraits.  Turning  to  his  female  portraits,  we  may  cite  the 
pleasingly  conceived  and  warm  and  luminously  coloured 
head  in  the  National  Gallery,  No.  291,  as  a  good  specimen. 
These  qualities  of  colour,  however,  ho  only  attained  after 
1515,  probably  after  a  meeting  with  some  wandering  painter 
from  the  Netherlands.  On  the  other  hand,  his  earliest  known 
work,  the  fine  Eepose  in  Egypt,  now  in  the  Sciarra  Colonna 
Palace  at  Eome,  dated  1504  ;  two  pictures  of  SS.  Jerome 
and  Leopold,  dated  1515,  in  the  Belvedere  Gallery  at  Vienna; 
and  the  portrait  of  the  Burgomaster  of  Eisenach,  in  the 
Berlin  Museum,  No.  618a,  show  a  more  broken  but  less 
clear  brownish  flesh-tone,  in  the  manner  of  Matthew 
Grunewald.  He  may  be  said  to  have  reached  the  zenith  of 
his  art  towards  the  year  1530;  for,  besides  the  two  above- 
mentioned  pictures  of  that  time,  the  following,  bearing  the 
same  date,  may  be  reckoned  among  his  finest  productions, 
viz.,  Samson  and  Delilah,  in  the  Royal  Gallery  at  Augsburg, 
the  Melancholy,  from  the  Campe  collection,  now  in  the 
possession  of  Lord  Lindsay,  [and  the  Sacrifice  of  Isaac,  in  the 
Lichtenstein  collection  at  Vienna].  In  the  first  of  these 
Delilah  is  seen  seated  in  a  beautiful  garden,  while  Samson, 
attired  as  a  stately  knight,  with  rich  golden  greaves,  and  the 
jawbone  of  the  ass  in  his  hand,  sleeps  in  her  lap ;  she  is 
cutting  off  his  hair  with  a  pair  of  bright  scissors ;  the 
Philistines,  well  armed,  creep  stealthily  through  the  wood ; 
a  rich  and  beautiful  view  opens  itself  at  the  side.  Cranach 
retained  his  artistic  powers  unenfeebled  till  his  death  in 

1  See  lithographs  from  his  border  drawings  in  Albert  Durer's  Prayer- 
book  in  the  Munich  Library,  by  Strixner.     Munich,  1818. 


192  SAXON  PAINTERS.  Book  IIL 

1553,  as  is  evident  from  the  centre  picture  of  the  altarpiece 
at  Weimar,  which  I  concur  with  Schuchart  in  considering 
his  most  important  work  (see  woodcut).  This  also  embodies, 
as  above  mentioned,  the  one  great  object  of  the  Reformation 
representing  the  Saviour  on  the  cross,  with  St.  John  the 
Baptist  directing  the  attention  of  Luther  and  Cranach — two 
admirable  portraits — to  the  sacrifice  by  which  alone  Re- 
demption was  purchased.  On  the  left  is  Christ  again, 
triumphant  over  Satan,  who  is  seen  in  the  middle  distance 
driving  sinners  into  the  gulf  of  fire.  This  painter  also  dis- 
tinguished himself  occasionally  in  the  execution  of  miniatures ; 
he  was  a  skilful  engraver,  and  also  designed  a  series  of  draw- 
ings, including  some  of  great  excellence,  for  woodcutting ; 
the  subjects  of  several  of  these  show  that  he  took  an  energetic 
part  in  the  struggle  between  Luther  and  the  Papacy.1 

Considered  also  in  a  personal  light,  Lucas  Cranach  is 
entitled  to  great  respect.  The  Electors,  John  the  Constant 
and  John  Frederick  the  Generous,  successors  to  Frederick 
the  Wise,  both  retained  him  in  their  service.  He  even 
shared  the  five  years'  captivity  of  Frederick  the  Generous, 
after  the  battle  of  Muhlberg,  in  1547,  alleviating  it  by  his 
art  and  his  cheerful  society.  In  Wittenberg  he  was  held  in 
such  high  esteem  by  the  citizens  as  to  be  elected  Burgomaster 
in  1537,  and  again  in  1540.2  He  voluntarily  relinquished 
this  dignity  in  1544.8 

The  long  life  of  this  painter,  and  the  rapidity  of  his  brush, 
which  was  such  as  to  obtain  him  the  title  of  "  celerrimus 
pictor"  on  his  graVe-stone,  will  account  for  the  very  large 
number  of  pictures  which  he  executed.  Nevertheless,  of  the 
works  bearing  his  name,  many  are  the  production  of  his  son 
Lucas  Cranach  the  younger — of  whom  I  have  more  to  say ; 
also  probably  of  another  son,  called  Johann  Lucas,  who  died 

1  *  Schuchart,'  vol.  ii.,  p.  240-255. 

2  [It  is  interesting  to  note  that  when  the  plague  broke  out  in  Central 
Germany,  Cranach  hastened  away  to  his  old  haunts  in  the  south,  and 
lived  for  some  months  after  September,  1539,  at  Nuremberg.      See  J. 
Baader's  Kleine  Naclitrage  in  Zahn's  '  Jahrbiicher,'  ii.  74.] 

8  [Cranach  was  a  printer  (1524),  and  kept  a  chemist's  shop  at  Witten- 
berg (1520).  The  shop  and  Cranach's  house  were  burnt  down  in  Sept, 
1871.] 


•£: 


ALTARPIECE   IN  THE  CHURCH  AT  WEIMAR-  CONTAINING  PORTRAITS  OF  LUTHER. 
MELANCTHON,  AND   THE   PAINTER  HIMSELF. 

By  Lucaa  Cranach  page  192. 


Chap.  VI.  LUCAS   CRANACH.  193 

at  an  early  age  in  Italy.1  A  large  remainder  are  by  less 
skilful  and  often  even  by  spiritless  and  mechanical  journey- 
men painters.  Among  the  pictures  thus  manufactured  may 
be  included  a  large  number  of  small  portraits  of  Luther, 
Melancthon,  and  of  the  Electors  Frederick  the  Wise  and 
John  the  Constant,  which  bear  the  date  1532.  By  allowing, 
however,  his  monogram  to  be  inscribed  on  these  works, 
Lucas  Cranach  himself  contributed  to  lower  his  reputation 
with  succeeding  generations.  Although  Schuchart  may  be 
right  in  maintaining  that  an  altarpiece  in  the  church  at 
Wittenberg,  assigned  to  Lucas  Cranach,  was'little,  if  at  all, 
touched  by  his  hand,  but  is  only  one  of  the  better  productions 
of  his  workshop,2  yet  the  composition,  which  at  all  events 
proceeded  from  him,  is  too  remarkable  not  to  be  mentioned 
here.  The  centre  represents  the  Last  Supper,  and  is  peculiar 
in  its  arrangement,  for  the  disciples,  with  heads  of  varied 
character,  are  seated  round  a  circular  table.  On  the  right 
wing  is  painted  the  sacrament  of  ^Baptism,  administered  by 
Melancthon  in  presence  of  an  assistant  and  three  sponsors. 
A.  group  of  richly  dressed  women,  as  spectators,  stand  in  the 
foreground.  A  peculiar  but  pleasing  tone  of  feeling  pervades 
the  whole.  The  left  wing,  representing  Confession,  is 
superior  to  the  former  picture.  In  the  confessor  we  recog- 
nise the  portrait  of  Bugenhagen,  who,  with  severe  dignity, 
absolves  a  kneeling  penitent  (a  citizen),  with  the  key  in  his 
right  hand,  whilst  at  the  same  time,  with  the  one  in  his  left, 
he  motions  back  a  warrior  who  has  drawn  near,  with  a 
haughty,  rather  than  a  repentant  air,  and  whose  hands  are 
still  fettered.  On  the  predella  is  a  fourth  painting,  with 
smaller  figures  :  in  the  centre  is  the  image  of  Christ  cruci- 
fied ;  on  one  side  a  pulpit,  from  which  Luther  preaches,  in 
front  of  a  graceful  and  simple  group  of  listening  maidens,  and 
women  with  children ;  and  deeper  in  the  picture  is  as  fine  a 
sjroup  of  serious  men  and  youths.  This  work  is  at  once  a 
representation  of  the  most  remarkable  rite  of  the  Protestant 


1  See  notice  of  this  son,  who  died  at  Bologna,  1536,  '  Schuchart,'  vol. 
i.  p.  96,  etc. 
58  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  p.  147,  etc. 

13 


194  SAXON  PAINTERS.  Book  III. 

Ohurch,  and  a  memorial  of  the  most  honoured  teachers  of 
Holy  Writ.1 

LUCAS  CRANACH  THE  YOUNGER  [born  1515,  died  1586],  like 
his  father,  in  his  later  years  filled  the  office  of  Burgomaster 
of  Wittenberg.  He  appears  to  have  formed  his  style  both 
on  that  of  his  father  and  of  Albert  Durer,  as  is  evident  from 
the  different  peculiarities  in  his  works,  which  remind  us 
sometimes  of  the  one  and  sometimes  of  the  other.  He  has, 
however,  a  soft  grace  and  a  sweetness  peculiarly  his  own, 
which  are  particularly  seen  in  his  warm,  but,  at  times,  some- 
what  honey-coloured  tones.  He  was  one  of  those  who  most 
steadily  adhered  to  the  true  style  of  ancient  art ;  whilst  his 
contemporaries,  almost  in  a  body,  began  to  yield  to  the  in- 
fluence of  foreign  mannerism. 

In  the  principal  church  at  Wittenberg2  are  preserved 
several  of  this  artist's  pictures  : — Christ  and  the  two  thieves 
on  the  Cross,  with  the  family  of  the  donor  kneeling  at  the 
foot,  is  an  excellent  work ;  a  Nativity,  in  which  the  rafters 
of  the  stable  are  covered  with  a  crowd  of  joyous  little  angels. 
The  Conversion  of  Saul  is  unimportant.  One  singular  sub- 
ject bears  again  a  distinct  reference  to  the  state  of  the 
Church  in  his  time :  it  is  the  Vineyard  of  the  Lord,  one 
half  of  which  is  being  destroyed  by  the  assembled  clergy  of 
the  Komish  Church,  whilst  the  heroes  of  the  Reformation 
are  employed  in  cultivating  the  other — a  composition,  it 
must  be  owned,  in  which  the  simple  poetic  feeling  of  the 
conception  far  surpasses  the  merit  as  a  painting. 

John  the  Baptist  preaching.  The  saint  has  the  features 
of  Melancthon.  This  picture  is  in  the  Brunswick  Gallery, 
and  may  be  considered  one  of  his  best  works.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  a  Virgin  giving  a  bunch  of  grapes  to  the 
Child,  who  is  standing  before  her,  and  which  is  hung  by  the 
name  of  the  elder  Cranach  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  Cabinets, 
No.  270.  Of  his  later  and  somewhat  slighter  period  is 
a  Crucifixion  in  the  Dresden  Gallery.  No.  1941.  Two 


1  Schadow,  '  Wittenberg's  Denkmaler  der  Bildnerei,  Baukunst,  und 
Malerei':  Wittenberg,  1825. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  99. 


;hap.  VI.  HANS   BURGKMAIR.  195 


,dmirable  portraits  of  the  Electors  Augustus  and  Maurice 
•f  Saxony  are  also  in  the  same  gallery,  Nos.  1944  and  1945. 

THE    SWABIAN    SCHOOL. 

The  chief  master  of  the  Augsburg  school  at  this  period 
yas  HANS  BUEGKMAIR,  born  1473,  died  [1531],  son  of  the 
ihomas  Burgkmair  of  the  preceding  period.  [He  began  as 
,n  apprentice  to  Martin  Schongauer,  and  studied  further,  it 
3  probable,  under  Thomas  Burgkmair.]1  He  was  an  artist  of 
rery  varied  powers  of  invention ;  for,  besides  executing  those 
ubjects  which  the  Church  then  dictated,  he  was  also  the 
irst  master  of  his  time  in  the  delineation  of  such  knightly 
,nd  courtly  themes  as  the  courtt  of  Maximilian  I.  had  then 
ntroduced  into  Germany.  This  is  especially  seen  in  the 
ainiatures  of  his  Tournament  books,2  and  in  his  designs  for 
sroodcuts 8  for  those  works  executed  for  Maximilian — the 
jenealogy  of  that  emperor,  the  Weisskunig,  and  the 
[riumph.4  On  the  whole,  he  remains  true  to  the  charac- 
eristics  of  the  Swabian  school.  His  compositions  are 
generally  devoid  of  style,  and  his  drawing,  especially  in  his 
sarlier  time,  is  not  correct.  Although  occasionally  not  want- 
ng  in  feeling  for  dignity  and  beauty,  the  chief  aim  of  his  art 
vas  the  representation  of  truth.  His  heads  have  therefore  a 
>ortrait-like  air  ;  he  is  greatly  wanting  also  in  feeling  for  line 
ind  attitude.  On  the  other  hand,  he  has  a  lively  sense  of 
;olour  ;  the  tone  of  his  flesh  is  generally  warm  and  powerful, 
.he  colour  of  his  draperies  of  great  power  and  depth,  and  the 
nodelling  and  execution  of  the  detail,  in  his  better  works,  of 
*reat  carefulness.  At  the  same  time  he  is  answerable  for 
nany  works  of  a  hard  and  mechanical  character.  This 
painter,  with  Altdorfer,  was  the  first  in  Germany  who 
worked  out  the  detail  of  his  landscape  backgrounds  in  ac- 

1  [See  antea  in  Mai-tin  Schongauer.     See  also,  for  Burgkmair's  death, 
ihe  guild  register  of  Augsburg  in  Woltmann's  'Holbein,'  u.  s.,  i.,  358.] 

2  A  Tournament  book  of  this  description  is  in  the  possession  of  his 
Highness  the  Prince  of  Hohenzollern  Sigmaringen. 

3  See    further    concerning    these   works    in   Bartsch,    *  Le    Peintre 
^raveur,'  vol.  vii.  p.  223,  etc. 

*  These  are  the  titles  of  works  executed  by  command  of  the  emperor 
o  glorify  his  feats  and  his  family. 


196  THE  SWABIAN  SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

cordance  with  nature,  though  I  am  not  aware  that  he  painted 
landscapes,  properly  speaking,  like  Altdorfer.  But  in  his 
long  life  two  periods  may  be  very  clearly  distinguished.  Ir 
the  first,  which  extends  to  about  1508,  he  adheres  to  th< 
forms  of  art  prevailing  in  Germany  in  the  fifteenth  century 
the  folds  of  his  drapery  are  sharper  than  those  of  the  elde] 
Hans  Holbein,  and  he  frequently  employs  gold,  both  ii 
drapery  and  in  ornaments.  Only  in  his  architecture  is  th( 
Italian  taste  indicated :  in  the  second  period  it  appears  in  th< 
fuller  rendering  of  forms,  in  the  drapery,  and  in  the  mor< 
harmonious  keeping.  Nevertheless  his  German  nature  is 
never  repudiated  in  essentials,  and,  in  the  woodcuts  executec 
from  his  drawings,  the  influence  of  Albert  Durer  is  distinctly 
traceable.  His  strong  feeling  for  the  realistic  in  art  is  occa 
sionally  seen,  too,  in  his  successful  treatment  of  scenes  fron 
common  life.  Sandrart  mentions  fresco  paintings  by  him 
but  none  have  descended  to  us.  Of  his  numerous  oil  pic 
tures  still  existing  I  can  only  mention  a  portion.  Thi 
following,  in  the  Augsburg  Gallery,  are  the  chefs-d'oeuvre  o 
his  earlier  time.  A  rich  picture  of  numerous  subjects,  date< 
1501 — among  them  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  and  also 
in  a  mandorla,  St.  Peter,  the  Virgin  and  Child,  and  fourteei 
gaints.  The  expression  of  the  Christ  is  very  dignified  ;  tin 
form  of  the  male  heads  noble,  that  of  the  female  heads  re 
fined,  but  rather  monotonous.  The  foreshortening  of  th 
mouth  and  eyes  is  generally  defective.1  Another  picture 
with  Christ  and  the  Virgin  adored  by  numerous  Saints,  is  o 
the  same  year.  "A  picture,  with  the  Crucifixion  in  the  centre 
and  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Ursula  at  the  sides,  is  of  the  yea 
1504.  The  animation  in  this  latter,  and  the  contrast  be 
tween  the  ferocity  of  the  heathen  and  the  resignation  of  th 
tender  maiden,  are  very  successful.  Of  about  the  same  tim 
is  a  large  picture  of  the  same  subject  in  the  Dresden  Gallery 
No.  1878. 

Admirable  specimens  of  his  second  period  are  the  follow 
ing.  The  Virgin  seated  under  a  tree,  and  giving'a  bunch  o' 
grapes  to  the  Child,  dated  1510,  in  the  Germanic  Museum 

1  See  further  concerning  this  and  the  following  pictures  in  '  Kiinstlei 
und  Kunstwerke  in  Deutschland,'  vol.  ii.  p.  28,  etc. 


Iliap.  VI.  HANS   BURpKMAIR.  197 

ft>.  1 60,  at  Nuremberg.  This  little  picture  displays  a  degree 
f  taste  and  delicacy  of  rendering  such  as  Burgkmair  but 
eldom  attained.1  The  Crucifixion,  in  the  Augsburg  Gallery, 
f  the  year  1519 ; 2  also  the  Adoration  of  the  Kings,  in  the 
ame  gallery.  This  last,  in  character  of  heads,  delicacy  of 
reatment  in  a  cool  tone,  and  mastery  of  carrying  out,  is, 

0  my  knowledge,  the  chef-d'reuvre  of  the  second  period. 
Considering  the  rarity  of  this  master's  works  in  England,  I 
nay  mention  an  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,  in  his  decidedly 
ealistic  manner,  and  of  great  merit,  once  in  tlje  collection  of 
he  Prince  Consort  at  Kensington.     A  St.  John  in  the  Isle 
f  Patmos,  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  No.  222,  affords  a  specimen 
f  the  great  development  he  attained  in  landscape;   the 
aspiration  of  the  head  is  also  well  expressed.     A  Mother 
rith  two   Children,   dated   1541,   once   in   the    Landauer 
Briiderhaus,3  is  characteristic  of  his  na'ivet6  and  truth  of 
reatment  in  subjects  taken  from  common  life.     It  is  there 
-ttributed  to   Hans   Olmdorf.4     ^Finally  he  appears   as  a 
aannered  imitator  of  Italian  art,  in  a  picture  in  the  church 
>f  St.  Anna  at  Augsburg — Christ  delivering  Souls  from 
Purgatory,  probably  executed  soon  after  1533.5    As  a  por- 
,rait-painter  he  is  seen  to  most  advantage  in  the  portrait  of 

1  Duke  Frederick  of  Saxony,  in  the  castle  at  Nuremberg, 
ind  there  attributed  to  Hans  von  Culmbach.     The  picture  is 
remarkable  for  a  pure  feeling  for  nature  and  delicate  flesh- 
iones.     The  portraits  of  Duke  William  of  Bavaria  and  his 
wife  [1526]  are  harder  in  outline  and  heavier  in  flesh-tones, 
rhey  [have  been  transferred  to  the  gallery  of  Schleissheim.] 
Portraits  of  himself   and   his   wife,   dated    1528,    in    the 
Belvedere  Gallery  at  Vienna,  are  far  warmer  and  clearer  in 
colour,  and  very  animated  in  conception.     The  wife  holds  a 
mirror,  in  which  they  are  both  represented  as  death's  heads, 


1  '  Kiinstler  und  Kunstwerke  in  Deutschland,'  vol.  i.  p.  197. 

2  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  p.  32,  etc. 
8  Ibid.  vol.  i.  p.  197. 

*  [In  assigning  this  picture  to  Burgkmair,  "Waagen,  unawares,  runs 
counter  to  accurate  chronology.  As  we  saw  above,  Burgkmair  was  not 
iving  in  1541.] 

5  [For  the  reasons  above  stated,  Burgkmair  cannot  have  painted  this 
picture,  "j 


198  THE  SWABIAN  SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

showing  that  the  fantastic  feeling  of  the  middle  ages  was  by 
no  means  extinct  in  the  Swabian  school  at  this  time.  How 
much  it  was  characteristic  of  Burgkmair  appears  in  various 
woodcuts  from  his  designs,  namely,  in  that  of  a  young 
woman  endeavouring  to  escape  from  Death,  who  is  killing  a 
young  man ;  in  the  Seven  Cardinal  Virtues ;  the  Seven 
Deadly  Sins;  and  in  the  Three  Good  Men  and  Women, 
Christian,  Jew,  and  Pagan.1  He  also  executed  an  etching 
on  iron.2 

But  the  greatest  artist  whom  Augsburg  produced  was 
HANS  HOLBEIN  THE  YOUNGER,  born  there  1498.8  In  him  the 
German  school  of  realism  attained  its  noblest  and  highest 
development,  and  he  may  be  unreservedly  pronounced  to  be 
one  of  the  greatest  masters  who  laboured  in  that  school.  A 
comparison  with  his  elder  contemporary,  Albert  Durer,  will 
best  serve  to  place  his  pictorial  merits  in  a  clear  light.  As 
respects  grandeur  and  depth  of  feeling,  and  richness  of 
conception  and  distribution  in  the  field  of  ecclesiastical  art, 
he  stands  below  the  great  Nuremberg  master.  Though  not 
unaffected  by  the  fantastic  element  which  prevailed  in  the 
middle  ages,  Holbein  shows  it  in  his  own  way.  While 
Albert  Durer  treated  the  subjects  of  the  Apocalypse  in  the 
freer  forms  of  his  art,  though  with  an  adherence  to  the  feel- 
ing of  the  middle  ages,  and  in  his  Melancholy  displays  the 
solemn  sense  of  the  insufficiency  and  instability  of  all  sub- 

1  Bartsch,  '  Le  Peintre  Graveur,'  vol.  vii.  p.  215,  etc.      2Ibid.  p.  199. 

3  The  chief  works. relating  to  Holbein  are  Ulric  Hegner's  'Hans 
Holbein  der  Jiingere,'  Berlin,  1827,  and  Chretien  de  Meckel's  '(Euvres 
de  Jean  Holbein,  ou  Eecueil  de  Gravures  d'apres  ses  plus  beaux  Ou- 
vrages,'  Basle,  1780.  Also,  Horace  Walpole's  'Anecdotes  on  Painting.' 
[K.  N.  Wornum's  '  Some  account  of  the  life  and  works  of  Holbein ; ' 
Woltmann's  '  Holbein,'  u.  s.  ;  numerous  contributions  to  '  Grimm's 
Kiinstler  und  Kunstwerke  ; '  Zeitschr.  f.  b.  Kunst,  and  von  Zahn's 
'  Jahrbucher,'  by  His,  Woltmann,  Grimm,  von  Zahn,  W.  Schmidt,  and 
G.  Kinkel. 

The  forgery  of  an  inscription  in  the  Augsburg  altarpiece  of  1512,  led  to 
a  change  in  the  chronology  of  the  painter,  whose  birthday  was  thrown 
back  from  1498  to  1495.  Since  the  discovery  of  the  forgery  we  revert 
to  the  date  1497-8,  which  is  the  more  credible  now,  as  we  possess 
Hollar's  print  with  a  date,  and  the  age  of  Holbein  at  that  date,  and  old 
Holbein's  portrait  of  his  son,  "aged  14,"  in  the  Berlin  Museum, 
executed  in  1511.  Let  us  note,  in  passing,  that  Hollar  was  admitted 
to  the  guild  of  Antwerp  in  1644  (Liggeren,  ii.  157.)]  [This  portrait 
attributed  to  the  elder  Holbein  is  not  now  exhibited.] 


Chap.  VI.  HANS  HOLBEIN  y  THE  YOUNGER. 

binary  things,  yet  in  his  etching  of  the  Knight  with  Death 
and  the  Devil  he  gives  an  expression  of  a  human  security 
and  power  which  may  be  said  to  resist  and  morally  to 
triumph  over  these  assailants.  Holbein,  on  the  other  hand, 
seized  the  mediaeval  subject  of  the  Dance  of  Death ;  and 
availing  himself  of  his  improved  means  of  representation  in 
the  expression  of  the  deadliest  irony  and  malignity,  he  shows 
us,  under  every  form,  from  that  of  the  pope  down  to  the 
beggar,  how  helpless  are  the  terrors  of  the  human  race 
in  every  encounter  with  its  invincible  foe.  While  Albert 
Durer's  art  thus  exhibits  a  close  affinity  to  the  religious  ideas 
of  the  middle  ages,  Holbein  appears  imbued  with  the  senti- 
ments of  a  more  modern  time,  strictly  consequent  on  which 
we  find  him  decidedly  excelling  his  great  rival  in  closeness 
and  delicacy  of  observation  in  the  delineation  of  nature.  A 
proof  of  this  is  afforded  by  the  evidence  of  Erasmus  of 
Rotterdam — himself  gifted  with  a  fine  eye  in  matters  of  art 
— who  says  that,  as  regards  the  -portraits  made  of  him  by 
both  of  these  painters,  that  by  Holbein  was  the  most  like.1 
In  feeling  for  beauty  of  form  also,  in  grace  of  movement, 
tasteful  arrangement  of  drapery,  in  colouring,  and,  above  all, 
in  the  art  of  painting,  wherein  he  had  derived  from  his 
father  a  modelling  and  fusing  manner,  as  opposed  to  that  of 
a  draughtsman,  Holbein  must  be  placed  above  Albert  Durer. 
Uniting,  therefore,  with  all  these  qualities  admirable  powers 
of  drawing  and  composition,  he  may  justly  be  considered,  of 
all  the  German  masters,  the  one  most  fitted  by  nature  to 
attain  that  supremacy  of  art  in  historical  painting  which  the 
works  of  his  great  Italian  contemporaries — Raphael,  Andrea 
del  Sarto,  and  others — display.  That  he  did  not  rival  them 
in  this  respect  must  be  ascribed  to  the  circumstances  of  his 
life,  which  seldom  allowed  him  to  treat  subjects  of  that  class. 
In  portrait-painting,  to  which  his  powers  were  especially 
devoted,  he  stands  on  a  level  with  the  greatest  masters. 
His  genius  was  precocious  in  development,  and  highly 

1  This  is  told  by  Van  Mander,  fol.  142  b.  Also  tha  well-known 
engraving  of  Erasmus,  by  Albert  Durer,  Bartsch,  Nc.  107,  shows  a  very 
different  conception  of  his  subject  as  compared  with  the  various  por- 
traits of  the  same  by  Holbein. 


200  THE  SWABIAN    SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

versatile  in  application.  He  was  skilled  in  various  styles 
of  painting,  but  chiefly  in  fresco  and  oil-colours,  and 
miniatures. 

[The  earliest  pictures  of  Hans  Holbein1  are  those  which  he 
painted  after  his  arrival  at  Bale  in  the  autumn  of  1515. 2 
Brought  up  in  the  house  of  his  father,  to  whom  he  was  doubt- 
less apprenticed,  he  enjoyed  the  fairest  opportunity  of  observ- 
ing how  the  style  of  that  artist  was  modified  by  studying 
the  models  and  embodying  the  spirit  of  the  revival  in  Italy. 
It  was  the  habit  of  painters  to  close  their  apprenticeship  and 
prepare  for  a  mastership  by  a  round  of  travel.  For  four  years 
of  the  previous  century  Albert  Durer  had  wandered  with 
the  staff  of  the  pedestrian  in  his  hand,  sharing  the  hardships 
and  experiences  of  the  mechanics  of  those  days ;  and  love 
of  novelty,  traditional  habit,  or  the  privations  of  a  home  in 
which  life  was  a  daily  struggle  for  bread,  might  induce  Hol- 
bein to  follow  Durer's  example.  During  his  travels  he  came  to 
Bale,  where  he  stopped.  In  his  journey  thither  he  was  doubt- 
less accompanied  by  Ambrose  his  brother,  an  artist  like  him- 
self, whose  moderate  abilities  were  subsequently  confined 
to  the  production  of  drawings  for  engraving.  What  took 
both  the  youths  to  Bale  was  the  prospect  of  earning  as 
draughtsmen  to  the  booksellers  of  a  city  renowned  through- 
out the  whole  of  Germany  for  the  production  of  illustrated 
works.  What  kept  them  at  Bale  was  the  instant  success 
which  attended  their  efforts.  Neither  Hans  nor  Ambrose  were 

1  [Dr.  "Waagen  held,  even  before  the  forgeries  of  1854,  that  Hans 
Holbein  the  younger  was  the  painter  of  the  Augsburg  altarpieceof  1512, 
of  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Sebastian  (1516),  and  of  the  companion  pieces 
to  the  latter  in  the  Munich  gallery.     He  thought  it  remarkable,  but  not 
impossible,  that  the  altarpiece  of  1512  should  have  been  executed  by  a 
youth  of  14.     Later  critics  were  deceived  by  the  forged  inscription 
which  declared  that  Hans  Holbein  the  younger  painted  the  altarpiece  of 
1512  at  the  age  of  17.     Since  the  discovery  of  the  forgery  few  are 
disposed  to  share  Dr.  Waagen' s  opinion,  and  Hans  Holbein  the  elder  has 
been  allowed  to  resume  the  position  from  which  he  was  so  unfortu- 
nately expelled.     Compare  Waagen' s  '  Kuntswerke  und  Kiinstler,'  8vo., 
Leipzig,  1845,  i.,  25  ;  and  the  sketch  of  old  Holbein's  life  antea.] 

2  [Holbein's  presence  at  Bale,  at  least  as  early  as  autumn,  1515,  is 
proved  by  a  date  in  this  year's  edition  of  the  '  Encomium  Morise,'  to 
which  our  artist  furnished  illustrations.     This  and  other  data  are  fur- 
nished by  Mr.  His,  in  his  exhaustive  paper,  '  Die  Easier  Archive  iiber 
Hans  Holbein  der  Jungern,'  in  v.  Zahn's  'Jahrbiicher.'  iii.  p.  115.] 


•Chap.VL  HANS  HOLBEIN  THE  YOUNGER.  201 

in  a  condition  to  matriculate.  There  were  painters  in  Bale  like 
Hans  Herbster,  Koch,  and  Hans  Dig,  who  had  the  advantage 
of  long  residence  and  an  acknowledged  practice.  Hans  and 
Ambrose  probably  engaged  themselves  as  journeymen  for 
•daily  wages  under  one  of  these  masters.  In  1517  Ambrose 
matriculated.  Hans  remained  a  subordinate  till  1519,  when  he 
also  joined  the  guild.1  In  the  meantime  he  painted  several 
of  the  early  pieces  which  are  preserved  at  Bale,  such  as  the 
Last  Supper,  and  the  Flagellation,  recorded  in  an  early  inven- 
tory by  Basilius  Amerbach  as  "h.  holbein'^s  first  works,"  a 
schoolmaster's  sign,  a  couple  of  portraits — Jacob  Meyer 
&nd  his  wife — the  painter  Herbster  (1516-1517),  and  a  picture 
of  Adam  and  Eve.2  At  the  date  of  his  very  first  effort 
Holbein  gave  evidence  of  skill  in  realising  the  detail  and  ex- 
pression of  portrait.  Technically  he  painted  like  his  father, 
but  with  more  refinement.  In  composition  he  was  prone  to 
overload,  but  his  treatment  was  in  every  respect  spirited  and 
lively.  The  Meyers  at  Bale  (l£l6)  are  not  modelled  with  the 
delicacy  of  later  productions,  yet  they  are  clever  and  lifelike. 
Hans  Herbster,  in  the  Baring  collection  (1517),  is  coloured 
in  the  yellow-brown  tones  of  the  elder  Hans.]3 

In  1517  Holbein  decorated  the  house  of  the  bailiff,  Jacob 
van  Hartenstein,  at  Lucerne  with  frescoes.  The  destruction 
of  these  is  the  more  to  be  regretted  from  the  variety  of  sub- 
jects which,  according  to  an  existing  transcript,  were  there 
represented.  In  the  interior  he  painted  the  proprietor's 
patron  saints,  scenes  from  the  legends  of  the  same,  hunts, 
deeds  of  war,  and  a  Fountain  of  Youth.  On  the  outside, 
between  the  windows,  feats  of  ancient  heroes;  below,  a 
frieze  of  children  playing  with  arms ;  above,  another  with  a 
triumphal  procession,  after  Mantegna ;  and  higher  still,  events 
from  Roman  history.  Probably  only  a  year  or  two  later  he 

1  [Woltmann's  'Holbein,'  u.  B.,  i.  189  ;  His'  'Die  Easier  Archive,'  u. 
s.,  in  v.  Zahn's  '  Jahrbiicher,'  iii.  116.] 

2  [Woltmann's  « Holbein,'  i.  161-2;  201,  203,  204;  and  Hia'  'Alte 
Zweifel,'  etc.,  in  v.  Zahn's  '  Jahrbiicher,'  iv.  211.] 

3  [To  this  period  the  St.  Ursula  and  St.  George,  in  the  Carlsruhe 
Museum,  are  assigned  (personal  communication  of  Dr.  Woltmann,  with 
which  compare  also  von  Zahn  in  '  Jahrbiicher,'  v.  197) ;  but  the  author- 
ship of  Hans  Holbein  the  younger  is  very  doubtful.] 


202  THE  SWABIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  IIL 

executed  the  wings  of  an  altarpiece,  now  in  the  cathedral 
at  Freiburg,  in  Baden — the  one  the  Adoration  of  the  Shep- 
herds, treated  as  a  night  scene,  and  with  the  chief  light  pro- 
ceeding from  the  Child,  the  effect  of  the  light  altogether 
given  with  extraordinary  truth ;  the  other  the  Adoration  of 
the  Kings,  an  excellent  composition.  A  remarkahle  figure 
here  is  the  companion  of  the  Moorish  king,  who,  as  if  dazzled* 
is  looking  up  with  his  hand  before  his  eyes  at  the  stars. 
The  heads  show  great  truth  of  nature  and  every  variety  of 
character,  from  the  beautiful  to  the  boorish ;  the  forms,  and 
especially  the  hands,  are  delicately  carried  out.  This  picture 
is  worthily  followed  by  the  portrait  of  Boniface  Amerbach 
(1519),  a  zealous  patron  of  Holbein,  now  in  the  Basle  Gallery- 
In  simple  unpretending  conception,  and  pure  feeling  for  nature,, 
this  is  one  of  the  finest  portraits  by  the  master  of  this  period.1 
To  the  years  1521,  15222  we  owe  various  works  in  fresco- 
which  Holbein  executed  in  the  Town-house  at  Basle.  Side  by 
side  with  illustrations  of  the  stern  administration  of  justice, 
as  seen  in  similar  buildings  in  the  Netherlands,  were  placed 
traits  of  republican  virtue — the  Blinding  of  the  aged  Zaleucus, 
the  suicide  of  Charondas,  and  Curius  Dentatus  with  the- 
Sabine  Envoys.  The  sole  relics  of  these  frescoes  now  pre- 
served in  the  Basle  Gallery  are  three  heads  of  the  envoys- 
from  the  last-named  subject,  the  spirited,  energetic,  and  yet 
finely-tempered  character  of  which  shows  the  mastery  Hol- 
bein had  already  obtained  in  historical  painting,  and  how  high 
a  place  he  would  have  won  had  more  frequent  opportunities- 
been  afforded  to  him. 

That  he  also  treated  subjects  of  ecclesiastical  import,  re- 
quiring the  expression  of  deep  pathos,  with  extraordinary 
success,  is  evident  from  his  well-known  representation  of  the- 
Passion,  in  eight  compartments,  in  the  Basle  Gallery.  In 
colouring  and  treatment  these  strikingly  recall  the  fine  pic- 

1  [To  this  year  is  ascribed   the   Marriage  of  St.  Catherine,  in  the 
palace  of  King  Ferdinand  at  Lisbon  (?  by  the  elder  Holbein),  which 
the  writer  of  these  lines  has  not  seen,  and  which  Woltrnann  (Holbein) 
describes  from  a  photograph.] 

2  [Holbein  received  the  commission  in  1521,  and  finished  two  sides  of 
the  hall  in  1522.    The  records  are  in  His'  *  Easier  Archive,'  in  von  ZahnV 
'Jahrb.',  iii.  119-121.] 


Chap.  VI.  HANS  HOLBEIN  THE  YOUNGER.  20$ 

ture  from  the  life  of  St.  Paul  by  his  father,  in  Augsburg. 
The  Crucifixion  and  the  Entombment  (which  latter  reminds 
us,  in  the  chief  group,  of  Raphael's  Entombment  in  the- 
Borghese)  are  admirable  in  composition,  feeling,  and  render- 
ing ;  while  the  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  shows  a  beauty 
and  depth  of  fooling  scarcely  inferior  to  that  in  Correggio's- 
celebrated  picture.  It  would  appear  incredible  that  these 
works  should  belong  to  this  early  period,  were  not  the  egre- 
gious false  drawing  and  repelling  caricatures  and  exaggerations- 
— as,  for  instance,  in  the  Flagellation  and^the  Crucifixion — 
only  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  earliness  of  their  date* 
Other  pictures  of  this  period,  showing  the  decided  influence 
of  Leonardo  da  Yinci,  render  it  probable  that  Holbein  may 
have"  made  a  hasty  visit  to  Northern  Italy  at  this  time.  In 
one  of  them — a  Last  Supper,  in  the  Basle  Gallery,  No.  33. 
one  portion  of  which  is  wanting — there  is  a  symmetry  of 
arrangement,  an  elevation  of  heads,  especially  in  that  of  the 
Saviour,  and  a  certain  equality" of  treatment,  which  show  the 
unmistakeable  influence  of  Leonardo's  Last  Supper,  at  Milan, 
The  head  of  Judas  alone,  a  Jew  of  frightful  vulgarity  of 
character,  betrays  the  realistic  feeling  of  Holbein  in  all  its 
force.  In  the  other  picture  in  the  same  gallery,  No.  21,  a 
Dead  Christ,  this  tendency  is  seen  in  its  utmost  rudeness, 
combined  with  an  attempt  to  model  in  the  style  peculiar  to 
Leonardo.  It  is  difficult  to  believe  that  this  pale  greenish 
form,  with  streaming  blood,  taken  evidently  from  one  who 
had  died  a  violent  death,  and  drawn  with  a  mastery  marvel- 
lous in  an  artist  of  twenty-three  years  of  age,  could  have 
been  really  intended  to  represent  a  dead  Christ.  The  in- 
scription, however,  "  Jesus  Nazarenus,  Rex.  Jud  :  H.  H. 
1521,"  leaves  do  doubt.1 

1  [The  Last  Supper  has  already  been  mentioned  as  one  that  Basiliu* 
Amerbach  characterized  as  Holbein's  "  first  work  "  (see  an  tea).  Neither 
that  nor  any  other  work  of  Holbein  can  justify  the  assumption  of  a 
visit  to  Italy,  and  Van  Mander  says  expressly  :  "  Hy  is  in  Italian  niet 
gheweest"  (Sch.  Bock,  p.  142).  We  do  observe  in  the  Passion,  or  the 
Dead  Christ,  some  trace  of  Italian  influence,  but  not  that  of  Da  Vinci. 
From  the  transcripts  of  the  frescoes  at  Lucerne  and  Bale,  or  from  the  Pas- 
sion, we  derive  the  conviction  that  Mantegna's  prints  and  compositions 
were  more  familiar  to  Holbein  than  any  other  Italian  productions  of  the 
time. 


204  ,          THE   SWABIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  III. 


.  [In  1522  Holbein  painted  the  Virgin  and  Child  between 
St.  Martin  and  St.  TJrsus,  which  Mr.  Zetter  of  Soleure  so 
fortunately  discovered  in  1865.  It  is  signed  with  Holbein's 
initials,  and  bears  the  date  of  1522;  it  adorned  an  altar 
at  Grenchen,  and  is  now  in  the  gallery  of  Soleure.  In  size 
and  importance  this  most  interesting  piece  can  only  be 
compared  with  that  which  Holbein  executed  a  few  years 
later  for  Jacob  Meyer  of  Bale.  It  is  one  of  the  monumental 
compositions  of  the  form  which  we  so  often  meet  in  north 
Italian  altarpieces  of  this  period,  representing  the  Virgin, 
seated  under  an  archway,  enshrouded  in  drapery  of  such  ful- 
ness as  to  cover  the  shape  completely.  As  in  Giorgione's 
Madonna  of  Castelfranco,  so  here,  the  mantle  is  gathered  at 
the  neck  and  falls  to  the  ground  in  ample  folds.  On  one  side 
.St.  Martin,  in  episcopal  dress,  relieves  the  necessity  of  a  beggar, 
on  the  other  St.  Ursus,  in  the  helmet  and  breastplate  of  Hol- 
bein's time,  stands,  with  a  banner  in  one  hand,  as  the  guardian 
of  the  Virgin's  throne.  Neither  the  Virgin  nor  the  Child  are 
graced  with  ideal  beauty  of  shape  or  feature:  they  are  portraits, 
and  nothing  more ;  but  there  is  an  earnest  gravity  in  the 
faces,  and  a  pleasing  softness  in  the  countenance  of  St. 
Martin  cleverly  contrasts  with  the  stern  glance  and  resolute 
pose  of  St.  Ursus.]1 

One  of  the  most  admirable  pictures,  not  only  of  this  period, 
but  of  the  master,  is  the  portrait  of  Erasmus,  dated  MDXXIII., 
•one  of  the  chief  ornaments  of  Lord  Radnor's  rich  gallery  at 
Longford  Castle.2  O.ne  hardly  knows  which  most  to  admire, 
the  refined  and  animated  conception,  or  the  masterly  carry- 
ing out  of  the  minutest  details,  which  are  united  here. 
This  is  doubtless  the  portrait  sent  by  Erasmus  to  his  friend 

Without  plagiarism  he  adopts  the  forms  of  costume  and  architecture 
which  Mantegna  used,  overloading  both  so  as  to  give  them  a  quaint 
and  almost  grotesque  character.  Nor  is  this  quaintness  diminished  by 
the  casual  introduction  of  sixteenth  century  bowmen  in  company  with 
Roman  legionaries.] 

1  [The  infant  Christ,  copied  by  Hans  Bock,  is  in  the  Bale  Museum,  and 
"this  copy  is  catalogued  in  Amerbach's  inventory,  with  the  words  ap- 
pended :  "  Kompt  von  holbein's  gemeld  "  (taken  from  Holbein's  picture). 
Ail  outline  of  the  picture  is  in  the  'Zeitschrift  fur  bildende  Kunst/  vol. 
iv.  p.  200.] 

*  '  Galleries  and  Cabinets,'  etc.,  p.  3i>6. 


Chap.  VI.  HANS  HOLBEIN  THE  YOUNGER.  205 

Sir  Thomas  More  in  1525,  in  order  to  give  him  a  proof  of 
Holbein's  powers,  and  to  serve  as  a  recommendation  to  the- 
great  master,  who  even  then  contemplated  a  visit  to  England. 
Sir  Thomas  replied,  "Your  painter,  my  dear  Erasmus,  is  an 
admirable  artist,"  and  added  the  promise  of  giving  Holbein 
his  protection.1  To  the  same  year  may  be  also  assigned  the 
admirable  portrait  of  Erasmus  in  the  Louvre,  which  represents 
him  in  profile.2  Also  doubtless  the  stately  portrait  of  George 
Frundsberg,  Field  Marshal  to  Charles  V.,  in  the  Berlin 
Museum,  No.  577 .8 

[But  in  these  days  Holbein  was  not  exclusively  occupied 
with  portraits  ;  and  between  1523  and  1526  probably  he 
composed  the  beautiful  doors  of  the  organ  in  the  Minster  at 
Bale,  in  the  drawing  of  which  we  still  discern  reminiscences 
of  Mantegna.] 

Among  the  last  works  executed  by  the  painter  at  Basle> 

1  Considering  the  interest  attached  to  Holbein  in  England,  I  subjoin 
the  entire  passage  from  the  letter  in  the  original  Latin :  "  Pictor  tuus, 
Erasme  carissime,  minis  est  artifex,  sed  vereor,  ne  non  sensurus  sit 
Angliam  tarn  foecundam  ac  fertilem,  quam  sperarat ;    quanquam  ne 
reperiat  omnino  sterilem,  quoad  per  me  fieri  potest  efficiam.     Ex  Aula 
Grenwici,   18   Dec.   1525."     [More's  letter,  above  quoted,   should  be 
dated  1524,  as  Grimm  ('Uber  Kunstler  und  Kunstwerke,'  ii.    132) 
conclusively   proves.      It    does    not  refer  to   Holbein's   presence    in. 
England,  but  to  the  intention  of  the  painter  to  visit  England,  as  he 
did  in  1526.    Erasmus  had  sent  two  copies  of  his  likeness  to  England, 
a  third  copy  to  friends  in  France.     He  says  so  in  a  letter  of  June, 
1524 :  "  Et  rursus  nuper  misi  in  Angliam  Erasmum  bis  pictum  ab 
artefice  satis  eleganti.     Is  me  detulit  pictum  in  galliam."     (Erasmus 
to  Pirckheimer,  June  3,  1524.)     One  of  these  likenesses  is  doubtless 
acknowledged  by  More  in  the  letter  from  Greenwich.     Herman  Grimm 
thinks  indeed   that  More's  words  imply  that   Holbein  was    already 
in  England ;  but  this  does  not  necessarily  follow  from  the  context. 
Erasmus  only  recommended  Holbein  personally  to  Egidius  at  Antwerp 
on  Aug.  29,  1526.     From  Antwerp  Holbein  went  on  to  England.    Had 
Holbein  paid  an  earlier  visit,  say  in  1524,  to  England,  we  should  expect 
to  find  some  traces  of  the  visit  in  pictures,  but  nothing  of  the  kind  has 
yet  been  discovered.] 

2  [Dr.  Waagen  here  accounts  for  two  likenesses  of  Erasmus  by  Holbein. 
In  the  foregoing  note  there  is  an  allusion  to  a  third  portrait,  and  we 
inquire  where  it  is.     There  are  five  portraits  of  Erasmus  besides  those 
of  the  Louvre  and  Longford  Castle,  in  the  Museums  of  Bale,  Antwerp, 
Hampton  Court,  Turin,  and  Parma,  all  of  them,  except  those  of  Antwerp 
and  Hampton  Court,  original.     The  Parma  replica  is  dated  1530.] 

3  [This  portrait  cannot  be  by  Holbein.     The  date  upon  it  points  to 
a  period  subsequent  to  the  year  1528,  when  Holbein  painted  in  a  style- 
unlike  that  which  characterises  the  picture.] 


-206  THE   SWABIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  III. 


'"before  his  first  visit  to  England,  in  the  autumn  of  1526,  we 
may  place  the  beautiful  and  most  masterly  picture  [lately 
removed  to  the  Museum  of]  Darmstadt.     It  represents  the 
Virgin  as  Queen  of  Heaven,  standing  in  a  niche,  with  the  Child 
in  her  arms,  and  with  the  family  of  the  Burgomaster  Jacob 
Meyer  of  Basle  kneeling  at  her  side.   With  the  utmost  life,  and 
a  truth  to  nature  which  brings  these  kneeling  figures  actually 
into  our   presence,  there  is  combined,  in  a  most  exquisite 
degree,  an  expression  of  great  earnestness,  as  if  the  mind 
were  fixed  on  some  lofty  object.     This  is  shown  not  merely 
;by  the  introduction  of  divine  beings  into  the  circle  of  human 
sympathies,  but  particularly  in  the  relation  so  skilfully  indi- 
cated between  the  Holy  Virgin  and  her  worshippers,  and  in 
lier  manifest  desire  to  communicate  to  those  who  are  around 
her  the  sacred  peace  and  tranquillity  expressed  in  her  own 
countenance  and  attitude,  and  implied  in  the  infantine  gestures 
of  the  Saviour.     In  this  direct  union  of  the  divine  with  the 
human,  and  in  their  reciprocal  harmony,  there  is  involved  a 
•devout  and  earnest  purity  of  feeling  such  as  the  arts  among 
our  fathers  only  were  capable  of  representing.     This  picture 
-was  doubtless  founded  by  the  zealous  Catholic  donor  for  a 
•Chapel  of  our  Lady.     The  painting  is  fresh  and  powerful, 
And  the  flesh-tones  of  a  warm  brown.     From  various  little 
-differences  between  this  and  the  well-known  Dresden  picture, 
•see  woodcut,  it  is  apparent  that  it  was  painted  at  an  earlier 
period.     It  is  easy  also  to  understand  that  the  patron,  desiring 
to  possess  such  excellent  portraits  of  his  own  family,  thus 
devoutly  engaged,  as  the  ornament  of  one  of  his  rooms,  was 
induced  to  give  -Holbein  the  commission  to  paint  a  repetition 
of  the  subject,  which  in  the  needy  circumstances  of  the  painter 
could  only  have  been  acceptable  to  him.     I  am  therefore 
convinced  that  the  Dresden  picture  owes  its  creation  to  some 
such  circumstance.     The  alterations  also  which  a  comparison 
with  the  first  picture  exhibits  are  such  as  render  it  more 
suitable  for  that  closer  inspection  which  the  walls  of  a  room 
would  permit.     The  head  of  the  Virgin  is  lovelier  and  milder 
in  form  and  expression ;  the  treatment  of  less  body,  tenderer, 
and  more  inclined  to  detail.     The  same  remarks  apply  more 
or  less  to  most  of  the  other  portions.     The  head  of  the 


THE    BURGOMASTER   METER'S    VOTIVE    PICTURE. 
By  Hans  Holbein,  in  the  Palace  of  Princess  Charles  of  Hesse,  at  Darmstadt. 

pafte  206. 


THE   BURGOMASTER  MEYER'S   VOTIVE  PICTURE. 
Painted  by  Hans  Holbein,  and  now  in  the  Gallery  at  Dresden.  page  206. 


Chap.  VI.  HANS  HOLBEIN   THE  YOUNGER.  207 

Burgomaster  alone  is  rather  hard  and  empty.  The  some- 
what coarse  and  slightly-painted  carpet  may  be  the  work  of 
a  scholar.1 

Two  other  pictures  in  the  Basle  Gallery,  also  executed 
in  1526,  differ  much  in  style  of  treatment  from  all  earlier 
works  of  the  master,  showing,  by  the  greater  tenderness  of 
the  warm  yellowish  local  tones,  in  the  more  abundant  use 
of  glazings,  and  increased  softness  of  outline,  so  strong  an 
influence  from  Netherlandish  art,  that  even  a  connoisseur 
like  Herr  von  Rumohr  supposed  them  to  be  works  by  Ber- 
nard van  Orley.  The  one,  No.  34,  represents  a  beautiful 
young  girl  in  elegant  attire,  nominally  the  portrait  of  a 
member  of  the  Offenburg  family  at  Basle,  with  the  inscrip- 
tion, "  Lais  Corinthiaca."2  The  other,  No.  35,  taken  from 
the  same  model,  but  less  attractive,  represents  Venus,  with 
a  somewhat  ugly  Cupid.  Although  the  last  only  is  dated 
1526,  yet  the  first  corresponds  with  it  too  entirely  in  every 
respect  to  leave  any  doubt  of  its  belonging  to  the  same 
time.  The  remarkable  style  of  these  pictures  may  be  best 
explained  by  the  probability  that  Holbein,  on  occasion  of 

1  [The  Darmstadt  and  Dresden  Madonnas  were  exhibited  together  at 
Dresden  in  1871 ;  and  the  majority  of  judges  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  former  was  original  and  the  latter  a  copy.     There  was  ample 
opportunity  at  the  exhibition  to  test  the  quality  of  both  pictures  by 
comparison  with  the  best  productions  of  Holbein,  ex.  gr,  :  Sir  Henry 
Guildt'ord,  Windsor ;  the  two  Godsalves, Dresden ;  George  Gysen,  Berlin; 
John  of   Antwerp,  Windsor ;   lleskemere,  Hampton    Court ;   Morrett, 
Dresden  ;  Duke  of  Norfolk,  Windsor.     The  technical  treatment  in  the 
two  pictures  was   altogether   different,  the   Darmstadt  example  being 
executed  in  the  manner  peculiar  to  Holbein,  as  shown  in  the  numerous 
works  above  quoted,  the  Dresden  example  in  a  style  betraying  a  copyist 
of  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.     It  was  observed  that  the  Dresden 
Madonna  was  injured  by  rubbing  down  ;  the  Darmstadt  Madonna  dis- 
figured by  subtle,  but  still  distinct,  repaints.     The  persons  represented 
on  the  Darmstadt  Madonna  are,  Jacob  Meyer,  his  first  wife,  Magdalen  Ber, 
his  second  wife,  Dorothea  Kannengiesser,  married  1512,  and  Dorothea's 
daughter  Anna,  born  circa  1513.    The  kneeling  youth  to  the  left  has  not 
been  traced,  and  critics  hopelessly  differ  as  to  the  true  character  of  the 
boy  on  the  foreground  (?  the  infant  Baptist).     See  His,  in  '  Jahrbiicher,' 
iii.  153  and  following.] 

2  [The  Lais  Corinthiaca  and  companion  picture  are   described  in 
Amerbach's  inventory  as  portraits    of    an   '  Offenburgin.'     Dorothea 
Offenburgin  was  the  wife  of  Junker  Joachim  of  Sultz.     Both  she  and 
her  husband  were  imprisoned  and   expelled  from   Bale  for   leading 
irregular  lives.     See  His,  n.  s.,  in  '  Jahrbucher,'  iii.  163.1 


208  THE  SWABIAN  SCHOOL.  Book  III 4 

a  visit  to  Antwerp  in  September,  had  become  acquainted 
with  the  manner  of  Quentin  Massys,  to  which  these  works 
most  approximate.  The  already-mentioned  letter  from 
Erasmus  to  his  friend  Egidius  in  Antwerp,  dated  the  29th 
August,  states  that,  if  Holbein  desired  to  visit  Quentin, 
Massys,  and  if  he  (Egidius)  should  not  have  the  time  to 
conduct  him,  he  would  depute  his  "  Famulus  "  to  show  him 
the  house.  Who  will  doubt  therefore  that  one  so  eager  as 
Holbein  to  appropriate  every  fresh  means  of  improvement 
would  profit  by  this  opportunity  ?  That  he  must  have- 
paid  a  somewhat  lengthened  visit  to  Antwerp  is  further 
proved  by  the  animated  and  masterly  portrait  of  his  friend 
Egidius,  also  in  Longford  Castle,  the  whole  style  of  which 
shows  the  probability  of  its  having  been  painted  during  that 
stay.1  In  all  probability,  also,  the  master  sent  the  two  small 
pictures  above  named,  as  specimens  of  his  success  in  the 
adoption  of  a  new  style,  to  his  patron  Amerbach  at  Basle, 
from  whose  collection  they  were  derived.2 

On  his  arrival  in  England  Sir  Thomas  More  received  the- 
painter  in  the  most  friendly  manner  into  his  own  house,., 
built  by  himself  on  the  Thames,  not  far  from  London,  retain- 
ing him  there  for  some  time  without  bringing  him  to  the 
notice  of  King  Henry  VIII.3  Various  grounds  for  this 
proceeding  are  easy  to  conjecture.  Sir  Thomas  may  have 
wished,  as  was  fair,  that  he  and  his  family  should  first  profit 
by  the  painter's  genius  ;  also  to  give  Holbein  the  opportu- 
nity of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  language  and  manners 
of  the  country  before*making  his  debut  on  a  larger  theatre. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  even  in  the  first  year  of  his 
English  residence  he  painted  other  individuals,  who  were 
probably  personal  friends  of  the  Chancellor.  Among  the 
works  thus  produced  is  the  portrait  of  the  Treasurer,  Sir 

1  'Galleries  and  Cabinets,'  etc.,  p.  356.     [The  Lais  must  have  been 
painted  before  Holbein's  visit  to  Antwerp  ;  for  it  is  dated  1526,  and 
Holbein  left  Bale  in  August  of  that  year  on  his  way  to  England,  where- 
he  remained  till  1518.     The  portrait  of  Egidius  at  Longford  Castle  is 
now  universally  and  correctly  assigned  to  Quentin  Massys.] 

2  The  Amerbach  collection  forms  the  principal  part  of  the  Basle 
Gallery. 

3  Van  Mander,  p.  142. 


Chap.  VI.  HANS   HOLBEIN   THE   YOUNGER.  200 

Bryan  Tuke,  which  shows  the  closest  affinity  in  style  with 
his  latest  pictures  in  Basle,  and  of  which  two  equally  excel- 
lent examples  exist.  One,  which  I  saw  in  1835  in  the 
Methuen  Collection  in  Corsham  House,  [is  now  in  the 
collection  of  the  Marquis  of  Westminster,  and]  inscribed, 
"  Brianus  Tuke,  Miles,  anno  aetates  suse  LVII.,"  with  the 
motto,  "Droit  et  avant."  An  expression  of  slight  melancholy 
is  perceptible  in  the  refined  features,  and  corresponds  with  a 
passage  from  the  Book  of  Job  on  a  paper,  "  Numquid  non 
paucitas  dierum  meorum  finietur  brevi  ?  " — chap.  x.  ver.  20. 
He  is  dressed  in  black,  with  under  sleeves  of  a  delicate  gold 
pattern.  The  feeling  for  nature  conveyed  by  this  portrait  is 
refined,  and  of  masterly  rendering.  As  regards  the  not  less 
successful  example  now  in  Munich,  Cabinets,  No.  213,  the 
inscriptions  on  the  background  are  absent.  The  passage 
from  Job,  however,  is  there,  with  the  addition  of  "  Job  cap  : 
10,"  and  "  10.  HOLPAIN."  A  skeleton  pointing  to  an  almost 
spent  hour-glass  gives  the  answer  to  the  question.1  The 
portrait  of  Sir  Henry  Guildford  at  Windsor  Castle,  which 
has  unfortunately  darkened,  is  also  dated  1527,  the  first 
year  of  Holbein's  stay  in  England ;  [likewise  the  Sir  Thomas 
More  of  Mr.  Henry  Huth,  in  London,  and  Archbishop 
Warham,  at  Lambeth  House,  of  which  a  replica  is  in  the 
Louvre.]  The  next  year  (1528)  constitutes  another  step  in 
the  artist's  career.  The  admirable  picture  of  Nicholas 
Kratzer,  astronomer  to  Henry  VIII.,  in  the  Louvre,  No.  206, 
shows  a  larger  conception  and  greater  simplicity  of  forms, 
but  is  of  a  deep  and  untransparent  brown  colour. 

[One  of  the  most  interesting  pictures  which  Holbein 
painted  at  this  time  is  that  of  Sir  Thomas  More  and  his 
family,  of  which,  unhappily,  none  but  copies  have  been  pre- 
served.2 On  the  eve  of  returning  to  Bale,  where  duty  and 
inclination  were  perhaps  calling  him,  Holbein  was  entrusted 
with  letters  to  Erasmus,  in  which  the  sketch  of  this  picture, 
now  in  the  Bale  Museum,  was  inclosed.  It  contains  ten 
full-length,  life-sized  figures,  of  easy  arrangement,  of  extra- 

1  [It  is  very  doubtful  whether  this  picture  is  by  Holbein,  and  Mr. 
"Wornum  is  probably  right  in  doubting  its  originality.  ] 

2  [The  best  in  Nostall  Priory  in  Yorkshire.] 

14 


210  THE   SWABIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  III. 


ordinary  truth  and  animation  of  the  heads,  with  great  free- 
dom of  movement,  and  of  masterly  rendering  in  every  part. 
Erasmus,  in  answering  the  Mores,  under  the  date  of  Sep- 
tember, 1529,  acknowledged  the  receipt  of  the  letters,  and 
told  how  the  drawing  had  been  brought  to  him  by  Holbein 
in  person.  Yet  Holbein  had  been  at  Bale  since  August, 
1528.  He  had  taken  home  the  earnings  of  two  busy  years 
in  England,  and  bought  a  house  next  to  that  in  which  his 
patron,  the  printer  Froben,  kept  his  books.1  A  portrait  of 
his  wife  and  two  children,  in  the  Bale  Museum,  was  the  first 
fruit  of  his  professional  occupation  at  the  time.]  To  all 
those  who  judge  of  a  work  of  art,  not  by  its  subject,  but  by 
the  amount  of  skill  bestowed  on  it,  this  picture  is  an  object 
of  great  admiration ;  but  it  is  no  less  true  that  the  cross- 
looking  woman  with  red  eyes,  the  plain  little  girl,  and  the 
half-starved  boy  baby  are  not  attractive.  The  conception, 
however,  is  of  such  simple  and  unpretending  truth,  the  full 
forms  are  so  masterly,  the  colouring,  with  rather  gray  shadows, 
is  so  bright  and  clear,  and  the  treatment  so  free  and  light,  that, 
with  these  before  one,  the  unpleasing  character  of  the  indi- 
viduals can  be  well  endured,  and  also  the  capricious  and 
unartistic  arrangement  of  the  picture.  Unvarnished  reality 
appears  here  in  its  full  artistic  excellence.2 

[Holbein  was  again  employed  in  1530  to  complete  the 
series  of  wall-paintings  begun  in  earlier  years  in  the  Town- 
hall  of  Bale.8  He  might  have  been  induced  to  remain  in 
this,  the  place  of  his  habitual  residence,  had  it  not  been  that 
the  [Reformation,  and  the  troubles  which  accompanied  it,  made 
earning  precarious.  In  1532  Holbein  returned  to  England. 
But  the  circle  in  which  he  now  moved  was  not  the  circle  he 


1  [His  in  '  Jahrbucher,'  iii.  123.     It  may  be  that  Erasmus's  letter  is 
misdated  ;  possibly  there  was  some  delay  in  Holbein's  transmission  of 
the  sketch,  Erasmus  being  away  at  Freiburg.] 

2  [Holbein  was  married  to  a  widow,  whose  name  was  Elspeth  Schmidt, 
and  she  had  a  son  by  her  first  husband,  Franz  Schmidt,  who  afterwards 
became  guardian  to  Holbein's  children.     See  Woltmann's  '  Holbein,'  i. 
347.] 

3  [To  this  year,  1530,  Dr.  Waagen  assigns  "the  portraits  of  Dr.  Stokes- 
ley  and  Henry  VIII.,  at  Windsor  Castle."     But  Holbein  was  not  in 
England  in  this  year,  he  was  not  as  yet  acquainted  with  Henry  VIII., 
and  the  pictures  above  quoted  are  not  in  Holbein's  manner.] 


Chap.  VI.  HANS   HOLBEIN   THE   YOUNGER.  '211 


had  left.  Amongst  the  merchants  of  the  Steelyard,  a  rich 
and  powerful  body  of  his  countrymen,  he  found  numerous 
and  eager  patrons,  and  these  he  portrayed,  one  after  another, 
with  never-ending  patience  and  success.] 

The  portrait  of  [Hans  of  Antwerp,  a  goldsmith,  and  a 
member  of  the  Steelyard],  dated  1532,  now  in  Windsor 
Castle,  unites  with  an  increasing  delicacy  of  drawing  Holbein's 
usual  brownish  local  flesh-tone.1  On  the  other  hand,  a 
portrait  of  George  Gysen,  a  merchant,  executed  in  London, 
but  now  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  586,  sl^ows  that,  in  the 
attempt  to  attain  the  utmost  possible  delicacy  of  modelling,  the 
master  abandoned  his  in  that  respect  untractable  brownish 
tone  for  one  of  a  cool  but  very  clear  nature,  to  which  he 
adhered  in  subsequent  years.  In  close  affinity  with  the  last 
portrait  is  a  delicate  picture  of  a  woman  in  a  red  dress  with 
fur,  and  a  veil,  a  rosary  in  her  hand,  in  the  Cassel  gallery, 
No.  50.2 

[Equally  fine  and  of  this  tim'e  is  the  portrait  of  a  man, 
half-length,  in  the  Schonborn  collection  at  Vienna.] 

The  most  important  picture  for  extent  and  richness  of 
representation  which  I  know  by  Holbein  in  England,  the  so- 
called  ambassadors,  in  the  collection  of  Lord  Radnor  at 
Longford  Castle,  belongs  [to  the  year  1533].  Of  the  two 
full-length,  life-sized  figures,  standing  side  by  side,  the  one 
in  rich  attire,  and  with  the  order  of  St.  Michael,  represents, 
as  Lord  Folkestone  informed  me,  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  one  of 
the  most  learned  and  accomplished  Englishmen  of  his  time. 
The  other  figure  has  both  the  expression  and  simpler  dress 
of  a  learned  professor ;  and  various  mathematical  instru- 
ments, a  globe,  and  some  wind-instruments,  treated  precisely 
like  those  in  the  portrait  of  Nicholas  Kratzer,  give  further 
evidence  of  his  particular  calling.  In  the  conception  of  the 
forms  this  picture  is  also  closely  related  to  the  portrait  of 
Sratzer,  but  it  is  clearer  in  the  yellowish-brown  flesh-tones, 

1  [Hans  of  Antwerp,  or  'Hannssen  von  Anwerpen  upn  Stallhof.'  as 
his  name  appears  on  the  picture  at  Windsor,  was  a  goldsmith  and  friend 
of  Holbein,  as  we  observe  particularly  in  the  painter's  will.] 

2  [To  this  portrait  at  Cassel,  Dr.  Waagen,  in  assigning  it  to  Holbein, 
should  have  added  the  companion,  No.  5,  portrait  of  a  man  in  a  black 
•dresa  and  cap.]     [Neither  of  these  is  now  regarded  as  authentic.] 


212  THE  SWABIAN  SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

and  very  easy  in  movement.1  [Other  portraits  executed  in 
1533  are  those  of  Derick  Born,  at  Windsor,  Deryck  Tybis,  of 
Duisburg,  in  the  Belvedere  at  Vienna,  and  Eobert  Cheseman, 
at  the  Hague.  A  small  portrait  of  this  year,  in  the  Suer- 
mondt  collection  [BerliD,No.  586  c],  attracts  by  its  mastery 
and  good  preservation;  Ambrose  of  the  Steelyard,  in  the 
Brunswick  Gallery,  a  doubtful  example,  repels  by  hasty  exe- 
cution and  an  injured  surface.]  A  water-colour  drawing  of 
the  favourite  subject  of  the  day— the  Wheel  of  Fortune— at 
Chatsworth,  spirited  alike  in  invention  and  execution,  is  also 

dated  1533.2 

In  consequence  of  the  appreciation  Holbein  met  with  in 
England,  he   came  into  greater  favour   also  at  Basle.     A 
friendly  missive  from  the   magistracy  of  Basle,  dated  2nd 
September,  1532,  calls  upon  him  to  return  to  that  city;  and, 
as  an  inducement  for  him  to  remain  there,  promises  him  the 
yearly  sum  of  thirty  pieces  of  money.     This  communication 
only  reached  the  artist  in  1533,  [and  failed  to  induce  him 
to  change  his  residence.     It  was   at  this   time,  perhaps, 
that  his  works  first  attracted  the  attention  of  Henry  VIH. 
Henry  had  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  divorce  from  Catharine 
of  Aragon.     He   was   married  to   Anne   Boleyn,  and  her 
coronation  was  celebrated  with  pomp  in  May,  1533].    On  the 
occasion  of  this   ceremony  Holbein,  at  the  request  of  his 
countrymen,  the  Company  of  German  Merchants  in  London, 
executed  two  large  pictures  in  tempera,  called  the  Triumph 
of  Riches  and  the  Triumph  of  Poverty,  see  woodcuts,  in  the 
banqueting-hall  of  the  Easterlings,  in  the  Steelyard.     These 
pictures  were  of  such   excellence  that  Federigo  Zucchero, 
according  to  the  evidence  of  Van  Mander,8  placed  them  on 
the  same  level  with  works  by  Raphael,  and  himself  took 
copies  of  them  with  the  pen.     Nor  does  Van  Mander  admire 
them  less.     Indeed,  all  admiration  is  fully  justified  by  the 
masterly  pen-drawing  by  Holbein  [in  the  Louvre],  in  which 

1  [This  picture  is  inscribed  :  "Johannes   Holbein  pingebat,   1533." 
Woltmann  ('Holbein,'  ii.  236),  suggests  that  the  figure  accompanying 
Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  is  John  Leland.] 

2  '  Treasures,'  vol.  iii.  p.  351. 
a  Schilderboeck,  fol.  144  a. 


3   TEIUMPH  OP  RICHES. 

i  the  Collection  of  the  late  Sir  Chaa..   Eastlake,  P.B.A. 


page  212,  No.  1. 


I 


Chap.  VI.  HANS  HOLBEIN  THE  YOUNGER.  213 

he  occupies  a  place  in  art  between  Mantegna  and  Raphael, 
and  also  by  the  fine  drawings  by  Vostermann  from  both  the 
Triumphs,  now  in  Lady  Eastlake's  possession.  The  com- 
position is  distributed  in  the  space  with  much  feeling  for 
style,  the  movements  are  graceful  and  grand,  and  the  cold- 
ness of  allegory  is  corrected  by  the  fine  individuality  of  the 
heads. 

The  Company  of  the  German  Merchants  in  London  having 
been  dissolved,  these  two  pictures  were,  on  the  22nd  of 
January,  1616,  presented  by  them  to  Prince  Henry  of  Wales, 
a  fact  which  is  placed  beyond  doubt  by  the  documentary  re- 
searches of  Dr.  Lappenburg.1  This  is  the  last  certain  record 
we  have  of  them ;  for  while  it  may  be  inferred  with  much 
probability  that  they  passed  at  the  death  of  that  prince — two 
years  later — into  the  possession  of  his  brother  Prince  Charles, 
afterwards  Charles  I.,  yet  as  they  are  not  enumerated  among 
the  works  of  art  belonging  to  that  monarch  which  were  sold 
by  Cromwell,  Dr.  Lappenburg  concludes  they  may  have 
perished  in  the  fire  at  Whitehall  in  1697.  But  such  evidence 
as  we  further  possess  is  not  in  favour  of  this  conclusion,  for 
it  is  remarkable  that  in  the  well-known  catalogue  of  Charles 
I.'s  collection,  by  the  keeper  Van  der  Doort,  which  contains 
notices  of  several  less  'important  works  by  Holbein,  and 
even  of  two  miniatures  by  him,  these  fine  pictures  are  not 
mentioned  at  all. 

[It  is  difficult  to  prove  at  whose  intercession,  or  at  what 
precise  time,  Holbein  was  promoted  into  the  royal  service  in 
London.  We  might  fancy  that  the  interest  of.  Wyatt, 
whose  likeness  he  took  in  1533,  or  that  of  Cromwell,  whose 
portrait  he  painted  in  1534,2  would  facilitate  his  introduction 
to  the  monarch.  Yet  there  are  no  tangible  proofs  of  such 
an  introduction  till  after  the  death  of  Anne  Boleyn,  when 
we  find  the  painter  executing  the  great  family  picture  of  the 

1  See  Dr.  Lappenburg' s  excellent  work,  *  Urkundliche  Geschichte  des 
Hansischen  Stalhof  zu  London,'  Hamburg,  1851,  vol.  L,  4to,  p.  83. 
The  usual  assumption  that  these  pictures  were  burnt  in  the  banqueting- 
hall  of  the  Easterlings  in  the  Great  Fire  of  London  in  1666  is  thus  set 
aside. 

2  [There  is  a  portrait  of  Cromwell  (?  genuine)  in  possession  of  Lady 
Caledon.] 


I 


THE  SWABIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

two  Henrys, — the  "VTIth  with  Elizabeth  of  York,  and  the 
VHIth  with  Jane  Seymour,  and  their  children, — which 
perished  in  the  fire  of  1698,  at  Whitehall.  For  a  long  time 
our  knowledge  of  this  piece  and  its  composition  could  only 
be  guessed  from  Leenput's  copy  at  Hampton  Court.  The 
grandeur  and  perfection  of  the  original  is  now  more  truly 
discerned  in  the  fragment  of  a  cartoon,  containing  the  two 
kings,  in  the  Duke  of  Devonshire's  seat  of  Hardwicke  Hall.1 
This  cartoon,  indeed,  is  the  only  original  production  of 
Holbein's  representing  the  features  of  Henry  the  VIH. 
About  this  time,  too,  Holbein  had  sittings  from  Jane  Seymour, 
whose  portrait  is  in  the  Belvedere  at  Vienna — a  clear,  grey, 
flesh-toned  picture,  of  great  precision.  1537  and  1538  are 
the  years  in  which  Holbein  painted  his  most  admirable 
likenesses.  Without  counting  the  Lady  Vaux  at  Prague, 
an  injured  picture,  of  which  there  is  a  replica  or  copy  equally 
injured  at  Hampton  Court,  we  have  the  splendid  "  South- 
well" of  the  Uffizi,2  and  the  wonderful  "Morrett"  of 
Dresden,  either  of  which  would  suffice  to  make  the  fame  of 
a  painter,  both  remarkable  for  the  skill  with  which  life  and 
expression  are  given  to  flesh  of  a  cool  gray  tone,  and  texture 
to  silks  and  stuffs,  velvets  and  embroideries,  and  details  of 
daggers,  buttons,  and  borders,  with  a  smoothness  quite 
unequalled  in  any  productions  of  the  time. 

In  the  Book  of  Henry  the  VIII. 's  household  expenses  for 
1538  Holbein  appears  for  the  first  time  in  receipt  of  a 
regular  quarterly  salary.  In  March  of  that  year  he  was 
sent  with  Philip  Hoby  to  Brussels,  to  paint  the  likeness  of 
Christina,  the  youthful  widow  of  the  Duke  of  Milan,  and 
this  likeness,  now  at  Arundel  Castle,  is  a  speaking  instance 
of  the  ability  with  which  Holbein  could  transfer  to  his 
pictures,  not'  only  the  person,  but  the  high-bred  air  of  a 
lady  of  quality.  It  may  be  that  the  tender  reddish  tone 
which  marks  this  and  other  creations  of  the  same  period 

1  [The  discovery  of  this  cartoon  is  due  to  Mr.  George  Scharf .] 

2  [Dr.  Waagen  misdated  this  picture  by  confounding  the  year  of  the 
king's  reign  with  that  of  the   century.     The  inscription  runs:   "X° 
julii.  anno  H.  VIII.  XXVIII.    Etatis  suse  XXXIII."      The  Morrett, 
.  fc  is  well  known,  was  catalogued  for  years  at  Dresden  under  the  name 
of  Da  Vinci.] 


Chap.  VI.  HANS  HOLBEIN  THE  YOUNGER.  215 

are  due  to  Holbein's  refreshing  his  memory  with  earlier 
works  at  Bale.  After  leaving  Brussels  in  spring  he  did  not 
return  to  London,  but  wenf  on  to  Bale,  where  the  splendour 
of  his  position,  and  his  new  apparel  of  silk  and  satin,  did 
not  fail  to  attract  considerable  attention.1  The  governors  of 
Bale  were  not  slow  to  improve  the  occasion,  by  urging 
Holbein  to  accept  an  appointment,  as  town  painter,  at  a 
salary  of  fifty  gulden,  and  a  furlough  of  two  years,  with  a 
pension  of  forty  gulden  for  each  year  of  his  absence.2  But 
Holbein  only  accepted  this  offer  pro  forma.  He  found  more 
attractions  in  England,  and  he  returned  to  his  old  haunts  in 
London  without  regret. 

It  was  a  kindly  habit  of  the  royal  painters  to  make 
new  year's  presents  of  pictures  to  the  king.  On  the  1st  of 
January,  1539,  Holbein  went  to  the  palace  with  a  likeness  of 
the  heir-apparent,  and  Henry  rewarded  him  for  it  with  "  a 
gilte  cruse."3  There  are  numerous  replicas  of  this  portrait, 
one  at  Sion  House,  another  in  the  Yarborough  collection  in 
London,  another  in  the  Welfen  Museum  at  Hanover,  but  it 
is  very  doubtful  whether  any  of  them  are  original. 

Meanwhile  the  negotiations,for  Henry's  marriage  with  the 
Duchess  of  Milan  had  been  broken  off.  At  the  court  of  the 
Duchess  of  Cleves  there  lived  a  marriageable  princess :  Holbein 
was  again  sent  (Aug.,  1539)  to  paint  her  likeness,  which  we 
see  in  its  perfection  at  the  Louvre. 

The  painter's  works  in  this  and  subsequent  years  are  all 
masterpieces.  It  is  not  possible  to  do  more  than  register  them : 
viz.,  in  1539,  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  at  Windsor  Castle,  and  his 
son,  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  which  is  lost ;  in  1541,  portraits  of 
gentlemen,  one  in  the  Berlin  Museum  collection,  another  be- 
longing to  Mr.  Millais,  a  third  in  the  Belvedere  at  Vienna  ; 
in  1542,  the  portrait  of  Holbein  himself  at  the  Uffizi;  of 

1  [See  Woltmann's  'Holbein,'  u.  s.,  ii.  317-19  and  325.]  This  visit, 
and  also  the  happiness  Holbein  enjoyed  in  England,  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following  passage  in  a  letter  from  Gualter,  then  studying  at 
Basle,  to  Antistes  Bullinger  at  Zurich,  in  the  middle  of  Sept.,  1538  : — 
"Venitnuper  Basileam  ex  Anglia  Joannes  Holbein  adeo  felicem  ejus 
regni  statum  prsedicans,  quod  aliquot  septimanis  exactis  rursum  eo 
migraturus  est." 

-  [See  the  '  Bestallung,'  in  Woltmann,  u.  s.,  ii.  327.] 
3  [See  the  records  in  Woltmann's  Holbein,'  u.  s.,  ii.  389]. 


I 


216  THE   SWABIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

Butts  and  Chambers,  Henry  the  VIIL's  body  surgeons,  Butts 
in  the  Pole  Carew  collection,  Chambers  in  the  Belvedere  at 
Vienna.  Henry  VHI.  granting  privileges  to  the  Barber 
Surgeons,  a  large  picture  in  the  College  of  Surgeons,  is  about 
the  last  work  \vhich  the  painter  undertook,  and  probably 
remained  unfinished  at  his  death.] 

Considered  as  a  miniature-painter,  in  which  department 
Van  Mander1  reports  him  to  have  soon  outstripped  his  master 
Lucas,  whom  he  found  at  the  court  of  Henry  VIII.,  Holbein 
displayed  rare  excellence.  I  quote  only  the  portraits  of 
Henry  and  of  Anne  of  Cleves  in  the  collection  of  Colonel 
Meyrick.  The  portrait  of  the  lady  is  termed  by  Walpole 
"  the  most  exquisitely  perfect  of  all  Holbein's  works." 

How  early  this  master  succeeded  in  rendering  individual 
character  only  with  such  means  as  a  draughtsman  may  com- 
mand may  be  seen  in  the  eighty-nine  portraits  of  persons 
attached  to  the  court  of  Henry,  and  of  other  contemporary 
individuals,  in  the  royal  collection  at  Windsor.  In  most  of 
these  red  chalk  and  Indian  ink  are  the  sole  materials  em- 
ployed, though  sufficient  to  express  a  liveliness  of  conception, 
purity  of  feeling  for  nature,  and  a  lightness  and  decision  of 
touch  such  as  have  been  never  surpassed.2 

As  regards  Holbein's  powers  of  invention,  some  idea  of 
their  fruitfulness  may  be  obtained  from  various  designs,  and 
especially  from  the  woodcuts  and  engravings  taken  from  his 
drawings.  Of  these  latter  there  is  a  large  collection  in  the 
Basle  gallery.3  A  furious  onslaught  of  Swiss  native  soldiers, 
No.  35,  shows  us  with  what  energy  and  tremendous  truth 
he  rendered  the  momentary  exhibition  of  passion.  This  is 
the  most  living  and  spirited  picture  of  that  old  Swiss  race 
which  broke  the  power  of  Burgundy,  and  the  force  of  whose 
weapons  was  long  considered  to  be  irresistible. 

Among  his  biblical  subjects  a  composition  of  Christ  carry- 
ing his  cross  is  remarkable  for  richness  and  beauty ;  also  a 
Virgin  and  Child  for  elevation  of  feeling.  A  rich  series  of 

1  Van  Mander,  fol.  140  b. 

2  Bartolozzi's  plates  in  Chamberlain's  well-known  work  are  estimable, 
though  giving  but  feeble  representations  of  these  qualities. 

*  '  Kiinstler  und  Kunstwerke  in  Deutschland/  vol.  ii.  p.  283  to  291. 


Chap.  VI.  HANS   HOLBEIN   THE  YOUNGER.  217 

cartoons,  executed  with  pen  and  Indian  ink,  for  glass  paint- 
ings, and  of  powerful  effect,  are  very  important  in  character, 
though  not  all  equal  in  value.  Seven  similar  cartoons, 
representing  the  Passion,  drawn  also  in  the  master's  earlier 
time,  are  in  the  •  collection  of  engravings  in  the  British 
Museum.1  The  elevated  taste  with  which  he  treated  sub- 
jects from  common  life  is  shown  by  three  drawings  in  the 
same  museum — a  woman  with  three  children,  another  in  bed 
with  six  children,  and  Henry  VIII.  alone  at  table.2  Of  the 
engravings  from  his  designs  I  may  observe,  as  a  specimen  of 
the  degree  in  which  he  was  qualified  to  treat  historical  sub- 
jects, the  visit  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba  to  Solomon,  engraved 
by  Hollar. 

But  the  greatest  number  of  his  compositions  are  seen  in  the 
woodcuts,3  executed  by  highly  skilful  hands,  and  especially 
by  Hans  Liitzelburger,  and  which,  with  few  exceptions,  be- 
long to  the  period  before  his  removal  to  England.  The 
series  of  subjects  called  the  Dance  of  Death  comprise  his 
most  original  and  spirited  inventions.  These,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  proof-sheets,  were  first  published  at  Lyons 
in  forty-one  plates,  and  in  a  subsequent  edition,  which  also 
appeared  at  Lyons,  in  1547,  were  increased  by  twelve  addi- 
tional plates.  We  have  already  alluded  to  the  feeling  which 
pervades  these  compositions.  So  much  was  Holbein  in  love 
with  the  subject  that  he  treated  it  afresh  in  another  series 
of  alphabetical  woodcuts,  and  again  in  a  drawing,  of  which 
many  examples  exist,  for  the  handle  of  a  dagger.  Next  in 
order  the  woodcuts  for  the  Old  Testament  deserve  men- 
tion. This  work,  which  consists  of  ninety  subjects,  the 
first  four  of  which  are  the  Last  Dance  of  Death,  was  also 
published  at  Lyons  in  1538.  Some  of  the  designs  are  most 
remarkable.  The  woodcuts  for  two  other  alphabets  worthily 

1  *  Treasures,'  vol.  i.  p.  236. 

2  <  Galleries  and  Cabinets,'  etc.,  p.  36,  etc. 

3  In  this  view  I  concur  with  Herr  Sotzman  in  the  Tiibinger  Kunst- 
blatt,'  1836,  Nos.  30  to  32  ;  and  with  Herr  Vischer  in  the  same  work, 
1838,  Nos.  50  to  54  ;  1843,  Nos.  15  and  102 ;  and  1846,  No.  27.     On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  believed  by  some,  at  the  head  of  whom  is  Rumohr, 
that  he  was  himself  a  wood-engraver.     Rumohr's  '  H.  Holbein  in  seinem 
Verhaltnisse  zum  Deutschen  Formschnitt,'  Leipzig,  1836  ;  and  a  reply 
to  Sotzman  in  the  same  work. 


1 


218  THE   SWABIAN  SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

succeed  these  last :  one  of  the  series  contains  a  dance  of 
peasants,  the  other  of  children.  The  rare  woodcuts  to 
Cranmer's  Catechism  are  less  important.  Of  the  single  wood- 
cuts which  bespeak  the  invention  of  Holbein  I  will  only 
mention  the  portrait  of  Erasmus,  with  the  terminal  figure,, 
and  two  dagger-sheaths. 

Finally,  I  may  mention  that  Holbein  executed  a  large  number 
of  designs  for  domestic  furniture, — stoves,  clocks, — and  espe- 
cially for  weapons  and  goldsmith's  work.  These  contain  an 
abundance  of  original  inventions,  both  as  regards  the  forms 
of  a  developed  Renaissance  style  and  the  figures  introduced. 
Admirable  specimens  of  this  kind  are  in  the  engraving  de- 
partment of  the  British  Museum,  and  also  in  the  library.1 

This  great  master  died  in  London  [between  the  7th  of  Octo- 
ber and  29th  of  November,  1543].2  Judging  from  the  most 
authentic  of  his  portraits — the  one  in  red  and  black  chalk, 
in  the  Basle  Museum,  which  represents  him  in  youthful  years 
— he  was  a  man  of  well-formed  and  regular  features,  expres- 
sive of  a  clear  mind,  a  cheerful  temper,  and  a  quiet  decision 
of  character.8 

Although,  owing  to  the  circumstance  of  his  leaving  his 
native  town  of  Augsburg  early,  and  his  also  residing  but  ten 
years  in  Basle,  Holbein  created,  properly  speaking,  no  school,, 
yet  some  painters  obviously  formed  their  style  from  his.  I 
may  quote  CHRISTOPHER  AMBERGER,  born  at  Nuremberg  about 
1500,  died  after  1561,  who  lived  in  Augsburg,  and  who  occu- 
pies an  important  position  as  a  portrait-painter.  However  in- 
ferior to  Holbein  in  energy  of  conception  and  refinement  of 
drawing,  yet  he  occasionally  surpasses  him  in  transparency 
and  warmth  of  colouring.  [A  stay  of  some  years  in  Italy 
(he  was  there  in  1535)  was  of  influence  in  the  expansion 
of  his  art.]4  Specimens  of  interest  are  the  following  :  the 
portrait  of  the  well-known  geographer,  Sebastian  Miinster,  in 

1  See  further  in  'Treasures,'  etc.,  vol.  i.  pp.   203  and  236.     Also, 
'  Galleries  and  Cabinets,'  etc.,  p.  37,  etc. 

2  [See  the  will  and  administration  to  the  same,  by  Mr.  Franks,  in  the 
'Archseologia'  vol.  xxxix.] 

3  A  line-engraving  from  it  is  at  the  opening  of  Hegnor's  book. 

*  [One  of  his  pictures,  a  portrait  in  the  Belvedere,  is  dated  so :  "  1535 
di  Marzo."  See  Woltmann  in  Meyer's  Lexikon.] 


Chap.  VI.  NICOLAS  MANUEL. 


the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  588 ;  and  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
V.,  in  the  gallery  at  Sienna.  As  an  historical  painter  Am- 
berger  is  less  successful :  but  an  altarpiece,  dated  1554, 
representing  the  Virgin  and  Child  surrounded  with  Saints, 
placed  on  the  wall  of  the  choir-sacristy  in  Augsburg  Cathedral, 
is  skilfully  composed  and  drawn,  and  the  heads  of  refined 
and  elevated  character.  The  religious  sentiment  of  this 
picture,  though  true  to  nature,  is  feeble  in  expression ;  the 
colouring  is  transparent.  This  painter,  considered  as  an 
historical  artist,  embodies  the  transition  from  the  early  Ger- 
man style  to  that  of  the  more  modern  school,  a  movement 
which  is  more  clearly  seen  in  another  altarpiece  of  the  same 
subject,  dated  1560,  in  the  church  of  St.  Anna  at  Augsburg.1 

Another  painter,  of  the  name  of  HANS  ASPEK,  shows  the 
influence  of  Holbein  in  Switzerland.  The  portraits  of  Zwingli 
and  his  wife  in  the  library  at  Zurich  are  specimens  of  his  art. 
I  have  not  seen  them,  however. 

Another  Swiss  painter  from  Berne,  by  name  NICOLAS 
MANUEL,  surnamed  DEUTSCH,  born  1484,  died  1531,  as- 
sumes, on  the  other  hand,  a  far  more  independent  position.2 
Although  allied  to  Holbein  in  the  realistic  tendency  of  his 
art,  yet  he  differs  essentially  from  him  in  the  mode  of  its 
expression.  He  also  treated  the  subject  of  the  Dance  of 
Death  with  considerable  humour,  in  forty- six  large  fresco 
pictures  on  the  churchyard  wall  of  the  Dominican  convent  at 
Berne.  His  conception,  however,  partakes  in  no  way  of 
the  fearfully  bitter  sarcasm  of  the  Holbein  series,  but  has 
rather  a  light  and  good-tempered  character.  Thus  Death  is 
stroking  the  Abbot  under  his  fat  chin,  is  marching  along 
with  the  soldier,  and  is  enticing  the  child  with  the  merry 
whistle  of  his  pipe.  All,  therefore,  except  a  fool,  who 
resists,  take  the  summons  quietly.  Unfortunately  this  work 
only  exists  in  copies.3  As  Manuel,  besides  being  a  painter, 
was  poet,  soldier,  statesman,  and  reformer,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  his  art  should,  in  point  of  development,  by  no 

1  Kiinstler  und  Kunstwerke  in  Deutschland, '  vol.  ii.  pp.  62  and  67. 

2  Gruneisen's  'Mcolaus  Manuel,'  Stuttgart,  1837,  pp.  156  to  194. 

3  Lithographs  of  this  work  were  published  by  E.  Haag  and  Co.  at 


•220  THE   SWABIAN   SCHOOL.  Book  III. 

means  approach  that  of  Holbein.  Nor  had  he  that  great 
painter's  feeling  for  beauty.  His  pictures  are  very  unequal 
in  merit.  The  richness  and  frequent  beauty  of  his  land- 
scape backgrounds  prove  the  influence  of  Titian,  with  whom 
he  spent  some  time  in  Venice,  about  the  year  1511.  He 
may  be  thoroughly  studied  in  the  Museum  at  Basle  in  the 
following  works  : — The  Decollation  of  John  the  Baptist,  No. 
70.  Here  the  expression  of  aversion  in  the  figure  of  Salome, 
as  she  receives  the  bloody  head  from  the  half-averted  execu- 
tioner, is  delicately  conceived.  The  colouring  is  also  fine, 
and  the  finish  careful.  The  same  merit  of  execution  is 
observable  in  the  David  and  Bathsheba,  dated  1517,  No. 
68,  which  is  painted  in  one  colour  with  white  lights.  A 
Lucretia,  of  the  same  date  and  style  of  treatment,  No.  69, 
shows  rude  and  uncouth  forms.  Two  pictu?:es,  in  tempera 
on  canvas,  are  also  here,  Nos.  66  and  67.  The  first  consists 
of  two  scenes  from  the  story  of  Pyramus  and  Thisbo,  having 
the  effect  of  a  parody,  the  figures  being  attired  in  the  stately 
costume  of  Upper  Germany.  The  second,  which  is  more 
carefully  rendered,  represents  the  Virgin  and  Child,  with  St. 
Anna  and  Saints,  on  clouds,  and  adored  by  a  number  of  the 
faithful.  Both  these  works  are  remarkable  for  their  rich 
landscape.  A  large  picture,  in  oil  on  canvas,  representing  a 
peasant  wedding,  in  the  possession  of  the  Manuel  family  at 
Berne,  shows  how  agreeably  he  could  occasionally  treat  the 
busier  scenes  of  common  life  ;  while  a  portrait  of  himself, 
in  the  Civic  Library  of  the  same  town,  proves  him  to  have 
been  a  capital  portrait-painter.  In  his  art,  also,  we  may 
see  the  deep  interest  which  he  took  in  the  Reformation  in 
his  native  land.  A  drawing  of  the  Resurrection  of  Christ 
is  in  the  possession  of  Dr.  Griineisen  at  Stuttgart.  Here, 
however,  the  guardians  of  the  sepulchre  are  not  Roman 
soldiers,  but  Roman  Catholic  priests  and  monks,  who  are 
sitting  round  about  with  their  concubines,  and,  scared  by 
the  appearance  of  the  Saviour,  are  running  away  with  all 
speed. 

That  branch  of  the  Swabian  school,  also,  which  flourished 
in  Ulm,  produced  in  this  period  a  very  remarkable  painter, 
MARTIN  SCHAFFNEB  by  name,  who  laboured  from  1499  to 


Chap.  VI.  MARTIN   SCHAFFNER.  221 

1535.1  His  tendency  was  realistic  also,  and  in  his  earlier 
time  he  does  not  advance  beyond  a  common  portrait-like 
character  of  figures.  Of  this  class  is  his  Adoration  of  the 
Threo  Kings,  in  the  Germanic  Museum  at  Nuremberg, 
No.  52.  At  the  same  time  he  exhibited,  pretty  early  in  his 
career,  a  power  of  expressing  the  cheerful  innocence  of 
young  girls.  As  a  specimen  I  may  cite  five  youthful  female 
saints,  with  one  elderly  saint,  in  the  Berlin  Museum  [now 
withdrawn].  Later  in  life,  and  owing  probably  to  the  study 
of  Borgognone's  works,  he  cultivated  a  feeling  for  beauty  and 
for  the  higher  expression  of  spiritual  emotion.  The  finest 
specimens  of  this  class  are  four  pictures  from  the  diocese 
of  Weddenhausen,  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  Nos.  214-17. 
These  are  the  Annunciation,  the  Presentation  in  the  Temple 
(of  the  year  1524),  the  Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  the 
Death  of  the  Virgin.  From  these  works  we  should  be  led 
to  believe  that  Schaffner  was  a  gentle  and  amiable  man,  full 
of  deep  feeling,  and  endowed  with  a  strong  sense  of  what 
was  delicate  and  noble  in  form,  more  especially  as  regards 
the  drawing  of  the  heads.  His  colour  only  is  defective, 
particularly  in  the  flesh;  it  has  a  peculiarly  clear  greyish 
tone,  without,  however,  being  cold.  The  last  of  the  pictures 
just  referred  to  is  remarkably  good :  the  sinking  form  of  the 
Virgin,  who  kneels  in  prayer  with  the  Apostles  (a  peculiar 
and  touching  mode  of  conceiving  the  subject),  and  the 
different  degrees  of  sympathy  in  the  countenances  of  the 
latter,  are  very  happily  expressed.  Over  the  principal  altar 
of  the  cathedral  of  Ulm  is  another  important  work  by  Schaff- 
ner, of  the  year  1521.  The  centre  consists  of  a  carving  in 
wood,  representing  the  Holy  Family ;  the  wings  are  painted 
by  Schaffner ;  on  the  inside  are  family  groups  of  the  kindred 
of  the  Virgin,  and  on  the  outside  different  saints.  The  forms 
are  somewhat  round,  and  remind  us  of  Italian  art ;  the  heads 
are  soft  in  expression ;  the  cast  of  the  drapery  is  still  occa- 
sionally angular,  but  grand  in  form,  and  in  long  masses.  In 
all  these  pictures  a  delicate  cool  tone  prevails  more  or  less 

1  Griineisen  und  Mauch,  'Ulm's  Kunstleben,'  p.  53,  etc.    IScliaffiier 
L-3  probably  a  pupil  of  Schiihlein.] 


I 


222  THE   SWABIAN   SCHOOL.  B>oklil. 


in  the  flesh.  The  general  effect  also  pertains  to  the  cool 
scale  of  colour.  Martin  Schaffner  was  also  an  excellent 
portrait-painter,  as  seen  in  his  portrait  of  a  Count  Oettingen, 
dated  1508,  now  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  Cabinets,  No.  218, 
a  picture  of  refined  feeling,  though  somewhat  flat  in  model- 
ling; also  in  his  portraits  in  the  Besser  chapel  and  in  the 
sacristy  of  the  Ulm  cathedral,  both  far  more  animated  in 
character  and  powerful  in  colour. 

Finally,  a  peculiar  position  in  the  Swabian  school  is  taken 
by  the  painter  HANS  BALDUNG,  called  GKIEN,  born  1470  at 
Gmund,  died  [1545]  at  Strasburg.     No  other  master  shows, 
in  style  of  conception,  drawing,  and  treatment,  so  decided 
an  influence  from  Albert  Durer,  which  makes  it  probable 
that  he  must  have  spent  some  time  in  the  atelier  of  that 
master  at  Nuremberg.     In  point  of  feeling  for  beauty,  har- 
mony of  colour,  and  general  keeping,  he  is,  however,  inferior 
to  the  other  Swabian  masters.     The  character  of  his  heads, 
which  are  roundish  and  unattractive  in  form,  and  too  pro- 
nounced in  single  parts,  is  too  often  repeated.     His  chef- 
d'oeuvre  is  a  large  altarpiece,  signed  1516,  in  the  Freiburg 
cathedral.1     The   centre  picture  represents  the  Coronation 
of  the  Virgin  by  the  Almighty  and  Christ,  with  angels  float- 
ing around  and  playing  on  musical  instruments.     The  light 
clouds  which  sustain  them  are,  on  close  observation,  seen  to 
consist  entirely  of  cherubims'  heads.     The  inner  sides  of  the 
wings  contain  the  twelve  Apostles  in  adoration :  robust  in- 
dividual heads.     The  outer   sides    of  the   wings   and   two 
stationary  side  pictures  are  occupied  by  the  Visitation,  the 
Nativity,  the  Flight  into  Egypt,  and  by  the  Annunciation : 
the   last-named   apparently   by   a   different   hand.     In   the 
Visitation  the  sweet  expression  of  the  Virgin  and  the  mild 
and  gentle  countenance  of  Elizabeth   are  of  great  charm. 
In  the  Nativity  the  light  proceeds  from  the  Child ;  the  group 
is   further   lighted   by   clear   moonlight.      Here,    also,    the 
expression  of  the  Virgin  and  of  the  five  angels  is  of  great 
tenderness.     But  the  most  remarkable  of  the  number,  both 

1  See  Life  of  this  master,  and  account  of  this  work,  by  Schreiber, 
*  Das  Miinster  zu  Freiburg,'  second  edition,  and  '  Das  Miinster  zu 
Strasburg,'  second  edition,  p.  75. 


Chap.  VI.  HANS   BALDUNQ.  223 

as  regards  beauty  and  originality  of  composition  and  success- 
ful execution,  is  the  Flight  into  Egypt.  An  angel  has  swung 
himself  down  from  a  date-palm,  up  which  four  other  angels 
are  climbing,  on  to  the  mule,  and  is  extending  fruit  to  the 
Child,  who  is  clinging  to  the  Virgin.  On  the  back  of  the 
centre  picture  is  a  well-executed  Crucifixion,  after  the  com- 
position by  Albert  Durer.  The  wings  of  the  back  contain 
SS.  Martin,  George,  John  the  Baptist,  and  Jerome,  grand 
;and  characteristic  figures.  The  portraits  of  the  founders, 
•on  the  predella,  in  adoration  of  the  Virgin,  under  the  Cruci- 
fixion, are  very  animated.  Occasionally  the  painter  de- 
generates into  revolting  exaggerations,  as  in  the  figures  of 
•those  stoning  St.  Stephen.  The  head  of  the  saint  himself  is 
elevated  in  character  and  vigorous  in  colouring.  The  picture, 
signed  1522,  is  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  623.  In  the 
same  gallery,  No.  603,  is  a  Crucifixion,  dated  1512,  and  an 
admirable  cartoon  of  the  same  subject  is  preserved  in  the 
collection  of  engravings.  The  fantastic  element  was  also 
strongly  developed  in  this  painter,  of  which  the  large  wings 
of  an  altarpiece  at  Colmar,  and  especially  the  Temptation  of 
St.  Anthony,  give  a  striking  example.  The  saint  is  con- 
versing with  Paul  the  Hermit.  The  landscape  in  this  picture 
is  very  beautiful.1  Two  women,  also,  with  skeletons,  in  the 
Basle  Museum,  belong  to  this  class  of  his  works.  They  are 
very  disagreeable  subjects,  but  admirably  executed.  The 
best  portrait  by  his  hand  known  to  me  is  one,  dated  1515, 
of  a  light-haired  youth,  in  the  Gallery  of  Vienna.  That 
of  a  Markgraf  of  Baden,  dated  1514,  in  the  Munich  Gal- 
lery, Cabinets,  No.  287,  is  drier.  In  his  drawings  Hans 
Baldung  approaches  the  precision  of  execution  of  Albert 
Durer,  though  far  inferior  to  him  in  correctness.  He  exe- 
cuted two  engravings  with  much  skill,  and  a  considerable 

1  [Dr.  Woltmann  (Zeitsch.  f.  b.  Kunst  i.  262,)  gives  able  but  not 
conclusive  proofs  that  the  wings  of  the  altarshrine  in  the  cathedral  of 
Colinar,  representing  the  temptation  of  St.  Anthony,  and  the  hermits, 
Anthony  and  Paul,  are  by  Grien.  On  the  back  of  these  wings  is  a 
"  Majesty  "  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  with  the  Virgin  and  Angel  annunciate 
on  a  second  pair  of  wings  ;  the  obverse  of  which  again  is  covered  with  a 
composition  of  the  Passion.  This  composite  work  was  once  on  the  high 
•altar  of  the  monastery  of  Issenheim,  in  Alsace.  See  antea,  p.  186. 


I 


224  SCHOOLS   OF   THE   EHINE.  Book  III. 


number  of  designs,  chiefly  of  a  religious  character,  for  wood- 
engravings.1 

THE    SCHOOLS    OF    THE    LOWER    RHINE    AND    OF    WESTPHALIA. 

The  Netherlands  exercised  by  their  vicinity  so  prepon- 
derating an  influence  over  these  countries,  that  the  painters 
they  produced  exhibit  by  no  means  so  distinct  an  originality 
as  those  of  the  schools'  we  have  been  considering.  The 
influence  of  Quentin  Massys  especially,  on  the  part  of  Bel- 
gium, is  recognisable.  With  a  tendency  decidedly  realistic, 
they  do  not,  in  many  instances,  rise  in  their  heads  above  a 
commonplace  character,  showing  but  little  feeling  for  beauty, 
though  often  an  intense  and  moving  expression.  In  colour- 
ing they  nearly  approach  the  masters  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  also  in  the  masterly  rendering  of  detail,  namely,  in  the 
often  highly-finished  character  of  the  landscape  backgrounds. 
As  regards  treatment,  they  may  be  distinguished  by  a  certain 
dryness  and  by  greater  hardness  of  outlines.  Here  again 
Cologne  forms  the  centre  of  pictorial  activity,  and  a  parti- 
cular predilection  is  shown  for  scenes  from  the  Passion, 
namely,  such  as  the  Descent  from  the  Cross,  which  excite 
sorrowful  emotions.  After  these,  the  Adoration  of  the  three 
Kings,  whose  bones  rest  in  the  Cathedral  of  Cologne,  is  the 
subject  most  in  vogue. 

Foremost  among  this  school  is  a  Cologne  master  who 
flourished  in  the  first  third  of  the  sixteenth  century.  His 
colouring  and  treatment  of  landscape  backgrounds  show 
the  study  of  Quentin  Massys'  works.  Later  in  life  he  visited 
Italy,  without,  however,  his  German  feeling  for  art  being 
affected  in  the  most  essential  points  by  any  impressions 
received  there.  In  his  pictures,  which  show  in  his  later 
time  a  more  judicious  composition,  an  elevated  and  fervent 
religious  feeling  is  observable.  The  heads  of  his  women 
evince  much  feeling  for  beauty  and  spiritual  purity ;  his 
male  heads,  on  the  other  hand,  though  invariably  truthful, 
are  generally  ugly  in  character ;  and  his  old  men,  in  his 
earlier  works,  have  an  over  softness  of  form  more  suitable  to 

1  Bartsch  mentions  fifty-nine  wood-engravings,  '  Peintre  Graveur/ 
vol.  vii.  p.  305. 


Chap.  VI.  MASTERS   OF   COLOGNE.  225 

the  other  sex.  The  nude  he  frequently  treats  with  a  certain 
meagreness,  though  otherwise  he  is  a  tolerably  good 
draughtsman.  In  his  earlier  works  a  great  transparency 
and  warmth  of  colouring  appear,  and  his  flesh  is  of  a 
blooming  reddish  tone.  In  those  later  pictures,  in  which 
some  influence  from  Italian  art  is  traceable,  this  fine  local 
colour  is  sacrificed  to  an  attempt  at  greater  modelling,  but 
at  the  same  time  his  heads  are  altogether  of  nobler  form 
and  purer  taste.  In  the  Netherlandish  minutiae  of  his  land- 
scape he  remains  always  the  same,  except  that  his  later 
pictures  are  in  this  respect  somewhat  heavier  in  tone.  His 
earliest  known  work,  dated  1515,  is  the  Death  of  the  Virgin, 
in  the  Museum  at  Cologne.  The  composition  is  certainly 
scattered,  and  the  incidents  wanting  in  repose ;  but  the 
head  of  the  Virgin  is  tender,  the  female  saints  on  the  wings 
of  lovely  character,  and  the  portraits  of  the  donors  truthful. 
A  large  and  originally  far  more  important  representation 
of  the  same  subject  was  formerly  also  in  a  church  at 
Cologne,  but  now  forms  part  of  the  Boisseree  collection 
in  the  Munich  Gallery,  Cabinets,  Nos.  55,  56,  and  57. 
It  agrees  entirely  in  the  wings  with  the  above-mentioned 
picture,  but  differs  greatly  from  it  in  the  centrepiece. 
Like  other  pictures  collected  by  the  Boisserees,  it  has 
been  strongly  overpainted  with  glazing  colours,  which 
give  it  a  crude  and  gaudy  look.  The  brick-red  tones 
bestowed  on  the  flesh  parts  are  particularly  disagreeable. 
An  important  picture  in  the  Gallery  at  Naples,  by  the  same 
master,  corresponds  entirely  with  that  at  Munich.  The 
subject  is  a  Crucifixion,  with  the  Virgin,  St.  John,  the 
Magdalen,  and  three  angels  who  are  catching  the  blood.  On 
the  wings  are  the  donor  with  three  sons,  presented  by  St. 
Jerome,  and  his  wife  with  two  daughters,  presented  by  St. 
Margaret,  and  the  armorial  bearings  of  the  family. 

One  of  the  finest  works  however  of  this  earlier  time  is  in 
the  collection  of  Mr.  Blundell  Weld,  of  Ince,  near  Liver- 
pool, representing  the  Virgin  contemplating  the  sleeping 
Child  with  intense  love,  and  three  singing  angels.1  A 

1  'Treasures  of  Art,'  vol.  iii.  p.  250. 

15 


226  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  RHINE.  Book  III. 

work  of  considerable  size  of  the  same  time  is  a  free  copy, 
the  property  of  Lord   Heytesbury,1  from   the   well-known 
Descent  from  the  Cross  by  Kogier   van   der  Weyden   the 
younger,  of  which,  as  we  have  already  said,  three  examples 
exist:    two  in  the  Madrid  Gallery,  and  one  in  the  Berlin 
Museum,     The  fact  that  one  of  these  copies  was  formerly  at 
Louvain  proves  that  the  Cologne  master  was  for  a  time  in 
the  Netherlands.     The    difference   in   the   composition   lies 
only  in  the  figure  upon  the  ladder,  and  some  of  the  heads 
are  only  altered  in  the  expression.     Instead   of  the   gold 
ground  the  copier  has  introduced  a  rich  landscape.     To  the 
same  period  finally  belongs  an  Adoration  of  the  Kings  in  the 
Dresden  Gallery,  No.  1848.     The  transition  from  his  earlier 
to  his  later  style  appears  in  a  Pieta,  with  Joseph  of  Arimathea 
and  St.  Yeronica,  dated  1524,  on  the  inner  sides  of  the  wings, 
in  the  Stadel  Institute  at  Frankfort.     It  was  formerly  in  the 
Lys  church  at  Cologne.     The  early  transparency  of  his  colour 
is  here  seen  combined  with  a  higher  character  in  some  of  the 
heads.     The  following  are  the  chefs-d'oeuvre  of  his   later 
time  : — An  Adoration  of  the  Kings,  of  very  considerable  size, 
in   the  Dresden  Gallery,  No.  1846.    The   character  of  the 
heads  is  very  much  the  same  as  in  his  early  days,  but  the 
colouring  is  grayer.     It  was  probably  painted  for  a  church 
near  Genoa,  where  it  was  formerly  preserved.2     A  somewhat 
large  altarpiece  in  the  Louvre,  No.  601,  with  a  Pieta  in  the 
centre,  St.  Francis  receiving  the  Stigmata  in  the  lunette,  and 
in  the  predella  the  Last  Supper.     The  many  reminiscences 
of  the  Cena  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci  prove  the  painter  to  have 
heen  in  Milan.    The  arrangement  of  the  centre  composition  is 
here  more  comformable  to  style,  the  types  less  truthful,  but 
of  greater  elevation  of  character,  the  modelling  more  careful, 
but  the   colouring  less   warm   and   transparent.8     Next   in 
order,  finally,  is  an  Adoration  of  the  Kings  in  the  Gallery 
at  Naples,  there  erroneously  called  Luca  d'  Ollanda,  with 
two  of  the  Kings  upon  the  wings.     The  heads  of  the  Virgin 

1  'Galleries  and  Cabinets,'  etc.,  p.  386. 

2  *  Remarks  on  the  Exhibition,  etc.,  of  the  Dresden  Gallery,'  Berlin, 
1859,  by  Dr.  Waagen,  p.  42. 

3  'Kunstwerke  und  Kunstler  in  Paris,'  p.  553,  etc. 


Chap.  VI.  MASTERS   OF   COLOGNE.  227 

and  of  the  kneeling  King  are  here  very  beautiful ;  the 
chiaroscuro  in  which  the  procession  is  kept  is  particularly 
successful. 

Another  painter  deserving  mention  is  one  who  flourished 
in  Cologne  in  the  first  decennium  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  to  whom  the  name  of  Lucas  van  Leyden  was  formerly 
erroneously  given,  and  in  later  times,  though  also  on  insuffi- 
cient grounds,  that  of  CHRISTOPH.  There  is  something  anti- 
quated in  his  meagre  forms  and  in  the  awkward  motives,  in 
which  at  the  same  time  an  attempt  at  grace  is  observable. 
In  his  heads  also  the  same  insignificant  and  by  no  means 
attractive  features  are  repeated,  and  generally  with  an  affected 
smile.  His  hands  especially  are  characterized  by  bony  and 
scarcely  tapering  fingers.  The  flesh-tones  incline  to  a  cool 
pearl-gray  colour ;  the  draperies,  in  heavy  and  sharp  breaks, 
consist  generally  of  sumptuous  stuffs  executed  with  great 
minutiae.  The  modelling,  however,  of  every  part  is  mar- 
vellous. Upon  the  whole  the  influence  of  Quentin  Massys 
may  also  be  traced  in  this  painter.  His  earliest  picture, 
known  to  have  been  executed  about  1501,  formerly  in  the 
Chartreuse  at  Cologne,  and  later  in  the  possession  of  Herr 
Haan  at  Cologne,  represents  St.  Thomas  placing  his  finger 
in  the  side  of  the  Saviour,  who  is  assisting  him  in  the  act. 
At  the  sides  are  four  saints,  with  angels  playing  on  musical 
instruments  on  the  grass.  On  the  wings,  outside  and  inside, 
are  saints.  Somewhat  later  in  time,  and  from  the  same 
church  and  in  the  same  hands,  is  the  Crucifixion,  with  the 
disciples  and  St.  Jerome.  On  the  interior  of  the  wings  are 
saints,  with  the  Annunciation,  and  SS.  Peter  and  Paul  on 
the  exterior.  Next  in  order  are  a  series  of  single  saints,  five 
of  whom  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  Cabinets,  Nos.  48-50,  form 
an  altar.  The  most  remarkable  figures  are  SS.  James  the 
younger,  Bartholomew,  and  John  the  Evangelist.  Two 
more  are  in  the  City  Gallery  at  Mayence;  and  two,  SS. 
Peter  and  Dorothea,  No.  707,  in  the  National  Gallery.1  In 
all  these  the  finish  of  the  execution  is  marvellous.  But  his 
most  remarkable  work,  as  regards  size  and  import,  is  a 

1  '  Galleries  and  Cabinets,'  etc.,  p.  228. 


I 


228  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  RHINE.  Book  IIL 

Descent  from  the  Cross,  in  the  Louvre,  No.  280,  there  called 
Quentin  Massys.  In  composition,  expression  of  the  emotions,, 
and  warmer  colour  of  the  flesh,  this  is  his  most  favourable 
specimen.  The  brown  glazing  shadows  on  the  gold  ground 
give  it  the  look  of  a  shrine. 

In  affinity  with  the  first  of  these  two  anonymous  masters 
may  be  mentioned  JOHANN  VON  MELEM  of  Cologne,  though 
several  pictures  of  saints  and  donors  in  the  Munich  Gallery, 
Cabinets,  Nos.  68,  69 — 72,  73,  show  him  to  be  inferior  ia 
drawing,  execution,  and  colouring.1  [?  De  Bruyn.] 

Among  the  Westphalian  painters,  one  [now  recognized  as 
Jacob  Cornelisz  van  Oostsanen  is]  especially  distinguished. 
His  style  of  art  approximates  also  in  every  respect  to  that  of 
the  Netherlands,  though  it  bears  a  sterner  and  more  anti- 
quated form  than  that  of  the  first-mentioned  Cologne  painter. 
His  tendency  is  decidedly  realistic,  and  his  practice  in  every 
respect  of  great  truthfulness ;  but  unfortunately  he  is  greatly 
deficient  in  feeling  for  beauty,  his  female  heads  being  little 
attractive,  and  those  of  his  children  strikingly  and  also- 
monotonously  ugly.  There  is  but  little  firmness  in  his- 
drawing,  and  his  outlines  are  sharp.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  something  na'ive  both  in  his  composition  and  feeling, 
his  colouring  is  of  extraordinary  power,  and  his  execution  of 
great  detail  and  solidity.  His  landscape  backgrounds,  for 
instance,  which  are  enlivened  with  various  attractive  epi- 
sodes, are  among  the  best  of  the  class  which  this  period 
produced.  The  best  specimen  I  know  of  him  (a  Nativity, 
date  1512)  is  wrongfully  termed  an  Albert  Durer,  in  the 
Gallery  at  Naples  (No.  342  of  the  Catalogue  of  1842).  The 
Child  is  lying  on  the  ground  beneath  the  ruins  of  a  building, 
which,  according  to  mediaeval  conception,  betokened  an 
antique  temple,  adored  by  the  Virgin  and  Joseph,  while  a 
number  of  angels  are  singing  the  "  Gloria  in  excelsis,"  ac- 
companied by  various  musical  instruments  ;  at  the  sides  are 
the  donors,  two  men  and  two  women,  with  their  patron 
saints.  In  the  rich  hilly  landscape  of  the  background  is 
seen  a  town  upon  a  lake.  The  execution  is  wonderfully 

1  I  purposely  reserve  the  mention  of  Hans  von  Calcar  for  a  later 
occasion. 


Chap.  VI.  WESTPHALIAN  PAINTERS.  229 

minute.  A  smaller  but  equally  remarkable  altarpiece  is  in 
the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  607.  In  the  centre  of  a  rich  and 
attractive  landscape  is  the  Virgin,  with  the  Child  in  the  act 
of  benediction,  and  six  angels.  The  insides  of  the  wings 
represent  the  donor  with  St.  Augustine,  and  the  domor's  wife 
with  St.  Barbara;  the  outsides,  St.  Anna  with  the  Virgin 
and  Child  on  her  lap,  and  St.  Elizabeth  of  Thiiringen  with  a 
beggar.  A  third  winged  altarpiece,  dated  1515,  is  in  the 
Antwerp  Museum,  Nos.  523-25.  In  the  centre  is  the  Virgin 
holding  the  Child,  who  is  taking  cherries  from  a  basket  held 
to  him  by  an  angel,  while  another  angel  is  playing  on  a 
musical  instrument.  In  the  sky  are  the  Almighty  and  the 
Dove.  The  Murder  of  the  Innocents  and  the  Flight  into 
Egypt  are  both  in  the  rich  landscape.  On  the  wings  are 
the  donor  with  St.  Sebastian,  and  the  donor's  wife  with  the 
Magdalen. 

In  one  painter  only  from  the  Lower  Rhine,  ANTON  VON 
WORMS  by  name,1  is  the  influence  of  Albert  Durer  perceptible. 
He  flourished  in  Cologne  from  1525  to  1531,  principally  as 
a  designer  for  woodcuts,  and  also  as  a  painter.  His  pictures, 
which  are  very  rare,  give  evidence  of  a  master  who  combined 
good  drawing  with  a  certain  sense  of  beauty.  One,  signed 
with  his  monogram,  is  in  the  possession  of  Herr  Merle  of 
Cologne.  His  good  drawing  appears  also  in  the  woodcuts 
taken  from  his  designs.  M.  Sotzmann's  investigations  prove 
that  of  the  eleven  designs  attributed  to  him  by  Bartsch,*  one 
(No.  11)  is  by  a  feebler  master;  that  his  Passion  is  not 
copied  from  Albert  Durer,  but  that  only  a  few  motives  from 
that  master  have  been  adopted  ;  these  researches  also  add  to 
the  list  various  woodcuts  of  which  he  was  the  author,  and 
especially  one  containing  a  large  map  of  Cologne. 

Among  the  pictures  in  the  Museum  at  Cologne,  and  also 
in  the  churches  of  that  city,  may  be  seen  many  respectable 
though  not  important  productions  of  this  period.  We  may 
include  the  finely-coloured  glass -painting  in  the  north  aisle 
of  the  cathedral  of  the  year  1509. 

1  See  Sotzmann  on  Anton  von  Worms,  Cologne,  1819  ;  and  again  in 
the  '  Kunstblatt,'  1838,  Nos.  55  and  56. 

2  '  Peintre  Graveur,'  vol.  vii.  p.  488. 


230  ITALIANIZED  FLEMINGS.  Hook  IV. 


BOOK  IV. 

ITALIANIZED    FLEMINGS, 
1530—1600. 


DETERIORATION  OF  THE  TEUTONIC  STYLE  OF  ART,  AS  REGARDS   HISTORICAL 
PAINTING,  ARISING   FROM   THE  IMITATION  OF  THE  ITALIANS.       FURTHER 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  OTHER   CLASSES    OF   PAINTING GENRE,    LANDSCAPES, 

ETC. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PAINTING   IN    THE    NETHERLANDS. 

IN  consequence  of  the  reputation  of  the  great  Italian  masters 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Raphael,  which 
spread  throughout  the  Netherlands  as  well  as  Germany, 
many  painters  from  these  countries  repaired  to  Italy.  Here 
we  find  that  precisely  those  qualities  most  opposed  to  their 
own  feeling  for  art  made  the  deepest  impression  on  their 
minds  ;  more  especially  such  as  showed  excellences  beyond 
the  sphere  of  individual  nature,  viz.,  grandeur  of  beauty, 
and  simplification  of  forms,  masterly  drawing  of  the  nuder 
unrestrained  freedom,  boldness,  and  grace  of  movement — in 
short,  all  that  is  comprised  in  art  under  the  term  of  the 
ideal.  The  attempt,  however,  to  appropriate  all  these  quali- 
ties could  lead  to  no  successful  result.  Being  based  on  no 
inherent  want  on  the  part  of  their  own  original  feeling  for 
art,  it  became  only  the  outward  imitation  of  something 
foreign  to  themselves  and  already  fully  developed  by  others. 
They  never  succeeded,  therefore,  in  mastering  the  complete 
understanding  of  form,  or  in  adopting  the  true  feeling  for 
beauty  of  lines  or  grace  of  movement,  and,  in  aiming  at 
them,  they  degenerated  into  untruthfulness  and  artificialitv 


Chap.  I.  IMITATION   OF  THE  ITALIANS.  231 

of  expression — -into  exagg3ration  of  drawing  and  violence 
and  tastelessness  of  attitude — while  the  effort  to  model  was 
generally  at  the  expense  of  their  own  fine  colouring.     The 
pictures  of  this  class,  even  of  religious  subjects,  have  accord- 
ingly but  little  to  attract  the  eye  ;  the  more  so  as  the  with- 
drawal of  genuine  inspiration   leaves   the  heads  generally 
cold.     But  when  they  selected  scenes  from  ancient  mytho- 
logy,  and   allegories   decked   out  with   an   ostentation    of 
learning,  the  result  is  positively  disagreeable.     Numerous, 
however,    as   were   the   painters   in   the   Netherlands   who 
followed  this   mistaken  course,   there   were   plenty   whose 
sound  feeling   resisted  the  error,   and  impelled  them  to   a 
different  vocation.     In  lieu  of  religious  subjects,  the  inspira- 
tion for  which,  as  we  have  said,  had  ceased  to  flow,  they 
began  to  take  pleasure  in  scenes  from   common  life,  and 
struck  into  that  path  which  had  been  opened  by  Lucas  van 
Leyden.     In  this  way  religious  themes  subsided  into  mere 
accessories,  and  served  only  as  a  pretext  for  pictures  which 
embodied   their   favourite    studies.     Others,  who  delighted 
especially  in  landscape,  followed  the  steps  of  Patenier  and 
Civetta ;  with  this  difference,  that   the   landscape   became 
their  principal  subject,  and  the  gradually  diminishing  size  of 
their  figures  reduced  them  at  length  to  mere  accessories  of 
the   foreground.     But   although  all   these   masters,  by  the 
finish  of  their  detail,  by  their  animation,  naivete,  and  humour 
— and  the  landscape-painters  especially,   by  their  frequent 
poetic   inventions — are  incomparably   more  attractive  than 
the  imitators  of  Italian    art,    yet   their   propensity   to   the 
fantastic,  their  absence  of  simplicity  in  arrangement,  their 
gaudy  and  crude  colouring,  and  want  of  general  keeping, 
must  always  assign  to  them  a  subordinate  place   amongst 
lovers  of  art.     The  most  satisfactory   productions   of  this 
period  will  therefore  be  found  in  the  department  of  portrait- 
painting,  which,  by  its  nature,  threw  the  artist  upon  the 
exercise  of  his  own  original  feeling.     As  this  epoch  is  far 
more  important  as  a  link  in  the  chain  of  history  than  for 
any  pleasure  arising  from  its  own  works,  it  will  be  sufficient 
to  quote  only  the  more  important  painters  and  a  few  of  their 
principal  pictures. 


232  ITALIANIZED   FLEMINGS.  Book  IV. 

The  first  painter  who  deserted  his  native  style  of  art,  in 
which,  as  we  have  stated  above,  he  had  already  greatly 
excelled,  was  JAN  VAN  MABUSE.  His  works  after  1512  are, 
with  small  exception,  characterised  by  all  the  mistakes 
we  have  enumerated.  Their  redeeming  quality  is  masterly 
treatment.  Among  those  of  a  religious  class  some  of  a 
small  size  are  the  most  remarkable.  The  Ecce  Homo  in  the 
Antwerp  Museum,  No.  181,  so  frequently  copied  by  con- 
temporary painters,  is  a  specimen  of  masterly  modelling  and 
vigorous  colour ;  also  two  Madonnas  with  the  Child,  with 
rich  architectural  accessories,  in  the  Northbrook  collection.1 
Mabuse  is  least  successful  in  his  nude  figures  :  for  instance, 
in  his  Adam  and  Eve,  at  Hampton  Court,2  an  original  repeti- 
tion of  which  is  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  642.  But  his 
most  unpleasing  efforts  are  such  figures  taken  from  mytho- 
logy, viz.,  Neptune  and  Amphitrite,  also  in  the  Berlin 
Museum,  No.  648,  and  Danae  and  the  Golden  Shower,  in 
the  Munich  Gallery,  Cabinets,  No.  156.  On  the  other  hand, 
his  most  attractive  works  of  this  time  are  portraits,  such  as 
a  young  girl  weighing  gold  pieces,  in  the  Museum  at  Berlin, 
No.  656A;  [the  Children  of  Christian  II.  of  Denmark,  at 
Hampton  Court;  and  "Jean  Carondelet,"  at  the  Louvre, 
The  largest  and  most  important  of  the  master's  latest  altar- 
pieces,  a  Descent  from  the  Cross,  in  the  church  of  Middelburg 
in  Zeeland,  was  destroyed  by  fire  on  the  24th  of  January, 
1568.] 

Next  in  succession  to  Mabuse  is  BEENHAED  VAN  ORLEY, 
born  at  Brussels,  [1488-90,  died]  1541.3  Though  almost 
contemporary  with  Mabuse,  yet  we  know  of  no  pictures  by 
him  so  worthily  allied  to  the  old  school  in  moral  and  tech- 
nical qualities  as  those  executed  by  Mabuse  before  his  visit 
to  Italy.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  works  imitative  of 
the  Italian  style,  Bernhard  van  Orley  is  never  so  cold  in 
feeling  or  so  tasteless  in  form  as  Mabuse,  who  could  never 
entirely  shake  off  his  Netherlandish  feeling,  and  who,  more- 

1  '  Galleries  and  Cabinets,'  etc.,  p.  98. 

'  Treasures,'  etc.,  vol.  ii.  p.  368. 

3  [Bernhard  van  Orley  was  the  son  of  Valentine  van  Orley,  a  painter 
who  matriculated  at  Antwerp  in  1512.  See  Liggeren,  i.  77,  86.] 


<Chap.  I.  BEKNHAED   VAN   OKLEY.  233 


over,  during  a  [short  stay  in  Italy]  especially  devoted 
himself  to  the  imitation  of  Raphael.  The  works  of  the 
Brussels  painter  are  composed  with  much  discrimination ; 
the  earlier  specimens  often  with  earnest  feeling,  the  later 
exhibiting  welldrawn  forms  and  good  keeping;  while  the 
latest,  it  is  true,  lapse  into  the  exaggerated  and  mannered 
forms  of  the  later  followers  of  Raphael.  At  the  same  time 
his  execution  is  invariably  careful,  and  his  colouring  invari- 
ably cool  in  general  effect,  the  flesh-tones  inclining  to  a  cold 
reddish  colour.  Bernhard  van  Orley  was  appointed  court- 
painter  to  Margaret  of  Austria,  at  Brussels,  in  1518,  and 
retained  the  same  post  under  her  successor,  Mary  of  Hun- 
gary (1524-35).  The  work  by  him  bearing  most  signs  of 
Netherlandish  thought  and  practice  is  the  Pieta,  with  por- 
traits of  the  donors  on  the  wings,  in  the  Museum  at  Brussels. 
The  heads  are  elevated  in  form  and  feeling — the  portraits  of 
great  truthfulness.  In  close  affinity  with  this  is  the  altar- 
piece  in  the  church  of  the  town  of  Lierre,  beyond  the  rail- 
way between  Antwerp  and  Mechlin  ;  the  centre  containing 
'the  Marriage  of  Joseph  and  the  Virgin,  the  wings  the 
Annunciation  and  the  Presentation.  His  most  considerable 
work  is  a  shrine  with  double  wings  in  the  church  of  our  Lady 
:at  Lubeck.  The  outsides  of  the  first  pair  of  wings  contain 
the  Annunciation ;  the  inner  sides,  and  the  outer  ones  of  the 
second  wings,  the  four  Latin  Fathers,  of  good  draperies ; 
and,  finally,  the  inner  sides  of  the  last-mentioned,  the  Sibyl 
showing  the  Vision  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  to  the  Emperor 
Augustus,  and  St.  John  the  Evangelist  with  the  Vision  of 
•the  Apocalypse  ;  the  centre  represents  the  Trinity  with 
adoring  Saints,  a  free  version  from  Albert  Durer's  picture. 
This  work  is  of  great  merit  in  many  respects.1  Another 
picture,  signed  with  his  name,  and  in  two  compartments, 
is  in  the  Gallery  at  Vienna.  One  division  contains  the 
Emperor  Antiochus  Epiphanes  erecting  an  idol  in  the  temple 
•of  Jerusalem ;  the  other  the  Day  of  Pentecost,  with  St.  Peter 
Addressing  the  people.  The  heads  are  not  pleasing,  but  the 

1  [We  should  add  to  these  the  triptych  in  the  Brussels  Museum  (No. 
368),  inscribed  with  Van  Orley's  name  and  the  date  1521 ;  and  repre- 
senting the  trials  of  Job.] 


I 


234 


ITALIANIZED  FLEMINGS. 


BookiV, 


execution  is  careful.  His  large  Last  Judgment  in  the  chapel 
"  des  Orphelins  "  at  Antwerp,  with  the  Seven  Works  of 
Mercy  on  the  predella,  is  most  indicative  of  his  adopted 
Italian  manner.  Though  worthy  of  note  for  the  able  draw- 
ing of  many  of  the  figures,  for  the  powerful  tone  of  the  flesh, 
and  the  vivacity  of  many  portrait-like  heads,  yet  the  exag- 
geration of  many  of  the  actions — for  instance,  that  of  the 
Christ — the  overladen  character,  and  the  gaudiness  of  the- 
colouring  give  a  very  unpleasing  effect,  considered  as  a 
whole.  One  of  his  most  attractive  pictures  is  a  Virgin  and 
Child  and  Joseph,  which  is  finely  felt,-  and  taken  from  a 
composition  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci  in  the  Liverpool  Institu- 
tion.1 On  the  other  hand,  in  the  worked  hanging  repre- 
senting Abraham  and  Melchisedeck,  and  Rebecca  at  the 
Fountain,2  at  Hampton  Court — probably  taken  from  his- 
cartoons,  and  decidedly  of  his  latest  time — he  appears  as  a 
mannered  imitator  of  Raphael. 

JAN  SCHOREEL,  born  1495,  died  1562  ;3  scholar  of  Mabuse. 
This  painter  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  introduce  the 
Italian  style  into  his  native  country — Holland.  On  occasion 
of  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine  he  happened  to  stop  in  Rome 
exactly  as  his  countryman,  Adrian  VI.,  was  raised  to  the 
papal  dignity,  1521.  He  painted  his  likeness,  and  was  ap- 
pointed overseer  of  the  objects  of  art  in  the  Vatican.  After 
the  short  reign  of  that  pope  Schoreel  returned  to  Holland, 
and  died  at  Utrecht,  where  he  occupied  the  position  of  canon. 
In  the  historically  authenticated  picture  by  him,  in  the  Town- 
hall  at  Utrecht,  representing  the  Virgin  seated,  with  the- 
Child,  in  a  landscape,  with  donors,  he  appears  as  an  able 
draughtsman,  and  as  an  imitator  of  Raphael  and  Michael 
Angelo.  [In  the  numerous  gospel  subjects  (temperas)  painted 
by  JSchoreel  in  1525  for  the  church  of  Warmenhuizen,  near 
Alkmaar,  we  have  an  interesting  example  of  his  skill.  To 
the  left  of  the  altar  is  the  Fall  of  the  Manna  and  the  Worship 
of  the  Golden  Calf;  to  the  right,  the  Egyptians  overwhelmed 


1  'Treasures,'  etc.,  vol.  iii.  p.  236. 

'-'  Ibid.,  vol.  ii.  p.  367. 

3  Van  Mander,  fol.  154a,  and  Job.  Secundi,  Opene  Epist.,  lib.  vii.  2. 


Chap.  I.  VAN   COXIS.  235 

in  the  Red  Sea.]1  The  donors,  and  a  set  of  portraits  of 
pilgrims  to  Palestine,  in  the  Town-hall  at  Utrecht,  show 
Schoreel  as  a  painter  of  vigorous  conception,  warm  tone  of 
colour,  und  capital  execution,  in  the  style  of  the  Netherlandish 
school.2  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  portraits  of  a  man 
and  his  wife,  dated  1539,  in  the  Gallery  at  Vienna;3  [whilst 
the  Magdalen,  in  the  Museum  of  Amsterdam,  displays  the 
strong  influence  of  the  Ferrarese  school  on  the  one  hand 
and  of  Mabuse  on  the  other].  From  a  picture  which  was  in 
the  possession  of  the  Methuen  family  at  Corsham  House  in 
1836,  representing  loving  couples  beguiling  the  time  with 
music  and  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  it  is  evident  that  he 
occasionally  treated  secular  subjects  with  success.  The 
treatment  is  truthful  and  lively,  and  the  execution  in  a  warm 
brownish  tone  of  great  mastery.4 

MICHAEL  VAN  COXCYEN,  commonly  written  Coxis,  born  at 
Mechlin  1499,  died  there  1592.  He  was  at  first  scholar  to 
his  father,  and  afterwards  to  Bernhard  van  Orley,  [whom  he 
succeeded  as  court-painter  to  Mary  of  Hungary]  .5  He  spent 
a  number  of  years  in  Italy,  where  he  adopted  the  outer  form 
of  Raphael's  works,  but  remained  unirnbued  with  their  spirit,, 
so  that  the  name  of  the  Flemish  Raphael,  which  was  given 
to  him,  must  be  taken  with  much  reserve.  The  numerous 
pictures  which  were  the  result  of  his  long  life  are  of  very 
unequal  merit.  His  frescoes  in  the  church  dell'  Anima  at 
Rome  are  unimportant  and  very  mannered.  In  his  com- 

1  [See  M.  D.  van  der  Kellen,  junr.,  in  No.  50  of  the  'Nederlandshe  Spec- 
tator' for  1861.] 

-  See  article  by  Passavant,  '  Kunstblatt,'  1841,  No.  13. 

3  There  erroneously  called  his  own  portrait.     fBut  ?  Schoreel.] 

4  All  other  pictures,  in  Munich,  Cologne,  etc.,  attributed  to  this  painter 
are  not  by  him.     [Many  of  Schoreel's  works  were  painted  at  Ghent. 
Vaernewyck,  in  his  '  Beroerlicke  Tijden,'  notes  some  of  his  pictures  that 
were  destroyed  by  Iconoclasts  in  St.  Nicholas  'p. 152  .  Schoreel  was  the 
first  restorer  of  John  van  Eyck's  altarpiece  of  the  Mystic  Lamb  (Vaer- 
newyk,  Hist.  v.  Belgis).   His  pictures  of  the  Submersion  of  Pharaoh  and 
the  Repose  in  Egypt  were  in  the  collections  of  Francesco  Leo  and  Gabriel 
Vendramin  at  Venice  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  (anon, 
pp.  70  and  80.] 

5  Respecting  the  spelling  of  his  name,  and  notices  of   his  life,  see 
'  Catalogue  of  Antwerp  Museum,'  von  1857,  p.  81,  etc.     [See  also  Pin- 
chart  (A.)  'Archives  des  Arts,'  etc.,  torn,  i.,  160-282,  and  '  Messager  de» 
Sciences/  for  1868,  p.  322.] 


236  ITALIANIZED   FLEMINGS.  Book  IV. 

positions — which  are  frequently  but  too  closely  copied  from 
Raphael — he  shows  in  various  portions  much  taste,  and  a 
sense  of  beauty  in  the  heads  ;  at  the  same  time  he  is  gene- 
rally empty  in  expression,  artificial  in  attitude,  and  exag- 
gerated in  the  indication  of  muscles.  Specimens  of  this  class 
are  in  the  Antwerp  Museum,  especially  his  Martyrdom  of  St. 
Sebastian,  No.  371,  and  his  Triumph  of  Christ,  No.  376.  A 
copy  of  the  great  picture,  the  Adoration  of  the  Lamb,  by 
the  Van  Eycks,  which  he  executed  for  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  is 
full  of  merit  as  regards  the  life-size  figures,  but  is  greatly 
inferior  in  those  of  a  small  scale. 

LANCELOT  BLONDEEL  of  Bruges,  [born  1495,  died  at  Bruges 
in  1561,  was  a  journeyman  mason  before  he  became  a 
painter  in  1520]. l  This  master  took  delight  in  rich  architec- 
tural backgrounds,  conspicuous  in  which  are  whimsical 
Renaissance  forms,  generally  executed  in  brown  varnish  on 
a  gold  ground,  and  therefore  of  very  brilliant  effect.  His 
figures,  which  are  chiefly  conceived  in  the  Italian  taste,  are 
often  well  set  in  action  and  of  careful  finish,  but  mannered, 
and  of  cold  flesh-tones.  The  earliest  picture  known  by  him, 
signed  1523,  in  the  church  of  St.  Jacques  at  Bruges,  repre- 
sents SS.  Cosmo  and  Damian ;  another,  in  the  cathedral  of 
the  same  town,  dated  1545,  the  Virgin  and  Child,  with  SS. 
Luke  and  Eligius.  In  the  Museum  at  Berlin  is  also  a  Virgin 
and  Child,  No.  641,  and  a  large  Last  Judgment,  No.  656,  an 
unsuccessful  mixture  of  different  styles.  [Query  genuine  ?] 
The  design  for  the  mantelpiece  in  the  large  Council-hall  at 
Bruges,2  adorned  with  the  statues  of  Charles  V.  and  other 
princes,  was  by  him  as  well. 

JAN  CORNELIS  VERMEYEN  of  Malines,  born  1500,  died  at 
Brussels  1559.  How  he  gained  instruction  in  art  is  not 
known.  [He  was  appointed  painter  to  Margaret  of  Austria 
in  1529,  and  in  1534  he  was  summoned  by  Charles  V.]3  to 
Spain  for  the  purpose  of  accompanying  the  expedition  to 
Tunis,  where  he  drew  the  Siege  of  Tunis,  with  other  event 

1  [Weale's  «  Catalogue  de  1'Academie  de  Bruges,'  1861.,  p.  13.] 

-  See  F.  de  Hondt, '  Deuxieme  notice  sur  la  cheminee'.  .  .  du  Franc  de 

Bruges,  Gand,  1846,  p.  42,  and  a  notice  of  an  earlier  date  by  the  same. 
3  [See  Tableaux  et  Sculptures  de  Marie  de  Hongrie,  in  'Revue  Uuiver- 

selle  des  Arts,'  iii.  137  and  following.] 


Chap.  I.  MARTIN   VAN   VEEN.  237 

of  the  campaign.  With  the  help  of  these  drawings  thus 
taken  on  the  spot  he  executed  [several  pictures,  now  preserved 
in  the  Castle  of  Coburg,  and]  ten  large  coloured  cartoons,  from 
which  tapestries  were  worked  by  order  of  the  Emperor,  by 
Panne,  maker  of  Brussels.  These  cartoons  are  preserved 
in  a  rolled-up  state  in  the  Garderobe  of  the  Gallery  at  Vienna, 
and  are  said  to  have  suffered  much  in  parts.  They  are  re- 
ported to  be  of  great  vivacity.1  An  evil  star  seems  also  to 
have  presided  over  other  works  of  this  master,  who  was  well 
known  in  his  time,  and  who,  firstly,  for  his  fine  handsome 
person,  and  secondly,  for  the  length  of  his  beard,  was  called 
El  Mayo  and  Juan  de  Barbalonga  in  Spain.  His  pictures  in 
the  cathedral  at  Brussels  were  ruined  by  the  Iconoclasts ; 
and  various  landscapes,  reported  of  great  beauty,  in  the 
Palace  of  the  Prado  in  Madrid,  perished  in  the  destruction 
of  that  building  by  fire  in  1608.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
also  a  skilful  portrait-painter. 

MARTIN  VAN  YEEN,  named  from  his  birthplace  MARTIN 
HEMSKERK,  born  1498,  died  1574.  He  was  a  scholar  of 
Schoreel,  from  whom  he  received  the  Italian  style  of  art, 
which  he  afterwards  carried  out  in  a  most  repelling  form  in 
Rome  by  the  study  of  Michael  Angelo  and  of  the  antique. 
His  numerous  pictures  became  very  popular  in  Holland,  but 
have  now  mostly  disappeared.  Momus  criticising  the  Works 
of  the  Gods,  dated  1561,  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  is  very 
characteristic  of  his  art.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
Silenus  on  an  Ass  with  two  Bacchante,  in  the  Vienna 
Gallery.2  As  regards  his  treatment  of  Church-subjects,  some 
pictures  in  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Delft  and  Haarlem  are  cha- 
racteristic specimens.  In  the  first  is  an  altar  with  wings, 
signed  and  dated  1557,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  the  Elevation 
of  the  Brazen  Serpent,  in  chiaroscuro.  Also  a  second  winged 
altarpiece,  dated  1559,  with  the  Ecce  Homo  in  the  centre. 
In  a  picture  at  Haarlem  he  has  represented  himself  under 
the  form  of  St.  Luke  painting  the  Virgin.  If  this  picture  be 

1  See  article  in  '  Kunstblatt,'  1821,  No.  51.    My  efforts  to  see  at  all 
events  one  of  these  cartoons  were  unsuccessful. 

2  The  numerous  pictures  in  the  Munich  Gallery  attributed  to  him  are 
the  work  of  Bartholomew  de  Bruyn. 


i 


238  ITALIANIZED   FLEMINGS.  Book  IV. 

considered  hard  arid  mannered,  a  Martyrdom  of  two  Saints, 
of  the  year  1575,  is  positively  frightful  [withdrawn]. 

LAMBERT  SUSTERMANN,  called  LAMBERT  LOMBARD,  born  at 
Liege  1506,  died  there  [1566].  He  was  a  scholar  of  Mabuse, 
and  adopted  the  Italian  style  from  him,  which  afterwards,  on 
occasion  of  accompanying  Cardinal  Pole  to  Italy,  he  further 
cultivated  under  Andrea  del  Sarto.  On  his  return  to  Liege 
he  opened  a  school  which  was  numerously  attended,  and 
which  was  the  means  of  further  diffusing  this  style  in  the 
Netherlands.  He  also  professed  architecture,  engraving, 
numismatics,  archaeology,  and  poetry.  He  is  not  deficient  in 
feeling  for  beauty,  either  in  heads  or  in  action,  though  often 
very  mannered  in  the  last  named.  In  the  rendering  of  the 
muscular  formation  he  is,  compared  with  other  painters  of 
the  time,  somewhat  subdued.  His  colouring  is  generally 
characterised  by  coolness,  and  by  a  sfumato  which  he  pro- 
bably adopted  from  Andrea  del  Sarto.  In  execution  he  is 
careful.  His  pictures  are  now  very  rare.  The  most  re- 
markable— the  Passage  of  the  Ked  Sea,  which  is  not  success- 
ful ;  a  Vision,  which  is  more  satisfactory ;  and  the  Scourges 
of  the  Almighty,  Pestilence  and  Shipwreck,  which  are  the 
most  attractive  of  all — were  in  the  collection  of  the  King  of 
Holland.1  A  Virgin  with  the  sleeping  Child,  pale  in  colour, 
but  of  refined  feeling  and  tender  completion,  is  in  the  Berlin 
Museum,  No.  653. 

FRANS  DE  VRIENDT,  called  FRANS  FLORIS,.  [son  of  Oornelis  de 
Vrint,  a  stone-cutter],  born  at  Antwerp  about  1520,  died 
there  1570.  He  learnt  his  art  from  Lambert  Lombard,  and 
also  visited  Italy.  As  early  as  1540  he  was  admitted  into  the 
guild  of  painters  at  Antwerp,  and  there  opened  a  school, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  frequented  by  one  hundred  and 
twenty  scholars.  In  him  the  imitation  of  the  Italian  style 
attains  its  highest  development.  He  was  an  artist  of  great 
talent,  powers  of  invention,  and  facility  of  painting.  He  was 
deficient,  however,  in  the  sentiment  of  his  heads,  in  grace  of 
action,  and  in  understanding  of  drawing,  so  that  his  forms 
often  exhibit  marked  exaggerations.  On  this  account  it  is 

1  These  pictures  were  withdrawn  from  the  sale,  and  are  now  among 
^e  remaining  pictures  at  the  Hague. 


Chap.  I.  DE   VOS.  239 

that  his  historical  pictures  are  very  unattractive.  In  his 
portraits  only  he  is  pleasing,  as  in  them  he  was  true  to  his 
Netherlandish  nature.  One  of  his  earlier  pictures,  Vulcan 
•exposing,  to  the  sight  of  the  Gods,  Venus  and  Mars,  round 
whom  he  has  cast  a.  net,  dated  1547,  and  warmly  coloured, 
[from  the  Aerschot  collection]  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  698, 
is  a  specimen  both  of  his  early  attained  mastery  of  hand,  and 
of  the  tastelessness  of  his  composition  and  insignificance  of 
his  heads.  The  Fall  of  the  Angels,  dated  1554,  in  the  Ant- 
werp Museum,  No.  112,  which  is  considered  his  chef-d'oauvre, 
is  composed  with  great  boldness,  and  shows  a  masterly 
power  of  painting,  but  it  is  tasteless  in  the  animal  heads  of 
the  demons,  hard  in  outline,  and  crude  in  colour.  An  Adora- 
tion of  the  Shepherds,  in  the  same  gallery,  No.  113,  shows 
him  to  better  advantage ;  the  heads  are  animated  and  more 
true  to  nature  than  usual,  and  the  chiaroscuro  is  well  sustained : 
but  the  Virgin  and  Child  are  cold  in  the  flesh-tones.  Another 
picture  there — St.  Luke  painting  the  Virgin,  No.  114 — is 
most  attractive  for  the  truthfulness  and  character  of  the 
heads.  The  saint  is  represented  under  the  likeness  of 
the  painter  Eykaert  Aertsz  ;  the  colour-grinder  under  his 
own.  The  way  in  which  the  bull  is  here  rendered  shows 
again  the  tastelessness  of  the  master.  [In  the  gallery  of 
the  Duke  of  Aerschot  at  Beaumont,  which  was  dispersed  in 
1613,  there  were  no  less  than  eighteen  pictures  by  Frans 
Floris.]1 

MARTIN  DE  Vos,  born  at  Antwerp  1531,  died  there  1603.a 
He  was  the  best  of  the  numerous  scholars  of  Frans  Floris. 
Afterwards  he  went  to  Italy,  and  had  the  benefit  of  Tintoretto's 
instruction  at  Venice.  He  then  returned  to  Antwerp,  and 
established  a  school.  This  painter  was  endowed  with 
considerable  powers  of  invention ;  and  a  number  of  his  com- 
positions are  well  known  by  means  of  engravings.  Many  of 
these  are  very  attractive  in  character.  Martin  de  Vos  is  less 
cold  in  feeling  and  less  exaggerated  in  his  muscular  indications 
than  Frans  Floris  ;  he  is  also  generally  careful  in  finish,  and 
melting  in  touch;  at  the  same  time  his  motives  are  often 

1  [See  A.  Pinchart's  '  Archives,'  i.  160-7.] 
*  [Liggeren  i.  379.] 


240 


ITALIANIZED   FLEMINGS. 


Book  IV.. 


mannered,  his  outlines  hard,  and  his  colouring  crude.  The 
Museum  of  Antwerp  contains  a  whole  series  of  his  works ; 
among  them  the  altarpiece,  dated  1574,  the  centre  picture  of 
which,  the  Incredulity  of  St.  Thomas,  No.  77,  is  remarkable 
for  very  finished  execution.  The  Temptation  of  St.  Anthony, 
No.  103,  completed  in  1594,  shows  a  peculiar  combination, 
of  the  humorous  and  fantastic.  Finally,  a  picture  by  him 
in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  709,  dated  1589,  with  Christ 
appearing  to  the  Disciples  on  the  Sea  of  Tiberias  on  the  one 
side,  and  the  Prophet  Jonah  cast  into  the  sea  on  the  other, 
seems  to  herald,  by  the  dramatic  nature  of  the  incidents,  and 
the  brilliant  sunrise  effect,  the  coming  of  such  a  master  as- 
Kubens.  [This  picture  is  not  now  exhibited.] 

Next  in  order  amongst  the  scholars  of  Frans  Floris  are 
the  FRANCKENS,  JEROME,  FRANZ  (born  about  1544,  died  1616),. 
and  AMBROSE  (apprenticed  in  1573,  died  1618),  all  of  whom 
continued  the  style  of  the  master.  Jerome  as  partner  of 
Floris  painted  an  Epiphany,  No.  792  in  the  Dresden  Museum. 
He  practised  in  Paris  from  1566  till  the  beginning  of  the 
next  century.  The  style  of  Franz  is  well  seen  in  a  gaudy 
picture  of  Christ  on  the  road  to  Golgotha  (1597),  No.  880 
in  the  Dresden  Museum. 

The  works  of  Ambrose  are  numerous  in  the  gallery  and 
churches  of  Ajitwerp. 

The  children  of  Franz  formed  a  second  generation  of 
FRANCKENS  :  THOMAS,  who  practised  at  Antwerp  till  1610 ; 
JEROME  THE  SECOND,  born  in  1578,  died  1623,  who  com- 
posed the  picture  of  Codes  defending  the  Bridge  (1620)r 
iji  the  Antwerp  Gallery ;  and  FRANZ  THE  SECOND,  of  whom 
•we  shall  presently  speak. 

JOHANNES  STRAET,  commonly  called  STRADANUS,  born  at 
Bruges  1535,  belongs  also  to  this  category.  But  as  he 
repaired  early  in  life  to  Florence,  and  died  there  at  the 
advanced  age  of  eighty-two,  1618,  he  exercised  no  influence 
on  the  art  of  his  native  country.  He  imitated  the  manner  of 
Michael  Angelo,  with  the  same  unfortunate  results  as  did 
Vasari,  to  whom  he  acted  as  an  assistant.  He  painted,  how- 
ever, the  sports  of  hunting  and  fishing,  which  brought  his 
Netherlandish  nature  into  play.  The  number  of  his  pictures 


Chap.  I.  BARTHOLOMEW   SPR ANGER.  241 

in  oil  and  fresco  were   very  large.     Tapestries  were  also 
executed  from  his  cartoons.1 

But  the  most  unattractive  form  in  which  the  imitation  of 
the  Italian  style  displayed  itself  is  seen  in  the  works  of 
BAETHOLOMEW  SPRANGER,  born  in  Antwerp,  1546,2  died  1625. 
He  was  one  of  the  favourite  painters  of  the  Emperor  Rodolph 
II.,  at  whose  court  at  Prague  he  long  resided.  Parmigianino 
was  the  mistaken  object  of  his  imitation.  His  works  show 
the  most  studied  and  forced  attitudes,  combined  with  an  utter 
absence  of  feeling,  and  a  cold  tone  of  colour,  which  is  red  in 
the  flesh  and  greenish  in  the  shadows.  His  chief  merit  in 
his  better  productions  consists  in  an  excellent  modelling,  and 
in  an  admirably  fused  treatment.  Of  the  numerous  pictures 
by  him  in  the  gallery  at  Vienna,  I  quote  one — Minerva 
treading  Ignorance  under  foot — which  is  in  every  respect  a 
characteristic  work  by  him.  Even  this  master,  when  he  took 
portrait  in  hand,  betrayed  that  feeling  for  the  realistic  in  art 
which  was  his  native  Netherlandish  inheritance.  A  proof  of 
this  is  seen  in  his  own  portrait  in  the  same  gallery,  which, 
though  somewhat  over-forcible  in  action,  is  truthfully  felt, 
and  painted  in  a  warm  colour. 

HEINRICH  GOLTZIUS,  born  1558,  died  1617,  is  a  worthy 
companion  to  Spranger.  He  is  less  known  by  his  rare 
pictures  than  by  his  numerous  engravings,  in  which  he 
shows  no  common  versatility  of  power  in  the  skilful  imita- 
tion of  very  various  masters,  including  Lucas  van  Ley  den 
and  Albert  Durer ;  and  also  a  wonderful  mastery  over  his 
graver.3  The  great  object  of  his  imitation,  however,  is 
Michael  Angelo,  whom  he  seeks  to  rival  by  the  most  dis- 
torted attitudes,  and  the  most  violent  play  of  spasmodically 
developed  musclos.  He  treated  both  sacred  and  profane 
history,  mythology  and  allegory,  in  the  artificial  taste  of 
the  day.  He  painted  also  portraits  and  landscape.  I  will 
only  mention  here,  of  his  historical  compositions,  the  six 
called  his  masterpieces  (Bartsch,  No.  15-20),  of  which  the 

1  Van  Mander,  folio  184a. 

2  [The  date  of  Spranger' s  birth  is  not  known.     He  was  a  pupil  of  Jan 
Mandyn,  with  whom  he  closed  his  apprenticeship  at  Antwerp  in  1557. 
(Liggeren.  i.  205).] 

8  Bartsch' s  Catalogue  of  his  Works,  vol.  iii. 

16 


242  ITALIANIZED  FLEMINGS.  Book  IV. 

Circumcision  in  the  style  of  Albert  Durer,  and  the  Adoration 
of  the  Kings  in  that  of  Lucas  van  Leyden,  are  the  most 
successful.  He  also  appears  to  most  advantage  in  his  por- 
traits, and  particularly  so  in  his  own,  which  is  the  size  of  life 
(Bartsch,  No.  172),  and  a  real  masterpiece.  He  also  exe- 
cuted a  few  plates  in  chiaroscuro. 

And  here  I  may  bring  forward  the  name  of  CAKEL  VAN 
MANDEB,  born  1548,  died  1608,  who,  though  a  devoted 
follower  of  this  false  style,  deserves  high  praise  as  a  writer 
upon  art.  Of  all  his  numerous  works,  however,  I  know  of 
none  which  I  can  mention  with  any  certainty. 

PIETEB  DE  WITTE,  born  in  Bruges,1  was  taken,  when  very 
young,  by  his  parents  to  Florence.  Here  he  became  a  skil- 
ful painter  both  in  oil  and  fresco,  and  was  variously  employed 
by  Vasari  in  his  enormous  fresco  works  in  Rome  and  Florence. 
He  thus  acquired  much  knowledge,  both  in  the  arts  of  archi- 
tecture and  sculpture,  and  a  particular  aptitude  in  the  decora- 
tion of  buildings,  all  which  accomplishments  were  called  into 
action  again  in  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria  at  Munich 
on  occasion  of  the  building  of  the  palace  where  the  court 
resided.  Although,  of  course,  fettered  by  the  perverted  taste 
of  his  time,  some  of  his  pictures  belong  to  the  least  unsatis- 
factory productions  of  the  period.  Those  portions  of  the  old 
palace  at  Munich  which  are  still  existing  give  evidence  of  his 
multifarious  artistic  powers.  In  Italy  his  name  was  tran- 
slated into  PIETBO  CANDIDO,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
Germans  called  him  PETER  CANDIT. 

Various  historical  painters,  in  the  ensuing  generation, 
formed  the  transition  to  a  better  condition  of  art.  Some  of 
them,  though  still  imitating  the  Italians,  avoided  the  repul- 
sive exaggerations  of  their  predecessors  ;  others  applied  with 
some  success  to  that  truthfulness  of  nature  and  study  of 
colour  which  was  the  real  tendency  of  their  native  school. 

At  the  head  of  these  historical  painters  stands  OTHON  VAN 
VEEN,  called  OTTO  VJENIUS,  born  at  Leyden  1560,  died  at 
Brussels  1629.  Although  the  influence  of  the  mannered 
painter,  Federigo  Zucchero,  under  whom  he  studied  at 
Home  at  the  early  age  of  seventeen,  is  seen  in  the  frequently 
1  Van  Mander,  foL  205a. 


Clup.  I.  CORNELIS  CORNELISSEN.  243 

affected  action  and  gaudy  colouring  of  his  works,  yet  a 
certain  moderation  and  taste  in  composition,  and  a  sense  of 
beauty  in  the  heads,  however  deficient  in  warmth  of  feeling, 
are  observable  in  his  works.  This  coldness  is  increased  by 
the  far-fetched  allegorical  allusions  to  which  a  classical 
education  of  no  common  order  tempted  him.  [In  1594  he 
joined  the  Painters'  Guild  at  Antwerp,1  where  he  dwelt  till 
1620,  when  he  became  master  of  the  Mint  at  Brussels.]3 
The  number  of  his  pictures  is  very  considerable.  Among 
those  in  the  Antwerp  Museum,  the  Calling  of  St.  Matthew, 
No.  480  ;  St.  Paul  before  Felix,  No.  484  ;  and  a  portrait  of 
Johann  Miraeus,  Bishop  of  Antwerp,  No.  483,  are  the  most 
remarkable.  This  latter,  compared  with  his  historical 
works,  displays  the  customary  truthfulness  of  character 
and  vigorous  colouring.  The  six  pictures  at  Munich — the 
Triumph  of  the  Catholic  Church,  Cabinets,  Nos.  235-240 — 
though  in  themselves  artificial,  cold,  and  crude,  are  interest- 
ing as  the  models  of  similar  compositions  by  Rubens. 

HEINRICH  VAN  BALEN,  born  at  Antwerp  [in  1575],  died 
there  [1632].  He  is  cold  in  feeling,  generally  mannered  in 
attitudes,  and  glassy  in  colouring.  In  his  nude  figures, 
however,  he  shows  a  pleasing  character,  and  the  melting 
style  of  his  execution  is  very  finished.  His  ecclesiastical 
subjects — for  instance,  the  Ascension,  in  the  church  of  St. 
Jacques  at  Antwerp — are  the  least  satisfactory.  His  sub- 
jects taken  from  mythology,  to  which  Jan  Breughel  fre- 
quently supplied  the  landscape  backgrounds,  are  often  more 
pleasing. 

CORNELIS  CORNELISSEN,  commonly  called  CORNELIS  VAN 
HAARLEM,  born  at  Haarlem  1562,  died  1638.  He  first  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  a  large  portrait  picture  executed  for 
the  Guild  of  Marksmen  in  his  native  city ;  and  though  he 
afterwards  treated  Biblical  subjects,  and  also  scenes  from 
common  life,  chiefly  composed  of  nude  figures,  yet,  upon 
the  whole,  he  remained  true  to  the  realistic  tendency.  His 
pictures  of  the  class  just  mentioned  are  very  unequal  in 
merit ;  the  heads  are  often  vulgar,  and  the  motives  tasteless. 

1  [Liggeren,  i.,  375  519.] 
*  [Liggeren,  ii.  108.] 


244  DUTCH  ART.  Book  IV. 

The  best  of  them  show  a  careful  modelling  and  a  warm  and 
clear  colouring.  One  of  his  chefs-d'oeuvre  is  Bathsheba 
bathing  with  her  attendants,  dated  1617,  in  the  Berlin 
Gallery,  No.  784,  in  which,  with  characteristic  conception, 
David  is  seen,  scarcely  visible,  in  a  dark  corner.  But  his 
talent  was  little  adapted  to  the  expression  of  strong  emotions ; 
the  Murder  of  the  Innocents,  therefore,  in  the  Gallery  of  the 
Hague  (painted  in  1591),  is  a  very  disagreeable  picture. 
As  regards  the  department  of  Mythology,  his  Venus,  Cupid, 
and  Ceres,  in  the  Dresden  Gallery,  however  little  the  heads 
are  in  keeping  with  the  subject,  is  remarkable  for  force  and 
transparency  of  colour,  and  for  careful  finish. 

[FRANZ  PIETERSZ  DE  GREBBER,  pupil  of  Jacques  Savery,  is 
also  a  painter  of  portrait  pieces.  Born  at  Haarlem  in  1570, 
died  at  Haarlem  in  1649.  He  was  president  of  the  Guild  of 
Painters  of  his  native  city  in  1628.  There  are  four  cha- 
racteristic pictures  by  him  in  the  Museum  of  Haarlem,  all  of 
which  represent  dinners  of  the  city  guard ;  one  is  signed 
"Frans  Pieterz  Grebber  1610,"  another  "Frans  P.  Grebbei 
1619.] l 

ABRAHAM  BLOEMART,  born  at  Gorcum  1565,  died 
Utrecht  1658.  He  constitutes  in  many  respects  the  link  of 
transition  to  the  succeeding  epoch  ;  for  however  his  frequent 
mannerisms,  empty  heads,  over-soft  execution,  and  occa- 
sionally gaudy  colouring,  betray  the  tasteless  period  in 
which  he  was  born,  yet  his  later  pictures  especially  have 
well-balanced  general  keeping,  a  pure  taste,  and  a  bi 
touch,  which  render  them  more  satisfactory.  His  once 
numerous  works  have  now  principally  disappeared.  An 
Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,  dated  1604,  in  the  Berlin 
Gallery,  [withdrawn,]  conceived  as  a  night-piece,  is  skilfully 
composed,  and  of  powerful  though  somewhat  gaudy  effect. 
Joseph's  Second  Dream,  with  the  Virgin  and  Child  in  the 
background,  also  at  Berlin,  No.  722,  is  mannered  in  the 
figure  of  the  angel,  but  Joseph  is  a  truthful  and  vigorous 
figure,  and  the  keeping  is  well  balanced.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Feast  of  the  Gods,  in  the  Hague  Gallery,  may  be 

1  [Van  Willigen,  '  Les  Artistes  de  Haarlem,'  p.  135  ;  Van  Mander,  p. 
213.] 


€hap.  I.  ADRIAN   VAN   DER  VENNE.  245 

Classed,  by  its  crudeness  and  glassiness,  with  those  works 
by  him  which  partake  of  the  character  of  the  previous  period. 
His  raising  of  Lazarus,  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  No.  307,  is 
careful,  and  of  better  keeping  and  composition. 

PIETER  LASTMANN,  born  1562,1  visited  Rome  in  1604, 
where  he  evidently  fell  under  the  influence  of  Adam 
Elzheimer.  On  his  return  he  attained  such  renown  as  to  be 
summoned  in  1619  and  1620  to  paint  pictures  for  a  church 
in  Copenhagen.  He  was  a  good  draughtsman ;  his  heads 
exhibit  much  sentiment,  and  his  flesh  colouring  is  warm  and 
vigorous.  In  his  landscape  backgrounds,  which  generally 
are  conspicuous  parts  of  his  pictures,  the  influence  of  Paul 
Bril  is  perceptible.  Two  works,  St.  Philip  baptising  the 
Eunuch,  and  a  Holy  Family,  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  NOB. 
677  and  747,  [illustrate  the  early  period  of  Lastmann's  art, 
i.e.,  1608.  Ulysses  and  Nausica,  dated  1609,  in  the  Bruns- 
wick Museum,  a  Massacre  of  the  Innocents,  and  David  in 
the  Temple,  signed,  "Pietro  Lastmann  fecit  anno  1613,"  in 
the  same  collection,  give  us  reminiscences  of  Elzheimer  and 
Bril ;  but  dress  and  drapery  in  Jewish  oriental  taste  fore- 
shadow the  coming  of  Rembrandt,  who  was  one  of  Last- 
mann's pupils.  At  a  later  period  Lastmann  imitated  the 
shadowed  pieces  of  Caravaggio,  and  in  this  form,  which  also 
finds  its  reflex  in  Rembrandt,  he  painted  "  the  Angel  appear- 
ing to  Manoah  and  his  Wife,"  once  in  the  Boymans  Museum 
of  Rotterdam.]2 

ADRIAN  VAN  DER  VENNE,  born  at  Delft  1589,  died  at  the 
Hague  1665,  occupies  a  peculiar  place  among  these  painters. 
It  was  not  till  after  he  had  received  a  classic  and  scientific 
education  at  Leyden  that  he  devoted  himself,  under  the 
instructions  of  Jerome  van  Diest,  to  the  pursuit  of  painting. 
These  circumstances  not  only  influenced  him  in  the  pre- 
ference of  allegorical  subjects  in  art,  but  contributed  to 

1  [This  date  is  derived  from  Houbraken,  and  requires  confirmation  ; 
for   Van  Mander  (Schilderboeck,  p.  207).  speaking  of  Geerit  Pietersz, 
describes  his  pupil,  Pieter  Lastmann,  as  a  hopeful  artist  at  the  time  in 
Rome  (1604)  ;  whence  we  must  conclude,  with  C.  Vosmaer  (Rembrandt 
Harmens  van  Rijn,  Sa  Vie,  etc.,  1877,  p.  68),  that  Lastmann  was  born 
jn  1582  rather  than  1502.] 

2  {For  other  pictures  by  Lastmann  consult  Vosmaer,  u.  a.,  474  etc.] 


246  DUTCH   AKT.  Book  IV. 

divide  his  life  between  the  occupations  of  an  author  and  a 
painter.  A  moral  element  distinguishable  in  his  pictures  is 
his  zeal  for  the  Eeformation,  which  just  then  rewarded  the 
successful  struggles  of  the  Dutch,  and  his  respect  for  the 
reigning  princes  of  the  House  of  Orange.  In  the  mode  in 
which  he  conceives  such  subjects  he  shows,  however,  a 
strong  sympathy  with  the  realistic  tendency  of  his  country- 
men. His  portraits,  many  of  which  he  introduced  into  his 
allegorical  and  historical  pieces,  such  as  battles,  etc.,  are 
not  only  well-drawn,  of  warm  and  clear  colouring,  and  very 
careful  finish,  but  the  other  figures  in  his  pictures  have  also 
a  portraitlike  look.  His  realistic  feeling  is  strongly  seen  in 
various  genre  pictures  and  landscapes.  For  Prince  Maurice 
of  Orange,  the  King  of  Denmark,  and  other  patrons,  he 
executed  numerous  pictures  in  chiaroscuro.  The  largest 
work  I  know  by  him — in  the  Amsterdam  Museum,  No.  430 
— represents  Prince  Maurice  of  Orange  and  his  brothers, 
with  other  persons  of  distinction,  on  horseback,  near  the 
Hague — figures  about  three-fourths  the  size  of  life.  This 
work  has,  it  is  true,  all  the  good  qualities  I  have  particu- 
larized above  in  point  of  keeping  and  execution,  but  also, 
like  most  of  his  other  pictures,  has  something  old-fashioned 
in  character.  He  usually  painted  subjects  with  small  figures, 
of  which  No.  154,  in  the  Amsterdam  Museum,  called  "la 
Peche  aux  Ames  "  (dated  1614),  is  a  specimen.  The  land- 
scape here  is  painted  by  Jan  Breughel,  with  Eoman  Catholics 
and  Protestants  on  opposite  sides  of  a  stream.  Several 
boats  are  also  on  the  stream,  the  one  containing  Roman 
Catholic  priests  and  monks,  the  other  Protestant  clergymen. 
Both  are  employed  casting  nets  for  figures  swimming  in  the 
stream.  Among  the  Roman  Catholics  are  the  portraits  of 
Albert  and  Isabella;  among  the  Protestants  those  of  the 
Princes  Maurice  and  Frederic  Henry  of  Orange,  and  of  the 
Elector  Frederic  of  the  Palatinate.  Separate  representa- 
tions and  inscriptions  satirise  the  Papacy,  and  uphold  the 
Evangelical  Church.  This  rich  picture  is  interesting  both 
for  its  execution  and  subject.  But  a  still  more  remarkable 
example  of  his  art  is  No.  545  in  the  Louvre,  which  repre- 
sents a  festival  in  commemoration  of  the  truce  concluded 


Chap.  I.  JAN  MASSYS — HEMESSEN.  247 

between  the  Archduke  Albert  and  the  United  Provinces  of 
Holland  in  1609,  and  is  inscribed  "A.  V.  Venne  Fecit 
1616."  The  landscape  is  also  by  Jan  Breughel.  The 
mixture  of  portrait  figures — such  as  those  of  Albert  and 
Isabella,  with  mythological  and  allegorical  features — is  very 
remarkable.  The  heads  are  very  individual,  and  executed 
with  great  precision  in  a  clear  golden  tone.  His  inventions 
are  as  various  as  they  are  rich,  as  proved  by  the  drawings 
he  executed  as  illustrations  for  an  edition  of  the  works  of 
Cats,  the  popular  Dutch  poet. 

To  various  painters  the  decided  and  strongly  realistic 
style  with  which  Quentin  Massys  had  occasionally  painted 
scenes  from  common  life,  as  for  instance  his  Misers,  became 
the  model  for  their  treatment,  not  only  of  similar  subjects, 
but  also  for  those  of  a  Biblical  class.  But  none  of  them 
come  up  to  his  standard,  degenerating  generally  into  exag- 
geration and  repelling  vulgarity. 

Foremost  among  them  is  JAN  MASSYS,  son  of  the  master, 
born  about  the  year  1510,  died  after  1574.  To  his  earlier 
time  may  be  probably  referred  the  repetitions  of  the  Money- 
changers and  other  pictures  by  his  father,  Van  Mander 
expressly  saying  that  he  was  engaged  on  such  tasks. 
Remarkable  specimens  of  this  class  are  the  Misers  at 
Windsor  Castle,  the  picture  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No. 
671,  and  that  at  Munich,  No.  136.  Next  in  order  is  the  St. 
Jerome,  dated  1537,  in  the  gallery  at  Vienna.  All  these 
works  are  of  warm,  powerful  colouring,  and  careful  though 
somewhat  coarse  treatment.  His  later  pictures,  on  the  other 
hand,  exhibit  in  all  respects — expression,  colouring,  and  treat- 
ment—great feebleness ;  for  instance,  his  Visitation,  dated 
1558,  No.  251,  and  his  Healing  of  Tobias,  dated  1564,  No. 
252,  of  the  Antwerp  Museum. 

JAN  VAN  HEMESSEN,  born  about  1500,  died  before  1566, 
if  not  the  scholar,  is  the  imitator  of  Quentin  Massys.  [His 
name  was  registered  amongst  the  masters  of  the  Antwerp 
Guild  in  1535,  and  he  was  "  eldest "  of  the  corporation  in 
1548.] l  He  displays  usually  a  terrible  vulgarity  of  forms  and 

1  [Ligreren,  i.  125,  1(52.] 


;>48  DUTCH   ART.  Book  IV. 

expression,  is  always  hard  in  the  outlines,  and  of  a  heavy 
brown  colouring.  He  often  copied  Quentin  Massys'  works. 
I  am  acquainted  with  three  copies  by  him  of  the  Call  of  St. 
Matthew  which  I  saw  in  England,  one  in  the  Antwerp 
Gallery,  No.  425,  and  two  in  the  Gallery  at  Vienna.  One  of 
his  most  pleasing  pictures  is  a  small  Holy  Family,  dated 
1541,  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  Cabinets,  No.  171 ;  one  of 
his  most  disagreeable,  a  St.  Jerome  in  the  gallery  at 
"Vienna;  but  in  the  portrait  of  Jan  van  Mabuse,  also  at 
Vienna,  he  shows  himself  as  a  capital  painter  in  this 
department. 

Another  painter,  closely  allied  to  the  foregoing,  and  of  a 
merit  which  is  little  known,  is  one  of  the  name  of  HUYS, 
by  whom  a  bagpipe-player,  and  an  old  woman,  dated  1571, 
exist  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  693. 

PIETEB  AERTSZEN,  called  LANGE-PEER,  born  1508,  died 
1573,  was  scholar  of  Allard  Claessen,  [but  joined  the  Ant- 
werp Guild  in  1535]  .*  He  was  a  painter  of  extraordinary 
talent,  and  execute^  numerous  large  altarpieces  in  Louvain, 
Amsterdam,  Delft,  etc.,  most  of  which  were  destroyed  by 
the  Iconoclasts  in  1566.  Judging  from  the  smaller,  still 
existing  pictures  by  him  of  Biblical  subjects,  they  must  have 
been  conceived  in  a  realistic  and  genre-like  style.  He  was 
evidently  a  painter  of  keen  observation,  and  as  animated 
in  composition  as  he  was  clever  in  practice.  To  these  quali- 
ties is  superadded,  in  his  best  works,  forcible  and  clear 
colouring.  A  fine  little  picture  by  him  is  the  Crucifixion  in 
the  Antwerp  Museum,  No.  2 ;  [a  Crucifixion  of  1546,  in  the 
Hospital  at  Antwerp,  and  a]  Christ  bearing  his  Cross,  in  the 
Berlin  Museum,  No.  726,  are  characteristic  specimens.  This 
latter  subject  is  treated  quite  according  to  the  customs  of  the 
painter's  time.  The  two  thieves  are  accompanied  by  a 
Dominican  and  a  Franciscan,  and  the  Bearing  of  the  Cross 
forms  only  an  episode  in  the  middle  distance.  Occasionally 
he  painted  mere  market  scenes,  a  remarkable  specimen  of 
which  is  in  the  Gallery  at  Vienna.  [Other  works  are  in  the 
galleries  of  Cassel,  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  and  Copenhagen.] 

1  [Liggeren,  i.  124.] 


•Chap.  I.  BUECKLAER^BRUEGHEL.  240 


JOACHIM  BUECKLAER,  the  scholar  of  the  foregoing,  born 
1530,  still  living  in  1573,  walked  quite  in  his  master's  steps. 
[He  was  registered  as  early  as  1560  in  the  Guild  at  Antwerp, 
as  the  son  of  a  master  whose  name  was  probably  Matheus 
de  Bueekeloere.] l  'A  Christ  before  Pilate,  conceived  in  the 
same  style  as  Pieter  Aertszen's  Bearing  of  the  Cross,  is  in 
the  gallery  at  Schleissheim.  His  market  and  kitchen  scenes 
were  also  very  popular. 

PIETER  BRUEGHEL  THE  ELDER,  also  called  PEASANT  BREU- 
GHEL, born  at  Brueghel,  near  Breda,  about  1530,  became 
member  of  the  Painters'  Guild  in  1551,  visited  Rome  about 
1553,  and  died  [at  Brussels]  1569.  Although  he  also,  .on 
rare  occasions,  treated  Biblical  subjects  in  the  same  style  as 
the  preceding  painters,  yet  he  was  the  first  who  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of  various  forms  of  peasant  life,  and 
made  it  the  chief  subject  of  his  art.  His  mode  of  viewing 
these  scenes  is  always  clever  but  coarse,  and  even  sometimes 
vulgar.  Occasionally  he  painted  ghost  and  incantation  scenes 
in  the  manner  of  Jerome  Bosch.  His  treatment  is  in  a  warm 
tone,  generally  broad  and  sometimes  slight.  He  also  made 
skilful  drawings,  when  travelling,  from  any  landscapes  which 
attracted  him,  and  executed  an  etching  of  very  picturesque 
-character  from  one  of  these  sketches.  Woodcuts  from  his 
designs  are  occasionally  met  with.  The  Gallery  at  Vienna 
contains  remarkable  pictures  by  this  master.  Of  his  histori- 
cal works,  a  Crucifixion,  of  the  year  1563,  a  rich  composi- 
tion, is  particularly  worthy  of  note  ;  the  heads  of  the  Virgin, 
etc.,  are  of  elevated  expression.  The  Building  of  the  Tower 
of  Babel,  of  the  same  year,  shows  him  in  his  fantastic  land- 
scape element.  His  humorous  side  is  seen  in  his  pictures 
•of  Winter,  Spring,  and  Autumn  (the  latter  a  landscape  of 
much  poetry),  and  in  a  Fight  between  Carnival  and  Lent, 
dated  1559,  which  abounds  with  droll,  and  also  with  some 
coarse  incidents.  A  Peasant  Wedding,  finally,  is  truthfully 
composed,  and  full  of  clever  invention. 

His  eldest  son,  PIETER  BREUGHEL  THE  YOUNGER,  was  ftlso 
called,  from  the  nature  of  his  subjects,  HELL  BREUGHEL. 

!  [Liggeren,  i.  123,  220,  253.] 
2  [Ib.  ib.  275.] 


250 


DUTCH  ART. 


Book    IV. 


[He  was  registered  a  master  at  Antwerp  in  1585,  married  io 
1588,  and  died  at  Antwerp  in  1638.] 1  In  invention,  colour- 
ing, and  technical  merit  he  is  far  inferior  to  his  father.  Hia 
composition  is  generally  lame,  his  heads  spiritless,  his  flesh  of 
a  heavy  leathery  brown  tone,  and  his  touch  very  mechanical. 
Examples  may  be  seen  in  his  Christ  bearing  the  Cross,  in  the 
Antwerp  Museum,  No.  31,  and  in  a  picture  in  the  Berlin 
Museum,  No.  721.  The  pictures  called  by  his  name  at 
Dresden  and  Munich  are  by  his  younger  brother  Jan. 
Breughel. 

This  JAN  BREUGHEL,  called  VELVET  BREUGHEL,  born  at 
Brussels  1568,  [bought  the  freedom  of  Antwerp  1601,  ma- 
triculated there  in  1597,  and]2  died  1625,  was  a  far  more 
gifted  painter,  and  of  a  versatility  of  talent  which  is  rarely 
found.  Though  more  especially  a  landscape  painter,  in 
which  aspect  we  shall  presently  regard  him,  he  takes  also  as 
subject-painter  an  important  place  among  his  contemporaries. 
His  peasant  subjects,  though  never  rising  above  a  coarse 
reality,  are  of  a  lively  character.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
his  Scriptural  pictures,  on  a  very  small  scale — namely,  his 
Scenes  in  Hell — and  of  his  demoniacal  subjects,  laid  some- 
times in  the  ancient  Tartarus,  and  which  are  conceived  with 
strong  effects  of  light.  A  clear  and  vigorous  colouring,  and 
a  careful  finish,  are  peculiar  to  these  as  well  as  to  all  his 
works.  On  the  other  hand,  he  is  often  wanting  in  general 
keeping.  The  Galleries  of  Dresden,  Munich,  and  Berlin 
contain  numerous  pictures  by  him,  and  various  specimens  of 
those  subjects. 

DAVID  VINCKEBOONS,  commonly  written  VINCKEBOOMS,  born 
at  Mechlin  1578,  died  at  Amsterdam  1629.  This  master  is 
allied  in  many  respects  to  the  foregoing,  though  he  moved  in 
a  far  narrower  circle.  He  also  was  a  landscape  as  well  as 
genre  painter.  He  is  fond  of  representing  low  life  in  the 
country,  under  those  rude  aspects  which  occur  at  fairs  and 
festivals.  His  figures  are  of  repelling  ugliness  and  vulgarity, 
and  his  flesh-tones  of  a  hard  discordant  red.  Pictures  of 
this  kind  are  in  the  above-mentioned  Galleries.  , 

1  [Liggeren  i.  292,  520,  ii.,  108.] 

2  [Ib.  ib.  397.] 


Chap.  I.  VALKENBURG — CLEVE.  251 


LUCAS  VAN  VALKENBURG,  born  at  Mechlin,  died  [about  1598], 
painted  scenes  from  peasant  and  soldier  life  in  a  somewhat 
grey  but  harmonious  tone.  His  figures  are  of  moderate 
drawing,  but  have  a  certain  elegance.  His  execution  is  very 
finished.  The  best  pictures  I  know  by  him  are  in  the 
Vienna  Gallery,  where  may  also  be  seen  specimens  of  his 
son  FREDERICK  and  brother  MARTIN,  painters  of  the  same 
class  of  subjects,  but  of  weaker  character. 

SEBASTIAN  VRANCX,  born  about  1573,  [of  the  Antwerp 
Guild  in  1610,  died  at  Antwerp  1638],1  is  one  of  the  earliest 
painters  who  especially  devoted  himself  to  battle-scenes, 
combats  of  horsemen,  the  plunder  of  villages,  etc.  His 
conception  of  action  is  truthful.  Two  excellent  pictures 
of  this  class  are  in  the  Vienna  Gallery  and  the  Museum  at 
Gotha. 

FRANZ  FRANCKEN  THE  SECOND,  born  at  Antwerp  1581, 
died  1642,  painted  small  pieces  which  he  signed  F.  F. 
the  younger  up  to  1616,  then  Franz  Francken,  and  finally 
F.  F.  the  old,  in  order  that  he  might  be  distinguished 
from  Franz  the  third.  Examples  worth  quoting  are  the 
Crucifixion  at  Vienna  (1606),  Christ  on  the  Mount  at  Berlin, 
and  the  Prodigal  Son  (1633)  at  the  Louvre.  The  style  is 
lively  and  gaudy,  and  a  compromise  between  the  dryness 
of  the  old  Italo-Fleming  and  the  freedom  of  the  school  of 
Rubens. 

FRANZ  THE  THIRD  has  also  a  rival  of  his  own  name,  and  calls 
himself  first  the  younger  and  later  on  the  older.  He  paints 
figures  in  church  interiors  by  Pieter  Neefs;  but  in  small 
pieces  all  his  own,  as  in  Moses  striking  the  Rock  (1654)  at 
Augsburg,  signed  Old  F.  F.,  we  distinctly  observe  a  close 
imitation  of  Rubens. 

The  earliest  of  the  portrait-painters  of  this  period  is  JOAS 
VAN  CLEVE .  Of  his  birth  and  death  nothing  positive  is  known ; 
he  flourished  from  about  1530  to  1550.  According  to  Vasari 
he  visited  Spain,  and  painted  portraits  for  the  Court  of 

1  [Liggeren,  i.  293,  ii.  108. 


252 


DUTCH-FLEMISH   ART. 


Book  IV. 


France.1  At  all  events  it  is  certain  that  he  laboured  for  a 
time  in  England,  where  the  great  success  of  Sir  Antonis 
Moro  is  said  to  have  disordered  his  brain.  The  few  pictures, 
however,  that  can  still  be  assigned  to  him  thoroughly  justify 
the  high  reputation  he  enjoyed  in  his  time.  The  style  of  art 
may  be  classed  between  that  of  Holbein  and  Antonis  Moro. 
His  well-drawn  forms  are  decided,  without  being  hard  ;  and 
the  warm  and  transparent  colouring  recalls  the  great  masters 
of  the  Venetian  school.  Two  of  his  best  works  are  the  por- 
traits of  himself  and  wife  in  Windsor  Castle.  Not  less  suc- 
cessful is  his  own  portrait  in  Lord  Spencer's  collection  at 
Althorp.  His  pictures  are  frequently  mistaken  for  those  of 
Holbein,  of  which  I  have  given  some  instances  in  my 
•*  Treasures  of  Art.' 

Next  in  order  after  Joas  van  Cleve  comes  SIR  ANTONIS 
Mono,  born  [at  Utrecht  in  1525,  died  at  Antwerp  in  1578. 
He  was  admitted  into  the  Guild  of  Antwerp  in  1547,  and  is 
still  registered  as  a  master  there  in  1572.] 2  He  attended 
the  school  of  Jan  Schoreel  in  his  youth,  and  afterwards 
visited  Italy.  On  his  return  [in  1549]  the  recommendation 
of  Cardinal  Granvelle  procured  him  admission  to  the  service 
of  Charles  V.,  with  whom  his  art  found  such  favour  that  the 
Emperor  sent  him  [1550] 3  to  Lisbon  to  take  the  portrait  of 
his  son  Philip's  betrothed  bride.  Afterwards  he  repaired 
[1553],  and  doubtless  for  a  long  period,  to  England,  in  order 
to  paint  Philip's  second  wife,  Catholic  Queen  Mary.  Subse- 
quently he  again  spent  some  time  at  the  Spanish  Court  at 
Madrid,  and  finally  returned  to  the  Netherlands,  where  he 
was  much  employed  by  the  Duke  of  Alva.  In  all  countries 
he  earned  praise,  honours,  and  money.  In  his  now  rare 
historical  pictures  he  exhibits  one  of  the  most  repulsive 
forms  of  the  Netherland-Italian  style.  In  portraiture,  on 


1  [Guicciardini,  L.,  in  'Descrittione  di  tutti  i  paesi  bassi,'  p.  143,  says 
"  that  Francis  sent  for  '  Gios  de  Cleves/  who  went  to  France  and  painted 
the  King,  the  Queen,  and  other  princes."  Comte  de  Laborde  ('Renais- 
sance des  Arts,'  p.  921)  confesses  that  he  could  find  no  traces  of  Cleves* 
presence  or  pictures  in  France.  Joas  is  known  in  old  English  collec- 
tions, ex.  gr.  the  Buckingham  collection,  as  '  Sotto  Cleeve.'] 

-  [Liggeren,  i.,  159,  249.] 

*  [A.  Pinchartin'Messagerdes  Sciences,'  1868,  pp.  324  and  following.'] 


Chap.  I.  POURBUS.  253 


the  other  hand,  his  truthful  feeling,  good  drawing,  masterly 
and  careful  painting,  and  transparent  and  admirable  colour, 
rendered  him  one  of  the  best  masters  of  his  time.  The 
portraits  of  his  middle  period  are  distinguished  by  their 
warmer  and  more  vigorous  colouring  from  the  paler  and  less 
carefully  finished  works  of  his  later  time.  Among  his  best 
pictures  in  England  are  those  of  Catholic  Queen  Mary  and 
the  Earl  of  Essex,  in  the  collection  of  Lord  Yarborough  in 
London,  and  of  Sir  Henry  Sidney  and  his  lady,  dated  1553, 
in  the  collection  of  Colonel  Egremont  Wyndham  at  Petworth. 
No  gallery  is,  however,  so  instructive,  as  regards  this  painter, 
as  that  of  Vienna.  Of  his  earlier  time  I  will  only  cite  his 
finely-felt  and  warmly-coloured  picture,  in  a  reddish  tone,  of 
Cardinal  Granvelle,  dated  1549  ;  his  less  warmly  toned,  but 
delicately-conceived  portrait  of  a  young  man  with  a  scarr 
dated  1564;  [Jeanne  d'Archel,  of  1568,  No.  184  in  the 
National  Gallery] ;  and  the  pictures  of  a  young  married 
couple,  of  cooler  local  tones  and  whitish  lights,  of  1575. 
The  Dresden  Gallery  possesses  also,  under  the  erroneous 
name  of  Holbein,  two  female  portraits  of  his  best  time,  Nos. 
1893  and  1894.  [In  the  collection  of  Mary  of  Hungary 
(1558)  there  were  no  less  than  six  portraits  of  royal  persons 
by  Moro  ; l  and  of  these  the  best  are  still  in  the  Museum  of 
Madrid,  ex.  gr. :  Queen  Eleanor  of  France,  Mary  of  Portugal, 
and  Catherine  of  Portugal.  Besides  these  the  Museum  con- 
tains the  likenesses  of  Mary  of  England,  Anna,  the  wife  of 
Maximilian,  King  of  Bohemia,  and  Philip  H.] 

[PIETEE  POURBUS,  born  at  Gouda  in  the  first  years  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  settled  at  Bruges  in  1540,  entered  the 
Guild  of  St.  Luke  in  1543,  and  died  at  Bruges  in  1584.  He 
was  a  portrait-painter,  and  a  composer  of  sacred  subjects. 
Of  the  former,  the  likenesses  of  John  and  Adrienne  Fernagant, 
in  the  Academy  of  Bruges  (1551),  are  fine  specimens.  Of 
the  latter,  the  Last  Judgment  (1551)  and  the  Descent  from  the 
Cross  (1570),  in  the  same  collection,  are  characteristic.] 

[FRANZ  POURBUS  THE  ELDER,  born  in  1542,  was  the  son  and 
disciple  of  Pieter  Pourbus ;  but  he  afterwards  studied  under 

1  [A.  Pinchart  in  '  Revue  Universelle  des  Arts,'  iii.,  133.] 


254 


DUTCH-FLEMISH   ART. 


Book  IV. 


Franz  Floris.  He  wandered  from  Bruges  to  Antwerp  in 
1564,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Painters'  Guild  of  that  city 
in  1569.  He  was  still  a  member  of  Guild  in  1575,  and, 
according  to  Van  Mander,  he  died  in  1580,  the  year  of  his 
father's  death.]1  Though  proceeding  from  the  pernicious 
school  of  Franz  Floris,  Peter  Pourbus  the  elder  occupies  a 
worthy  place  as  a  portrait-painter.  If  inferior  to  the  foregoing 
in  refinement  of  drawing,  he  surpasses  them  all  in  golden 
and  clear  colouring.  As  an  example  of  this  class  I  may 
mention  the  portrait  of  a  man,  dated  1568,  with  his  right 
hand  on  his  side,  his  left  on  the  hilt  of  his  sword,  in  the 
Gallery  at  Vienna. 

WILLEM  KEY,  born  [at  Breda  in  1520,  took  the  freedom  of 
the  Antwerp  Guild  in  1541],  died  1568.  This  artist  must 
have  been  a  remarkable  portrait-painter,  the  Duke  of  Alva 
having  selected  him  to  paint  his  portrait ;  but  I  cannot  at 
this  time  assign  with  certainty  any  picture  to  him. 

NICHOLAS  NEUCHATEL,  called  LUCIDEL,  [born  early  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  entered  the  workshop  of  Pieter  Coeck  of 
Alost  at  Antwerp  in  1539,  settled  at  Mons  in  1540,  and  at 
Nuremberg  before  1561.] l  This  admirable  Belgian  portrait- 
painter,  who  afterwards  settled  at  Nuremberg,  has  left  us  the 
masterly  portrait  of  the  Mathematician  instructing  his  Son, 
now  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  No.  663.  The  relationship  be- 
tween the  two  figures  gives  the  truthfully  conceived  heads  a 
double  interest.  The  local  tones  of  the  flesh  are  of  a  cool 
reddish,  the  shadows  gray.  [There  are  numerous  portraits 
by  him  at  Prague,  one  very  fine,  dated  1564,  in  the  house  of 
Count  Erwin  von  Nostitz.] 

GUALDOKP  GOETZIUS,  called  GELDORP,  born  at  Louvain, 
1553,  is  seen  to  far  greater  advantage  in  his  portraits  than 
in  his  now  chiefly  vanished  historical  pictures,  which  are 
praised  by  Van  Mander.8  He  was  a  scholar  of  Frans  Franck 
the  elder  and  of  Frans  Pourbus  the  elder,  and  settled  later 

1  [Consult  Weale,  'Catalogue  de  1' Academic  de  Bruges,'  pp.  36  and 
following,  the  Liggeren,  pp.  237,  249,  and  261,  and  Van  Mander,  u.  s., 
257.] 

2  [Liggeren,  L  135,  and  W.  Schmidt  in  von  Zahn's  *  Jahrbiicher.'  v.. 
143  and  following.] 

•  Folio  195b. 


Chap.  I.  KETEL — POURBUS  THE  YOUNGEK.  255 

in  Cologne,  where  several  of  his  pictures  are  preserved. 
The  earlier  are  of  lively  conception,  and  carefully  painted  in 
a  vigorous  colour.  In  his  later  works  he  is  cold  in  tone 
and  superficial  in  treatment. 

Among  the  respectable  portrait-painters  of  this  time  must 
also  be  reckoned  COKNELIS  KETEL,  born  at  Gouda  1548.  He 
painted  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1578  ;  later,  various  personages 
of  her  Court ;  and  subsequently  the  Company  of  Marksmen 
at  Amsterdam,  and  also  some  other  company.  My  efforts  to 
discover  either  of  these  pictures,  or  any  in  England  by  him, 
have  not  been  successful. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  number  of  pictures  exist  by  the 
hand  of  MARK  GERARD  of  Bruges,  one  of  the  most  favourite 
portrait-painters  of  the  English  Couit  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  who  died  in  1635.  Not  that  he  is  by  any  means 
one  of  the  best  artists  of  this  epoch,  being  somewhat  tame 
in  conception,  and  weak  in  drawing  and  colouring.  The 
chief  interest  of  his  portraits,  therefore,  consists  in  the 
importance  of  his  sitters,  so  that  I  may  limit  my  notice  to 
three  very  characteristic  portraits — Queen  Elizabeth,  Lord 
Burleigh,  and  Lord  Essex,  [till  lately]  in  the  collection  at 
Burleigh  House.1 

FRANS  POURBUS  THE  YOUNGER,  born  1570,  [free  of  the  Guild 
at  Antwerp  in  1591],  died  [in  Paris]  1622,  scholar  of  his  father 
of  the  same  name.  Like  him  he  was  favourably  distinguished 
as  a  portrait-painter,  though  inferior  to  him  in  warmth  of 
colouring  and  solidity  of  impasto.  He  nourished  for  some 
time  at  the  Court  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  took  various 
portraits  of  that  monarch,  and  also  of  his  Queen,  Mary  of 
Medicis.  The  most  important  of  his  portraits  in  the  Louvre 
is  of  that  Queen,  No.  396.  The  two  smaller  pictures  also  of 
the  King,  Nos.  394  and  395,  1610,  deserve  to  be  noticed. 
[Another  fine  portrait  of  Catherine  de  Medicis,  as  a  widow 
(after  1610),  is  in  the  Madrid  Museum.] 

PAUL  VAN  SOMER,  born  at  Antwerp  1570,  died  1624.  He 
laboured  for  many  years  in  England,  where  consequently  his 
best  works  still  remain.  His  conception  is  truthful  and 

1  'Treasures  of  Art,'  etc.,  vol.  iii.  p.  407,  etc. 
J  [Liggeren,  i.  364. 


256 


DUTCH   PORTRAIT-PAINTERS. 


Book  :v. 


lively,  his  colouring  warm  and  clear,  and  his  execution 
finished.  His  portrait  of  Lord  Bacon  at  Panshanger  i& 
excellent ;  also  those  of  the  well-known  Earl  of  Arundel  and 
his  Countess  at  Arundel  Castle,  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk. 

Most  of  the  remaining  portrait-painters  of  the  latest 
generation  of  this  epoch  were  Dutchmen. 

MICHAEL  JANSE  MIEREVELT,  born  at  Delft  1567,  died  1641, 
With  a  simple  and  truthful  feeling  for  his  subject  he  com- 
bines clear  and  often  warm  colouring.  The  number  of  his 
works  is  very  considerable,  A  series  of  his  works  are  in  the 
Hotel  de  Yille  at  Delft.  In  an  archery  piece  of  1611,  the- 
largest  picture  by  him  known  to  me,  with  numerous  figures, 
he  does  not  appear  to  advantage.  Although  the  heads  are 
animated,  the  colouring  is  somewhat  heavy,  and  the  treat- 
ment rather  mechanical.  The  portraits  of  William  I.  and  H., 
and  Maurice  of  Saxony,  in  the  Burgomaster's  room,  are  better. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  respect  of  excellence  of  conception,, 
clear  colouring,  and  careful  execution,  the  bust  portrait 
of  HugoGrotius,  in  the  same  place,  is  admirable.  Especially 
soft,  for  this  master,  are  three  children  over  the  chimney- 
piece.  Fine  examples  of  his  art  are  in  the  Louvre,  in  the- 
Dresden,  Munich,  and  Amsterdam  Galleries.  Among  his  best 
scholars  are  his  son  Peter  Mierevelt  and  Paul  Moreelse. 

[PAUL  MOREELSE,  according  to  the  current  chronology,  was 
born  at  Utrecht  in  1571,  and  died  there  in  1638.  He  is 
described  by  Van  Mander  (1604)  as  a  young  artist,  a  pupil  of 
Mierevelt,  possessing  mastery  in  portraits.  In  the  Museum 
of  Rotterdam  there  were  seven  of  his  pictures.  One  only 
now  remains,  representing  Vertumnus  and  Pomona.  The 
rest  were  burnt  in  the  fire  of  1864.  The  Museum  of  the 
Hague  contains  two  portraits ;  the  Gallery  of  Amsterdam  a 
shepherdess,  a  little  princess,  Frederick  of  Bohemia,  and 
Mary  of  Utrecht,  dated  1615.  In  the  Museum  at  Berlin  we 
shall  find  a  fine  portrait  of  a  lady,  with  the  monogram  and 
the  date  1626.  The  style  of  this  artist  deserves  to  be 
studied,  not  because  it  is  that  of  a  first-class  painter,  but 
because  Moreelse  is  one  of  the  forerunners  of  Rembrandt.] l 

1  [Consult  Van  Mander,  p.  213,  and  Burger,  'Musees  de  la  Hollande, 
ii.  193.] 


Chap.  I.  CORNELIUS  JANSEN.  257 

In  close  affinity  with  the  last  is  JOHANN  WILHELM  DELFT, 
by  whom  is  another  archery  subject,  signed  and  dated  1592, 
in  the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Delft.  This  picture  contains  many 
v  figures,  and  exhibits  truthfulness  of  feeling  and  good  painting, 
though  it  is  somewhat  hard  in  outline,  and  heavy  in  colouring. 
Delft  was  an  officer  of  the  Guild  of  Delft  in  1582. 

JACOB  DELFT:  by  this  painter  is  a  remarkable  female 
portrait  in  the  Stadel  Institute  at  Frankfort. 

DANIEL  MYTENS,  born  at  the  Hague  [1610  member 
of  the  Guild  of  the  Hague,  1618  in  London,  where  he  lived 
as  court-painter  to  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  till  1633. 
He  was  superseded  about  that  time  by  Yan  Dyck.]  This 
master  is  characterised  by  great  simplicity  of  manner  and 
a  general  effect  of  lightness  of  colour.  In  his  flesh-tones 
he  is  often  inclined  to  the  silvery.  His  tenderly  fused 
execution  is  careful.  Two  pictures  of  Charles  I.  and 
Henrietta  Maria  in  their  youthful  days,  with  the  dwarf 
Sir  Geoffrey  Hudson,  various  dogs  and  a  grey  horse,  all 
life  size,  constitute  his  chefs-d'oeuvre.  The  one  is  at  the 
seat  of  Lord  Galway,  Serlby,  Nottinghamshire ;  the  other 
in  the  collection  of  the  Countess  of  Dunmore,  Dunmore 
Park,  near  Falkirk.  My  tens  occasionally  painted  small 
pictures  of  great  delicacy.  Two  very  pretty  examples  of 
this  class,  the  portraits  of  Charles  I.  and  Henrietta  Maria, 
with  architectural  background  by  the  elder  Steenwyck,  are 
in  the  Dresden  Gallery,  Nos.  1109  and  1110,  under  the 
erroneous  title  of  Gonsales  Coques.  Another,  with  Charles 
and  his  Queen,  and  one  of  their  children,  in  one  picture,  is 
in  the  Royal  Gallery,  Buckingham  Palace. 

COKNELIUS  JANSEN,  supposed  to  have  been  born  in  London 
of  Flemish  parents.1  At  all  events  he  was  long  in  England, 
where  he  painted  for  Charles  I.,  and  left  it  in  1648.  He 
continued  to  paint  portraits  in  Holland  with  great  success 
till  his  death  in  1665.  He  was  an  artist  of  refined  feeling 
for  nature,  tasteful  in  composition,  warm  and  tender  in 
colouring,  and  of  melting  execution.  Among  the  many 
pictures  by  him  scattered  through  England,  I  will  mention 
only  that  of  Frederick  Elector  of  the  Palatinate,  in  the 
1  Sandrart,  vol.  i.  p.  379. 

17 


258  DUTCH — FLEMISH  AKT.  Book  IV. 

Gallery  of  Hampton  Court;  of  Lady  Dorothy  Neville,  at 
Burleigh  House  ;  of  John  Taylor,  master  of  the  revels  at  the 
Court  of  Charles  I.,  and  his  own  portrait,  at  Longford 
Castle.  He  also  occasionally  executed  portraits  on  a  small 
scale.  An  example  is  seen  in  that  of  Charles  I.  with  per- 
sons of  his  Court  in  the  Green  Park,  in  the  Royal  Collection, 
Buckingham  Palace. 

At  this  time  also  the  painters  of  animals  grew  into  a  dis- 
tinct class,  though  some  Biblical  title,  such  as  Adam  and 
Eve  in  Paradise^  was  given  to  pictures  whose  chief  interest 
lay  in  animal  life.  The  best  painter  of  this  order  was 
ROELANDT  SAVERY,  born  at  Courtray  1576,  died  1639.  His 
scenes,  in  which  a  very  brown  tone  generally  prevails,  are  often 
overfilled  with  animals,  each  singly  of  much  truth  of  nature. 
One  of  his  best  pieces  [Orpheus]  is  in  the  Berlin  Museum, 
No.  717A.  Various  pictures  with  wild  rocky  scenery,  in 
which  savage  animals  dwell,  have  something  fantastic. 

Next  to  him  in  this  class  is  JAN  BREUGHEL  [born  1601, 
still  living  in  1677],1  already  described  as  a  #enr0-painter. 
His  animal  pieces  often  show  the  influence  of  Rubens,  and 
surpass  those  of  Roelandt  Savery  in  transparency  and  truth 
of  colouring.  Good  specimens  of  this  kind  are  in  the 
Dresden  and  Berlin  Galleries,  in  the  Louvre,  and  also  at 
Madrid.  His  chief  picture  is  also  a  Paradise  in  the  Hague 
Gallery,  in  which  the  figures  of  Adam  and  Eve  are  finely 
painted  by  the  hand  of  Rubens. 

Jan  Breughel  was  followed  by  FERDINAND  VAN  KESSEL,  a 
painter  of  greater  hardness  and  dryness. 

Landscape  painting,  also,  according  to  Van  Mander's 
account,  was  carefully  treated  at  this  period  ;  but,  of  the 
painters  whom  he  celebrates  as  belonging  to  this  class, 
FRANS  MINNEBROER,  JAN  DE  HOLLANDER,  [master  at  Antwerp 
in  1522,  still  living  there  in  1538],2  JACQUES  GRIMMER, 
[apprenticed  at  Antwerp  in  1539,  master  in  1547,  still  living 
in  1589],3  MICHAEL  DE  GAST,  and  HENDRIK  VAN  CLEEF, 

1  See  A.  Michiels  in  'Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts,'  1868,  p.  105  and 
following.] 

2  [Liggeren,  i.  100  and  132.] 

9  [Llggeren,  i.  135,  159,  205,  336.] 


Chap.  I.  MATTHEW  AND   PAUL   BRIL.  259 

[master  at  Antwerp  in  1550,  and  still  living  in  1589],1  no 
picture  ever  reached  my  eyes.  A  few,  however,  by  LUCAS 
GASSEL,  who  nourished  from  1529  till  about  the  close  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  have  been  preserved.  He  continued  the 
fantastic  manner  of  Patenier,  with  strangely-formed  rocks 
and  a  number  of  well-executed  details.  In  colouring  he  is 
somewhat  monotonous  and  cool.  A  landscape,  with  Judah 
and  Thamar,  in  the  Vienna  Gallery,  bears  his  monogram 
and  the  date  1548.  I  have  seen  other  pictures,  dated 
respectively  1538  and  1561,  in  private  collections,  though, 
in  their  liability  to  change  hands,  I  do  not  quote 
them. 

A  remarkable  advance  in  the  art  of  landscape  painting 
was  made  by  the  brothers  MATTHEW  BEIL,  born  at  Antwerp 
1556,  died  at  Rome  1580,  and  PAUL  BEIL,  born  1554,  died 
1626.  The  early  death  of  the  elder  gave  no  scope  for  any 
extended  activity  :  he  was,  however,  the  instructor  of  his 
brother,  who  joined  him  in  Rome,  and  soon  displayed  the 
highest  abilities  of  the  two.  Paul  Bril  painted  both  in  oil 
and  fresco,  and  left  behind  him  a  large  number  of  works.2 
He  viewed  nature  with  a  fresh  eye — selecting  her  natural 
and  poetic  rather  than  her  arbitrary  and  fantastic  features. 
He  was  the  first  to  introduce  a  certain  unity  of  light  in  his 
pictures,  attaining  thereby  a  far  finer  general  effect  than 
those  who  had  preceded  him.  His  deficiencies  lie  in  the 
over  force,  and  also  in  the  monotonous  green,  of  his  fore- 
grounds, and  in  the  exaggerated  blueness  of  his  distances. 
Nevertheless,  this  painter  exercised  a  considerable  and 
beneficial  influence  over  R*bens,  Annibale  Carracci,  and 
Claude  Lorraine,  and  must  ever  occupy  an  important  posi- 
tion in  the  development  of  this  branch  of  art.  Only  in  his 
earlier  works,  and  then  rarely,  does  he  betray  the  fantastic 
element,  as,  for  instance,  in  his  Tower  of  Babel,  in  the  Berlin 
Museum,  No.  731  [not  genuine].  His  later  qualities,  and 
especially  his  treatment  of  the  general  lighting  of  a  scene, 
are  observable  in  a  morning  landscape,  also  at  Berlin,  No- 

1  [Liggeren,  i.  176.] 

2  fc'ee  regarding  this  tnaster  the  notice  by  Ed.  Fetis  in  the  'Bulletins 
de  1' Academic  Royale  de  Belgique '  of  1855,  pp.  594—616. 


DUTCH — FLEMISH  ART.  Book  IV. 

744.  Fine  examples  of  his  best  time  are  in  the  Louvre, 
especially  Nos.  67,  71,  and  73. 

LUCAS  VAN  YALKENBURG. — We  here  again  encounter  this 
already-mentioned  painter  and  his  brothers,  under  the  cha- 
racter of  landscape-painters.  They  attached  themselves  more 
particularly  to  the  earlier  style,  which  was  distinguished  by 
its  great  minuteness  of  detail.  The  pictures  by  Lucas  have 
frequently  something  naive,  and  a  peculiar  poetic  charm. 
The  Vienna  Gallery  possesses  the  best  landscapes  by  the 
three  brothers. 

JOSSE  DE  MOMPEB,  [the  son  of  Bartholomew  de  Momper, 
was  admitted  to  the  Guild  of  St.  Luke  at  Antwerp  in  1581]  ,l 
died  in  [1634-5].  Although  younger  than  Paul  Bril,  he 
retains  much  more  of  the  fantastic  modes  of  conception  which 
distinguished  the  earlier  landscape  painters.  He  generally 
introduces  us  to  lofty  hills  and  bold  forms  in  striking  sunlight, 
and  is  often  untruthful  in  colour  and  of  slight  and  mannered 
treatment.  His  pictures  are  numerous,  for  instance  in  the 
Dresden  and  Yienna  Galleries.  In  his  later  works  only  he 
occasionally  attained  considerable  power  and  keeping,  as 
seen  in  a  landscape  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No.  772.2  He 
was  also  a  skilful  etcher.  The  figures  in  his  foregrounds 
were  executed  by  various  painters ;  by  Peter  Breughel  the 
younger,  several  members  of  the  numerous  Francken  family, 
David  Teniers  the  elder,  and  Henrik  van  Balen.  [One  of 
these  pictures,  a  Rest  in  Egypt,  executed  1642,  with  figures 
by  H.  van  Balen,  is  in  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  at  Antwerp.] 3 

And  here  again  we  come  upon  JAN  BREUGHEL,  who  was  a 
landscape-painter  of  no  mean*merit.  He  treated  the  flat 
scenes  of  his  native  land,  intersected  with  canals  and  rows 
of  trees,  with  truthfulness  and  considerable  detail,  though 
he  is  wanting  in  the  general  keeping  of  the  picture.  His 
smaller  pictures  of  this  class  are  often  attractive.  Henrik 
van  Balen,  Rothenhammer,  and  even  occasionally  Rubens, 
painted  ideal  figures  in  his  landscapes. 

WlLLEM  VAN    NlEULANDT,  ANTON    MYBON,  and    PETER    GYS- 

1  [Liggeren,  i  114,  588.] 

2  [This  picture  is  not  by  Josse  but  by  F.  d.  Momper,  born  at  Antwerp, 
died  1660-1.] 

3  [Liggeren,  i.  365.] 


Chap.  I.  SAVERY — VROOM— WILLAERTS.  261 

SENS,  followed  the  same  style  as  Jan  Breughel,  and  their 
works  are  often  mistaken  for  his. 

Finally,  we  must  not  omit  to  notice  two  painters  already 
mentioned,  ROELANDT  SAVERY  and  DAVID  VINCKEBOONS,  in 
their  character  as  landscape  painters.  The  first  is  inferior 
to  Jan  Breughel  in  truthfulness,  but  excels  him  in  poetic 
feeling,  especially  in  the  representation  of  fine  woods. 
An  excellent  example  in  this  form  is  the  Orpheus  of  the 
Berlin  Museum,  No.  71?A.  Vinckeboons  is  somewhat  heavy 
and  gloomy  in  tone,  but  otherwise,  compared  with  Jan 
Breughel,  has  much  about  the  same  qualities  as  Roelandt 
Savery. 

Of  the  same  period  and  tendency  may  be  reckoned  the 
already-mentioned  PETER  LASTMANN,  ALEXANDER  KIERINGS, 
and  HANS  PILEN.  The  pictures  of  the  first  named  are  dis- 
tinguished by  foreground  figures,  taken  from  scriptural  sub- 
jects, and  executed  with  much  art. 

Marine  painting  appears  to  have  been  first  cultivated  in 
Holland,  where  it  subsequently  attained  its  highest  form  of 
development.  HENDRICK  CORNELIUS  VROOM,  born  at  Haarlem 
in  1566,  [died  there  in  1640.] l  He  is  the  earliest  known 
master  of  this  class.  He  visited  Spain  and  Italy,  entering 
into  an  intimacy  with  Paul  Bril,  by  which  his  art  was  greatly 
benefited.  Afterwards  he  visited  England,  where  he  exe- 
cuted a  drawing  (1601)  of  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada, 
for  the  Earl  of  Nottingham,  High  Admiral  of  England.  Of 
his  once  highly-prized  pictures  only  few  are  preserved.  A 
picture  of  considerable  size  by  him,  in  a  side  apartment  of 
the  Hotel  de  la  Ville  at  Haarlem,  represents  large  vessels  and 
a  town  in  the  background.  The  execution  is  careful,  but 
shows  his  department  of  art  in  a  very  primitive  stage. 
[Three  or  four  good  examples  are  in  the  Harlem  Museum.] 
A  picture  in  the  Amsterdam  Museum,  No.  445,  is,  on  the 
other  hand,  too  broad  and  decorative  in  treatment. 

ADAM  WILLAERTS,  born  at  Antwerp  1577,  lived  and  died 

at  Utrecht,  probably  [after  1664].  He  painted  pre-eminently 

-coast  and  harbour  scenes,  and  enlivened  them  with  numerous 

figures.     With  all  attention  to  detail,  he  combines  also  a 

1  [A.  Van  der  Willigen,  'Lcs  Artistes  de  Haarlem,'  p.  320.] 


262 


DUTCH — FLEMISH  ART. 


Book  IV. 


successful  effort  at  general  keeping,  and  a  broad  and  soft 
touch.  He  never  quite  succeeded  in  mastering  the  move- 
ment of  the  waves.  A  good  specimen  of  him  is  in  the 
Berlin  Museum,  No.  711.  He  sometimes  diverged  from  his 
usual  subjects  and  painted  markets  and  festive  scenes.  A 
picture  of  this  class,  of  vigorous  colour  and  somewhat  deco- 
rative treatment,  is  in  the  Antwerp  Museum,  No.  499. 

BONAVENTUBA  PETERS,  born  at  Antwerp  1614,  [master  in 
1634,  died  at  Antwerp  1652.  f  He  was  a  marine-painter 
who  especially  represented  the  sea  in  its  most  tempestuous 
forms,  with  vessels  running  ashore  or  struck  by  lightning. 
His  pictures  have  generally  a  very  poetic  character,  though 
often  untrue  and  mannered  in  the  forms  of  the  hills,  the 
clouds,  and  in  the  movement  of  the  waves.  On  the  other 
hand,  they  have  the  merit  of  a  great  power  and  clearness  of 
colour,  and  of  a  masterly  handling.  They  are  rare  in  public 
galleries,  with  the  exception  of  Vienna,  which  possesses  five, 
and  all  of  them  signed.  One  of  them,  a  vessel  being  wrecked 
in  a  raging  storm,  is  poetic,  and  very  transparent,  but  the 
waves  are  too  parallel  in  their  action.  The  companion  to  it, 
with  an  ancient  monument  on  the  shore,  though  otherwise 
of  great  merit,  is  defective  in  the  forms  of  the  clouds.  Two 
others,  companions,  dated  1645,  one  a  Venetian  fort  stormed 
by  Turks,  with  a  mine  in  the  act  of  exploding,  and  the  other 
a  fortified  harbour,  show  a  more  refined  feeling  for  form  with 
the  same  transparency. 

JAN  PETERS,  born  at  Antwerp  1624,  [master  in  the  Antwerp 
Guild  1645],2  died  1677,  a  younger  brother  of  the  foregoing, 
painted  similar  subjects  with  success.  A  picture  bearing  his 
name  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  No.  943,  with  a  violent  storm, 
and  vessels  being  dashed  against  a  rocky  coast,  is  beautifully 
composed  and  lighted.  But  the  over-brown  colour  of  the 
rocks,  and  the  coming  up  of  the  brown  ground  through  the 
water,  somewhat  disturb  the  keeping. 

The  branch  of  architectural  painting  was  comparatively 
early  of  development.  JAN  FREDEMANN  DE  VRIES  was  born 
at  Leeuwarden  in  1527.  This  artist  went  through  a  scientific 

1  fLiggeren,  ii.  59.] 

2  [Liggeren,  ii.  129,  167.] 


Chap.  I.  DE   VRIES — STEENWYCK — NEEFS.  263 

study  of  the  works  of  Yitruvius  and  Serlio,  and  devoted 
himself,  with  no  common  result,  to  this  class  of  art.  Like 
the  landscape-painters  before  noticed,  his  works  take  their 
title  from  the  figures  in  the  foreground,  though  the  rich 
architecture  which-  occupies  the  surrounding  space,  and  in 
which  the  laws  both  of  lineal  and  aerial  perspective  are 
effectively  observed,  forms  the  real  subject.  The  tone  in 
which  these  architectural  forms  are  treated  is  generally 
delicate,  clear,  and  cool.  The  best  works  I  know  by  him 
are  a  series  of  pictures  in  the  fine  summer  council-chamber 
in  the  Hotel  de  Yille  at  Dantzic,  in  which,  however,  the 
figures  are  in  the  mannered  taste  of  his  time. 

Architectural  painting  was  further  developed  by  HENDRIK 
VAN  STEENWYCK,  born  1550,  [master  at  Antwerp  in  1577], * 
died  1604,  who  was  scholar  of  the  preceding  master.  He 
painted  chiefly  interiors  of  Gothic  churches,  on  a  small  scale, 
generally  enlivened  with  figures  by  some  of  the  numerous 
Francken  family.  He  was  the  first  to  represent  the  effect  of 
the  light  of  torches  and  tapers  on  architectural  forms.  The 
fine  perspective,  both  lineal  and  aerial,  observed  in  his 
pictures,  gives  them  a  lasting  value,  though  the  execution  of  his 
architectural  detail  is  somewhat  hard  and  metallic.  Admirable 
specimens  of  his  art  are  in  the  Vienna  Gallery. 

PIETEB  NEEFS,  born  at  Antwerp  1570,  [entered  the 
Antwerp  Guild  in  1609],  died  1651,  was  the  best  of  Steen- 
wyck's  scholars.  He  painted  quite  in  the  same  style,  but 
excelled  his  master  in  power  and  warmth  of  tone,  and  also 
in  the  truthfulness  of  his  torchlight  effects.  An  excellent 
picture  of  this  class  is  in  the  Louvre,  No.  346.  Other  fine 
specimens  by  him  are  also  there,  and  in  the  Gallery  at 
Vienna.  Many  of  his  works  are  enlivened  by  figures  by 
Frans  Francken  the  younger,  by  Jan  Breughel,  and  by 
David  Teniers  the  elder. 

HENDRIK  VAN  STEENWYCK  [1580—1649],  son  of  the  other 
Steenwyck,  was  a  fellow-scholar  with  Pieter  Neefs,  but 
painted  in  a  cooler  tone,  and  was  inferior  to  him  in  all  re- 
spects. His  works  are  also  seen  in  the  Vienna  Gallery,  at 
Hampton  Court,  and  in  the  Berlin  Museum.  PIETER  NEEFS 
1  [Liggeren,  i.  263.] 


204 


DUTCH — FLEMISH   ART. 


Book  IV. 


THE  YOUNGER,  [born  1601,  died  after  1675],  the  son  and 
pupil  of  the  elder  of  this  name,  was  also  of  inferior  merit. 
Pictures  by  him  are  in  the  Vienna  Gallery. 

BARTHOLOMEW  VAN  BASSEN  nourished  from  about  1610  to 
1650.  He  formed  his  style  independently  of  the  preceding 
knot  of  artists ;  painted  chiefly  interiors  of  Renaissance 
churches,  and  also  saloons  of  the  same  architectural  cha- 
racter. His  figures  are  usually  the  work  of  Frans  Francken 
the  younger.  Though  his  pictures  display  careful  detail  and 
exact  perspective,  yet  they  are  wanting  in  aim,  and  are 
often  crude  in  effect  and  hard  in  forms.  A  specimen  both 
of  his  church  and  of  his  saloon  interiors  is  in  the  Berlin 
Museum. 

The  first  examples  of  flower  and  fruit  painting  as  a  separate 
branch  occur  towards  the  end  of  this  period,  and  here  again 
we  meet  with  the  versatile  hand  of  JAN  BREUGHEL.  His 
flower-pieces  are  comparatively  rare  ;  the  single  flowers  are 
executed  with  feeling  and  great  truthfulness  of  form  and 
colour,  but  the  general  effect  is  without  keeping.  A  chef- 
d'oeuvre  of  this  class  is  a  large  flower-piece  in  the  Munich 
Gallery,  Cabinets,  No.  226.  Also  a  large  wreath  of  flowers 
in  the  Louvre,  No.  429,  with  a  Virgin  and  Child,  by  Bub  ens, 
painted  in  the  centre. 

Although  miniature  painting  in  this  epoch,  when  so  many 
monuments  of  art  of  greater  size  were  in  existence,  no  longer 
maintains  that  important  position  which  we  have  accorded  to 
it  at  an  earlier  period,  yet  two  Belgian  artists,  who  devoted 
themselves  to  this  branch  of  painting  in  the  second  half 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  were  so  remarkable,  and  also  so 
celebrated  in  their  time,  that  I  cannot  pass  them  over  in 
silence. 

HANS  BOL,  born  at  Mechlin  1534,  died  in  Amsterdam 
1593.  In  his  earlier  time  he  devoted  himself  to  the  exe- 
cution of  larger  pictures  in  size  colours,  but  afterwards 
applied  himself  exclusively  to  miniature  painting,  in  which 
he  produced  a  large  number  of  works.  In  his  subjects  taken 
from  history  the  mannered  taste  of  the  school  of  Frans  Floris 
prevails ;  but  in  his  more  numerous  landscapes,  with  small 
figures  from  life,  he  combines  picturesqueness  of  composition 


Chap.  I.  HANS  BOL — HOEFNAGEL.  265 


and  good  drawing  with  a  very  finished  and  clever  execution. 
His  general  tone,  however,  is  frequently  too  cold,  and  he  is 
deficient  in  keeping.  The  merit  of  his  portraits,  animals, 
fruits,  and  flowers  is  their  truth.  Like  the  earlier  miniature- 
painters,  his  practice  was  in  body  colours.  True  also  to  the 
old  fashion,  he  decorated  manuscripts  with  his  miniatures, 
but  more  frequently  painted  small  landscapes  on  single 
sheets.  As  an  example  of  the  first  kind,  I  mention  a  small 
prayer-book  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Paris,  Supplement 
Latin  (No.  708),  executed  in  1582.  Of  the  second  class  will 
be  found  some  beautiful  little  pictures  in  the  cabinet  of  minia- 
tures at  Munich,  and  in  the  cabinet  of  engravings  at  Berlin. 
Hans  Bol  also  etched  a  small  number  of  plates,  with  much 
success,  from  his  own  designs. 

JOOKIS  HOEFNAGEL,  born  in  Antwerp  1545,  died  in  Vienna 
1600.  He  received  the  instruction  of  Hans  Bol ;  but,  owing 
to  a  very  careful  education,  he  became  an  artist  of  much 
more  extended  powers.  He  travelled  in  France,  Spain, 
Italy,  and  Germany.  In  the  latter  country  he  was  first  in 
the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria  at  Munich,  afterwards  in 
that  of  the  Emperor  Kodolph  II.  at  Prague,  but  resided  at 
Vienna.  Owing  to  an  uncommon  facility  of  drawing,  and  to 
an  untiring  industry,  the  number  of  drawings,  of  every 
possible  subject,  made  on  these  journeys,  and  also  the 
amount  of  his  miniatures,  is  astonishingly  large.  They 
comprise  sacred  and  secular  history,  scenery,  animals, 
plants,  flowers,  fruits,  precious  stones,  pearls,  etc.  He  also 
especially  decorated  manuscripts  in  the  old  manner  and  with 
the  old  technical  materials.  The  most  famous  among  them 
is  a  Roman  missal,  now  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna 
(No  1784),  which  he  executed  for  the  Archduke  Ferdinand 
of  the  Tyrol,  and  on  which  he  laboured  from  1582  to  1590, 
a  period  of  eight  years.  He  here  appears  as  a  very  clever 
eclectic  painter,  versed  both  in  all  the  spiritual  allusions  of 
the  early  time,  and  also  in  the  technical  materials  and  forms 
of  ornamentation, — a  knowledge  which  he  applied  with  great 
skill.  Occasionally  he  shows  signs  of  an  allegorical,  but 
often  artificial,  mysticism  peculiar  to  himself,  and  degenerates 
sometimes  into  an  overladen  and  tasteless  manner.  He 


266 


ITALO-GERMANS. 


Book  IV. 


availed  himself  often  of  the  emblematic  representations  from 
the  Biblia  Pauperum ;  and  in  his  historical  subjects  made 
use  of  the  motives  of  Raphael  and  other  painters;  in  his 
ornaments  also  he  adopted  alternately,  and  with  masterly 
handling,  the  earlier  manner  of  the  Netherlandish,  German, 
and  Italian  miniature-painters  ;  and  finally  studied  the  minia- 
tures of  Giulio  Clovio.  Next  to  this  missal  I  may  mention 
two  works  executed  for  Rodolph  II.,  one  of  which  represents, 
in  four  books,  the  walking,  the  creeping,  the  flying,  and  the 
swimming  animals  ;  the  other  books  contain  various  subjects. 
Hoefnagel  also  often  painted  single  pieces ;  for  instance,  the 
Glorification  of  the  Spanish  Monarchy,  dated  1573,  in  the 
Library  at  Brussels.  The  numerous  emblematic  representa- 
tions are  in  the  artificial  and  tasteless  spirit  of  the  times  ; 
but  the  execution  is  of  indescribable  pains  and  finish. 


CHAPTER  II. 

PAINTING   IN    GERMANY. 

THE  aspect  of  painting  in  Germany  and  Switzerland  at  this 
period  is  less  satisfactory  than  in  the  Netherlands.  We 
especially  miss  a  chief  centre  of  activity,  such  as  Antwerp 
afforded.  The  early  schools  of  Nuremberg,  Augsburg,  Ulm, 
and  Cologne  had  died  out,  and  in  their  stead,  both  in  these 
and  other  places,  only  isolated  painters  occur.  Historical 
painting,  it  is  true,  took  the  same  course  as  in  the  Nether- 
lands, but  its  few  scattered  masters  appeared  later  on  the 
scene.  That  rich  development  of  subject  and  landscape 
painting  also,  for  which  the  Netherlands  had  been  distin- 
guished, found  no  equivalent  here.  Portrait  painting,  on 
the  other  hand,  was  successfully  pursued,  though  not  so  as 
to  rival  the  best  masters  of  the  Flemish  and  Dutch  school. 

HANS  STEPHANUS,  known  in  the  history  of  art  by  the  name 
of  HANS  VON  CALCAR,  from  the  town  of  that  name  on  tha 


Chap.  II.  VON   CALCAR — DE   BRUYN.  267 

Lower  Rhine,  where  he  was  probably  born  1510.1  He  was 
the  first  to  turn,  and  with  great  success,  to  the  Italian  school, 
residing  in  Venice  from  1536  to  1537,  in  the  school  of  Titian, 
whose  manner  he  so  entirely  adopted  that  it  becomes  occa- 
sionally difficult  t6  distinguish  their  respective  works.  He 
there  executed  the  admirable  drawings  for  the  woodcuts  which 
illustrate  the  well-known  work  by  Vesalius  on  anatomy,  and 
afterwards  went  to  Naples,  where  Vasari  became  acquainted 
with  him  in  1545,  and  where,  according  to  Van  Mander,  he 
died  in  1546.  I  know  no  historical  picture  by  him ;  but  his 
very  rare  existing  portraits  thoroughly  justify  the  favourable 
testimony  of  Vasari.  They  show  also  a  really  great  affinity 
to  Titian,  being  less  energetic,  but  very  delicate  in  feeling 
for  nature,  in  which  they  approach  close  to  Giovanni  Battista 
Morone,  excellent  in  drawing,  and  very  carefully  coloured 
in  a  clear,  warm,  and  somewhat  reddish  tone.  A  very  fine 
portrait  of  a  man,  formerly  attributed  alternately  to  Paris 
Bordone  and  to  Tintoretto,  is  in  the  Louvre  ;  another,  with 
a  letter  in  his  hand,  at  Vienna ;  a  third  in  the  Museum  at 
Berlin,  No.  190. 

Many  of  the  German  painters,  in  their  earlier  efforts, 
adhered,  even  in  this  department,  to  the  style  of  the  former 
period,  and  only  sought  to  adopt  the  qualities  of  Italian  art  at 
a  later  time.  Conspicuous  among  this  class  is  BARTHOLO- 
MEW DE  BRUYN,  [born  at  Cologne  in  1493,  practised  and  died 
there  in  1 556].2  His  earlier  creations  approximate  closely  to 
those  of  his  master,  the  painter  of  the  Death  of  the  Virgin. 
His  principal  works  of  this  time  are  the  wings  of  the  large 
shrine  upon  the  high  altar  of  the  church  of  Xanten  [ordered 
in  1529,  and  finished  in  1536].3  The  inner  sides  contain 
events  from  the  legends  of  SS.  Victor,  Sylvester,  and  Helena ; 
the  outer  ones  the  figures  of  three  saints,  with  the  Virgin  and 
Child,  SS.  Gereon  and  Constantino,  and  four  half-circles. 
The  heads  and  figures  are  of  elevated  Character,  the  forms 
fullish,  the  execution  very  able,  and  the  tone  of  uncommon 

1  The  statement  of  his  having  been  born  in  1500  is  destitute  of  all 
foundation. 

-  [Merlo,  '  Die  Meister  der  Altkolnische  Schule,'  u.  s.,  p.  72.] 
3  [Merlo,  '  Nachrichten,'  u.  a.,  p,  153.] 


268 


SOUTH-GERMANS. 


Book  IV. 


warmth  and  vigour.  His  portraits  of  the  same  period,  such 
as  the  Burgomaster  Jan  van  Ryht,  painted  1525,  in  the 
Berlin  Museum,  No.  588,  and  of  one  Browiller,  painted  1535, 
in  the  Cologne  Museum,  so  closely  resemble  Holbein  as 
generally  to  be  designated  by  his  name.  His  Descent  from 
the  Cross,  with  wings,  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  Cabinets, 
Nos.  75,  76 — 79,  is  also  a  good  work  of  the  same  epoch. 
Although  he  deteriorated  afterwards,  both  in  thoroughness 
of  execution  and  in  truth  of  tone,  yet  he  retains  the  same 
Holbein-like  style  of  treatment.  This  we  see  in  a-  Virgin 
and  Child  adored  by  a  Duke  of  Cleves,  in  the  Berlin  Museum, 
No.  639.  After  this  time  he  attempted  to  adopt  the  charac- 
teristics of  Italian  art,  after  the  fashion  of  Martin  van  Hem- 
skerk,  the  results  of  which  were  heads  devoid  of  interest, 
tasteless  motives,  cold  and  insipid  colouring,  and  slight  exe- 
cution. Even  his  portraits  of  this  time  are  poorly  coloured 
and  slightly  painted.  A  number  of  his  works  of  this  class 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  Munich  and  Cologne  Galleries. 

In  Westphalia  we  find  a  family  of  painters,  by  the  name 
of  TOM  KING,  at  Munster.  LUDGER  THE  ELDER  [b.  1496, 
d.  1547.  His  chief]  work,  dated  1538,  in  the  collection  of 
the  Westphalian  Art  Union,  represents  Christ  and  the 
Virgin  interceding  with  the  Almighty,  who,  surrounded  with 
angels,  is  about  to  destroy  the  sinful  world.  The  painter 
here  decidedly  adheres  to  the  early  German  school,  showing 
dignified  and  stern  feeling,  and  thorough  execution.  His 
son,  HERMANN  TOM  RING,  [b.  1521,  d.  1599,]  judged  by  his 
chief  work,  the  Resurrection  of  Lazarus,  of  the  year  1546, 
in  the  Munster  cathedral,  evinces  in  many  respects  the 
influence  of  Italy.  The  architecture,  with  well-executed 
white  busts,  is  of  Italian  taste.  But  his  portrait-like  heads 
are  not  important,  and  his  attitudes  are  mannered.  The 
portrait  of  the  donor  is  animated,  but  Martha  and  Mary 
have  the  aspect  of  nuns.  The  colouring  is  gaudy,  the 
chiaroscuro  well  observed,  and  the  finish,  especially  of  the 
accessories,  good.  In  his  later  pictures  he  appears  as  a 
feeble  painter  in  the  manner  of  Frans  Floris. 

Hermann's  brother,  LUDGER  TOM  RING  THE  YOUNGER, 
[b.  1522,  d.  1583,]  devoted  himself  to  the  imitation 


Chap.  II.          VIKGIL1US  SOLIS — HANS  MULICH.  269 


of  the  details  of  real  life.  Thus  his  pictures  of  sacred  sub- 
jects are  so  in  little  more  than  name.  Of  this  class  is  a 
Marriage  at  Cana,  dated  1562,  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  No. 
708 — literally  a  large  kitchen  piece  with  numerous  skilfully 
executed  details,  but  totally  devoid  of  keeping.  The  subject 
itself  is  seen  in  a  corner  of  the  background. 

At  Nuremberg,  at  about  the  same  period,  lived  a  master 
of  the  name  of  VIRGILIUS  SOLIS,  painter,  engraver,  and 
designer  upon  wood,  born  1514,  died  1562.  His  pictures 
are  now  become  very  rare.  From  his  numerous  engravings, 
however,  treating  as  they  do  the  most  various  subjects,  and 
from  the  woodcuts  taken  from  his  designs,1  it  appears  that 
in  his  earlier  time  he  attached  himself,  though  but  in  a 
mechanical  fashion,  to  the  school  of  Albert  Durer,  devoting 
himself  subsequently  to  the  imitation  of  Italian  art,  in  which 
he  displays  great  readiness  of  hand,  but  little  feeling. 

MICHAEL  OSTENDOKFER,  [born  in  Swabia  before  1500, 
settled  in  Regensburg  in  1519,  and  died  there  in  1559.]2 
He  formed  himself  after  Albrecht  Altdorfer,  though  inferior 
to  him  in  feeling  and  skill.  Like  Lucas  Cranach  he  sought 
to  embody  the  doctrines  of  Luther  in  his  art.  An  altarpiece 
of  this  class  is  in  the  collection  of  the  Historical  Museum  at 
Regensburg.  [The  Virgin  of  the  Apocalypse  is  (Cabinets, 
No.  168)  in  the  Munich  Gallery.] 

At  about  the  same  period  we  find  in  Munich  a  painter  by 
name  HANS  MULICH,  generally  but  erroneously  called  Mielich, 
born  [1516,  died  1573].  His  portraits  are  now  rare;  one  of 
a  woman,  in  the  collection  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  shows 
that  he  followed  the  early  German  style.  The  treatment  is 
truthful,  and  the  colouring  clear.  [Others  (Nos.  301-2) 
are  in  the  Munich  Gallery.]  The  same  qualities  appear  in 
his  portraits  of  Duke  Albrecht  V.  of  Bavaria  and  his  Duchess 
Anna,  and  of  other  individuals — among  the  rest,  of  himself, 
executed  in  miniature  for  the  above-named  princess,  in  the 
illuminated  MSS.  of  the  music  of  the  Seven  Penitential 
Psalms,  by  Orlando  di  Lasso,  and  in  the  motetts  by  Ciprian 

1  Bartsch,  vol.  ix.  p.  242,  etc.,  quotes  558  engravings  by  his  hand, 
and  various  long  series  of  woodcuts  from  his  designs. 

2  [Consult  Marggraff's  Catalogue  of  the  Munich  Pinak.,  p.  168.] 


270  SOUTH-GERMANS.  Book  IV. 


de  Rore.1  On  the  other  hand,  the  historical  subjects  intro- 
duced into  these  works  by  him  show  him  as  a  feeble  imitator 
of  Italian  artists. 

In  this  time  also  occurs  the  name  of  HANS  SEBALD  LAUTEN- 
SACK,  who  laboured  in  Vienna,  and  who  decidedly  descended 
from  the  painter  family  of  the  same  name  at  Nuremberg. 
No  picture,  however,  by  him  is  known  to  me.  As  regards 
his  engravings 2  he  appears  most  to  advantage  in  his  land- 
scapes and  views  of  towns,  following  in  his  fantastic  feeling 
and  mechanical  treatment  the  style  of  Altdorfer.  His  por- 
traits, which  are  weak  in  drawing  and  hardly  treated,  show 
also  his  adherence  to  the  early  German  school. 

A  somewhat  later  generation  than  those  we  have  just 
considered  gave  themselves  still  more  determinately  to  the 
imitation  of  Italian  art,  of  which  their  productions  show  us 
the  most  perverted  examples.  In  the  whole  field  of  ideal 
art,  whether  mythology,  allegory,  or  Holy  Scripture,  they 
are  alike  mannered  and  devoid  of  taste,  and  especially  so 
where  nude  figures  constitute  the  chief  subject.  Their 
treatment  of  realistic  scenes  from  their  own  contemporary 
history  and  from  common  life,  as  well  as  their  portraits  and 
landscape,  are  somewhat  more  endurable,  though  far  less 
truthful  and  careful  in  character,  than  the  works  of  the 
Netherlandish  masters  of  the  same  time.  The  following  are 
the  most  notable  names. 

TOBIAS  STIMMER,  born  at  Schaffhausen  1534.  According 
to  the  fashion  then  prevalent  in  Germany,  he  decorated  with 
frescoes  the  fa9ades  of  many  houses  in  his  native  city,  and  in 
Strasburg  and  Frankfort.3  His  oil  pictures  are  very  rare. 
The  portraits  of  Herr  von  Schwyz,  a  banner-man  of  Zurich, 
and  his  wife,  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Carl  Waagen  of  Munich, 
show  skill  and  truthfulness.  His  whole  style  may  be 
gathered  from  several  hundred  woodcuts  executed  from  his 
designs.*  He  died  at  Strasburg  in  the  prime  of  life. 

1  See  the  same  in  the  Munich  Court  Library  among  the  rarest 
treasures  called  there  "  Cimelien,"  Nos.  51  and  52. 

2  Bartsch,  vol.  ix.  p.  107,  etc.,  mentions  fifty-nine  engravings  and 
two  woodcuts  by  him. 

3  [Consult  Schreiber, '  Das  Miinster  zu  Strasburg,'  8vo.,  Strasb.,  p.  91.] 
*  Bartsch,  vol.  ix.  p.  330. 


Chap.  II.  AMMAN — VAN  ACHEN — HEINZ.  271 

JOST  AMMAN,  born  at  Zurich  1539,  removed  to  Nuremberg 
in  1560,  and  died  there  1591.  I  know  no  example  surviving 
of  his  pictures  in  oil  and  on  glass.  But  various  engravings, 
and  a  large  number  of  woodcuts  from  his  designs,  give 
-evidence  of  his  great  diligence.1 

CHRISTOPH  MAURER,  born  at  Zurich  1558,  died  1614.  He 
was  the  scholar  of  Tobias  Stimmer,  and  closely  followed  his 
style.  He  also  is  only  known  by  a  small  number  of  plates 
and  woodcuts,  the  first  etched  by  himself,  the  second  from 
his  designs,  which  have  now  become  very  rare.2 

HANS  BOCK,  known  by  his  diffuse  frescoes,  inside  and  out- 
side the  Hotel  de  Ville  at  Basle,  some  of  which  still  survive. 
He  is  very  mannered  in  style,  but  of  great  energy,  as  for 
example  his  picture  of  the  Calumny  of  Apelles,  in  the  same 
Hotel  de  Ville.  [He  copied  several  of  Holbein's  works]. 

The  following  masters  enjoyed  much  favour  at  this  period 
at  the  Courts  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria  at  Munich,  and  of  the 
Emperor  Rodolph  II.  at  Prague. 

HANS  VAN  ACHEN,  born  at  Cologne  [1562], 8  died  at  Prague 
1615  ;  studied  at  Cologne  in  the  school  of  the  painter  Jerrigh. 
On  his  return  from  Italy  [in  1588]  he  was  successively 
employed  at  both  the  above-mentioned  courts.  His  best 
pictures  are  those  in  which  we  trace  the  study  of  Tintoretto, 
viz.,  his  Bathsheba  bathing,  in  the  Vienna  Gallery ;  his  least 
attractive  are  those  in  which  he  took  his  friend  Bartholomew 
Spranger  for  his  model,  namely,  his  Bacchus  with  Venus,  his 
Jupiter  and  Antiope,  in  the  same  gallery.  Specimens  of  his 
ecclesiastical  pictures  are  in  the  church  of  the  Jesuits  and 
in  the  church  of  Our  Lady  at  Munich. 

JOSEPH  HEINZ,  born  probably  at  Berne.  According  to 
Van  Mander  he  was  a  scholar  of  Hans  van  Achen,  and  one 
of  the  favourite  painters  of  Eodolph  II.  He  died  in  Prague, 
1609.  His  pictures  are  occasionally  distinguished  by  a  cold 
sumptuousness  ;  as  for  example  his  Venus  and  Adonis,  in  the 
Vienna  Gallery ;  also  by  a  feeling  for  elegance  of  form,  as 

1  Bartsch,  vol.  ix.  p.  351. 

2  Ibid.  p.  381. 

3  [See  0.  Milndler  and  W.  Schmidt  in  Meyer's  Kiinst  Lexikon,  art.,' 
Achen.] 


272  SOUTH-GERMANS.  Book  IV, 

in  his  Diana  and  Actseon,  in  the  same  gallery.  His  colour- 
ing is  gaudy  and  untruthful,  but  his  touch  melting  and 
masterly.  His  most  unattractive  works  are  those  taken 
from  Scripture,  as  seen  in  the  Crucifixion  at  Vienna.  He 
appears  to  most  advantage  in  his  portraits,  namely,  in  that 
of  the  Emperor  Eodolph  II.,  also  at  Vienna. 

CHKISTOPHER  SCHWARTZ,  born  at  Ingolstadt,  in  Bavaria 
[about  1550],  died  1597.  He  formed  himself  in  Venice, 
more  especially  after  the  works  of  Tintoretto,  and  afterwards 
became  court  painter  at  Munich.  His  forms  are  pleasing 
and  his  attitudes  graceful,  though  often  mannered.  His 
heads  are  insipid,  and  his  colouring  either  gaudy  and  crude 
or  too  faint.  He  also  decorated  the  exteriors  of  houses  with 
frescoes.  The  most  notable  of  his  pictures  are  a  Virgin  and 
Child  in  glory,  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  No.  1380.  Also  a 
family  portrait,  No.  1379,  in  which  Tintoretto  is  his  obvious 
model. 

JOHANN  E.OTHENHAMMER,  born  at  Munich  1564,  died  at 
Augsburg  1623.  He  was  scholar  of  Hans  Donnauer,  and 
visited  Italy,  where  he  also  studied  Tintoretto.  He  painted 
a  number  of  large  pictures,  but  is  chiefly  known  by  those  on 
a  smaller  scale,  in  which  he  collaborated  alternately  with 
Jan  Breughel  and  Paul  Bril ;  he  executing  the  department 
of  mythology  or  allegory,  they  that  of  landscape.  In  his 
earlier  pictures — such  as  his  Death  of  Adonis,  in  the  Louvre, 
No.  424 — he  approaches  Tintoretto  in  force,  warmth,  and 
clearness.  His  forms  also  partake  of  the  same  elegant 
character ;  unfortunately  he  adopted  the  Venetian  master's 
arbitrary  and  confused  arrangement  of  lines.  His  later 
pictures — for  example,  his  Virgin  in  Glory,  in  the  Munich 
Gallery — have  a  disagreeable  effect,  from  the  brick-red 
tones  of  the  flesh  and  the  greenish  shadows.  In  his 
numerous  small  pictures  he  is  known  by  the  tenderly-fused 
character  of  his  execution.  Plenty  of  this  class  are  found  in 
all  galleries. 

By  far  the  most  attractive  painter  whom  Germany  dis- 
plays at  this  unsatisfactory  period  of  the  art  is  ADAM 
ELZHEIMER,  born  at  Frankfort  on  the  Maine  1578,1  died  at 

1  Sandrart,  vol.  i.  p.  294,  and  Schnaase's  'Niederlandische  Briefe,'p.  26. 


I 


Chap.  II.  ELZHEIMER.  273 


Rome  1620.  He  early  showed  his  artistic  talents,  and  was 
placed  under  the  Frankfort  master,  Philip  Uffenbach,  after 
which  he  travelled  through  Germany  to  Rome,  where  he 
married  an  Italian.  He  had  a  profound  and  refined  feeling 
for  nature,  further  developed  by  ceaseless  study,  and  admir- 
able technical  qualities,  which  told  to  great  advantage  in  hia 
uniformly  small  pictures.  His  historical  works,  scriptural 
or  mythological,  are  of  decidedly  realistic  character,  well 
arranged  and  drawn,  occasionally  approaching  Rembrandt 
in  warmth  of  tone,  and  executed  throughout  in  a  fine  body 
of  colour,  and  with  the  utmost  attention  to  detail.  Effects 
of  torch  and  candle  light  were  also  his  favourite  study. 
Although  well  paid  for  his  pictures,  the  time  he  devoted  to 
them  was  so  considerable  that,  having  a  numerous  family, 
he  was  thrown  into  prison  for  debt,  and  died  in  bitter 
poverty.  His  most  admirable  works  are  his  landscapes, 
which  have  a  miniature-like  character,  as  if  we  looked  on 
nature  through  a  diminishing  glass.  In  the  small  space 
which  they  occupy  he  gives  a  wide  expanse  of  diversified 
scenery,  illuminated  by  broken  gleams  of  light — woods  in 
deep  shadow,  water  with  its  clear  bright  surface,  and  the 
graceful  alternations  of  mountain  and  valley  ;  the  eye,  which 
at  a  little  distance  enjoys  the  harmony  of  this  little  world, 
loses  nothing  when  it  approaches  to  view  more  closely  the 
minutest  details  of  execution,  or  the  spirited  indication  of 
.the  different  objects.  There  is  no  want  of  pleasing  figures 
subordinate  to  the  landscape.  Here  we  have  a  Holy  Family 
journeying  through  a  still,  moonlight  landscape — there  a 
thick  forest,  in  which  John  the  Baptist  preaches  to  the 
assembled  people — now  a  night-piece,  with  ^neas  leading 
his  followers  from  the  burning  city.  Owing  to  his  laborious 
mode  of  operation  he  left  but  a  small  number  of  pictures, 
which  aro  now  exceedingly  rare.  Some  of  them  have  also 
lost  their  original  charm  by  the  darkening  of  the  colours. 
His  best  examples  known  to  me  are  the  following.  A 
Flight  into  Egypt,  in  Devonshire  House.  Tobit  and  the 
Angel,  in  the  collection  of  the  late  Honble.  Edmund  Phipps,  a 
picture  engraved  by  the  Chevalier  Goudt ;  Cupid  and 
Psyche,  in  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum  at  Cambridge ;  a  Venus, 

18 


274  SOUTH   GERMANS.  Book  IV. 

in  the  Mesman  Collection  at  Cambridge ;  St.  Paul  on  the 
Island  of  Melita,  at  Corshain  Court ;  the  Delivery  of  Peter 
from  Prigon,  at  Broom  Hall ;  the  Flight  into  Egypt,  and  the 
,Good  Samaritan,  in  the  Louvre,  Nos.  159  and  160;  Paul 
and  Barnabas  at  Lystra,  and  Christ  with  the  Disciples  at 
Emmaus,  in  the  Stadel  Institute  at  Frankfort ;  the  Flight 
into  Egypt,  engraved  by  the  Chevalier  Goudt,  in  the  Munich 
Gallery ;  a  Repose  in  Egypt,  and  another  Flight  into  F  ;ypt, 
-in  the  Vienna  Gallery ;  and  the  Triumph  of  Psyche,  in  the 
Umzi  at  Florence.1 

1  This  picture  is  falsely  called  by  the  name  of  Paul  Bril.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  ten  pictures  there  ascribed  to  Elzheimer  are  the  work 
of  Poelemberg. 


4 

i 


M 


PLEASE  DO  NOT  REMOVE 
CARDS  OR  SLIPS  FROM  THIS  POCKET 

UNIVERSITY  OF  TORONTO  LIBRARY 


ND  Kugler,  Franz  Theodor 

Handbook  of  painting 
K84  3d  ed. 

1898 
v.l