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PICTORIAL
HISTORY

HENRY W. DOMALD

CHARLES & SOM

T.TD.

LONDON

SLASGOW

THIS BOOK IS PRESENT
IN OUR LIBRARY
/ THROUGH THE
I GENEROUS
CONTRIBUTIONS OF
ST. MICHAEL'S ALUMNI
TO THE VARSITY
FUND

H. D. SHEPPARD
Barrie, Ont.

A HANDBOOK

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

SOME OTHER

HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY
PUBLICATIONS.

HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS.

In Four Sets. By H. W. DONALD.
Price, each set, 1 /6

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In Two Volumes. By ALICE EVE, B.A.
Price, each, net, 3/-; post free,

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Handbook
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PIC TORI A
HISTORY

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ConTemporary- Sources Trcdtirg upon A rcfutect-
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Caytom^, Sffippin^Herafdry^e- CfiarcA , etc.
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Subject/-- for thoa/e of Stadent>& TcdchcD-
Wnircndnd-Iffa/Trdtcd

HENRY W.DONALD

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LONDON :

Qfiarles and Son,

PATERNOSTER SQUARE, E,C.4
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2 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PREFACE.

IT has been felt that in the study of English History, to the ordinary student
and teacher, there are great difficulties in the way of consulting th-
numerous standard and other excellent works, on the subjects dealt with in
this volume. Many have not sufficient leisure, and many are unable to
make use of the facilities for study and research offered by our great national
and provincial libraries and museums. And, to most, the prohibitive cost
of a representative collection of these standard works is an effectual bar to
the acquisition of a personal collection.

An acquaintance with these subjects is necessary to an intelligent
appreciation of the life history and development of our nation, and of the
conditions of life of our ancestors, and this work has been undertaken for
students and teachers with regard to these matters, with the hope that, by
its means, the path of study will be illuminated, and the interest shown in
the study of history correspondingly increased.

Too often, in the past, has history been taught as a series of dry lessons
on facts and dates, and although in late years there has been a great
improvement in this respect, to many the living facts around us, as bearing
on our history, in our churches, our historic buildings, our museums, and
our national collections, are still disregarded. -What eloquent tongues they
have, and yet, on what deaf ears do their voices fall !

Mr. Fairholt, in his well-known work on " Costume in England,"
says : "A knowledge of costume is, in some degree, inseparable from a
right knowledge of history. We can scarcely read its events without, in
some measure, picturing in the mind's eye the appearance of the actors."

What is true of costume, which includes, of course, civil, military, and
ecclesiastical costume, is equally true of architecture and other matters
associated with the daily lives of our forefathers.

How they lived and died, how they worked, how they dressed, how
and where they worshipped God, and the influences brought to bear upon
them by the Church, must be realized as factors in the development of the
nation.

It is hoped that this work may prove useful to the student, to the pupils
in our schools and colleges, and to teachers who have not been able to make
a special study of these things.

Several plans of arranging the subject-matter have suggested them-
selves, and the writer has thought — though it is open, of course, to criticism
— that the work would be most usefully and most easily consulted by
arranging it under the heads of our historic periods. It will be readily
understood that this is merely an arbitrary arrangement, and that there
must be overlapping at times. The aim has been to make each section as
complete as possible in the given space, and yet to avoid tedious details.
To experts the food may seem very light, but it is to the average student and
teacher, to whom the subjects are new, that the work must appeal.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 3

Every effort has been made to secure accuracy, and truthfulness, both
in the matter and in the six hundred and eighty drawings which illustrate it.

Very many works have been consulted, and, as all the illustrations are
from authentic and contemporary sources, it is hoped that the usefulness of
the work will be very considerable.

The writer wishes to express his great obligation to the following
writers and books, whom he has laid under contribution :—

Greenwell's British Barrows,

Dawkin's Early Man in Britain,

Evans's Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain,

Strutt's Horda,

Grose's Military Antiquities,

Wallis Buctge's Roman Antiquities at Chester s.

Jewitt's Ceramic Art of 'Great Britain,

Fairholt's Costume in England,

Mrs. Ashdown's British Costume during Nineteen Centuries,

Planche's Cyclopaedia of Costume and History of British Costume,

Cutt's Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages,

Barnard's Companion to English History, Middle Ages,

Traill's Social England,

Green's Short History (Illustrated Edition),

Parker's various works on Gothic Architecture,

Rickman's Gothic Architecture,

BoutelPs Monumental Brasses of England,

Suffling's English Church Brasses,

Macklin's Brasses of England,

Ashdown's British and Foreign Arms and Armour,

Hewitt's Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe.

Boutell's Arms and Armour,

Fox-Davies's Complete Guide to Heraldry,

Boutell's English Heraldry,

Bloom's English Seals,

Abbot Gasquet's English Monastic Life,

Commander Robinson's British Fleet,

Oman's History of the Art of War,

Fowkes's Bayeux Tapestry,

Gardiner's History of England,

The Journals of the British Archaeological Association, and of various
County Associations.

The writer, too, wishes to thank the Library Committee of the City of
London Corporation for permission to make drawings of objects in the
Guildhall Museum, and Mrs. Ashdown for permission to make use of
illustrations in her " British Costume."

HENRY W. DONALD.

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

THE STONE AGE. (Plate 1) : ... ... 7

THE BRONZE AGE. (Plate 2) W ••• ••• 9

PREHISTORIC POTTERY AND FUNERAL CUSTOMS. (Plate 3) ... ... 11

THE ROMAN WALL. (Plate 4) 13

ROMAN POTTERY, ETC. (Plate 5) 17

ROMAN ANTIQUITIES FOUND IN LONDON. (Plate 6) ... 19

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE IN BRITAIN. (Plate 7) ... ... ... ... 21

ROMAN ARMS, ETC. (Plate 8) 23

SAXON WEAPONS. (Plate 9) ... ... -.. ... 25

SAXON COSTUME, A.D. 460— A.D. 1066. (Plates 10-11) 27

ANGLO-SAXON ARCHITECTURE. (Plate 12) ... 31

SAXON CUSTOMS. (Plate 13) ... 33

SAXON FARMING. (Plate 14) 35

SAXON ANTIQUITIES. (Plate 15) 37

DANISH VESSELS, ETC. (Plate 16) 39

NORMAN COSTUMES. (Plate 17) 41

NORMAN ARMS AND ARMOUR. (Plate 18) 43

THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY. (Plate 19) 40

EARLY NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. (Plate 20) 51

LATER NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. (Plate 21) ... ... ... ... 53

NORMAN CASTLES. (Plate 22) 55

NORMAN SEALS AND COINS. (Plate 23) 59

THE JOUST AND THE TOURNAMENT. (Plate 24) 61

ENGLISH ARCHERS. (Plate 25) .;, 63

EARLY CANNON. (Plate 26) 67

A FIFTEENTH CENTURY SHIP. (Plate 27) 71

BRASSES. (Plate 28) 73

HERALDRY. (Plate 29) 78

THE TUDOR NAVY. (Plate 30) 83

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 5

PAGE

PLANTAGENET COSTUME. (Plates 31-32) 86

MAIL ARMOUR. (Plate 33) „. 93

EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE. (Plates 34-35) 98

MIXED MAIL AND PLATE ARMOUR. (Plate 36) .. 103

LANCASTRIAN AND YORKIST PERIODS.

Male Costumes. (Plate 37) 107

Female Costumes. (Plate 38) 113

Plate Armour. (Plate 39) 115

Decorated Architecture. (Plates 40-41) 119

TUDOR PERIOD.

Male Costumes. (Plate 42) ... ... 126

Female Costumes. (Plate 43) ... ... ... 131

Plate Armour. (Plate 44) ... ... 136

Perpendicular Architecture. (Plates 45-46) 141

STUART PERIOD (To WILLIAM III.).

Male Costumes. (Plate 47) 144

Female Costumes. (Plates 48-49) 151

Arms and Armour. — To end of Charles II. (Plate 50) ... 155

ANNE, GEORGE I. AND GEORGE II.

Male Costumes. (Plate 51) 159

Female Costumes. (Plate 52) ... 163

GEORGE III.

Male Costumes. (Plate 53) 165

Female Costumes. (Plate 54) 168

THE MONASTIC ORDERS. (Plate 55) ... 173

GENERAL PLAN OF A MONASTERY. (Plate 56) 174

THE FRIARS AND CANONS. (Plate 57) 177

MILITARY MONASTIC ORDERS. (Plate 58) , 181

ECCLESIASTICAL COSTUMES AND VESTMENTS. (Plate 59) ... ... 185

PILGRIMS. (Plate 60) ... 189

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

Fig: 17

PICTORIAL HISTOKY. 7

THE STONE AGE.

(Plate 1— Pag-e 6.)
The Flint Weapons of Prehistoric Man in Britain.

When Britain was joined to the continent of Europe (at the time when
the mammoth lived), it was inhabited by the Palceolithic or Ancient Stone
men. They were ignorant of the use of metals, and used implements of
bone and of rudely chipped stone and flint, whiclj they did not know how to
fasten to handles. These implements and weapons, of a different type from
those of later periods, are found in the river beds of drifts, and these early
people are spoken of as the " Drift men."

Cave-dwelling- Palaeolithic men succeeded these. Their weapons were
still very rude, but they made handles and fixed them to the flints, so
forming- arrows, lances or javelins, and axes.

These were followed by a race called Neolithic men, or men of the
New Stone Age. Their stone implements were better shaped, more highly
finished, were often ground smooth, and even polished. They also made
a rude kind of pottery. These men were, doubtless, of the race called
Iberians.

PLATE 1.

(Fig. 1) : Flint hand-hammer or axe found in Gray's Inn Lane. This
was the earliest form, roughly chipped into shape, with unsharpened edges.
(Figs. 2 and 3) : A dagger in the British Museum (front and side views).
The dagger is one of the commonest weapons of the Stone Age, being
simple in form and easy of construction. (Fig. 4) : A javelin head ; a
simple, elongated splinter of flint, shaped to a small stem, which was in-
serted in the end of a shaft and fastened by means of ligaments. (Figs. H
and 6) : A stone celt (pronounced selt) or axe of the simplest form. This
is ground, probably by the use of sand and water into a regular and sharp
edge. (Fig. 7) : A flint flake, probably used as a scraper. (Fig. 8) : A
stemmed arrow-head. (Fig. 9) : A barbed arrow-head (a later development).
(Fig. 10) : A lozenge-shaped arrow-head. (Fig. 11) : A polished stone axe,
fixed in a stag's horn socket. (Fig. 12) : A perforated hammer found at
•Scarborough. (Figs. 13 and 14) : A perforated axe (two views) found in
Yorkshire. (Both Figs. 12 and 13 show a very high degree of skill in the
shaping of the form, in the drilling, and in general finish.) (Fig. 15) : A
polished celt fixed in its original handle, found in Cumberland. (Fig. 16) :
A flint chisel-shaped tool. (Fig. 17) : A flint borer, used for making holes
in wood, bone, or stone, found in the Yorkshire Wolds.

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

THE BRONZE AGE.

(Plate 2— Page 8.)

The Iberians were succeeded by the Celts, who conquered, and probabJ;
intermarried with, the former.

They had a knowledge of the use of metals, and employed copper first
for the manufacture of their weapons and tools. Then they learned that,
by mixing tin with copper, a harder metal was obtained, which we call
bronze, and this period is, consequently, called the Bronze Age. The early
bronze weapons were of the same form as the flint weapons, for probably
the latter were used as " patterns " for forming the mould. Later, in the
case of the celt, flanges were formed at the side, and, finally, a socketed
celt was made, showing a considerable skill in its manufacture. " The
knowledge of bronze must have affected the warfare of the time in the same
way as the introduction of gun-powder affected the warfare of the Middle
Ages." It has been estimated that the Bronze Age commenced in Britain
about 1500 B.C.

PLATE 2.

(Fig. 1) : A bronze spear head — Later Celtic — in the British Museum.
It is probable that the flint spear-head continued in use into the Bronze Age,
and that the spear-head with a socket was not invented until socketed celts
were made. (Fig. 2) : An ornamental bronze celt or axe found in Suffolk.
The simpler form of the celt has been improved upon by the addition of
flanges. (Figs. 3 and 4) show how they were probably fixed in handles.
(Fig. 5) : A bronze knife dagger found in the Isle of Wight (British
Museum). (Fig. 6) : A bronze arrow-head. (Fig. 7) : A bronze socketed
celt. (Fig. 8) : The same, with the probable method of fastening to a
handle. (Fig. 9) : A bronze cauldron found in Ireland. (Fig. 10) : A late
Celtic Helmet, ornamented and showing generally in its structure a very
advanced skill in manufacture ; found in the Thames ; now in the British
Museum. (Fig. 11) : A bronze dagger in the British Museum. (Fig. 12) :
A bronze spear-head (elongated form), found at Stanwick in Yorkshire;
now in the British Museum. Both the spear heads in Figs. 1 and 12 tend
towards a leaf form. (Fig. 13) : A bronze sword, narrow and leaf-shaped,
in the Guildhall Museum, London ; • showing rivet holes. The sword of the
Bronze Age is remarkable for the beauty of its form. The average length
of the blade was about two feet, the handle being made of horn or wood,
split and rivetted on -either, side. The sword was probably encased in a
scabbard of leather, wood or bronze.

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

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PICTORIAL HISTORY. 11

PREHISTORIC POTTERY AND
FUNERAL CUSTOMS.

(Plate 3— Page 10.)

Neolithic men (of the Later Stone Age) buried their dead in the caves
which they had used for dwellings, or in stone chambers, probably represent-
ing the huts in which they lived. Each of these was used as a vault,
common to the family or tribe, for they are found containing skeletons of
all ages. The dead were buried in the tomb as they died, in a contracted
or crouching position, laid upon their sides, probably clue to their sleeping
in that position, and not at full length on a bed. Implements of various
kinds, arrow heads, celts and pottery, were frequently placed in the tombs,
and were probably intended for the use of the dead. The tombs were then
covered with stones and earth, forming mounds (also known as barrows
and tumuli), which were usually long and oval in plan.

Domestic animals were slaughtered, and a feast was made after the
interment in honour of the dead.

In the Bronze Age, there was a striking change in the custom of burial,
probably the sign of the introduction of a new faith. The dead were burned
on a funeral pile, and with tfiem were burned their belongings — the various
articles and implements of daily use — and the burnt remains were gathered
up with the calcined bones and ashes and placed in an urn. Sometimes this
urn was placed upright, and at other times it was inverted over the ashes.

As in former times, a mound was carefully raised, covering the urn
and its contents, and the memory of the dead was preserved by periodic
feasts, after each of which earth or stone was added to the top of the mound,
each feast being represented by a layer of the broken and burnt bones of
the animals consumed. These barrows of the Bronze Age were generally
circular in plan.

Cremation did not, however, altogether abolish the older practice of
burying. It is evident that both customs were carried on simultaneously.

Hundreds of these mounds have been carefully opened at various times
and the contents investigated, and, in almost every case, earthenware vessels
of various forms and sizes have been found. It is entirely to these grave
mounds that we are indebted for the examples of prehistoric pottery that
are preserved in our museums.

There are four classes of pottery of these early times :—

1. Sepulchral or Cinerary Urns, which have been made for, and have

contained or been inverted over, calcined human bones.

2. Drinking Cups, which are supposed to have contained some liquid

to be placed in the grave.

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

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PICTORIAL HISTORY. 13

PREHISTORIC POTTERY AND FUNERAL CUSTOMS.

3. Food vessels (so called), which are supposed to have contained an
offering of food, and which are more usually found with unburnt
bodies than along with interments by cremation.

4:.. Immolation Urns (or Incense Cups), very small vessels found only
with burnt bones, and usually containing bones and ashes also,
placed in the mouths of, or close by, the larger cinerary urns. It
has been suggested that these were simply small urns, intended to
receive the ashes of the infant, perhaps sacrificed at the death of
its mother. They are also known as incense cups, and are sup-
posed by some to have been used to carry the sacred fire with
which to light the funeral pile, or as censers in the funeral
ceremonies.

These vessels differ much in size and ornamentation, and in the quality
of the clay from which they are formed.

In the examination of barrows, the spot where the funeral pyre has
been made can often be detected by the burnt soil there. It is considered
probable that, while the body was burning, the clay urn was placed on the
funeral fire and then baked.

" Drinking Cups " are usually burnt much harder than the other
vessels.

Most of the vessels are decorated in a rude fashion with lines or figures,

probably drawn by a pointed instrument or comb whilst the clay was soft.

They were made by hand, and are often very uneven and crudely formed.

PLATE 3.

(Fig. 1) : Food vessel of the prevailing type, ornamented with dots
and lines, forming saw-like patterns around it. (From GreenwelPs British
Barrows.) (Fig. 2) : Immolation urn or incense cup, covered with a pattern.
(British Museum.) (Fig. 3) : Food vessel of a rather uncommon type, of
good form and elaborately ornamented. (From Greenwell's British Bar-
rows.) (Fig. 4) : A large drinking cup, the outer surface being almost
covered with ornament, formed by the point of a sharp instrument (found
in a barrow at East Kennet). (Fig. 5) : Drinking cup, found in a barrow
near Goodmanham), ornamented with patterns formed with lines. (From
Greenwell's British Barrows.)

THE ROMAN WALL.

(Plate 4— Page 12.)

Much difference of opinion has been expressed between archaeologists
as to who built the Roman Wall, it being severally attributed to both
Hadrian and Severus. A recent writer of authority says : " No one really
knows who built the Roman Wall, and the evidence now available is, in the

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 15

THE ROMAN WALL.

present writer's opinion, wholly insufficient to enable us to decide the

difficult problem A commonsense and probable view is that Hadrian

caused the vallum (earthen rampart), which may have been there before his
time, to be supplemented by walls and forts, built of stone, in such extremely
exposed and commanding- positions as we find at or near Borcovicus (Home-
steads), and that, about 86 years after the Emperor left Britain, Severus
ordered these to be repaired, and the whole of the Roman fortifications to
be built of stone, and the wall to be carried across from sea to sea." It
stretches from Wallsend, near Newcastle, to Carlisle. A section of its
general structure is shown in PL 7, Fig. 11. It was very strong, and con-
sisted of a ditch on the north side, about 15 ft. deep, and then a broad stone
wall about 18 ft. high and 8 ft. thick. South of the ditch was a broad road,
and next to that a rampart or earthen wall. In some parts, however, there
wrere two roads made, parallel to one another.

At fairly regular intervals along the wall were fortified military
" stations," variously computed at from 18 to 23 in number.

Between them, at intervals of about a mile, were rectangular towers,
called " mile castles," and smaller towers or " turrets " were placed about
four to the mile between these.

The Stations were small, rectangular towns, the inhabitants of which
lived probably under martial law. They varied in extent from one to six
acres, were always strongly fortified with walls six to nine feet thick, sur-
rounded by a ditch. Each Station had, at least, four gateways, one on
each side, and its area was crossed by two main streets, which bisected each
other at right angles.

The larger Stations were provided with a Forum, serving as a market-
place and a place for public assembly ; a Pretorium, or residence for the
Commandant; baths, barracks, and numerous smaller dwellings for the
minor officials and others.

The Mile Castles were rectangular in form, and measured about sixty
feet by fifty feet. The Wall formed the northern wall of the Castle, and
each had two gates, north and south.

The Turrets were also rectangular, but much smaller than the Mile
Castles, measuring about twelve feet by ten feet, and had walls nearly three
feet thick. They served the purpose of look-out towers.

The Wall required a garrison of from 10,000 to 12,000 soldiers to man
it, and these were of many nationalities, being drawn from different parts
of the Roman Empire. Borcovicus, one of the Stations, was garrisoned for
about 200 years by a cohort of 1,000 Tungrian (German) Infantry. Other
cohorts consisted of Astures (Spaniards), Batavians (Dutch), Gauls, Dal-
matians, Moors, and Thracians.

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 17

THE ROMAN WALL.

It must be remembered that the soldiers themselves built the Wall and
the various structures on it, and kept the masonry in repair, as the numerous
inscribed wall tablets testify (Figs. 1 and 2).

After the Romans left Britain, the Wall was used for many centuries
as a convenient quarry, with ready-prepared stones, by neighbouring- land-
owners and farmers, and many farmhouses, walls and outhouses in the
vicinity of the Wall are built entirely of stones from it.

During excavations on the sites of the Stations, many Roman remains
— altars, ornaments, coins, utensils, etc. — have been found, particularly
through the public-spirited work carried on by Mr. Clayton, of Chesters.

PLATE 4.

(Fig. 1) : A wall tablet, sculptured in relief, with the figure of a boar,
the badge of the 20th Legion. The tablet is 20 in. in length, and was found
at Vindolana (Chesterholm). (Fig. 2) : Another tablet, inscribed with a
record of the building of a portion of the Wall, 24 paces long, by the
Thruponian Centuria ; from the Wall at Procolitia. (Fig. 3) : An altar,
dedicated to the god Mihr, or Mithras, by Litorius Pacatianus, a consular
beneficiary, on behalf of himself and his family; found in the temple of
Mithras, at Borcovicus. (Mihr was a form of the Sun-god, who was wor-
shipped in Persia in very early times, and about 100 B.C. the worship of
this deity was adopted by the Romans.) (Fig. 4) : Small plan of Procolitia
(Carranburgh), probably the seventh Station on the Wall, from east to
west. The northern rampart is formed by the Roman Wall. Procolitia
was about 143 yards long and 118 yards wide, measuring about 3J acres,
and was garrisoned by the 1st Batavian Cohort (Dutch). (Fig. 5) : Plan
of Cilurnurn (Chesters), the sixth Station on the Wall from the east. It
was 186 yards by 137 yards, and measured about 5| acres. The Roman
Wall does not, in this instance, coincide with the northern wall of the
Station. The walls, surrounded by a ditch, are about five feet thick, and
the corners are rounded off. It was garrisoned by the 2nd Ala of the
Asturians (Spanish), a famous cavalry regiment. The Stations had usually
four gates, but Cilurnum has six.

ROMAN POTTERY, Etc.

(In the Guildhall Museum, London.)
(Plate 5— Page 14.)"

11 After the Roman occupation of Britain, glass and pottery were made
here in large quantities, so that the importation of glass, which was carried
on at first, ceased to be necessary."

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 19

ROMAN POTTERY, Etc.

Samian ware, which was a red glazed ware, was used ordinarily
throughout the western half of the Roman Empire. It was manufactured
first in Etruria, but afterwards its manufacture was imitated in Gaul. Very
little of the genuine Samian ware from Etruria found its way into Britain,
but the Gaulish Samian ware was imported in large quantities, and was
used throughout the province.

The finer specimens are decorated with design in low relief, of a pic-
torial character, and the ware was of very good quality, for, 1,500 years
after its manufacture, it preserves its colours and its lustre perfectly.

Castor ware, a native product, was made at Castor (Durobrivae), near
the River Nen, and includes small vases of rusty copper or slate colour,
with white ornament in low relief. " Castor ware is not Roman in character,
but rather a local survival of late Celtic art."

PLATE 5.

(Fig. 1) : A Roman tablet of wood. This was covered with a thin
coating of wax, upon which the writing was done with a stylus of metal or
bone. When the inscription was no longer needed, a hot iron was held over
the surface, and a new surface formed on the wax. (Fig. 2) : A Roman
stylus of iron. (Fig. 3) : A Roman amphora. (Fig. 4) : An ornamented
vase of Cologne ware. (Fig. 5) : A bowl of Cologne ware. (Fig. 6) : An
ewer or water bottle, with indented mouth. (Fig. 7) : A deep bowl of
Roman pottery. (Fig. 8) : A cinerary urn of grey ware for containing the
ashes of the dead. (Fig. 9) : A decorated urn of Cologne ware. (Fig. 10) :
A vase of Castor ware, red, with black glazed neck ornaments, decorated
with pinkish-white slip. (Fig. 11) : A Roman glass hemispherical bowl.
(Figf, 12) : A drinking cup of thick Samian ware, 3f in. high.

ROMAN ANTIQUITIES FOUND IN LONDON.

(Guildhall Museum.)
(Plate G— Page 16.)

The Roman influence in Britain was directed to the civilizing of the
inhabitants. It gave the people better conditions of life; it guaranteed
protection against the tyrannies of petty chieftains ; and it gave to them
the resources of Roman civilisation. The Roman remains that are to be
found in our museums, unearthed after centuries of oblivion, show how
definite was the influence of the Romans in the comforts and necessities of
daily life.

" Keys and steelyards, roofing tiles and hairpins, glass bottles and
spoons, statues and bells, represent wants and comforts strange to the

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

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PICTORIAL HISTORY. 21

ROMAN ANTIQUITIES FOUND IN LONDON.

" savage and shivering' Britons,' dressed in skins, whom earlier writers
knew." The manufacture of glass, chiefly beads, was carried on at Glaston-
bury in Roman times, but most of the glass found is Roman in character.
The large green jars which were used for containing the ashes of the dead
were generally made here, but the best specimens came probably from Gaul,
where the manufacture of glass was carried on to a considerable extent.

PLATE 6,

(Fig. 1) : A square bottle of green glass, found in a grave with cinerary
urns. (Fig. 2) : An unguentarium, or bottle for unguents, perfumes and
other toilet requisites, of Roman glass. (Fig. 3) : A Roman lamp of earthen-
ware. The wick was inserted in the spout, and the central hole was for the
purpose of feeding the lamp. (Fig. 4) : Another Roman lamp, viewed from
above. (Fig. 5) : A Roman pole-axe, with expanded blade, oval shaft-hole,
and pointed projection behind, 9 in. long. (Figs. 6 and 7) : Two forms of
Roman keys of bronze. (Fig. 8) : A Roman shoe or buskin, with ten large
holes stamped out on each side.. (Fig. 9) : An axe with crescent-shaped
blade and tang for handle. (Fig. 10) : A Roman spoon of copper (5 in.
long). (Fig. 11) : A Roman steelyard of bronze, with hooks and rings.
(Fig. 12) : A sacrificial knife (7| in. long). (Fig. 13) : A Roman iron knife
with ornamented bone handle.

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE IN BRITAIN.

(Plate 7— Page 18.)

Roman architecture in Britain, judging from the remains of buildings,
was generally of an inferior description, for Britain was a remote and half-
civilised province, and little attention appears to have been paid to make the
buildings very ornate.

There are two principal varieties of masonry employed in their construc-
tion.

The first, which is very characteristic, consists of layers of irregularly
shaped stones and flat tiles embedded in mortar, generally arranged in alter-
nate layers of tiles and stones in mortar, forming a kind of concrete (PI. 7,
Fig. 3). The Mint wall at Lincoln, the Jewry wall at Leicester, and the walls
at Richborough and Colchester are built in this manner.

The other variety consists of walls formed of regular courses, with wide
joints of outer facings of square stones or ashlars, the interior spaces being
filled with a rubble embedded in mortar. The blocks, which were of hewn
sandstone, were about 8 in. by 10 in. on the face, and as much as 22 in. long
in the bed. The whole rests on a course of larger foundation stones (PI. 7,
Figs. 1 and 2).

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 23

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE IN BRITAIN.

Roman mortar may generally be distinguished by the fact that it was
mixed with powdered brick, and it is extremely hard. It is often easier to
break the tile or stone than the mortar, and this hardness arises largely from
the fact that the Romans always burnt the lime on the spot, and used it hot
and fresh, for on the freshness of the lime the strength of the mortar largely
depends. The walls of Burgh Castle, Suffolk, and Richborough, Kent, are
among the most perfect Roman walls in England.

There are vestiges of Roman towns and villas throughout the country,
but they consist of foundations only. The upper story of these Roman
houses was usually of wood, and all the innumerable Roman towns and villas
of which foundations have been discovered bear marks of destruction by
violence, fire having been usually the agent of destruction.

PLATE 7.

(Fig. 1) : Section of Roman masonry, showing the outer facing of
regularly shaped stones and the interior of rubble and mortar. (Fig. 2) :
View of outside of wall. (Fig. 3) : Roman arch at Colchester Castle, Hamp-
shire, showing alternate layers of tiles or flat bricks and stones. (Figs. 4,
5 and 6) : Fragments of Roman ornamental mouldings built in at Hexham.
Roman building material is often used again in other buildings near the site
of the Roman Station, as at Colchester Castle (Essex), St. Martin's Church,
Canterbury, and St. Alban's Abbey (Herts.). (Fig. 7) : Basement of Station
on the Roman Wall. (Fig. 8) : Arch of Roman gate at Lincoln. It was
the north gate of the Roman city of Lindum, and still forms the principal
entrance into the city from the north. There was a smaller arch on either
side, but only the one on the east remains. It appears to have been without
ornament of any kind. (Fig. 9) : A stone capital, probably from the portico
of a temple, found at Cilurnum (Chesters). It is elaborately sculptured with
acanthus, is 17 inches in height, with a diameter, at its widest part, of 18
inches. (Fig. 10) : A piortion of the Roman Wall passing over a hill. The
Roman Wall consistently passed in a straight direction over the country, and
only swerved from a straight line to take, in the route, the boldest elevations.
(Fig. 11) : Section of the Wall in Northumberland, (a) Ditch of the Wall ;
(b) the stone wall ; (c) the military way ; (d) the ditch of the vallum ; (e) the
vallum (of earth).

ROMAN ARMS, Etc.

(Plate 8— Page 20.)

(Fig. 1) : A Roman galley (from Pompeii), (Fig. 2) : A Roman Eagle.
This was mounted on a pole and carried before the Legion. The soldiers ral-
lied round it and fought for its honour. It corresponded with the regimental
flags of our time. (Fig. 3) : A Roman sword. This was remarkable for the

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 25

ROMAN ARMS, Etc.

shortness of its blade. It was suspended from a shoulder belt passing over
the left shoulder, so that the sword hung- on the right side, a custom which
was possible on account of the shortness of the blade. The length was about
twenty-two inches. The blade was straight, of uniform width, double-edged,
and cut at the end in an obtuse angle to form the point. (Fig. 4) : A short
sword or sword dagger. (Fig. 5) : Scabbard of the same. (Fig. 0) : A.
Roman Centurion, with an oval shield, such as was generally carried by
horse soldiers. The body was protected by a metal cuirass formed of buck
and breast plates, strapped together at the sides, and fastened by broad belts
passing over the shoulders. At the lower p#rt of the cuirass were two bands
of leather, one showing underneath the other, the edges of both being tagged
or scalloped. Below this double border there was a kind of leather skirt,
reaching nearly to the knee. A military cloak or mantle was picturesquely
draped over the shoulder. Metal greaves covered the shins, and sandals,
which were often highly ornamented, covered the feet. (Fig. 7) : A Roman
laminated cuirass worn by tne heavily armed troops. It consisted of lames
or plates of steel encircling the body, with curved lames passing over the
shoulders, and several lames hanging vertically over the lower part of the
trunk. They were sewn or rivetted to a tightly-fitting leather garment.
(Figs. 8, 9 and 10) : Roman helmets, all fitted with neck pieces to guard the
neck — Figs. 8 and 9 with cheek pieces, hinged and fastening beneath the
chin. (Fig. 11) : Another form of shield, differing entirely from that in
Fig. 6. " It is elongated and convex oblong, somewhat resembling a hollow-
watercourse tile." It was carried by the legionaries, and was about 2 ft. 6 in.
long. It was strengthened, at the top and bottom only, or all round, with
additional bands of metal. With this form of shield, the well-known testudo
or tortoise formation was made. (Fig. 12) : A Roman sandal of leather.

• SAXON WEAPONS.

(Plate 9— Page 22.)

The Saxon arms were the spear, the axe, the sword, the dagger, the
longbow, and the arrow.

The defensive armour consisted of helmet, shield, and byrnie.

The Spear was the chief weapon of the Saxons. It was of two forms :
(1) 9 or 10 ft. long, for use against cavalry or as a cavalry weapon, and (2)
about 6 ft. long, for use as a javelin or throwing spear. When the latter
was used, it was generally carried in pairs.

The spear, or, rather, the spear-head is always found in Saxon graves,
as it was buried with its owner. The shaft was generally of ash.

The Axe was a very characteristic weapon of the Saxon and kindre-1
races, but it is very seldom found in graves. There were several forms,
particularly a long, tapering blade (Fig. 6) and a broader blade (Fig. 7).

26 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

SAXON WEAPONS.

Sometimes the axehead was mounted on a short handle, and at other
times on a long shaft, to form a poleaxe, as shown in the Bayeux tapestry.

The Sword was essentially the cavalry weapon, and was the weapon of
the upper classes, no person below the rank of Thane carrying it.

The earliest swords which' have been found have no quillon or cross
guard. The sword was usually about 3 ft. long, the blade being 30 in. long
and about 2 in. wide near the hilt. It was double-edged, and tapered slightly
towards the point. It usually had a wooden scabbard, and was often
ornamented with gold and precious stones on the hilt.

The dagger or knife was a very general weapon, and has been found in
many graves. It varies considerably in size. The soldier probably carved
his food with the same weapon with which he stabbed his enemy.

The longbow was not in general use among the Saxons. Our knowledge
of it, and of arrows also, is mainly from MSS. It is a disputed point
whether the English used the bow at Hastings, for only one archer is
depicted on the English side.

For defensive purposes, the soldier wore a helmet of metal, or of leather
strengthened with metal bands and rims, and he carried a shield. The latter
was of wood, and was circular or oval in form. The centre was formed of
metal, and was called a boss or umbo. As the shield was buried with a
warrior, many umbos have been found in the graves, the wooden portion of
the shield having decayed.

In early Saxon times, a protective garment called a byrnie was worn by
the leaders. It may have been mailed or quilted and padded. In later times,
when the nation was in a more prosperous condition, the use of this garment
probably became much more general. At the time of the Norman conquest,
there was very little difference in arms and equipment between the Normans
and Saxons, on account of the intercourse between the two Courts,

PLATE 9.

(Fig. 1) : A Saxon spear-head, 1O| in. long, with a socket for the shaft,
found in Southwark. (Guildhall Museum, London.) (Fig. 2, 3 and 4) :
Saxon spear-heads, from MSS. The lateral projections from the shaft were
probably guards, to prevent the shaft being severed by a sword cut. (Fig. 5) :
A spear-head of different form. (Fig. 6) : A Saxon taper axe-head, 3^ in.
wide and 6J in. deep, found in the Thames. (Guildhall Museum, London.)
(Fig. 7) : Another and broader form of axe-head. (Fig. 8) : A Saxon sword
from an 8th century M S. (Figs. 9 and 10) : Sword handles, found in
Cambridgeshire. (Fig. 11): Umbo of Saxon shield. (Fig. 12): Saxon
dagger or knife, with ornamental wooden handle. (Figs. 13, 14 and 15) :
Saxon arrow-heads. (Figs. 16 and 17) : Saxon helmets. (Fig. 18) : Saxon
bow, from a MS.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 27

SAXON COSTUME, A.D. 460-A.D. 1066.

(Plates 10-11— Pages 24-28.)

The main sources from which we obtain our knowledge of Saxon
Costume are the illuminated MSS. remaining to us. The earliest MS. we
have was written A.D. 720, about 200 years after the Saxon Conquest. Of
this long period we have no reliable record.

We know, however, that on their first appearance in Britain, they were
not so advanced in civilisation as the inhabitants, who had gained a consider-
able advantage, in this respect, from the Roman occupation. The only
reliable source from which information canrbe gained of this period is in the
tumuli or graves. In these have been found weapons and many personal
ornaments of a rich character.

Saxon Male Costume.

A kind of shirt, reaching to the knee, worn next to the skin, was the
universal, and, in the case of the humblest, the only garment, and it was
always made of linen. Over this was worn a tunica, which was generally
short, but, in the case of persons of high rank, it was worn longer. It fitted
closely around the neck, and was cut open in front, being also often open at
the sides from the hips to the hem. Sleeves were worn to this garment, and
for many years were worn, rucked upon the forearm in a very peculiar
manner, probably so that the sleeves could be drawn down over the hands
in cold weather. The hem was often decorated with embroidered work.

A short cloak, or mantle, was generally worn over the tunica, fastened
by a fibula or brooch upon the right shoulder or in the centre of the chest.
In the case of a person of high degree, a larger cloak was also wrapped
around the figure.

The head was generally uncovered, except in time of war. The hair
was worn long, reaching down to the shoulders, parted carefully in the
centre, and tucked behind the ears. When the head was covered, a cap
of the Phrygian shape (Fig. 8) was worn. Persons of distinction, like the
members of the Witan, wore a sugar-loaf shaped cap.

The beard was worn either round or long and flowing. In the latter
case, it was divided in the centre like a fork, and was called the " bifid "
beard.

The breeches were tight to the leg, and sometimes wide at the bottom,
reaching to the middle of the thigh.

Stockings were worn, either long enough to join the breeches or short,
reaching yearly to the knee. The rustic frequently wore no stockings.

Civilians often bound strips of coloured cloth, and soldiers strips of
leather, around their stockings, forming what is called cross-gartering.

Their shoes were generally low, and had an opening up the instep.

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

Fig: 7

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 2i)

SAXON COSTUME.

Female Costume.

The female costume was also very simple, and consisted of a long-,
tight-sleeved garment, the gunna or gown, reaching to the feet, with a
tunic over this, reaching to the knees. The tunica was girdled at the waist,
and had wide sleeves extending to the elbow.

A wide mantle, a characteristic feature of the costume of both men
and women, covered the upper part of the body, and a head-rail or hood
consisting of a piece of material adjusted over the head, was always worn.

When making a journey, a large travelling cloak was also worn.

No illustration shows the complete arrangement of the hair, but, as the
women of Continental nations at this period wore it in long plaits, we
may conclude that the same fashton was followed here ; but the hair was
always covered. A kirtle was also probably worn, corresponding in form
to the garment now known as a " princess petticoat."

Military Costume.

There was but little difference between the civil and military costume of
the men. In MSS., soldiers are often represented with no other weapon
than a shield or spear, or an axe or a bow with arrows, and. attired in
ordinary costume. Occasionally, one is represented wearing a kind of
cuirass formed of scales, made of overlapping slices of horn sewn upon
cgarse linen.

During the reigns of Edward the Confessor and Harold II., owing to
the constant intercourse between the English and the Norman Courts, the
English adopted many of the customs and much of the costume of the
Normans, so that, among the upper and military classes, at any rate, when
William of Normandy invaded England, the members of the two opposing
armies were armed and attired in a very similar manner.

PLATE 10.

(Fig. 1) : A Saxon rustic, wearing only a solitary garment, with a
pointed cap which has a comb, and shoes. (Cott. MS., Claudius B. iv.)
(Fig. 2) : A Saxon lady, attired in (1) the gunna, (2) the tunica, (3) the
mantle, (4) the head-rail. (Harl. MS., 2,908.) (Fig. 3) : A Saxon, dressed
in (1) the tunica, (2) the mantle, (3) breeches, with cross-gartered stockings,
and shoes, and (4) a banded Phrygian cap. (After Mrs. Ashdown.) (Fig. 4) :
Saxon, showing the bifid beard and the arrangement of the hair. (Cott.
MS., Claudius B. iv.) (Fig. 5) : An English Freeman, wearing a tunica,
with short stockings and shoes, and armed with sword, spear, helmet, and
shield. (From a MS.) (Fig. 6) : A Saxon soldier, wearing a tunica covered
with a mantle, stockings, and shoes, with spurs. (Note the manner in which

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 31

SAXON COSTUME.

the mantle is fastened on the right shoulder.) He is armed with a spear, and
has his head covered with a conical helmet. As is pointed out above, the
military costume did not differ from the civil costume, except as regards the
helmet and the arms. (Figs. 7 to 12) : Saxon head-dresses. (Fig. 7) : A.
form of the square helmet. (Fig. 8) : • A Phrygian-shaped cap of leather,
bound with metal; the bifid beard is also shown again. (Fig. 9) : Another
form of the square helmet, with a kind of crest or comb. (Fig. 10) : A
pointed helmet of simple form. (Fig. 11) : A pointed hat serrated along the
back like a cock's comb. (Fig. 12) : The commonest form of helmet, a
conical cap with a rim, probably of metal. (The other form of beard is
shown in this figure.) (Figs. 13, 14 and 15) : Saxon shoes, from MSS.
(Figs. 16 and 17) : Saxon crowns, from MSS.

PLATE II.

(Fig. 1) : A Saxon monarch represented as seated on a throne, wearing
a square crown, and holding a sceptre in his right hand. He is attired in
a richly embroidered tunica and a mantle of ample proportions, gathered
up with a brooch on the left shoulder. His stockings are cross-gartered and
ornamented at the knees and in the lozenges formed by the gartering. (Cott.
MS., Tiberius Cvi.) (Fig. 2) : A fiddler, wearing the tunica, long stockings
and shoes. (MS., Tib. Cvi.) (Fig. 3) : A gleeman or juggler, attired simi-
larly to the fiddler. (From the same MS.) (Fig. 4) : A husbandman, en-
gaged in digging. (From MS., after Strutt.) (Fig. 5) : A blacksmith, work-
ing at the anvil. (From MS., after Strutt.) (Fig. 6) : A Saxon king, with
a bifid beard, on the seat of judgment, crowned and attired in a tunica,
covered with a short mantle, which is fastened in. the centre of the chest by
a brooch of rectangular form. (Fig. 7) : A Saxon noble, with long hair and
a bifid beard, holding a sword of characteristic Saxon form. He is wearing
an ornamented tunica reaching to the ankles, and over it a voluminous
mantle. His head is covered with a conical helmet. The rucking of the
sleeve on the forearm is plainly shown. (Figs. 6 and 7 from a MS., after
Strutt.) (Fig. 8) : A Saxon horn-blower, attired similarly to the fiddler and
gleeman (Figs. 2 and 3), from the same MS. (Fig. 9) : A carpenter at work
with an axe. (From a MS., after Strutt.) (Note. — In Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 and
9, all the heads are bare.) (Figs. 10 to 14) : Saxon personal ornaments,
buckle, rings, etc., found in tumuli.

ANGLO-SAXON ARCHITECTURE.

(Plate 12— Page 30.)

Buildings erected from about 500 A.D. to 1050 A.D. are called Anglo-
Saxon, or simply Saxon, in their style.

32 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

ANGLO-SAXON ARCHITECTURE.

The Romans built in stone and brick, but the English, when they
conquered Britain, razed the Roman buildings to the ground, and built
their own structures of wood.

It is interesting to note that the Saxon word for " build " was " getirn-
brian," to construct of wood.

From the middle of the 5th century, for nearly 700 years, until the time
when the Norman Castle arose, well-nigh every building of architectural
merit was in some way or other connected with the Church.

The English were essentially workers in wood, and profoundly ignorant
of masonry. The churches that sprang up all over England after the con-
version of the country to Christianity were, no doubt, of wood, and even in
the 9th and 10th centuries we hear of " the worm-eaten walls of cathedrals."

They were decorated internally with paintings in various Bright colours,
and the ornamentation was of metal work, bronze or the precious metals.

Before the end of the 7th century, stone churches were built at York,
Ripon and Hexham, the latter being largely built of materials from the
Roman Wall, which passes within a short distance of the place, and Roman
inscribed slabs have been used in forming the roof of the crypt.

Bede tells us that Benedict crossed the sea to Gaul, and carried back
with him masons to build churches of stone, ''after the manner of the
Romans that he loved," at Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, about 680 A.D.
Each of these churches contains portions which are, without doubt, from
their rude construction, parts of the original fabrics of Benedict. Anglo-
Saxon stone churches were small, rectangular or cruciform in shape, and
without aisles.

A lofty tower, without buttresses, stands at the west end, or at the
intersection of the nave and transepts. The walls were usually of rubble or
small stones, of very irregular shape, covered with " rough cast " or plaster.
The kind of masonry termed " herring-bone. " is often used, and Roman
bricks, taken from the ruins of earlier buildings, seem to have been freely
used.

It is probable that the sides of the towers terminated in acutely pointed
gables, from which the roof is carried up, as at Sompting Church, in Sussex.

The towers were without staircases, the different storeys being reached
by means of ladders.

The old church at Bradford, in Wiltshire, is one of the most perfect
specimens of the Anglo-Saxon class. It is probably the small, original
church of the Abbey, built by Adhelm, in the 8th century (A.D. 705).

It is constructed of Bath stone, and it is considered, on account of the
fineness^of the building, that there may have been a certain amount of later
restoration.

In the 9th century, many churches were destroyed by the Danes, and
Canute rebuilt many churches which his father and his followers had de-

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 33

ANGLO-SAXON ARCHITECTURE.

stroyed. But, for a period before the year 1000 A.D., tfie building of churches
stopped on account of the expected millenium. After that date, when the
hopes and fears of the people had proved groundless, the building of churches
commenced again with renewed vigour.

PLATE 12.

(Fig. 1) : The Anglo-Saxon tower of Earl's Barton Church, Northants.
At the angles, there are " quoins," or corner-stones, formed of long stones
set upright, alternately with others laid horizontally, and technically known
as " long and short work." The surface of the walls is also divided up by
44 pilaster strips," which are an imitation in stone of wooden construction,
and are evidently intended to bind together the rude masonry of the walls. It
is " the design of a carpenter executed by a mason." The parapet is com-
paratively recent in construction. (Fig. 2) : Tower arch of Anglo-Saxon
character at Barnack, Northants. Barnack was one of the places where the
old church was burnt by the Danes, in their raid through that part of the
country, and rebuilt by order of Canute after the settlement of the Danes.
The impost mouldings (b] appear to have been suggested by a- pile of boards
overlapping. (Fig. 3) : An enlargement of the belfry window (a, Fig. 1).
Double windows are usually round-headed or triangular-headed. The lights
or single windows are not separated by a stone moulding, but by a kind of
shaft or " baluster," set in the middle of the wall, and supporting the impost.
(Fig. 4) : Belfry window in the tower of Deerhurst Church (1050 A.D.). The
windows are triangular-headed, the head being formed of two straight stones
placed obliquely, and meeting at a point. (Fig. 5) : A \vindow at Cavers-
field, Bucks, with small opening and very wide " splay." This window is
splayed, or widened out, both outside and inside, the window itself being
set in the middle of the wall, so that the wicker-work or oiled parchment,
that did duty as a glass, was protected from the weather. (Fig. 6) : Sec-
tion of Anglo-Saxon wall, which consisted of two rows of fairly regular
stones, the intervening space being filled with irregularly shaped stones,
embedded in mortar, the latter comprising nearly half the substance of the
wall. The layer of stones in the interior of the building was generally
plastered over. (Fig. 7) : An Anglo-Saxon triangular-headed doorway,
(Figs. 8, 9 and 10) : Different forms of Anglo-Saxon balusters.

SAXON CUSTOMS.

(Plate 13— Page 34.)

At meal-times the company sat down in the hall, the master, mistress,
and honoured guests taking their places at a " high " table placed on a dais
at the upper end of the apartment. Dinner was generally served either at
noon or at about 3 o'clock in the afternoon.

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

'Plate 13.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 36

SAXON CUSTOMS.

The walls were decorated with coloured and embroidered curtains, for
English ladies and their maidens were famed for their skill with the needle in
embroidery and decorative needlework. The tables consisted of boards laid
upon trestles, which could be easily removed when, the meal being over, the
ladies retired to the bower and the men settled down to drinking.

Sometimes the tables were bare, at other times covered with a table-
cloth. Some MSS. show a circular table arranged for the meal. On the
table appear the round cakes which served the Saxons as bread, also dishes
containing meat, fish, and other food. A few spoons and razor-shaped
knives, and drinking vessels of varying sizes and shapes, were also placed
upon the table.

While the meal was in progress, wandering minstrels played on their
instruments and sang; jugglers and conjurers delighted their patrons with
feats of balancing and sleight-of-hand ; while others danced and postured, or
exhibited the feats of dancing bears and other animals that they led about.

PLATE 13.

(Fig. 1) : A dinner party standing at a long table. (After Strutt.) MS.,
Claud. B. v. (Fig. 2) : A dinner party seated around a circular table with
embroidered curtains behind them, and serving men waiting upon them.
(After Strutt.) Cott. M.S. Tiberius C vi. (Fig. 3) : A Saxon bed. (After
Strutt.) MS., Claud. B. iv. An apartment called the bower or bur was used
chiefly by the women and children for sleeping and dwelling in. Sometimes
there were recesses in the wall, covered by curtains, and in these the beds
were placed. The bed furniture consisted of bolster, pillows, coverlets, and
sheets, and, as far as can be gathered from the MSS., the sheets were
wrapped about the naked body. (Fig. 4) : A dancing girl with musicians.
(After Strutt.) Cott. MS., Cleopatra C. viii. In MSS., women are repre-
sented almost invariably with the head covered by a hood or head-veil even
when they have retired to rest (Fig. 3), and we may assume that it was
considered disgraceful for a woman to appear in public with the head bare.
When women are represented with the head uncovered they are people whose
calling was considered more more or less of a questionable character, as
dancers, strolling players, etc. (Fig. 5) : A labourer threshing corn with a
flail. (From a MS. after Strutt.)

SAXON FARMING.

(Plate 14— Page 36.)

Both these figures are taken from an Old English calendar of the
eleventh century (after Strutt). Cott. MS., Julius A. vi.

This calendar is arranged as in a modern almanack, with a page to
each month and a line to each day. At the foot of each page there is a
drawing, typical of the work carried on during that month.

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 37

SAXON FARMING.

(Fig". 1) : January. This month was called by the English, when
heathen, " Wolf-monath," because the wolves were most troublesome at this
period of the year. When the English became Christians it was called
'* Aefter-Yule, " i.e., After-Christmas. Here there is a ploughing scene.
Four oxen yoked together in couples are drawing a plough of a very solid-
looking type. (In those days horses were not employed in farm work.) A.
farm-hand, bare-headed, bare-footed, and wearing only a single garment, is
goading the oxen with a sharp-pointed ox-goad, similar to a long spear in
appearance. A man in superior attire is guiding the plough, while another
is scattering seed as the plough passes. ' A good representation of the
plough of that period is shown here. (Fig. 2) : August. This month was
called by the English " Arn-moneth " or " Barn-moneth," i.e., " harvest-
month." This drawing gives a representation of a farm wagon of good
construction, and of the costumes of the workers, who appear to be of at
least two grades — some barefooted, wearing a single garment, while others
have better-cut garments, and wear shoes and stockings in addition. At
the head of a party is a man with a spear in his right hand, blowing a horn>
who may be either superintending the work or may be the " advance
guard " of a hunting party entering the field. The implements, sickles, and
forks appear to be very similar to those in use at the present time.

SAXON ANTIQUITIES.

(Plate 15— Page 38.)

(Fig. 1) : A long Saxon drinking glass, ornamented with raised and
decorated ribbons of glass. The bottom is rounded, so that when filled with
liquid it had to be emptied at one draught. (British Museum.) (Fig. 2) :
Another form of Saxon drinking vessel. (British Museum.) (Fig. 3) : Old
English bronze vessel found in a barrow at Taplow, in Bucks, in 1883, now
in the British Museum. (Fig. 4) : A silver spoon (Anglo-Saxon) found at
Sevington, in Wiltshire, in 1834. (British Museum.) (Fig. 5) : Great Seal
of Edward the Confessor. The King is represented crowned and seated upon
the throne, bearing the sceptre in his right hand and the orb in his left.
Edward here calls himself " By the Grace of God, King of the English,"
using the Greek and not the Latin term. (Figs. 6 and 7) : A silver penny of
Alfred the Great, minted at London — (6) the obverse bearing Alfred's portrait
and name; (7) the reverse with the word " Londini " (as a monogram),
(Figs. 8 and 9) : A silver penny of Edgar the Peaceful — (8) the obverse; (9)
the reverse. (Figs. 10, 11, and 12) : Three views of King Alfred's jewel.
This was found near the site of Athelney Abbey, Somersetshire, in 1693.
Fig. 10, the obverse, is faced with an oval plate of crystal, having under it

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 39

SAXON ANTIQUITIES.

a miniature of a man, in enamelled mosaic (probably St. Neot, Alfred's
special protector), holding in each hand a fleur-de-lys. Fig. 11, the reverse,
is a detached plate of gold bearing a fleur-de-lys ornament. Fig. 12, the
edge, on which is inscribed " AELFRED MEC HEHT GEWYRCAN " (Alfred bid
me be wrought). The stalk end bears a grotesque figure, apparently the
head of a sea monster. It may have been the head of a stylus or pen, or
have served as a standard in battle. (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.) (Fig.
13) : An ornamented fibula or brooch at Goldsborough, Yorkshire. (British
Museum.) (Fig. 14) : An Anglo-Saxon comb — St. Cuthbert's comb, pi-
Durham Cathedral.

DANISH VESSELS, Etc.

(Plate 16— Page 40.)

(Fig. 1) : A Norseman's boat found in a peat bog at Nydam, in South
Jutland, in 1863. It is clincher-built of oak, is large, open and pointed at
both ends, and is designed only for rowing, as there is no trace of a mast and
no arrangement for stepping one. It is 78 ft. between the high points at the
stem and the stern, and 10 ft. 9 in. broad amidships. It \vas rowed with
fourteen pairs of oars, which are like those still used in the North, and are
11 ft. 2 in. long. The rudder is narrow, and was fastened to one side of the
boat near the stern end. During the latter part of the heathen times, boats
were drawn up on land for the winter or when they were not wanted for som^
time. This boat has holes at the ends for the ropes by which it was hauled
up on land. (Montelius' "Civilization of Sweden.") (Fig. 2): A Danish
vessel reconstructed from a representation of a Danish ship from the MS. of
Caedmon Bodl. Junius ii., c. A.D. 1000. It is steered, like the one in Fig. 1.
by a rudder fastened near the stern of the ship on the side still called the star-
board or steer-board. (Fig. 3) : Noah's Ark. Another drawing from the
same MS. The Ark is represented in the form of a Danish ship, showing the
dragon's head at the bows and the stern. It is interesting also, as it illus-
trates the fact that when the old illuminators wanted to represent any circum-
stance— Biblical or classical — pictorially, they made use of the material they
saw around them, copying the buildings, the ships, the persons, and the
costumes of their own time, so that MSS. form very reliable contemporary
evidence of these things. (Fig. 4) : A Danish sword found in the River
Withalm, very similar in general design and construction to the Saxon sword
illustrated on Plate 9. (Fig. 5) : A Jutish or Danish shield, made of wood
with a bronze rim and a boss or umbo of bronze in the centre, of the period
before A.D. 450, found in Jutland.

PICTORIAL HISTORV.

Hq : 2

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 41

NORMAN CUSTOMS.

(Plate 17— Page 42.)

The ordinary costumes of people in early Norman times differed little
from that of the Saxons.

At first the Norman warriors were clean-shaven, but after settling iu
England the courtiers gave way to a love of finery. They wore long,
embroidered garments with long white sleeves, and they allowed their hair
and beards to grow long so that they incurred the reproach of the clergy,
who called them " filthy goats."

The Norman ladies also changed from the simplicity of their costume to
a great extravagance of shape and material. The gowns were very ample,
and were sometimes worn with a kind of train.

The general garments of the men were the tunic, the super-tunic, and
the mantle.

The upper classes wore a garment next to the skin, under the tunic,
called the just-au-corps ; but amongst the lower classes the tunic was worn
next to the skin. The Tunic was made of linen or cloth, had short sleeves,
and reached at first to the knees, but later to the ground. Over this was
worn a super-tunic corresponding to the Saxon tunica, with tight sleeves,
reaching to the wrist, and subject to the same modification as the tunic.

The mantle was similar to the Saxon mantle, but was fuller. In later
Norman times it was made of the finest cloth, and was lined with rich furs.
There were several forms of cap, as illustrated in the plate. The lower limbs
were covered with a kind of trousers called chausses. The shoes in early-
Norman times were quite plain, but later they were very elaborate, coloured,
and had pointed toes.

The costume of Norman ladies consisted of a robe, a mantle, and a
couvre-chef.

The robe was worn with long sleeves, and in later times with long pen-
dulous strips at the wrists, often of such a length that they had to be tied
into knots to keep them from trailing on the ground. The skirt of the robe
was long, full, and hung in folds on the ground.

The mantle was worn over the robe, and the head was covered, as in
Saxon times, with a head-veil, which was now called the couvre-chef.

The hair was worn plaited into two long tails. From illustrations in
MSS. it is seen that the costumes of the lower classes during Norman times
were similar to those worn during the three preceding centuries.

PLATE 17.

(Fig. 1) : The figure of Queen Matilda, wife of Henry I. The sculptured
effigies of these two sovereigns are the earliest of those of English sovereigns
in existence, and are at Rochester Cathedral. They are mutilated, but still

PICTORIAL HISTORY;

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 43

NORMAN COSTUMES.

show clearly the details of royal costume. In the figure of Matilda the hair
is plaited into two tails. She wears a long- robe girded at the waist and
having long sleeves. Over this she wears a long mantle. (Fig. 2) : Costume
of a young man of the middle classes. (Representing David with a sling in
Cott. MS., Nero C4.) He wears a long tunic reaching to the ankles, having
a collar, long cuffs extending nearly to the elbow, and an embroidered border
along the bottom. He also wears tight-fitting chausses, and the lower parts
of his legs are covered either with high boots or with leg bandages. (Fig. 3) •
Costume of an older man. (From the same MS., representing Noah with
an axe about to build the Ark.) He wears a Phrygian hat with a band
around it, a long, full tunic with hanging sleeves, and a green mantle
bordered with gold thrown over it. He appears to be wearing stockings
reaching to the knees, and his shoes are ornamented with diagonal lines
crossing each other. He has long hair and a moustache and beard. This is
considered to be a good example of the ordinary costume of the time. (Figs.
4 and 5) : Examples of a covering for the lower part of the leg. (From the
same MS.) (Fig. 4) : A swathing for the leg worn by shepherds, similar in
appearance to the hay bands of the modern carter. (Fig 5) : Shows a leg of
the breeches ornamented with diagonal stripes ending at the ankle, where
there is a band or garter. No shoes are worn, as frequently appears to have
been the case when persons were on a journey. (Fig. 6) : A sock or half-boot
ornamented around the top. (Fig. 7) : A Norman shoe with stocking.
(Fig. 8) : A shoe of later Norman times, decorated with bands and coloured.
(Fig. 9) : Pointed military shoe from a seal. (Figs. 10, 11, 12, 13) : The
four commonest forms of head-dress in use. (Fig. 13) : Shows that called
the cowl. (Fig. 14) : Figure of a Norman lady showing the robe with long
sleeves, the mantle, and the couvre-chef.

NORMAN ARMS AND ARMOUR.

(Plate 18— Page 44.)

The military costumes of the early Normans and the Saxons were very
similar on account of the intercourse between the Courts of England and
Normandy at the time immediately preceding the Conquest, and much of
our knowledge of Norman military costume is obtained from the Bayeux
Tapestry. The arms in use among the Normans were the sword (which only
soldiers of superior rank were allowed to carry), the axe, the lance or spear,
the mace, and the bow and arrows. The sword was, as might be expected,
of the same type as the Danish or Norse sword — straight, long, and double-
edged, with a slight taper to the acute point. The scabbard was worn on
the left side, and was suspended by a cord or strap around the waist. The

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

<Platcl8.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 45

NORMAN ARMS AND ARMOUR.

axe was of various forms, as may be seen from the plate. The lance or spear
was generally similar to that used by the Saxons, but had a pennon with
several points. Sometimes several lances were carried, and were probably
thrown as javelins.

The mace is depicted several' times in the Bayeux Tapestry.

The bow and arrows played an important part in the Battle of Hastings,
and were of the form used by the Saxons.

The defensive armour consisted of the helmet, the hauberk, and the
shield.

The helmet was generally conical in shape, with a nasal or nose-piece of
iron to guard the forehead and nose against a horizontal stroke. The nasal
was fixed or movable. Sometimes there was a peak behind the helmet to
protect the neck. The nasal was generally discarded about 1140.

The hauberk, or military tunic, was a garment in one piece, fitting
almost tightly to the person and reaching to the knees, with sleeves reaching
to the elbow. Occasionally it appears to have ended in close-fitting trousers
at the knee. The hauberk was of quilted and padded material or of leather,
covered with metal rings or plates or studs of metal and leather, and formed
a very effective body armour. The plated or mailed tunic of William I. and
his followers was superseded early in the twelfth century by a defensive
hauberk, covered, as before, with various s'traps and plates of metal, or more
generally formed of interwoven ring or chain mail. The legs and feet were
enveloped in simple bandages or fillets bound around them.

The shield completed the defensive equipment, and was generally long,
rounded or oval at the top, with a pointed base, so that the shape resembled
that of a kite. Many of them were decorated (according to the Bayeux
Tapestry).

PLATE 18.

(Figs. 1 and 2) : The ordinary costumes of Norman soldiers. Each is
clothed in a military hauberk, which fitted the body very closely, and was
probably slit a little before and behind. In the case of these two the hauberk
ends in close-fitting trousers to the knee. The heads are protected by conical
helmets with nasal pieces, fitting over hoods of mail. In Fig. 1 the warrior
is armed with a sword, an axe, and a spear. The shield is of the kite shape.
The hauberk is covered with ringed mail, and the sleeves reach to the wrist.
In Fig. 2 the sleeves reach to the elbow only, and are covered with rings,
but the body is covered with what is known as " trellised " armour, formed
of strips of leather fastened on a body of quilted cloth and crossing each
other diagonally, with knobs of steel fastened in the angular spaces as an
additional protection. He holds in his hand a gonfanon or lance with a small
flag — carried only by the leaders of the army. (Fig. 3) : A Norman sword.

46 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

NORMAN ARMS AND ARMOUR.

(From the Bayeux Tapestry.) (Fig. 4) : Two Norman soldiers, each carry-
ing a decorated shield and spear, one being armed with a sword. Each
wears a flat-topped helmet, one only being fitted with a " nasal." The
shield of the right-hand one is curved to the form of the body. The hauberks
of mail are shown, and also the tunics worn under them reaching nearly to
the knee. (Figs. 5 and G) : Norman axes. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.)
(Fig. 7) : A Norman archer. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.) Dressed in -\
close-fitting vest with narrow sleeves, and full breeches, gathered apparently
above and below the knee, and ornamented with large red spots. He carries
a quiver of arrows slung over his back. Other archers are represented in
the Tapestry fully dressed in ringed mail. (Fig. 8) : The head of a mounted
soldier. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.) A peculiar custom existed among
the Normans at the Conquest of shaving the back of the head as well as the
face. When spies sent by Harold reconnoitred the Norman camp, they saw
the Normans with shaven heads, and they returned with the news that " the
Duke had far more priests than knights or other troops." (Fig. 9) : Guy,
Count of Ponthieu. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.) He is armed with an
axe, and wears a hauberk of scale armour. These scales were either of iron,
bronze, or cuir bouilli. (The latter was leather which had been softened by
boiling in oil and stamped or moulded into a definite form while in that con-
dition. When it was dry it became very hard and tough.) He also wears a
mantle gathered on the right shoulder, but has no head covering.

THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY.

(Plate 19— Page 48.)

The Bayeux Tapestry is a valuable picture of the manners and costumes
of the Normans and the English about the time of the Norman Conquest.
It is traditionally recorded to have been worked by Queen Matilda (the wife
of William the Conqueror) and the ladies of her Court, to commemorate the
invasion and conquest of England by her husband.

There is no evidence to prove this, and consequently there is much doubt
about it ; but it is held on the best authority that though the Tapestry is a
contemporary work, Queen Matilda had no part in its manufacture, since it
was probably ordered for his cathedral by Bishop Odo (the half-brother of
William I.), and made by Norman workers at Bayeux.

It is preserved in the Hotel-de-Ville at Bayeux, and consists of a long
band of linen about 231 ft. long and 20 in. wide.

It is divided into 72 scenes or compartments, separated from one another
by trees or buildings, worked in the material in a conventional manner. On
it are represented G23 people, 202 horses and mules, 55 dogs, 505 other

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 47

THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY.

animals, 37 building's, 41 ships and boats, and 49 trees, making a total of
1,512 objects. It has always been known as " tapestry," but it is really an
enormous piece of woolwork or embroidery, yet it has been known so long
by the previous name that it will probably continue to bear it.

No attempt has been made to depict the figures in their natural colours,
for we find horses coloured yellow, red, blue, and green, and perspective has
been totally disregarded. But " if the drawing be rude, the composition is
bold and spirited, and is always rendered with great truth of expression,
which is, at times, exaggerated."

The narrow border which runs along both the top and the bottom of the
Tapestry (PI. 19, Fig. 3) is for the greater part not connected with the thread
of the story, and is decorated with animals, real and fabulous, and scenes of
husbandry and the chase ; but in some parts it contains allegorical allusions
to the scenes depicted.

Over most of the scenes are worked Latin inscriptions in Roman capitals
about an inch high, explaining the pictures. The reasons for supposing that,
although not made by Matilda, it is nevertheless contemporary work, are :

(1) The accurate representation of the civil and military costumes of the

eleventh century.

(2) The attempt to represent Edward the Confessor and William I. as

they appeared on their seals.

(3) Certain words used in it suggest an English origin, but admit of the

explanation that the dialect spoken in Bayeux was a mixture of
Saxon and Norman.

(4) The prominence given to Odo and to less-known persons.

(5) The introduction of the local form of wine barrel and certain dialectic

peculiarities of the district.

The Bayeux Tapestry is not mentioned in any historical document until
1476, when it appears among an inventory of the ornaments of the Cathedral
of Bayeux.

In 1522 its safety was threatened by the Calvinists who pillaged the
cathedral, but it was restored to the authorities and was used to decorate
the nave on festive occasions.

It remained forgotten till 1724, when, a drawing having been made of
it by an antiquarian, public interest was aroused in it, both in France and
in our own country.

In order to preserve it, it was lined and strengthened, for it was used
to decorate the nave for eight days at the time of St. John's Day. It has
passed through many vicissitudes, and once or twice it was nearly destroyed,
but a number of the leading inhabitants of Bayeux formed themselves into a
committee to protect it.

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 49

THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY.

Napoleon I. went to see it, and was much impressed by it when it was
exhibited in Paris. It was afterwards returned to Bayeux, where it was
visited by Mr. Charles Stothard, a clever and accurate young- artist, and at
the request of the Society of Antiquaries of London he made drawings of it,
the work occupying him for two years.

In 1842 the Municipal Council of Bayeux provided a permanent resting
place for the Tapestry in the Hotel de Ville, where it is still exhibited under
glass, and where it has been visited by artists and archaeologists from every
part of the world. During the Franco-German war it was taken down,
sealed in a zinc cylinder, and hidden away, till all danger was past.

In 1871 permission was given to the English Government to make a
photographic reproduction of the Tapestry, and a copy of this full-sized
reproduction, coloured after the original, is now preserved at South
Kensington.

The Tapestry commences with a picture of Edward the Confessor, and
continues with scenes illustrating Harold's visit to Normandy; his capture
and appearance before William ; his taking the oath of allegiance to William ;
his return to England and to Edward the Confessor ; the death of the latter ;
the crowning of Harold; the preparations made by William (building ships,
assembling soldiers, collecting food and arms) for the invasion of England ;
the passage of the English Channel ; the landing at Pevensey ; the march to
Hastings ; the preparations for the fight ; a long and spirited picture of
the battle, illustrating various incidents in it and culminating in the death
of Harold and the flight of the defeated English.

(The writer wishes to express his great obligation for the above to
Mr. Frank R. Fowke's very complete work on The Bayeux Tapestry. Geo.
Bell and Sons.)

PLATE 19.

The figures illustrate the following scenes :

(Fig. 1) : Duke William came to Pevensey. A very clear idea is
obtained of the general character of a Norman ship and the manner in which
it is steered by an oar on the starboard (steer-board) side, etc. This ship,
the Mora, bearing William, was given him by Matilda, his wife, and bears
on the stern an effigy of his little son Rufus, blowing a bugle and holding a
banner. Fig. 2) : Harold made an oath to Duke William. William is shown
seated on a throne while Harold, one hand on an altar and the other on 3
reliquary containing the sacred relics, is taking- the oath. (Fig. 3) : A scene
in the Battle of Hastings. The English Army withstanding the charge of
the Norman horsemen after receiving a flight of Norman arrows. Most of
the English ^are armed with javelins and shields, few with axes and swords.
One figure is shown using the bow, and he is the only one thus armed on

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 51

THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY.

the English side. It has consequently been asserted by some authorities that
bows were not. used by the English in the battle, but, as Mr. Fowke says,
" this seems to be hardly correct literally . . . though . . . the use
of the bow as a weapon of war in our country was then probably rare." This
scene shows the whole width of the Tapestry with the two borders, the upper
containing allegorical figures, and the latter displaying the fallen warriors.
It may be noted that throughout the picture of the battle the arms and
accoutrements of both Normans and English are similar, probably accounted
for by the close intimacy that existed between the two countries. (Fig1. 4) :
Here is seated Harold, King of the English; Archbishop Stigand. Harold
was crowned in Westminster Abbey on the same day that Edward was buried
in the same building. He is represented seated on the throne, wearing the
crown on his head and holding- the sceptre in his right hand and the orb in
the left. Stigand, who, the Normans allege, crowned Harold, is shown
standing at his left side.

EARLY NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.

(Plate 20— Page 50.)

Norman, Anglo-Norman, or Romanesque architecture was called by the
former name because it followed the Norman style. It is found in Normandy
itself, in England, in Italy, and Sicily — in fact, wherever the Northern con-
querors established themselves.

Its chief characteristics are solidity and strength — walls of enormous
thickness, huge masses of masonry for piers, windows comparatively small,
and a profusion of peculiar ornament

The earliest Norman work in England — as the transepts of Winchester
Cathedral — is almost as plain as Anglo-Saxon; but the Norman churches
are larger and higher than those of the Anglo-Saxon period. They are
generally cruciform in shape, with a square tower over the intersection of
the nave and transepts. The towers are not lofty, but are very solid, and
usually contain windows with two lights. In a number of instances the choir
ends in a semi-circular apse after the Roman style.

Early Norman work was much plainer than that of the later period ; the
arch is not recessed, or only once recessed, the edges are square, or have
a plain round moulding cut in them, and the zigzag ornament (PI. 20,
Fig. 14) is used, though not so abundantly as at a later period. Windows
are generally plain, small, and round-headed, and consist of single lights
except in belfry windows. Doors are square-headed under a round arch.
The simplest form is a narrow, round-headed opening with a plain dripstone.
But Norman windows are not met with as frequently as doors, since they
have, in many cases, been destroyed to make room for those of later styles.

52 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

EARLY NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.

In England the Norman style is usually assigned to the eleventh century,
and in the latter half of it the transition to the Early English style took
place. It was introduced into England in the reign of Edward the Confessor,
who was more Norman than English, and who himself founded the Abbey of
Westminster. Some buildings were of a mixed character (Anglo-Saxon and
Norman), some in the old style, others altogether in the new.

Soon after the Norman Conquest, the Norman Bishops who supplanted
Englishmen in English sees and abbacies in very many instances commenced
to rebuild the cathedrals and churches from their foundations.

The entire English fabric was usually pulled down, and a new building
was erected on a much larger plan and in a better manner. It is chiefly in
remote places, where the inhabitants were too few and too poor to rebuild
and enlarge their churches, that we find remains of the original Anglo-Saxon
work.

Early Norman masonry is very rude, the joints between the stones being
filled with a great thickness of mortar, from one to three inches thick (this

built one hundred and ninety-five religious houses during their reigns, and
all the cathedrals and great churches in the eleventh century were rebuilt,
while many new ones were founded; though it is said that of the many
churches commenced in the reigns of these two kings but few were com-
pleted until after 1100 A.D.

Gundulph built the Cathedral of Rochester, while certainly St. Albans
and Ely were also commenced in the reign of the Conqueror. In the earliest
work the ornament was not characterised by the same profusion so common
in later work. 1 1 was shallow, and cut with the axe, as the chisel was little
used at that time.

PLATE 20.

(Fig. 1) : Pillar with spiral fluting in Waltham Abbey (founded by
Harold II.) The spiral grooves were originally filled with chased and gilt
metal. Of the twelve pillars in the Abbey two are indented spirally and two
with chevrons. The others are plain. (Other instances of this work on the
pillars may be found at Durham, Lindisfarne, and Kirkby Lonsdale). The
arches are decorated with the indented zigzag ornament. (Fig. 2) : Flat
Norman buttress (Iffley, Oxfordshire). The buttresses at first were merely
flat, pilaster-like projections, wholly devoid of ornament. (Figs. 3 to 8)':
Norman capitals. These were either plain, cubical masses with the lower
angles rounded off, forming a rude cushion shape (Fig. 3), or they have a

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

EARLY NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.

rude kind of volute cut upon the edges of the angles (Fig. 8, from St. John's
Chapel in the White Tower). The scalloped capitals (tigs. 6 and 7) belong
to a later period. This form of capital is most common in all the first hall
of the twelfth century. The capital is the member by which the styles are
more easily distinguished than by any other. The abacus (A, Fig. 4) is
square in section. (Figs. 9 to 14) : Norman mouldings, which were ^almost
endless in variety. They were most abundantly used in doorways and other
arches and in horizontal strips. The most general is the zigzag (Fig. 14).
(Fig. 9) : The star. (Fig. 10) : The round billet (a square billet is also used).
(Fig. 11) : The billet and lozenge. (Fig. 12) : The beak-head. (Fig. 13) :
The bead course. (Fig. 14) : The zigzag or chevron. (Fig. 15) : Early
Norman pier, recessed at the angles, and square edges, in St. Alban's Abbey,
1080 A.D. (Fig. 16) : Norman doorway with recessed pillars and decorated
head, at St. Mary's, Shrewsbury. (Fig. 17) : Norman chamfer.

LATER NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.

(Plate 21— Page 54.)

The Earlier period of Norman architecture may be approximately closed
in 1120 A.D. (fifty-four years after the Battle of Hastings).

In the Later period the chisel took the place of the axe in the cutting of
the ornament. Consequently there is a fineness and a more finished style
of work, which could not be executed with the latter tool.

The Later or rich Norman style is chiefly characterised by the abundance
of the ornament and the deep cutting. Sculpture, which was sparingly used
in the earlier work, was frequently added to it at a later period, and as the
style advanced, greater lightness and enrichment were introduced.

It is said that through the Crusades men saw the architecture of many
cities, and their return from the wars was marked by a striking change not
qnly in the masonry, but in the. character and feeling of Norman work. It
is said, also, that the ornaments in Later Norman work and in the Transition
period which followed often partook very much of a Greek, Byzantine, or
Oriental character.

St. Bartholomew's Church, Smithfield, is a good specimen of Norman
work. It was the church of the Augustinian Priory, founded 1123 A.D. by
Rahere, the King's minstrel.

The rich doorways of this period form one of the most important features
of Later Norman work. They are considered to be the most beautiful and
characteristic specimens which remain to us, and the most elaborate work-
manship was bestowed upon them by the Normans. They are generally
round-headed and very deeply recessed, and frequently have several small

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. DO

LATER NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.

shafts at the sides of the doorway. The tympanum or semi-circular space
above the door within the arch is frequently filled with rich sculpture (PL 21,
Fig-. 2). The mouldings are richly overlaid with ornament, which, though
of a peculiar and rude character, produces great richness of effect.

The west door of Rochester Cathedral is a very striking instance of this.

The windows are, in general, long and rather narrow, round-headed
openings. Many of them were ornamented very richly in the same manner
as the doors with zigzag and other mouldings.

PLATE 21.

(Fig. 1) : Very rich Norman sculpture from Shobdon Church, Hereford-
shire, about 1180 A.D. (Fig. 2) : South door, Kilpeck Church, Herefordshire,
showing the richly ornamented arch, the decorated tympanum, and richly
sculptured pillars at the sides. (Figs. 3 and 4) : Ornamented capitals from
York Minster. (Fig. 5) : Ornamented capitals from St. John's Abbey,
Chester. (Fig. 6) : Capital preserved in the Chapter House of Westminster
Abbey, carved with the story of the Judgment of Solomon. (Fig. 7) : Pointed
arch with pure Norman mouldings and scalloped capitals from Malmesbury
Abbey, Wiltshire, 1135-1139 A.D. It is generally assumed that all Norman
arches are round, but the pointed arch, taken by itself, is no proof of change
of style. The semi-circular arch is the characteristic form of the Norman
arch, but there are a few Early examples in which the pointed arch is used,
supported by massive piers. (Figs. 8 and 9) : Bases of Norman columns.

NORMAN CASTLES.

(Plate 22— Page 56.)

When Duke William of Normandy invaded England in 10G6, the existing
type of fortification called a burh was a moated hillock, either wholly or partly
artificial, surmounted by a timber stockade enclosing a wooden house or
tower. He repaired and enlarged many of the existing strongholds, and also
built many new wooden castles. But in order to overawe the conquered
English he erected in the larger towns square stone keeps or castles, like the
White Tower in the Tower of London. Gundulph, Bishop of Rochester, the
great architect in the reign of William I., built the latter in 1081 A.D. It is
one of the best examples that we have of Early Norman work, and is a huge
quadrangular structure more than 100 ft. square, built of rudely coursed
rubble, with a vast amount of mortar.

Many of the existing Norman keeps were founded in the reigns of
William I. and William II., but were rebuilt at a later period. These keeps

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

Tiq-.l

Tig. 2

OfD.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 57

NORMAN CASTLES.

were usually square or rectangular towers of stone (not having' much height
in proportion to the breadth), with small, slightly projecting square turrets at
each angle, and one or more flat buttresses up the centre of each face, with
a dividing wall passing up through the centre of the building from the
ground. (PI. 22, Fig. 3, B C.)

Comparatively speaking, the windows were generally small, and the
walls exceedingly thick. Those of the White Tower are 15 ft., and of Car-
lisle Castle 16 ft. thick. The connecting passages and staircases were con-
structed in the thickness of the masonry.

Norwich Castle, for its size, is a perfect type of the square Norman
keep, and Castle Hedingham is another. Many magnificent stone keeps
were built or rebuilt in the reign of Henry I., such as Rochester, Newark,
Corfe, and Chepstow. Henry II. was also a great builder of keeps, and
those of Dover, Canterbury, Scarborough, and Newcastle are shown by the
Pipe Rolls to have been his work.

The solidarity of the keep made it impregnable against the siege opera-
tions of the day. Such a building could not be battered down, and at best it
could only be injured by undermining. This was done by removing the earth
from an angle of the building and gradually introducing wooden props. A
fire was then kindled about them, and as the props burnt through, the wall
fell.

The square keep was followed by the polygonal and the round ones.
Coningsburgh is circular, Berkeley is circular flanked by four towers, and
Oxford is polygonal. The base of the keep was generally " battered " — i.e.,
sloped outwards (see Fig. 1) — to give a firmer foundation and also that it
might better withstand the operations of the sapper. Very few of the exist-
ing keeps have openings in the lower storeys, which were used either as
dungeons or store rooms, and were only accessible by a trap-door from above.
Generally there were two floors, occasionally three floors above the basement.
One of these floors is assumed to have been the hall, and in the larger keeps
the floor above it may have been reserved for the use of the ladies of the
household. In the latter half of the twelfth century small mural chambers,
probably for use as bedrooms, became more frequent.

In many keeps there were chapels, but every one contained a well, so
that when besieged the occupants would not have to depend on outside
sources for the supply of water. Dover Castle still has a well which is cap-
able of supplying fresh water, although the keep is on the summit of a high
cliff.

There were no kitchens in Norman keeps, as the cooking was either done
on the roof or in a special building in the yard. Fire-places were not invari-
able. In the White Tower, where for a long time it was supposed that
there were no fireplaces, holes in the wall have been found which probably

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 59

NORMAN CASTLES.

answered the purpose of chimneys. There was only one entrance, perhaps
some 20 feet above the ground, sometimes approached by a removable
wooden staircase, sometimes by a fore-building- with elaborate precautions
for defence. The only ornamentation to be found is at the entrance doorway,
on the staircase, or in the chapel. The keep soon had outer defences added
to it — ditches, palisades, and outer walls of masonry.

Into the outer defences the cattle and stores from the surrounding
country would be brought, and the dwellings of the soldiers of the garrison,
together with the domestic offices and stables, were erected within these.

It is more usual to find the keep at orfe end than in the centre of the
system of walls, and the whole was surrounded by a moat.

PLATE 22.

(Fig. 1) : Newcastle Keep, founded in 1080 A.D. The battlements are
of later date. In this keep there is a large room in the thickness of the
wall, known as the King's Chamber, and another which is assigned to the
Queen. (Fig. 2) : Rochester Castle, which was probably entirely rebuilt in
the twelfth century on another site. The parapet or battlements are con-
sidered to be the original ones. (Fig. 3) : Plan of the middle floor of the
White Tower (Tower of London). A is St. John's Chapel, and the circular
stairs are shown in the corner towers, D D D. B C is the parting wall
running through the building. (Fig. 4) : A Norman castle. (From Grose's
;< Military Antiquities.") Showing. the general arrangements of the build-
ings, etc

NORMAN SEALS AND COINS,

(Plate 23— Page 58.)

Seals are held in the highest estimation as reliable contemporary authori-
ties in English heraldry, costume, armour, etc.

The matrix or die was usually of latten or bronze, and in the case of
large seals two dies were used — one for the front, or obverse, the other for
the back, or reverse — so that when complete the seal was similar to a coin
or medal.

In the earlier seals pure white beeswax was used as the medium on
which to impress the seal, and at other times this was coloured — green,
red, brown, and nearly black.

There were two types of seals — Plaque seals, those impressed in wax
direct on the document, and Pendant seals, in which the wax impression was
suspended by cords, or a ribbon, or strip of parchment from the document.
(Figs. 1, 2, 3). Great precautions were taken with regard to the Royal
Seals, or the Great Seals, as they were called. Seals may be classed as : (a)
Lav Seals— (I) Royal Seal, (2) Personal Seals, (3) Official Seals, (4) Common

1MCTORJAL HISTORY.

Tig •• 1

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 61

NORMAN SEALS AND COINS.

Seals of Corporate bodies. (b) Ecclesiastical Seals — (1) Official Seals
(Bishops, Abbots, etc.), (2) Corporate Seals (chapters, religious houses, etc.),
(3) Personal Seals.

Many of the Royal Seals are very beautiful. The Great Seal, or the
chief Royal Seal, was, and is still, in the keeping- of the Chancellor, who
has to keep it in his personal custody wherever he goes.

PLATE 23.

(Figs. 1, 2, 3) : Pendant Seals. (Figs. 4, 5) : Obverse and reverse of
silver penny of Stephen. (Fig. 6) : Seal of Anselm. (Fig. 7) : Reverse of
Seal of Henry I.. The obverse of Royal Seals bears a picture of the King
seated on the throne in robes of peace, and the reverse the King on horseback
armed for war. (Figs. 8 and 9) : Obverse and reverse of a silver penny of
William I. At the Conquest there was no change in the monetary system
of England, and a coinage of silver pennies only, continued to be issued of
the same character as under the Saxon Kings, and the silver penny continued
to be the only coin until the end of the reign of Henry III. The weight was
about 21 grains. (Fig. 10) : Reverse of the Royal Seal of William I. He
is represented on horseback, armed in a hauberk of leather on which metal
rings are sewn. A conical helmet is on his head. He carries a typical kite-
shaped Norman shield on his left arm, and bears a long lance with pennon in
his right hand. The motto or " legend," when translated, reads : " Know
ye this William, Patron of the Normans, and by this seal recognise him
King of the Angles.".

THE JOUST AND TOURNAMENT.

(Plate 24— Page 60.)

It was natural that men whose profession it was to bear arms should
engage in friendly contests with one another, and in this way acquire skill
in arms as well as indulge in a manly pastime. When only two combatants
fought, it was called jousting. If a friendly trial of skill only were intended,
the lances were blunt, and if swords were used it was only with the edge
which could not inflict a wound on a well-armed man. This was the joute
a plaisance.

If the combatants fought with sharp weapons and put forth all their
skill and force, it was the joute a I'outrance.

When a number of knights were engaged on each side, it was called
a tournament.

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

THE JOUST AND THE TOURNAMENT.

Sometimes this was played with weapons of lath, the players being-
arrayed in gorgeous costumes. Sometimes the tournament was a mimic
battle, and was then usually fought between hostile factions. In a contem-
porary MS. in the British Museum we have a detailed account of all the
preparations for a contest of arms.

The heralds of the King, noble, or lady who designed to give a joust
travelled to towns, castles, and sometimes from court to court of foreign
countries, clotfied in the insignia of their office, and made public announce-
ments of the event in each place, inviting knights to come and try their skill
against the home champions.

In the MS. there is an account of all the equipment that is required by
a knight for such an occasion : a suit of armour and horse with trappings,
an armourer, with hammer and pincers to fasten the armour, two servants
on horseback in suitable costume, who are his squires, and six servants on
foot, dressed alike.

As the fixed day approaches, the visitors flock from all parts, and find
lodgings in the castle or in the town, or else pitch their tents in a meadow
near the Castle. A suitable piece of ground is selected, barriers are put
around it, and " grand stands " are erected for the ladies and gentry. On
the day, the knights rise up at sunrise and bathe, and then are carefully
armed, by their squires and armourers.

Then they come into the field, with their helms borne before them, and
with servants (squires) carrying their lances. They are announced by the
heralds to the assembled company of " ladyes and gentilwomen. " Each
of the strangers who comes to the field has to satisfy the officer-at-arms that
he is a " gentilman of names and armes," and to take oath that he has no
secret weapons or unfair advantage.

When this is satisfactorily completed, they put on their helms, and
each of the home champions in turn runs two or more courses with a
stranger knight. A course is successfully run if each breaks his lance full
on the breastplate or helmet of his adversary, but neither is unhorsed ; and
they retire amidst the plaudits of the spectators.

If a knight is unhorsed, or lose his stirrup, he is vanquished, and retires
from the game. Following that, there is probably a miniature tournament
between the home champions and the strangers.

At length, when all have run their courses, the knights remove their
helmets before the ladies, make their obeisance, and retire to their lodgings
to change. Then they return, and a lady presents a prize to the one who is
considered the best " juster," and prizes of less value to those who have
taken the second and third places in the contest, making a little speech suit-
able to the occasion. The herald comes forward and announces : " John
hath justed well, Richard hath justed better, and Thomas hath justed best

I'KTOKIAL HISTORY. 03

THE JOUST AND THE TOURNAMENT.

of all." A dance completes the function, in which the champion knight
leads off with the lady of the tournament.

There were two distinct ways in which the jousting- took place : (1) On
an open course ; (2) with a barrier. In the former, the combatants usually-
started from the ends of the lists, and met about the centre. In the latter,
a wooden barrier was erected down the centre of the lists lengthwise, and,
when the signal was given, the combatants charged, each of them having
the barrier on his left. (Fig. 1.) For these two methods of jousting,
different arrangements of armour were worn ; for some, the upper part of
the body was armed more than the lower limbs, and sometimes it was vice
versa.

PLATE 24.

(Fig. 1) : A joust between Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, and
an opponent, each charging on the left of the barrier. The Earl of War-
wick has his arms displayed upon his tabard, and there is also a display of
arms on the trappings, or bardings, of his horse. This was not the first of
the charges, for a broken lance lies on the ground. (From the Life of
Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, written in MS. by a Chantry priest
of Guy's Cliff, named Rouse, about 1485.) (Fig. 2) : The combat on foot
after the charge. The Earl of Warwick is armed with a lance, and the
other knight with a pole-axe. Several splintered lances on the ground show
that the combat has been going on for some time. The Earl of Warwick's
crest, " a bear with a ragged staff," appears on his helmet, while his
adversary has a single large feather as crest.

ENGLISH ARCHERS.

(Plate 2.5— Page G4.)

In Saxon times, little value was placed upon the bow as a weapon, but,
after the decisive part it played at Hastings, its use was practised generally.

From early times, archers carried long stakes, sharpened at both ends,
and when they took up their position on the battlefield, they stuck them into
the ground before them, with the points sloping outward, to break up a
cavalry charge which might be made against them. In the 12th century,
English archers became renowned for their skill, and Richard I. himself
used the long-bow on more than one occasion. By the end of the 13th
century, it had come into great prominence. Each archer — in later times,
at least — carried two dozen arrows under his belt, and archers sometimes
carried great movable shields, which they fixed upright by means of rests,
and so sheltered themselves from the enemy's bowmen. They also carried
swords, so that they could defend themselves, if attacked, hand to hand.

1'ICTORIAL HISTORY

1'K'TORIAl. HISTORY. 65

ENGLISH ARCHERS.

The great bow, or long-bow, was five feet long, and was formed of yew,
which, at a range of 240 yards, discharged a strong arrow, sharp and
barbed. The arrows were usually " a yard or an ell long," but one, now
in the United Service Museum, recovered from the " Mary Rose," which
sank in 1545, is six feet long.

The archers always began the battle at a distance, as the artillery do in
modern warfare, to disorganise the enemy before the main bodies came to
actual hand-to-hand fighting. The cross-bow, or arbalest, had been used in
sport for many years, but in the 12th century it came to be employed in war-
fare, though its use was forbidden by the Pope as " being unfit for Christian
warfare." It was driven out of use by the long-bow in England at the end
of the 13th century. In the Continental armies, it continued to grow in
use in preference to the long bow, so that in time the long-bow became
essentially an English arm. There were several kinds of cross-bows, which
may be classified accordingly as the string was drawn back (1) by hand,
(2) by means of a lever, and (3) by means of a wheel and ratchet.

The missiles shot from the cross-bow were short and stout, and had
heads of different forms, and were called quarrels or bolts.

There were several reasons why the cross-bow was superseded by the
long-bow : (1) A good bowman could shoot about six arrows while a cross-
bowman was winding up his bow and making one shot. (2) The penetrative
power of the arrow, and the distance which it could travel, were quite equal
to those of the quarrel from the cross-bow. (3) Long-bowmen, using their
bows when held in a vertical plane, could stand more closely together than
cross-bowmen, who had to discharge their weapons while holding them in
a horizontal plane. (4) Greater skill and strength were required in handling-
the long-bow with precision than was the case with the cross-bow ; con-
sequently, more practice was necessary, and more enthusiasm and confidence
developed with the use of the former than with the latter.

Of the archers who took part in the Hundred Years' War, Boutell says :
•" In those days, the archers of England were 'the best infantry in the world;
but then their famous long-bow acquired its reputation, in no slight degree,
from the fact that, in peace, archery was the favourite pastime of the
English yeomanry." Crecy, Poitiers, Agincourt — indeed, most of the great
victories gained over the French — mainly resulted from the unrivalled skill
of the English long-bowmen. All our old writers are agreed upon the vast
superiority of our English bowmen over those of other nations. The Scotch
depended on their pikemen and the French on their men-at-arms.

The English archers were held in high esteem and trust by the English
nobles, and it was the custom for some English barons and distinguished
knights always to join the archers in battle, fighting side by side with them

66 PICTORIAL HISTORY,

ENGLISH ARCHERS.

in their own ranks. On the other hand, the French nobles were very arro-
gant, and despised the common people, who were, consequently, made unfit
to become good soldiers.

But the reputation of English archers rose so high that several foreign
princes, in the 15th century, deemed their armies materially reinforced if
they could retain 200 or 300 English archers in their service.

In 1363, and again in 1388, statutes were passed in England calling
upon people to leave their popular amusements of " ball and coits " on their
festivals and Sundays, and to practise archery instead. " Servants and
labourers shall have bows and arrows, and use the same on Sundays and
holidays." By an ordinance made in the reign of Edward IV., every English-
man or Irishman dwelling^ in England was required to have a " bow of his
own height, either of yew, witch-hazel, ash or auburne, or any other reason-
able tree, according to their power."

Butts were encouraged in every parish, and traces of them still remain
in the names of places, as " Newington Butts." Henry V., who was very
proud of his English archers, ordered the sheriffs of several counties to
obtain geese feathers for his archers, plucking six from each goose.

The arrows were carried in a quiver, or bound together into a sheaf,
suspended from the waist-belt. When the battle was about to commence,
the archer placed his arrows under his left foot, point outwards, or stuck
them, point downwards, into the ground, or into his girdle. He was able
to discharge his bow twelve times in a single minute, at a range of 240
yards, and " he, who in these twelve shots once missed his man, was very
lightly esteemed." In the reign of Edward III., a painted bow sold for
Is. 6d., a white bow for Is., and sharp-pointed arrows at Is. 2d. per sheaf
of twenty-four.

As is well-known, at Crecy, and in many other battles, the English
archers shot down or wounded the horses of the French knights so consider-
ably that, in their pain and terror, the maddened horses upset the ranks
of the cavalry and quite destroyed its efficiency.

At first, archers were not protected by body armour, but in later times
they wore jaserine jackets, consisting of overlapping pieces of steel, fastened
by one edge to a garment of canvas, and then covered over with velvet or
cloth.

^ A similar defensive garment of the 15th and 16th centuries was the
bngandme, a specimen of which may be seen in the Tower of London.
Archers often wore salades, or shell helmets, wfiich covered the head and
eyes, and sometimes had movable visors.

PLATE 25.

(Fig. 1) : An English archer of the 15th century, wearing a salacle with
movable visor to protect the head. It will be noticed that he has stuck

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 07

ENGLISH ARCHERS.

some arrows into his girdle, so that they may be " handy " for shooting.
See Fig. 8 also, and compare with Fig. 7. (From Royal MS., 14 E. iv.)
(Fig. 2) : An English salade. This was worn by archers, and it also formed
the usual headpiece 'for soldiers about the time of Henry VI. (Wars of the
Roses.) Fig. 3) : A Brigandine, from a specimen in Warwick Castle. (Figs.
4 and 5) : Quarrels, quarells, or bolts, for shooting from the cross-bow or
arbalest. Fig. 4 is feathered; Fig. 5 is from the Tower of London. (Fig.
5a) : A bird-bolt, used for shooting birds from a " sporting " cross-bow.
(Fig. 6) : An English arrow of the ordinary form during the Middle Ages,
showing the sharp projection of the barb,' which rendered the extraction a
difficult and painful matter. (Fig. 7) : An English archer using the long-
bow, and cross-bowman winding up his cross-bow. It will be noticed that
the former is left-handed, as the arrow was usually drawn back with the
right hand and shot from the right shoulder. He has arranged his arrows
for shooting by sticking them, point downwards, into the ground at his
side. Both he and the cross-bowman are wearing jaserine jackets, but the
former has a camail and a chain mail jacket beneath it. The cross-bowman
has, hanging from his girdle, a leathern bag, to contain the quarrels for
his cross-bow. (Fig. 8) : A sea-fight, showing four archers using the long-
bow, one cross-bowman, and one soldier using the military flail. One of
the archers has placed his arrows in his belt, as in Fig. 1. (From the
Cambridge MS. of the " Greater Chronicles," by Matthew Paris, who died
1259 A.D.)

EARLY CANNON.

(Plate 26— Page 68.)

The discovery of gunpowder, which, by degrees, totally changed military
tactics and the constitution of armies, was the event that most powerfully
influenced warfare in the Middle Ages. Very little is known about its actual
invention. It is supposed that Greek fire, which was used with such terrify-
ing and destructive effect in warfare, particularly in sieges, consisted of the
three ingredients of gunpowder, with resin and naphtha in addition.

Roger Bacon, an English friar, discovered the secret of the composition
of gunpowder in the latter half of the 13th century; but Schwartz, a Fran-
ciscan, at Cologne, perfected it about a century later.

The use of cannon for siege purposes commenced in England in the
armies of Edward III. Froissart says that the English army used them
against Calais, when besieging it in 1347. But there were very few made
at first; an important fortress like the Tower of London, in 1360, only
mounting. four guns, while Dover Castle, in 1372, had six.

When first introduced, cannon were small and vase-shaped ; they were
slow in fire, and very liable to accidents.

1MCTOKIAL HISTORY.

Tig-J

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 69

EARLY CANNON.

They were called " bombards," and were mounted upon a wooden
cradle or frame. Towards the end of the 14th century, they had become of
large dimensions, firing heavy stone shot of from 200 to 450 Ibs. weight.
AH the shot were stone until, because they did not do sufficient damage in
battering down a wall, it became the practice to bind and otherwise
strengthen them with iron.

The earliest cannon were of the rudest possible description. They were
made of bars or thin sheets of iron, arranged longitudinally over a wooden
core, in the form of a tube, around which were welded iron hoops to hold
them together.

In 1338 there existed breech-loading guns, with one or more movable
chambers, to facilitate loading, but, even then, the fire was very slow;
" three shots an hour was fair practice for a big bombard." It is not certain
when wheeled carriages were introduced, though mention is made of two-
wheeled bombard carriages in 137C; but it must be remembered that the
gun at first was looked upon as a substitute for the balista and other war
machines employed in the siege of a fortified place. Its value as an effective
and movable weapon on the battlefield was not realised for some time.

The powder was fired at first by the insertion of a red-hot wire, but
this was often very dangerous to the gunners, because the gun was so liable
to burst. James II. of Scotland was killed by the bursting of a gun at the
siege of Roxburgh in 1460. It became the custom, in the case of large
bombards, for a small train of powder to be laid from the ground leading
to the touchhole. The gunners fired the train, and then hastily betook
themselves to a place of safety.

The earliest known representation of a gun in England is contained in
a MS., " De Officiis Regum," at Christ Church, Oxford, of the time of
Edward II. (1326). It shows a knight in armour, firing a short, primitive
weapon, shaped something like a vase, and loaded with an incendiary arrow
— that is, one charged with an inflammable substance. Firearms of this
type were evidently very small, as only 2 Ib. of gunpowder was provided for
firing forty-eight arrows.

From the beginning, contrivances had been made to resist the recoil ot
the gun when it was fired; heavy timbers, etc., were packed up against the
breach to prevent the gun from flying backwards, but this plan often brought
about the bursting of the gun. About the middle of the 15th century, trun-
nions (small cylinders of solid metal projecting from the sides, at right
angles to the axis of the gun) were formed with the gun, and by means of
these the recoil of the gun could be transferred to the carriage, and the
pivoting of the gun up and down on the trunnions made the laying and
sighting an easier task.

Stone cannon shot were employed until 1520, and, when it was con-
sidered necessary to use very heavy projectiles, correspondingly enormous

7() PICTORIAL HISTORY.

EARLY CANNON.

guns had to be built. Mons Meg, a well-known gun in Edinburgh Castle,
of this large type, is a wrought-hon gun of the 15th century. It is built
of iron bars and external rings, with a calibre of 20 inches, and it fired a
shot weighing 350 Ibs.

Bronze guns, of a great size, were cast in 1468 at Constantinople, and
one of them is now in the Rotunda at Woolwich. It was actually used in
warfare against the English at the Dardanelles, in 1807. To show the
destructive power of such a large piece of ordnance, even though a crude
and ancient construction, it may be mentioned that the stone shot, weighing
700 Ibs., which was fired from it against the English fleet, cut the mainmast
of the British flagship in two, and another killed and wounded sixty men.
These old 15th century guns in the battle altogether accounted for six of
our men-of-war damaged and 126 men killed and wounded. The gun At
Woolwich is in two pieces screwed together. The front part has a calibre
of 25 inches for the reception of the shot, and a rear portion, forming ;i
powder chamber, 10 inches in diameter. The whole gun weighs nearly 18:£
tons, and was presented to Queen Victoria by the Sultan of Turkey.

Late in the 15th century, guns began to be more regularly employed
on the battlefield. In the 16th century, the extremely large guns were dis-
carded, and small, wrought-iron guns were made, this change being due to
the use of cast-iron shot, which was as destructive as the more bulky stone
shot formerly used.

In 1521 the first bronze gun was cast in England, cast-iron cannon
being made also in 1540, by foreign workmen, introduced into this country
by Henry VIII. to teach the English the art. The first foundry was tit
Uckfield, in Sussex, and Sussex iron was used, smelted with charcoal.

The small gun of this period was made very long, and a specimen is 1o
be found in Dover Castle. It is known as Queen Elizabeth's Pocket Pistol,
and is 24| feet long, with a bore of 4f inches. It was cast in 1544, and
was presented to Henry VIII. by Charles V.

Generally speaking, the English were much behind other nations in the
use of artillery until the end of the 18th century. The quality of the gun-
powder used in the early days of the cannon was very poor. The ingredients
were often mixed on the spot at the time of loading, and the powder burnt
slowly, with but little strength, and naturally varied from round to round.
When the more fiercely-burning granulated powder was introduced into
England, in the middle of the 15th century, it was often too strong for the
larger pieces of that date, and could only be used for small firearms for
more than a century afterwards.

In the 17th century, bronze and cast-iron guns were strengthened, and
were more adapted to the use of grained powder, and, at the same time,
more energy and greater range were obtained.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 71

EARLY CANNON.

(Fig-. 1) : Bombard or mortar of a very early date. (From a MS.)
(Fig-. 2) : Vase-shaped bombard of a date posterior to the reign of Henry
IV. It is fastened to a wooden bed or trough, which rests on a movable
pivot in a stout square timber frame. (From a MS.) (Fig. 3) : A soldier
with a hand-gun fitted to a stock. (From a treatise, " De Re Militari,"
printed 1472.) (Fig. 4) : An early gun, in a primitive gun-mounting. It is
supported on a massive timber framing- at each side, while the flat breech
is resting against a strong- wooden support, driven into the ground, to
prevent recoil. (From Mallet's " Construction of Artillery.") (Fig. 5) : A
g-un as used during- the chief part of the 15th century. It is fixed on the
swivel principle, being suspended between the branches of an immense fork
of iron. The elevation or depression of the g-un was effected by means of a.
large iron bar, in the form of a scythe, standing in a vertical position. The
whole thing- is fixed on an iron plate fastened on a massive bed of oak.
(Fig. 6) : A hand-gun of the reign of Edward IV., fired by means of i
match. (From Roy. MS., 15 E. iv.) (Fig-. 7) : A gun called a Peterara, of
the time of Edward IV., in the Rotunda at Woolwich, made of bars of iron
laid longitudinally, and bound together with iron hoops. The powder
chamber is seen, with the handle to raise it, and there is a locking arrange-
ment, so that it cannot be blown out when the gun is discharged. It has
trunnions, and is fastened into the metal frame, which supports it on the
wooden carriage. (Fig-. 8) : A cannon of the 15th century, more of the
form of the mortar, supported in a wooden framework. (From Rov. MS.,
14 E. iv.)

A 15th CENTURY SHIP.

(Plate 27— Page 72.)

" This engraving-, taken from Rouse's MS. ' Life of Richard Beau-
champ, Earl of Warwick ' (British Museum, Julius E. iv.), of the latter part
of the 15th century (1485) gives a very clear representation of a ship and its
boat. The Earl is setting out on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. In the
foreground, we see him, with his pilgrim's staff in hand, stepping into the
boat which is to carry him to his ship, lying at anchor in the harbour. The
costume of the sailors is illustrated by the men in the boat. The vessel is
a ship of burden, but such a one as kings and great personages had equipped
for their own use, resembling an ordinary merchant ship in all essentials,
but fitted and furnished with more than usual convenience and sumptuous-
ness. In Earl Richard's ship, the sail is emblazoned with his arms, and the
pennon, besides the red cross of England, has his badges of the fear and
ragged staff. The ragged staff also appears on the castle at the masthead.

The castle, which all ships of this age had at the stern, is, in this case,

PICTORIAL HISTORY,

<Pkte 27.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 73

A 1 5th CENTURY SHIP.

roofed in and handsomely ornamented, and, no doubt, formed the state
apartment of the Earl.

There is also a castle at the head of the ship, known as the fore-castle,
though it is not very plainly shown in the drawing-.

It consists of a raised platform ; the round-headed entrance to the cabin
beneath it is seen in the picture ; the two bulwarks also, which protect it at
the sides, are visible, though their meaning is not at first sight obvious.

Incidentally, also, are shown the costumes of the men-at-arms, with
the small, round, close-fitting cap, and the various forms of shafted weapons.
No one is in armour.

Mr. W. Laird Clowes, in " Social England," describing this picture,
says : " The ship is clincher-built (i.e., the planks overlap one another),
with a rudder and roofed stern-cabin or round-house. In the bulwarks of the
waist are apertures (not port-holes), through which cannon are pointed. The
mainmast has shrouds, a top and one large square sail. The mizen is much
smaller, and has one sail, which is reefed. The top is ornamented with the
Earl's device, a ragged staff. From above it floats what in the bill (still
preserved) of Seburg (painter) and Ray (tailor) is described as " a grete
stremour of forty yards length, and seven yardes in brede, with a grete
Bear and Gryfon holding- a ragged staff, pouclrid full of ragged staves and
a grete Crosse of St. George."

BRASSES.

(Plate 28— Page 76.)

As many references have been made in this work to " Brasses," and a
number of the illustrations of armour and costumes are taken from them, it
is fitting that a section should be devoted to so important a series of national
records.

Monumental Brasses are plates of brass, embedded in stone slabs, which
have been placed over graves in the floors of our churches and cathedrals.

Their use began early in the thirteenth century, and took the place of
the carved stone slabs, whict had, up to this time, served as sepulchral
monuments. Their value is as great as their interest, for they represent
very accurately, and with the weight of contemporary authority, the costumes
and armour of our ancestors.

They are found from the reign of Edward I. down to the time of
Cromwell, and may be seen in many churches throughout the length and
breadth of the land. There are between three and four thousand that are
known to exist at the present time, these forming, however, only a small
proportion of the number originally existing. At the Reformation, particu-
larly in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and during the time of

74: PICTORIAL HISTORY.

BRASSES.

Cromwell, when the fanatical Puritans ravaged our churches and cathedrals,
many thousands were torn up and sold as old metal ; while during the mis-
guided " restorations " of many of our churches very large numbers have
disappeared or have been destroyed. In most cases where the brasses remain
they are in excellent condition, notwithstanding the fact that they have been
trodden over by generations of worshippers. On account of the great hard-
ness of the metal of which they are composed, they are almost as fresh and
" sharp " now as when they left the hands of tne engravers.

There is an additional advantage which the brass possesses over the
stone monument, and that is that the brass is found as a memorial of members
of every class of society— the knight, the noble, the bishop, the abbot, the
priest, the nun, the lord of the manor, the judge, the lawyer, the Universitv
don, the merchant, the wool-stapler, the yeoman, women of every rank, and
even the schoolboy, have their brasses.

In speaking of their value as historical records, Mr. Macklin says :
" Brasses give a complete pictorial history of the use and development of
armour, dress, and ecclesiastical vestments from the thirteenth to the end of
the seventeenth century. . . . All these (members of every class of society)
we see, not in fancy sketches, but in actual contemporary portraits." Per-
haps one of the greatest values of the brass is that it is a great and authentic
record of middle-class costume during the Middle Ages.

Light, too, is thrown by them upon the social conditions and customs
of the people, for example, when, during the Wars of the Roses, practically
every noble was ranged under one or other of the rival banners, we find
there was a great increase in the number of brasses of the middle classes,
showing that in the midst of civil strife not only were they unaffected to any
appreciable degree, but that the property and wealth of the middle and
trading classes were actually on the increase.

The material of which the brasses were made consisted of 60 parts of
copper, 30 of zinc, and 10 of lead and tin. This gave a very hard alloy,
which would stand very hard usage. It was called latten or laton, and until
the reign of Elizabeth was manufactured exclusively in Flanders and Germany
— particularly at Cologne, whence they were often termed Cullen plates.

They were imported into England in rectangular plates of the required
thickness. When the plates were manufactured in England, they were very
much thinner, and consequently more liable to injury ; so that though they
are not nearly so old as the earlier brasses, they are yet in a much worse
condition.

In the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries brasses were manu-
factured in great quantities, and the work gave employment to many people.
It is probable that the engravers worked in guilds established in London.
Norwich, Ipswich, and Bristol.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 70

BRASSES.

The figure was drawn (generally in a recumbent position, with the hands
in the attitude of prayer) upon the flat brass plate, and then the lines of the
armour, the folds of the drapery, and the features, etc., were deeply cut into
the metal.

After these lines had been engraved, the whole figure was cut out of the
plate just as a child cuts out a figure from a picture.

A brass consisted of the following parts :

(1) The figure or figures ; (2) heraldic devices and armorial bearings on
shields; (3) mottoes or epitaphs; (4) other subsidiary figures or ornaments
(angels, canopies, etc.).

In the English brass each of these elements was cut out separately and
placed in position upon a stone slab. The outline was then marked round
each, the brasses were lifted off, and the stone cut away in the portions thus
marked out, to a depth equal to the thickness of the brass. The plates were
then placed in position in this stone matrix, the surfaces of the brass being
level with the surface of the stone, and each piece was fastened down by
mea^ns of metal screws.

In a number of cases, part or even the whole of the brasses on a slab
have disappeared, but the empty matrix clearly shows the general form of
the missing parts. (Fig. 1.)

We have in England a few magnificent brasses of a different kind that
were manufactured and engraved entirely in Flanders or North Germany,
and they are known as Flemish brasses. The great difference between the
English and Flemish brasses is that in the former the figures were cut out of
the rectangular sheets of metal, and the lines of the drawing were bold and
few in number as was compatible with clearness; whereas in the latter the
brass was kept in a rectangular form, and the whole plate was engraved as
the plate of a picture might be. The figures were incised upon a background
which was entirely filled in with diapered ornaments and suitable heraldic
devices and patterns, while the inscription was engraved around the edge
of the plate.

In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the inscriptions on all brasses
were in Norman French ; in the fifteenth century they were in Latin ; and
in the sixteenth century in English.

In the reigns of Edward I., II., III., and Richard II., the brasses rose
to their highest quality and magnificence. The figures were usually life-
sized ; the lines were deeply and boldly cut, and there was an absence of
shading," the brass being usually a pure, outline, incised drawing.

In the reign of Edward II., architectural canopies were often introduced
(Fig. 1), and then the figures were consequently made less than life-size. At
first only knights and ladies were represented, hut in the reigns of Edward
III. and Richard II., members of the great middle classes, which were
increasing in power, wealth, and public influence, were included.

PICTOKIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

BRASSES.

From the time of Henry IV. to Richard III. the brasses were not of so
high an order, and at the latter part of the period they began to deteriorate
in quality and size.

The Tudoj- period may be called the decadent period of brasses, for the
drawings were often disproportionate and lightly cut, the figures crude, and
the plates thin. There is often an excess of " shading " in them which
detracts from the beautiful simplicity of the drawing. The practice of laying
down these brasses, probably through these very causes, began to decay, the
last known being laid in 1773 A.D.

Copies of brasses, or rubbings, are made in a very simple and interesting-
manner by taking a sheet of white lining paper (plain wallpaper), laying it
upon the brass, and carefully rubbing over it with a piece of shoemaker's
heel-ball. The flat portions of the brass " catch." the heel-ball during the
process, while the incised lines are left white, and if care be taken that the
paper does not shift, a very faithful copy of the brass can be made. The
rubbing should be continued until a deep black tone is obtained, for the heel-
ball does not smear on the paper.

Most clergymen are proud of the brasses in their churches, and readily
give permission for rubbings to be taken from them if a courteous application
be made.

Brasses are not scattered at random throughout the country. They are
met with most frequently in the eastern and home counties. Probably this is
because these parts are nearest to Flanders, and the cost of transporting the
sheets of brass far inland would be a considerable addition to their cost.

(For those who wish to pursue this subject, Macklin's Brasses of
England (Methuen) and Suffling's English Church Brasses (Upcott Gill) will
be found most useful, as in addition to other matter they contain a register
of all brasses known in the British Isles.)

PLATE 28.

(Fig. 1) : The despoiled slab of Bishop Beaumont of Durham, about
1335 A.D., showing the matrix for the brass in the slab, and also the form of
a canopy brass. The place where the inscription was fixed is shown in the
white band just inside the edge. (Fig. 2) : The brass of a Notary (name
lost), about 1475 A.D., in St. Mary Tower Church, Ipswich. " Notaries
wore a plain gown, with an ink-horn and pen-case suspended from the belt,
and a scarf and cap on the left shoulder." (Macklin.) (Fig. 3) : The brass
of Dame Elizabeth Harvey, Benedictine Abbess of Elstow, Bedfordshire,
about 1525 A.D. Figs. 2 and 3 show the actual appearance of " rubbings "
of brasses.

f8 PICTORTAL HISTORY.

HERALDRY.

(Plate 29— Page 80.)

Heraldry has been called the " shorthand of history," and " the critical
desire for accuracy, which fortunately seems to have been the keynote of
research " during recent times, necessitates an inquiry into the history and
practice of Heraldry, which played such an important part in the life of the

Middle Ages.

It is not believed that the Normans at the Conquest bore any arms
on their shields. There are certain markings shown on the shields in the
Bayeux Tapestry, but they were probably bands and bosses used for the
purpose of strengthening them.

As a system, heraldry was not organised until the twelfth or thirteenth
century. It was probably introduced into England from France, as all the
terms used in the practice are French.

The two great factors in the extensive and almost universal practice of
heraldry were the tournaments and jousts, and the Crusades. All the
sovereigns of Europe, and particularly the Kings of England, encouraged
the former, because of the excellent practice in the use of arms and the
rigorous training they gave.

Clothed, as the combatants were, in their armour, their features con-
cealed within the heaumes or helmets, it became a necessity for them to bear
some distinctive marks or devices, either as " crests " on their helmets or
as armorial bearings or " arms " upon their shields, their surcoats, their
pennons and banners.

The retainers of a knight followed their master, and rallied around him,
recognising him by these features, and their battle cry became, in many
cases, the family motto, and has so remained until this day.

At first the crest, which was of large size, was made of leather, but
later on it was made of wood or steel. Originally the devices upon the shields
were few and simple, and consisted of bands fastened to the shields in various
positions (Figs. 1 to 18) to strengthen them. These were termed " honour-
able ordinaries." When the surface of the shield was coloured, these bands
would be coloured differently. As the custom of bearing these devices be-
came more universal, and the number of knights increased, it became neces-
sary to add many others and to modify and differentiate in many ways the
existing ones. The simplest " arms " are consequently held to be the most
honourable, as they imply greater antiquity. Many devices were granted
and borne in recognition of feats of arms or of important duties performed,
as, in later days, the Douglas family were privileged to bear on their shield
a heart (later on surmounted by a crown), in commemoration of the fact that
a Douglas had the honour of bearing 'the heart of Robert Bruce to the Holy
Land. (Fig. 21.) Often, after the performance of a particularly heroic deed

PICTORIAL HISTORY. l'!'

HERALDRY.

on the battlefield, knights were rewarded by being granted the right to wear
some suitable commemorative device upon their shields. These had a similar
significance to the V.C. or D.S.O. awarded nowadays, with the additional
advantage that they were hereditary.

In the Crusades, which formed the other great factor in the growth and
practice of heraldry, it became necessary to distinguish the knights of dif-
ferent nations from one another. The English wore a white cross on the
right shoulder of their cloaks. Similarly the French wore a red one, the
Flemings a green one, and the warriors from the Roman States two keys
crossed as in a St. Andrew's cross or Saltire.

As a special inducement to the warriors of the West, the Pope promised
that any soldier, whatever his rank or station, who slew an infidel in battle,
should be declared noble, and be at liberty to adopt any device he might
choose as a memento of the part he had taken in the Wars of the Cross.
Hence, many devices connected with the Holy Land and the Crusades were
introduced into and remain in heraldry — e.g., the scalloped shell, the palmer's
stalf, bezants (gold coins of Byzantium), water bougets (leathern water-
bottles), crescents, stars, scimitars, Saracens' heads, and the numerous forms
of the cross. Probably from the same source came such mythical creatures
as the dragon, the wyvern, and the cockatrice.

In time, the arms of knights became hereditary. A man, on the death
of his father, received proudly his father's sword and his shield, and appre-
ciated the dignity of thus being associated with the honourable achievements
of his parent.

Before this practice had become general, a young knight commenced his
knightly career with a perfectly plain (argent) shield, and he achieved or
won the right to bear devices upon it ; hence the arms which were displayed
on it were called his achievements. The whole surface of the shield was
called " the field " because he performed his deeds, recorded on the shield,
on the " field of battle."

Sometimes a knight adopted arms representing his name — e.g., the arms
of Lucy were " three luce or pike " ; the family of Colthurst had " a colt '
as crest. These were called. " canting arms," and were obviously not
granted for any feat of daring. Symbolism played a prominent part in the
selection of arms and crests, for kings and leaders displayed on their shields
lions and eagles — the emblems of courage and power and kingly authority.
The castle was an emblem of stability, and this device was also granted to
knights who successfully defended or reduced a castle.

The followers of knights and nobles adopted the habit of wearing a
device called a badge, taken from the arms of their lord, and they wore cos-
tumes of the chief colours of his shield. These were called liveries, and from
this is derived the modern custom of the liveries of men-servants. Most

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

HERALDRY.

famous of these liveries were the Plantagenets — scarlet and white; the Lan-
castrians— blue and white; the Yorkists — blue and crimson; the Tudors—
white and green. The common people, at the time when heraldry was most
generally practised, were quite illiterate, but everyone could read and under-
stand the devices of heraldry.

Among- the most famous badges worn by retainers were the Plant a
genista, or broom plant of the Plantagenets, and the roses, red and white, of
the Lancastrians and Yorkists. The Tudor family fittingly adopted as a
badge a double rose, consisting of a white, rose within a red one, to signify
the union of the two great families. Village inns were named after a pro-
minent device borne upon the shield of the local lord of the manor, and in
this way we get such names as the Red Lion, the Blue Boar, the White
Hart, the Rose and Crown, etc.

Many knights were spoken of by their badges — e.g., Henry Tudor
speaks to his followers of " the wretched, blpody, and usurping boar,"
meaning Richard III., one of whose badges was the boar.

The surcoat, or sleeveless coat, was adopted, worn over the armour, to
lessen the discomfort caused by the sun's rays striking directly on the armour.
It became a magnificent garment of velvet or silk, elaborately embroidered
with the armorial bearings in silk and gold (hence the origin of the word
" coat-of-arms ").

This garment still survives in the Tabard of the Royal Heralds, on
which are embroidered the arms of the sovereign.

During the reigns of Edward III. and Henry V., owing to the French
Wars and their effect upon the martial population of England, heraldry was
practised most extensively and had its noblest application, but during the
reign of that butterfly king, Richard II., it reached its most fantastic heights.

After the reign of Edward IV., the value and importance attached to the
correct practice of heraldry declined, for during the Wars of the Roses many
noble families became exterminated, and Henry VII. ennobled many of the
upper middle classes to take their places. To this, and the profuse creation
of knights' bannerets or baronets by James I., may be attributed the gradual
decline of heraldry, and the ridiculous grants of arms made in the Georgian
period contributed still further to that effect.

PLATE 29.

The various tinctures (or colours), metals, and furs are represented by
lines, etc., in black-and-white drawings. (Figs. 1 to 8) : Showing those
most commonly in use. (1) : Gold (or). (2) : Silver (argent). (3) : Red
(gules). (4) : Blue (azure). (5) : Black (sable). (6) : Green (vert). (7) :
Ermine. (8) : Vair. Nos. 1 and 2 are metals, 3 — 6 colours, 7 and 8 furs.

82 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

HERALDRY.

The heraldic names are given in brackets. (Figs. 9 to 18) : Honorouble
ordinaries (bands upon the shields). (9) : A chief. (10) : A pale. (11) : A
less. (12) : A bend dexter. (13) : A bend sinister. (14) : A chevron. (15) :
A cross. (16) : A saltire or St. Andrew's cross. (17) : A pile. (18) : A
bordure. The shields were also divided or " parted " into differently
coloured portions by lines following the position of these ordinaries — e.g.
(Fig. 19) : Shows a shield " pano- per pale " (see 10.) (Fig. 20) :
" Parted per chevron " (see 14). (Fig. 20) : Also shows the different por-
tions of a shield — A, the chief; B, the base; C, the dexter (right) side; D,
the sinister (left) side; E, the dexter chief; F. the sinister chief. (Fig. 21) :
Arms of the Douglas family. (Fig. 22) : A lion rampant — typical of animals
borne upon the shield. (Fig. 23) : A castle — typical of inanimate objects.
(Fig. 24) : The banner of the Knights Templars, the renowned Beauseant,
black above and white below, to denote that while fierce to their foes they
were gracious to their friends. (Fig. 25) : Badge of Henry VIII., typifying
the union of England (the rose) with Spain (the pomegranate) in the persons
of Henry and Katherine of Aragon. (Fig. 26) : A Tabard from a brass of
J444. The arms : Argent, a chevron between three crosses patee sable. (In
describing a coat of arms, the colour of the shield or field is always given
first, in this case being argent or white.) (Fig. 27) : Crest of the Duke of
Hamilton, " an oak tree covered with golden acorns, the trunk being cut
transversely by a frame saw, on the blade of which is inscribed the word
1 Through ' ." This commemorates the fact that an ancestor of the Duke of
Hamilton, when fleeing before his enemies, was pursued closely into a wood,
accompanied only by a faithful retainer. He bribed two woodcutters, who
were sawing the trunk of an oak tree, to let him and his servant take their
places. Soon after the fugitives had commenced sawing, their pursuers came
up and questioned them (thinking them to be woodcutters) as to the where-
abouts of the men they were pursuing. The servant, frightened, began to
falter, but Hambledon sternly bade him go on with his sawing and cut
" through." After reaching a place of safety, Sir Gilbert de Hambledon
adopted the above crest and motto, and they have continued in the family
to this day. (Fig. 28) : " Shield for Peace " of the Black Prince, described
heraldically as " sable, three ostrich feathers, two and one, the quill of each
passing through a scroll argent." The Black Prince was, according to Mr.
Fox-Davies, probably so called on account of black being his livery colour,
and that his own retainers and followers wore the livery of black. (Fig.
29) : Badge of Richard II.— a white hart. (Fig. 30) : Upper part of a
heraldic achievement. Over the shield is placed an esquire's helmet sur-
mounted by a crest upon a torse or wreath, with a lambrequin or mantling
between the wreath and the helmet. The torse, representing two twisted
silken scarves, was worn to hide the junction of the crest: with the helmet.
It must consist of six links alternatively of metal and colour (the livery

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 83

HERALDRY.

colours of the arms). The mantling- was a " little mantle " depending from
the crown of the helmet and hanging- over the back of the neck as a protec-
tion against heat. In the course of a fight it would become rent and slashed.
Hence it has become the custom to. make it very ragged as a sign of honour.
(Fig. 31) : Crest of William Earl of Salisbury, c. 1344, from his seal.

THE TUDOR NAVY.

(Plate 30— Page 84.)

Henry VII. founded the first English permanent dockyard at Ports-
mouth, and built in 1495 the first dry dock in England. During his reign
85 vessels at least were added to the Navy, some being purchased, some
taken as prizes, and others (about 46) built.

The first great ship in mediaeval times was the Great Harry, built by
Henry VII. in 1488, and costing £14,000; but up to this time vessels had
no portholes from which the guns could be fired.

This was the invention of a ship-builder of Brest, named Descharges,
in 1500, and by its adoption, guns could be fired from the lower decks. The
early portholes, however, were so small that the guns could consequently
only be worked in one direction. This did not matter very much, as it was
usual, on account of the difficulties of loading, only to fire the guns once or
twice, and then to run alongside the enemy and board him.

In 1515 the great English man-of-war, Harry Grace a Dieu, was built
by Henry VIII. She had two decks, and carried 14 heavy guns on the lower
deck, 12 on the upper deck, and 46 other guns arranged in different quarters
of the vessel — a total of 72 guns. The heavy guns weighed from 2,000 to
3,000 Ibs., and gave the English ships a distinct advantage over their less
heavily armed enemies.

She had four masts and a bowsprit, all square rigged. There were two
sails on each of the first and second masts (" foer " and " mayne "), and
a lateen sail on each of the other two masts (" mayne mizzen " and " bon-
aventure ").

The Harry was estimated at 1,000 or 1,500 tons, the system of measuring
a ship at the time being to estimate how mnay tons or tun casks of wine
she could carry.

The other ships of war built in this reign were constructed on similar
lines to the Harry, but on a smaller scale. At this time the larger ships of
the Navy were divided into two classes, " ships " and " galliasses," the
latter being huge galleys propelled by sweeps or large oars.

As progress was made, the height of the fore-castles was lowered, and
the keelS of these ships were covered with a lead sheathing. In the reign of

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 85

THE TUDOR NAVY.

Elizabeth there was a considerable improvement in the general construction
of the vessels. They were not made of large size, but under the direction of
Sir John Hawkins they were built on longer keels, with finer lines and lower
superstructures than before, and on account of these improvements they were
capable of carrying more sail and sailing more swiftly. The sides of ships
were painted black and white or green and white or timber colour. Figure-
heads (lions or dragons) at the bows and the Royal Arms in gold and colours
at the stern were used to decorate them. It is interesting to note that
the cooking galley was solidly built of bricks and mortar upon the gravel
ballast down in the hold.

The large vessels continued to have four masts, and the armament was
the same as in the reign of Henry VIII., the largest guns, " great ord-
nance," being 12 feet long, with a bore of 8| inches, and an extreme range
of about one mile. The largest ships had from 40 to 60 of these " great
ordnance," and there were also provided for each ship 200 arquebuses or
crossbows, 40 longbows^ and 180 sheaves of arrows.

It had been the custom for many years to carry a great many soldiers
in each ship, in addition to the crew of sailors. The Great Harry carried
" soldiers 349, marines 301, and gunners 50." The soldiers consisted of
musketeers and archers, allotted to each ship under their own officers. The
captain was not selected for his skill as a sailor; in fact, he was also the
King's Master of the Horse and a soldier by profession.

The actual handling of the ship was left to the Master. At the end of
the sixteenth century the war vessels no longer carried soldiers, the sailors
being trained to fight and sail the ships themselves. In the reign of Elizabeth,
too, the custom of putting landsmen in command was modified, and seamen-
captains, such as Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, commanded some of the
fighting ships of the Royal Navy.

After any special service on which the vessels had been engaged was
completed, the ships were laid up, the captains retired to private life, and the
seamen, who were paid by the week or the month, were discharged ; only
a small body of officers and men, ship-keepers, being retained to take charge
of the vessel in harbour.

It is interesting to find that the following was the pay of some of the
various ranks of the Navy about 1588 :

Admiral, from £3 6s. 8d. to 15s. per day; Captain, 2s. 6d. per day. All
the other ranks were paid by the month : Lieutenant (one only on each ship),
£3; Master, £1 to £3 2s. 6d. ; Preacher, £2 to £3; Boatswain, 13s. 9d.
to £1 10s. ; Master Carpenter, 17s. 6d. to £1 5s. ; Surgeon, £1 ; Cook,
13s. 9d. to 17s. 6d. ; Sailor, 10s. (In the time of Henry VIII. the sailor only
received 5s. per month.) As an instance of the religious feeling that existed
in those times, the Preachers said prayers twice a day, " and there was,

86 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

THE TUDOR NAVY.

besides, the singing- of a psalm at watch setting, a very old custom in the
English sea service."

With regard to the clothing of the sailors, Edward IV. is said to have
provided " jackets," probably a kind of uniform, and the practice was con-
tinued by Henry VII. Henry VIII. also, as long as he had ample funds
(from his late father's treasury), clothed the sailors in the Tudor colours
(white and green), cloth being worn by the sailors and damask and satin by
the officers.

Sailors were allowed a gallon of beer a day, as water was not carried on
men-of-war until the middle of the seventeenth century.

Henry VIII. is said to have " refashioned the Navy in the direction of
shipbuilding, armament, and administration. He may be said to have created
it, since from his reign it has been recognised as the special national arm."
In Elizabeth's time the standing strength of the Navy was about 2,000 to
3,000 men.

PLATE 30.

(Fig. 1) : The Ann 'Gallant, a man-of-war constructed in the reign of
Henry VIII. (1546). The lofty forecastle and poop were still found in the
ships of this reign. Vessels were now built " carrel " fashion, i.e., with the
planks laid edge to edge, instead of " clincher " built, where the planks
overlap one another; for it was considered that the former style of building
gave greater strength. (Fig. 2) : An Elizabethan man-of-war. The St.
George's Cross, which was the national flag, and was only permitted to men-
of-war, is carried at the main-top, while the Tudor flag of green and white is
carried at the stern. Fighting tops will be seen on all the masts; the high
poop is very noticeable, while the forecastle has almost disappeared.

PLANTAGENET COSTUME.

(Plates 31-32— Pages 88-90.)

During the Plantagenet period, for the first times the effigies of English
sovereigns give authentic representation of regal costume in form and colour
(having been painted to imitate the actual clothing).

The Royal Robes of Henry II., Richard I., and John consist of (1) an
undergarment with close-fitting sleeves ; (2) a tunic-like garment with loose
sleeves, called a dalmatica, which is girded round the waist by a belt ; (3) a
mantle, richly embroidered, covering all. The costume of the nobles was
similar in form and style to these, stockings and chausses being worn, and
the habit of " cross-gartering " the leg from the toe to above the knee was
continued; but during the reigns of these soverigns, splendour of appearance
was studied rather than quaintness of shape.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 87

PLANTAGENET COSTUME.

The costume of ladies consisted of (1) an under robe with sleeves, close-
fitting at the wrist ; (2) a loose garment, like the dalmatica, but without
sleeves ; (3) a mantle. A head-dress, called the wimple, was worn. This
consisted of a piece of silk or linen passing under the chin, with the ends
gathered overhead, and was first mentioned in the reign of John. It was
worn with a veil hanging down by the sides of the face and over the back
of the head.

A purse to hold money for the giving of ajms was suspended from the
girdle. It is worthy of note that the general costume of nuns at the present
day is, in all but colour, the usual dress of women of the thirteenth century.

The dress of the lower classes did not vary much from that of the pit-
ceding period. It consisted of a plain tunic, strong boots, and a hood or hat
for the head, with coarsely made gloves without separate fingers. A cap
called a coif, fitting close to the head and fastened under the chin, was often
worn by men of all classes.

During the reign of Henry III. the general costume of men consisted of
the tunic, open in front to the waist, chausses or stockings and drawers.
Mantles and cloaks were only used for State or for travelling, the materials
used for these being very rich.

A garment called a supcr-totus (over-all), acting as an overcoat, was
commonly worn. It consisted of a circular piece of cloth with a hole in the
centre, through which the head was passed, and to it was often attached a
hood or capuchon, which became very popular and held its own for about
300 years.

The costumes of women and of ordinary citizens were essentially the
same as in the preceding reigns, but the hair of the ladies was gathered up
into a network or caul of gold and silver filigree, instead of being arranged
in plaits.

Edward I. dressed in a very plain manner, differing little from an
ordinary citizen, and consequently there was little extravagance of dress in
his reign. The ladies, however, wore their garments unconfined at the
waist, very full, and with long trains.

On account of their extravagance in this respect, they were very much
satirised by contemporary writers. They also wore a very ugly form of the
wimple. There was no change in the dress of the lower classes excepting
that a kind of smock frock, made generally of canvas or fustian, was worn
by both sexes. Edward II., with his favourites, Gaveston and the Despen-
sers, made the Court "a wild debauch of costume and foppish eccentricities."

The costume of ladies changed very little during this reign, but the
practice of wearing the head uncovered became more general.

88 I'ICTORlAL HISTORY.

PLANTAGENET COSTUME.

In the costume of men, the greatest change was the displacement of the
loose tunic or dalmatica by a garment called the cote-hardi, fitting tightly
from the neck to the waist, with a skirt below.

The hood or capuchon was modified by the tail or point at the back,
being extended until it reached to the waist, this tail being often wound
round the neck in cold weather as a kind of muffler.

A similar kind of hood was also in use, covering the head and shoulders
and reaching to the elbow.

Tn this reign a new source of authentic information is available in the
brasses which are found in our churches. They are very well preserved, and
show the details of costume very clearly and accurately. For this reason
they are invaluable.

Edward III. has been called " the King who taught the English people
how to dress," and it is worthy of note that the costumes worn during hib
reign followed the lines of the body itself.

The use of the coti-hardi increased. It was often made of very ex-
pensive materials, and long narrow strips of white cloth called iippets were
ddded to the sleeves, reaching from the elbow to the knee.

Many garments were parti-coloured, i.e., one side was one colour and
the other side of another colour. It is interesting to note that black came
into use as a mourning colour during the fourteenth century. A mantle was
worn by men over the coti-hardi, reaching to the ankles and fastened on the
right shoulder by several buttons, while the hood was fastened to the mantle.
In this reign the chausses were made like trunk hose, and fitted tightly to the
limbs. Pointed shoes were worn, and a curious form of hat with turned-up
brim and tall feathers was introduced. The lower class of labourers dressed
as their fancy guided them, so that all the fashions of preceding reigns may
be recognised in their attire.

The ladies dressed very sumptuously during the reign of Edward III.
An innovation in their costume was a kind of spencer or waistcoat, faced and
bordered with fur, to which sometimes sleeves reaching to the waist were
worn. The coti-hardi was also adopted as a feminine garment.

In the reign of Richard II. the costumes were ever changing, the King
himself being the greatest fop, and extravagances in form and sumptuous-
ness of material was carried to a remarkable excess. Holinshed says " he
had one cote which he caused to be made for him of gold and (precious)
stones, valued at 30,000 marks " (a mark being 13s. 4d.).

The famous portrait of Richard II. in Westminster Abbey is a fine
example of the dress of an extravagant King of that time. The fashion of
embroidering the dress with heraldic devices, family badges, initials, and
mottoes became common during this period. The edges of the garments were

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 89

PLANTAGENET COSTUME.

also cut and scalloped, very richly decorated, and often set with precious
stones.

The servants of the nobility were sumptuously attired, and there was
universal extravagance throughout the nation. So extreme was the dress
of the courtiers that it was said to be difficult to distinguish the sex of the
wearer if the face were turned away. Costumes were not only worn wide
and flowing, but they sometimes went to the other extreme, the garments
being worn very short and tight-fitting.

The shoes were made with very long points called crackowes (so named
from Cracow, in Poland). Sometimes the points were so long that they were
fastened to the knee by chains of gold and silver.

Ladies' dresses in this reign did not differ much from those of
Edward III.'s, but tippets were discarded, and the dresses were ornamented,
like the men's, with heraldic devices, initials, etc.

Chaucer has given us the best information regarding the costumes of the
different grades of English society during this reign.

The upper classes wore a short jupon, or tight-fitting vest, parti-
coloured, with narrow waist belt and tight sleeves. A loose body garment,
with full-hanging scalloped sleeves, was also worn. Over all was worn a
great gown, trailing on the ground, with full, long sleeves and a high collar
fitting tightly under the chin. Both hoods and felt caps were worn, and a
peculiar variety of the latter was in fashion formed of strips arranged in
fan fashion.

The hair of the men was worn long, and was curled with great care.
The beard was forked, and the moustaches were long and drooping.

The lower orders varied little in their dress from that of the reign of
Edward III.

PLATE 31.

(Fig. 1) : A nobleman of the thirteenth century. (MS. Bod. Auct. D.,
iv. 17.) A good example of the costume of the nobility of the time. Th'i
dalmatica is plainly shown, open up the front. In the MS. it is red, decorated
with groups of spots, with a white lining. The mantle is blue; the long
gloves are green. Red chausses are worn on the legs, with a cross-gartering
of gold from the toes upwards. The hat is blue, and a small portion of the
knickers is also shown. (Fig- 2) : The hood or capuchon, with a long tail as
worn in the reign of Edward II. (Fig. 3) : Costume of a man in the reign of
Edward III., from the brass of Robert Braunche, 1364, at King's Lynn. He
is dressed in the plain costume of the period, while a hat with a feather is
worn over the hood. (Figs. 4 and 5) : Hats of the time of Edward III., prob-
ably made of white felt, with coloured turned-up brims and long feathers.
(Fig. 6) : Costume of a youth in Early Plantagenet times. He wears an
ornamental tippet round the neck, with a plain, bordered tunic, tight at the

I'KTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PLANTAGENET COSTUME.

waist, and closed all round. He also wears chausses and high boots. (Fig.
7) : Costume of a lady in the reign of Henry III., from Matthew Paris's
" Lives of the Offas. " (Cotton MS., Nero D 1.) The dress is very simple,
there is an absence of ornament or decoration, and the gown is loose, falling
to the feet in ample folds. (Figs. 8 and 9) : Hoods at the time of Edward II.
(Fig. 8) : Shows the hood, closely fitting to the head and neck, with the point
that usually hangs down drawn up over the head. (Fig 9) : Shows the long
tail of the hood wound around the head. (Figs. 10 and 11) : The ordinary
costume of the labouring classes during thertime of Edward II. (Royal MS,,
14 E 3.) The man wears a long gown, buttoned from the neck to the waist,
with loose hanging sleeves below the elbow, showing the tight sleeve of the
time. The head and shoulders are covered by a hood hanging clown The
shoes reach to the ankle, are slightly ornamented, and have pointed toes.
The woman carries a distaff, and wears a hood or kerchief swathed round the
head and knotted at the side. She has a wide, short gown, which, being
caught up under the arm, shows the under garment and high buttoned boots.
(Fig 12) : Bronze figure of a daughter of Edward III., from his tomb in
Westminster Abbey (1377). She wears a dress, however, which was in
vogue twenty years earlier. The hair is arranged in square plaits at the sides
of the head. There is an absence of any decorative material round the low-
cut neck, and she has vertical front pockets in her tightly fitting gown, with
long streamers hanging from the arms down to the feet. (Figs. 13 and 14) :
Two methods of " doing the hair " in the time of Edward I. (Fig. 14) :
Shows the hair enclosed in a caul or net, and is spoken of as " the reticulated
head-dress. " (Fig. 15) : Head-dress from the Braunche Brass. (King's
Lynn, 1354.) (Fig. 1C): The Coif.

PLATE 32.

(Fig. 1) : Bronze figure of Lionel Duke of Clarence (a son of Edward
III.), from the tomb of the latter in Westminster Abbey (1377). It illustrates
the ordinary costume of a gentleman at the end of the fourteenth century.
He is attired in the coti-hardi or jupon, fastened down the front with
buttons, and wears an ornamented girdle around the hips, while a large,
full mantle reaches down to the ankles. The chausses are very similar in
appearance to trunk hose, and fit tightly to the limbs ; while the beard is
forked after the fashion of the period. (Fig 2) : Brass of Joan, Lady de
Cobham, 1320, at Cobham, Kent. She wears a kind of wimple under the chin
called the gorget (which copies a part of the knightly armour of the period),
with a couvre-chef over the head falling on to the shoulders, completing the
head-dress. She wears an under garment with tight-fitting sleeves, which are
closely buttoned to the wrist, and a loose robe with, loose sleeves terminating

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

<Pla±e 32

Tig -.7 fig- 8 Tig 9

fig: 1O

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 93

PLANTAGENET COSTUME.

below the elbow. (Fig. 3) : A fop of the reign of Richard II., when the
fashion of " cutting " the mantles in patterns reached a very absurd limit.
The sleeves are cut at the edges into a number of acanthus-like lobes, and
are lined with another colour. The robe has a high collar, is very full, and
hangs in loose folds to the ground. The shoes, which are elaborately pierced
and cut, are of the long-toed variety known as " crackowes," and the point
of the toe is fastened to the leg below the knee. He also carries a long purse
or bag suspended from the girdle. (Harl. MS., 1319.) (Fig. 4) : Costume
of the early part of Edward III.'s reign. A ^semi-military dress with a breast-
plate worn under the cotc-hardi. A very characteristic feature of the costume
is formed by the tippets — long strips of white cloth, which are fastened to the
arms above the elbow. (MS. 17 E vi.) (Fig. 5) : Costume of a labourer of
the better class of the time of Edward III. The tail of the hood is worn
around the head. (Fig. 6) : Costume of a nobleman in the reign of
Richard II., probably representing one of his royal uncles. (Royal MS.,
20 B vi.) It shows another extravagant dress of the period. The gown is
abbreviated to the hips; the sleeves are wide, and the chausses are tight-
fitting to the limbs ; while the shoes have long pointed toes. He wears a
jewelled circlet around the forehead. (Figs. 7, 8, 9) : Costumes of ladies
in the reign of Richard II. (Fig. 7) : Shows the sideless garment faced with
fur, terminating in long, full skirts worn over the kirtle (or loose gown).
(Fig. 9) : Shows a lady with the outer sleeveless garment, so long as to be
gathered up and carried under the arm. (Figs. 10, 11, 12) : Various forms of
head-dresses of men of the reign of Richard II. (Fig. 13) : A singular kind
of hood covering the head and shoulders, reaching to the elbows, and having
pointed ends spreading out at each side. This was worn in the time of
Edward III.

MAIL ARMOUR

(Plate 33— Page 96.)

Pure mail armour, i.e., armour worn without additional defence over
the mail but the heaume, was in use from 1150 A.D. to 1300 A.D., but its use
was finally discontinued about 1350 A.D.

There were several kinds of mail, and different ways of representing it
on effigies, brasses, etc., viz. :

(a] Mail apparently formed of rings or mailles, sewn on to a leather

garment by the edge only, and arranged so that one ring overlapped
the next.

(b) Mail formed of rows of rings sewn on strips of linen or leather, the
strips being then applied to the garment.

<)4 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

MAIL ARMOUR.

(d) Mail called " banded mail," in which double lines separated each

row of links.

(e) Armour formed of rings or small discs of metal sewn flat all over

the garment.

Another similar kind of armour was formed of scales or overlapping
plates of leather or metal, fastened to a leather or linen foundation.

The chain mail or armour formed of interlacing rings was finally adopted
throughout Western Europe, being copied from that of the Saracens in the
Crusades.

We have not many contemporary illustrations of the armour and knightly
apparel in the period between the Norman Conquest and the Edwardian era.

There are but few illuminated MSS. ; sepulchral monuments are not
numerous, and the valuable series of monumental brasses had not begun.

The plaited or mail shirt of the Early Norman was superseded by a
stout, quilted tunic, also called the hauberk, reaching to the knees and with
short sleeves, and a coif or hood of mail on the head.

Frequently a metal breast-plate or plastron-de-fer, and a steel cap or
chapel-de-fer, were worn under the mail. Sometimes over the coif a close-
fitting iron helmet was worn. The hauberk sleeves were lengthened, cover-
ing the hands as mittens or fingerless gloves of strong leather strengthened
by mail or pieces of metal.

The legs were covered with long leggings or trews of mail called
chausses, protecting all the lower limbs from the thighs to the toes. In the
twelfth century the chain mail was made very light, like that of the Saracens.
It was made of steef rings, connected with each other, without being fastened
to the leather garment worn underneath — similar, in fact, to the ordinary
steel purse. On account of it great cost, this mail was not worn by the
common soldiers. Beneath the mail hauberk, as an additional defence, and
to relieve the pressure of the mail, a quilted tunic was worn, known as a
haketon, or a gambeson.

The haketon was made of buckram, stuffed with cotton-wool and quilted.
Ihe gambeson was a sleeved tunic, of stout, coarse linen, stuffed with flax or
wool, and sewn longitudinally.

In the reign of Richard I., the close-fitting helmet was superseded bv
the Heaume, great helm or tilting helmet. It was large enough to put easily
over the head, and long enough to rest on the shoulders.

It was at first nearly cylindrical, and generally had a flat top. There
were openings in front to allow the wearer to see and breathe. During the
mail period, no heaume is represented with a movable visor

PKTOKIAL HISTORY. 95

MAIL ARMOUR.

In monumental effigies and brasses, a knight is often represented with
his heaume under his head as a pillow, and it was the custom actually to use
it for that purpose when resting- after a day's journey or fighting.

The heaume was only put on when actual fighting in battle or in the lists
was about to commence. At other times, it was carried at the saddle-bow,
and, lest it should be dropped or struck off when on the head, it was fastened
to the body armour by a chain, passing through a ring in front. Towards
the close of the twelfth century the use of armorial bearings was introduced.

Each knight assumed a device, which was exclusively used by him,
by which he was recognised, and which became hereditary in his family.
This device was usually displayed on the shield, and on the surcoat, when the
use of that garment was adopted.

The form of the shield was changed from that of a kite to that of a
" heater," or flat-iron. It was also made much smaller.

The arms of the knight were the sword, the lance, the mace, the battle-
axe, the military flail, and the martel. The sword belt, slung over the
shoulder in Norman times, was now fastened around the waist or hips. The
sword varied little in form from that of Norman times.

The lance was never used as a javelin, but was made strong, generally
of uniform thickness, and varied in length. The head was very broad, and
without barbs.

All knights had a pointed or swallow-tailed pennon fastened to the lance ;
but nobles who brought a number of retainers to battle displayed a square
banner on the lance. These knights were called Bannerets.

Foot soldiers were armed with the cross-bow — a formidable weapon with
which short, stout missiles, called bolts or quarrels, were shot — the long-bow,
the halberd, the bill, the guisarme (all shafted weapons), and the sling. In
time, the chausses were cut into two pieces at the knees ; the lower part,
corresponding with the modern stocking, protected the leg, and the upper
portion protected the thigh. In order to protect the knee, a knee-cap, or
genouifliere of cuir bouilli, was fastened over it.

The sleeves of the hauberk were similarly cut into two parts at the elbow,
and elbow caps, or condieres, of leather came into use over the elbow joint.

At the end of the 12th century, a flowing surcoat of linen or silk was
worn, over the armour. This generally bore the same heraldic device as the
shield, and its use was probably to lessen the effect of the sun's rays upon
the mail. At first, this surcoat had no sleeve, but in the second half of the
13th century sleeves were added to it, and at the same time the hauberk was
shortened.

About 1270, the mailed mittens were divided into fingers, and the
helmet was rounded at the top.

The spurs consisted of single spikes, and were called " pryck " spurs.

PICTORIAL HISTORY

33.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 97

MAIL ARMOUR.

PLATE 33.

(Fig-. 1) : Brass of Sir Roger de Trumpington, in Trumpington Church,
Cambridge, 1289. The head rests on the Heaume, which is of large size.
The latter is fastened to a rope around the waist, by means of a chain. The
knight is represented with his legs crossed. It was thought at one time
that this showed that the knight had taken part in the Crusades, but it i^
now considered by some that he was probably a benefactor to the church.
Others think that it was merely a device of the engraver to lessen the stiff
appearance of the figure. All the features of mail armour to which atten-
tion has already been directed, may easily 'be seen in this figure, and the
knees are covered by genouillieres (probably of cuir bouilli), which are the
first pieces of additional armour worn over the mail. It will be noticed in
this plate that there are four ways in which mail armour is represented, viz.,
in Figs. 1, 2, and 3, 5, and 9. (Fig. 2) : Head of the effigy of William Earl
of Pembroke, which shows very clearly the way in which the coif de niailles
was secured to the head, and lapped round the face, being fastened to the left
side, near the temple, by a strap and buckle. (Fig. 3) : Head of an effigy in
Pershore Church, Worcestershire, in which the lappet of the coif is repre-
sented as unloosed. (Fig. 4) : A great heaume of the 13th century, found
at Eynesford Castle, Kent. The ring at the bottom is for the attachment of
the heaume to the body armour. (Fig. 5) : The heads of a group of soldiers,
from the Painted Chamber at Westminster. In this will be seen the great
diversity of equipment found among knights. In the rear are shown two
banners and a pennon. (Fig. 6): Heaume at Staunton, Notts., 1312. On
the top is seen the staple for affixing the crest to the heaume. (Fig. 7) :
The heaume of Richard I., taken from his Great Seal, showing a fan-shaped
ornament at the top, with a lion painted upon the crown. (Fig. 8) : Soldiers
in a boat, engaged in siege operations. One has a staff sling, which is
apparently charged with some combustibles. The archer is also discharging
cither a bag of quick-lime or some combustible. The slingers were generally
bareheaded, and wore no body armour. The archer wears a coif of ma?l
or leather on his head, and a sleeveless hauberk on his body. The third
soldier carries a pole-axe, a sword, and a spear. (Fig. 9) : Head from the
brass of Sir John D'Abernoun, in Stoke D'Abernoun Church, Surrey, 1277.
This is the earliest known example of brass. The chain mail is represented
in great detail, every link being shown. Fig. A is a portion of the mail en-
larged. (Fig. 10) : A spear with pennon, from the same brass. (Fig. 11) :
A martel-de-fer, which was used for breaking or dragging off the rings of
the hauberk, and opening a passage for other deadly weapons. (Fig. 12) : A
guisarme, a powerful, scythe-shaped, shafted weapon, used by foot soldiers.
(Fig. 13) : A banner, such as was carried by Knights Bannerets, who mu^t
have a following of at least fifty men-at-arms before they were qualified to
carry this.

08 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.

(Plates 34-35— Pages 100-102.)

The Transition. — At the close of the Norman period, the quality of the
masonry was very good, and the workmen had learnt how to economise their
materials. The improvement continued until the work reached a high
degree of perfection. The mouldings, the ornament, the sculpture, and all
other details are of a lighter style, and more highly finished. The architec-
ture that remains of this period is aptly termed " Transitional." The transi-
tion, from the round-arched Norman style, with its heavy and massive
appearance, and its strongly-marked horizontal lines, to the graceful Early
English style, with its prominent vertical lines, is very gradual, and the first
step in this direction was the introduction to general use of the pointed arch.
This is considered the most characteristic element of Gothic architecture — its
ever-increasing use permitting the slenderness of proportion, lightness, and
loftiness of effect to be carried out to a marvellous extent.

Professor Freeman has traced the adoption of the pointed arch in
Western Europe to influence of Saracenic architecture, which was extended
in the West through the Crusades.

In the early examples, the features and general characteristics of the
buildings are, in the main, the same as in the Norman style, but with the
pointed arch employed in place of the round-headed one.

Gothic Architecture. — This term was originally applied to the mediseval
styles at the time of the Renaissance. It was given as a term of contempt
when it was the fashion to write Latin and to expect it to become the uni-
versal language.

English Gothic is usually divided into three periods or styles, viz. :
Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular, prevailing (approximately)
during the 13th, 14th and loth centuries respectively, although there was no
strict division between them.

Early English (Reigns of Richard I., John and Henry III. (A.D. 1189-
1272).— The characteristics of this style as compared with the Norman are,
the comparative lightness of the structures, the long, narrow, lancet-
shaped, pointed windows, the boldly projecting buttresses and pinnacles, the
acute pitch of the roof, and generally the variety, the beauty of proportion,
and the singular grace and vigour of the ornaments."

Internally, we have pointed arches, supported on slender and lofty
illars. When the style had become fully established, the builders appear to
have revelled in it even to exuberance and excess.

Church building had received a severe check in the reign of John, during
the interdict of 16 years that rested upon the kingdom, but soon after the
accession of Henry III. who was himself an enthusiast, architecture revived
and developed very rapidly.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 99

EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.

One of the chief characteristics of the Early English styles consists in
the mouldings, in which a new principle was embodied. This was the
idea of obtaining- effective combinations of light and shade by means of
" undercutting'." Such a combination of projecting rounds and deep hollows
would present to the eye the appearance of alternate bands of light and shade,
the depths of the hollows causing- them to appear almost black.

The most characteristic ornament of this style is the " dog-tooth" or
" tooth " ornament. (PL 34, Figs. 9 and 1L) It consists of a series of
flowers, each of the four petals, bent backwards, the division between the
petals being placed in the middle of the sides of the pyramid thus formed.

A very striking peculiarity is the foliage used in sculpture, which is
technically known as " stiff-leaf foliage," though the stiffness is in the* stems
rather than in the leaves. The latter take the form of a conventional three-
lobed foliage. (PI. 35, Fig. 1.) It copied no individual leaf, " though it has
all the essential qualities of Nature. " Its use gives great richness of effect
to the building, and is supposed to have been developed by gradual change
from the Classical Orders, chiefly from the Ionic Volute.

The Crocket was also introduced as a new feature in this style. It is
an ornament used to decorate the edges of the architectural units, and is
supposed to be derived from the crook pf a bishop's pastoral staff. In fine
Early English work the Abacus (PI. 35, Fig. IA) is circular, and is deeply
undercut.

The Pillars are usually round or octagonal. They are built of large blocks
of dressed stone, and so differ from the Norman pillars, which consisted of
rubble with a facing of stone. In the more important buildings they are
formed o£ four or more slender shafts of Purbeck marble, which are placed
around a large circular column of stone, and their dark colour causes them
to " stand out " against the paler central stone pier.

The Arches vary in form from a very blunt to a very sharp point, but
they are generally acutely pointed, and are often richly moulded, as in West-
minster Abbey. The mouldings, however, are the safest guide to the style,
as the form of the pointed arch largely depends on convenience. As a rule,
they are generally more acutely pointed in the cathedrals and large churches,
whilst they are broader in small churches.

The Windows in earlier examples are plain, long, and narrow, with
acutely pointed heads. They are frequently spoken of as " lancet-shaped."

The earliest form is that of a single light, with arched head and without
moulding of any kind, external or internal. (PI. 34, Fig. 1.) Windows
of four lights are occasionally met with, but generally they consist of three,
five, or seven lights, rising in height to the central one. They are often
included under an arched moulding called a " dripstone." (PI. 34, Figs.
2, 3, 4A.)

100

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 101

EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.

Square-headed windows are not uncommon, but sometimes in these cases
there is an arch or a dripstone in the form of an arch over the window.

When two lights were combined under one arch, a blank space called
a " tympanum " was left between the heads of the lights and the arch; but
in time this space began to be pierced with another small light, generally in
the form of a circle, a trefoil, or a quatrefoil, which both relieved the blank
space and admitted more light. (PL 34, Fig. 3.) When this is done in the
stone work, it is called plate tracery, and from this is developed the window
tracery of later times.

The Normans were doubtful about their skill in making ceilings of stone
to cover large spaces, and consequently they generally built timber roofs.
Over small spaces, however, they erected stone ceilings or " vaults," which
were quite plain. In this period the vaults are distinguished by having ribs
in the angles of the groins, with carved masses of foliage in stone, called
bosses, at the intersection of the ribs. (PI. 34, Fig. 5.)

The Buttresses (PI. 35, Figs. 4, 5, and 6), instead of being merely flat
strips of masonry, slightly projecting from the wall, as in the Norman
Period, have now a bold projection, generally diminished upwards by stages,
and terminate in a plain slope or a gable. By the use of this form of buttress
it was possible to reduce the thickness of the wall. The corner of the
building had a pair of buttresses at right angles to the wall, as if each wall
had been continued beyond the point of junction — never one buttress placed
diagonally, as in subsequent periods.

Flying Buttresses at this period became prominent features in large
buildings. They are arches springing from the wall buttresses to the walls,
and they carry off the weight and consequent " thrust " of the roof, over
the central space, obliquely down to the external buttress, and so down to
the ground.

The Roof was formed of timber^ and was covered with the material most
easily procurable in the district. A thatch of straw or reecls was probably the
most common ; shingles were procured where oak was plentiful, and slabs
of stone and slate or tiles where they were obtainable. Lead was generally
used only on very important buildings.

Spires were also often constructed of timber, and where the framework
has become warped and twisted by the weather, we have a grotesque ap-
pearance, as in the twisted spire of Chesterfield.

PLATE 34.

(Fig. 1) : Simple lancet window. (Fig. 2) : A triple-lancet window
from Warmington, in Northants (about A.D. 1230). The lights are placed
under an arch or dripstone with the " eye " solid. (Fig. 3) : A window of

102

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

te 35

Fig 1

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 103

EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.

two lights, with a quatrefoil of plate tracery in the head, and a dripstone, ter-
minated by the characteristic ornament called a " mask " or a "buckle,"
from Charlton-on-Otmoor, Oxfordshire (about A.D. 1210). (Fig. 4) : Five
lancet windows under one arch, with the spandrils pierced, forming what are
called the " eyes " of the window, from Irthlingborough, Northants (about
A.D. 1280). (Fig. 5) : Early English vault, groined, with moulded ribs on
the groins only, from Salisbury Cathedral (about A.D. 1240). (Fig. 6) :
Pointed arch in the porch, from Barnack, Northants (about A.D. 1250).
(Fig. 7) : A trefoil-arched doorway. (Fig. 8)-: Characteristic Early English
moulding (in section). (Fig. 9) : " Dog-tooth " ornament in profile, showing
how the name probably arose. (Fig. 10) : A transitional tower and spire,
from St. Denis, Sleaford, Lincolnshire. It shows a band of interlaced, round-
headed arches, while in the belfry light it exhibits the pointed arch. The
four corners are filled up with half-pyramids inclining from the angles. This
angle-pyramid, which marks the transition from the square form of the tower
to the pointed form of the spire, is known as the broach, and the " broach-
spire " is quite the characteristic form assumed by the early stone spires ?n
England. (Fig. 11) : " Dog-tooth " ornament, front view. (Fig. 12) :
Door with " shouldered " arch, from Lutton, Huntingdonshire (about A.D
1200).

PLATE. 35.

(Fig. 1) : Capitals in Lincoln Cathedral (A.D. 1220), showing the
moulded abacus (A) with undercutting, " stiff -leaf " foliage, and the " dog-
tooth " ornament used between the shafts. (Fig. 2) : Transitional Norman
capital, at Oakham Castle, Rutland (built between A.D. 1165 and 1191). An
excellent specimen of transitional work, retaining a good deal of the Norman
character, but late and rich. (Fig. 3) : Moulded capital in the form of a
plain bell reversed, from Westminster Abbey (A.D. 1250). (Figs. 4, 5, 6) :
Buttresses. (Fig. 7) : Flying buttresses, from Westminster Abbey. (Figs.
8 and 9) : Plans of Early English columns.

MIXED MAIL AND PLATE ARMOUR.

(Plate 36— Page 106.)

Arms and armour, with all the accompaniments of chivalry, during the
fourteenth century reached a pitch of great splendour. The French Wars
and the extravagance of costume at the Courts of Edward III. and Richard
II. encouraged this. From the constant use of 'armour in the wars and in
the tournament, many modifications were found necessary to render it more
comfortable and also more thoroughly protective. Towards the end of the
thirteenth century additions had been made to the mail for the latter purpose.

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

MIXED MAIL AND PLATE ARMOUR.

and this practice was continued in the fourteenth century by the addition
of pieces of " plate " or sheet steel, until in the early part of the fifteenth
century, knights were clothed in complete suits of plate armour.

The change was, however, very gradual, and the evolution may be best
traced by considering it as taking place in certain fairly definite stages. The
following is the usual division adopted :

1st Period : c. 1300 A.D.— c. 1325 A.D. "2nd Period : c. 1325 A.D.—
c 1335 A.D. 3rd Period c. 1335 A.D.— c. 1360 A.D. 4t/i Period : c. 1360
A<D. _ c. U05 A.D. 5th or Transition Period : c. 1405 A.D. — c. 1410 A.D.

1st Period : c. 1300 A.D. — c. 1325 A.D. During this period the mail
armour remained practically the same, but steel plates were fastened by
straps (1) over the back of the upper arm and the front of the fore-arm (the
parts most exposed to a blow) ; (2) over the shins (jambarts) and continued
over the front of the feet as a series of metal plates riveted to one another,
called sollerets; (3) in front of the shoulders and to protect the armpits
(roundles.)

Gauntlets or armoured gloves (with separate fingers) were introduced
about this time.

The surcoat was» worn shorter and with less fulness about the body.

"2nd Period : c. 1325 A.D. — c. 1335 A.D. The surcoat was superseded by
a garment called a cydas, which was slit open and laced up at the sides,
and was much shorter in front than behind. (See Fig. 1, PI. 36.) It thus
shows the escalloped and fringed border of a padded garment or gambeson
worn between the cyclas and the mail hauberk, while below the mail was
worn another padded garment — the haketon.

The whole must have formed a very cumbersome combination. The
plates on the arms were enlarged so as to form cylinders, encasing the limbs,
opening with a hinge at one side and fastening with buckle and strap or
rivets at the other side. Those covering the fore-arm were worn under the
sleeve of the hauberk, which was often cut off below the elbow.

Plates were still worn 011 the knees, legs, and feet.

The Basinet, a comparatively light and close-fitting helmet, was worn
without a mail coif beneath it; but to protect the neck a kind of tippet of
mail called the camail was fastened by laces to the basinet, and hung down-
over the breast, back, and shoulders. The basinet was open at the face or
had a movable face-piece (visor or ventaille). In battle it was worn with the
face-piece, but for th£ tournament the visor was removed and the heaumc
or great helmet, with its crest and mantling, placed over it.

The shield was small and of the " heater " shape, and " pryck " spurs
gave place to spurs with rowels.

3rd Period : c. 1335 A.D. — c. 1360 A.D. Splinted armour, i.e., armour

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 105

MIXED MAIL AND PLATE ARMOUR.

consisting of small overlapping plates (like the shell of a lobster), was
introduced, and a garment called the pourpoint (like a haketon, but made
of finer material, faced with silk or ornamented with needlework) was worn
over the hauberk.

The surcoat was again worn, shortened to the knee and shaped to fit
the body closely above the waist. The armorial bearings of the wearer were
embroidered in silks upon it.

It must be remembered that there was no uniform — in the modern
sense — for knights and men-at-arms, but each dressed as he liked; and
there was consequently a great variety of arms and armour in a single troop.

ith or Camail Period : c. 1360 A.D. — c. 1405 A.D. This is called the
camail period because by this time the custom of wearing the camail had
become universal. The legs and arms were now entirely encased in plates
of armour, with sollerets on the feet, which were acutely pointed at the toes
in imitation of the prevailing civil fashion. The hauberk was shortened to
the middle of the thigh, was sleeveless, and was worn over a globular breast-
plate. Roundles disappeared from the shoulders and elbows, and laminated
plates took their place, giving freer movement to the limbs.

The sleeveless surcoat was now called the jupon. It fitted tightly over
the hauberk, and was slightly shorter than it, so that the lower edge of the
hauberk showed behind it. The jupon was made of a rich material, blazoned
with the arms of the wearer, and was escalloped along the bottom edge.

The long, straight sword, with decorated hilt and scabbard, was hung
on the left side from a richly ornamented belt, and on the right side was
suspended a small, pointed dagger called the misericorde.

After 1380 the basinet was made shorter, but the great heaume still
continued to be worn, often being strengthened by an additional plate on
the left side, where the wearer was likely to receive blows.

The sculptured effigy of the Black Prince on his tomb at Canterbury is
a typical representation of a knight of the camail period.

5th or Transition Period : c. 1405 A.D.— c. 1410 A.D. There are a few
examples of knights clothed entirely in plate armour, with the exception of
the basinet and camail, and this is therefore called the Transition Period
leading to the time of the complete adoption of plate armour.

PLATE 36.

(Fig. 1) : Brass of Sir John Creke, in Westley Waterless Church, Cam-
bridgeshire, 1325. It shows a pointed and fluted basinet with the camail of
^ banded mail " fastened to it. The hauberk, also of banded mail, is seen
just above the knees, and the legs and arms are covered with the same kind
of armour. The roundles, taking the form of lions' faces, are seen at the
shoulders and elbow. The upper arms are covered with plates over the mail,
and the fore-arm covered in the same way with plates, which pass under the

H|2

106

•1CTORIAL HISTORY.

1'ICTORIAL HISTORY. 107

MIXED MAIL AND PLATE ARMOUR.

short sleeves of the hauberk. The cyclas is seen to be loose, girded at the
waist, and shorter in front than behind. Under it is shown the escalloped
edge of the gambeson ; beneath that the pointed ending of the hauberk, and
under that again the folds of the haketon may be seen reaching to the knee-
caps. Jamberts or shin pieces cover the shins, and are continued to cover
trie feet as sollerets. (Fig. 2) : A heaume or great helmet,- worn in the
tournament over the basinet and resting upon the shoulders (1375). (Figs.
3, 4, 5, 6) : Shafted weapons of the period. (Fig. 3) : A bill, also called
a fauchard or guisarme, of the time of Richard II. (From a MS.) (Figs.
4 and 5) : Pikes. (Fig. 6) : A pole-axe (the voulge). (Fig. 7) : A knight
wearing a gambeson, from the monumental effigy of Sir Robert Shurland,
c. 1300 (after Ashdown). (Fig. 8) : A heaume, from the brass of Sir Hugh
Hastings, 1347 A.D. It shows the mantling, or little mantle, hanging over
the back of the helmet, the crest, and the torse, or wreath, hiding the junc-
tion of the crest with the helmet. (Fig. 9) : A piece of armour, showing
the " splints " or small overlapping plates in the elbow joint. (Fig. 10) :
A basinet, showing the loops by which the camail is fastened to it. (Fig.
11) : Heaume and crest of Sir Geoffrey Luterell, from the Luterell Psalter,
1345 A.D. It has a round top, a movable visor, and a crest on which are
displayed trie wearer's " arms." (Fig. 12): A " snout-nosed " basinet
with movable visor or ventaille of the time of Richard II., with the visor
raised. (Fig. 13) : The same with the visor lowered, as on the battlefield.
(Fig. 14) : The brass of Sir Robert Symborne, in Little" Horkesley Church,
Fssex, 1391 A.D., showing the arms and armour of a knight of the camail
period. The head is covered with a conical basinet (without a face-piece),
to which the camail of chain mail is fastened. The lower edge of the hauberk
is shown below the close-fitting, sleeveless jupon which covers the body.
The arms, legs, and feet are covered with plate armour, and the laminated
plates which superseded roundles are seen at the shoulders and elbows. The
hands are protected by gauntlets, and the knight is armed with long, straight
sword and misericorde. (Fig. 15) : A mace, from a MS., c. 1350.

LANCASTRIAN AND YORKIST PERIODS.
MALE COSTUMES.

(Plate 37— Page 110.)

The effigies of King Henry IV. and his Queen at Canterbury are some
of the most splendid of our royal effigies, uniting richness, grandeur, and
simplicity. The King's crown is particularly remarkable for its magnificence
(Fig. 1.) Since there had been very great extravagance in costume during

108 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

MALE COSTUMES.

the reign of Richard II., when he came to the throne Henry revived the
sumptuary laws of his predecessors regulating the quality of the clothing t
be worn by the various classes of his subjects.

Four years after that, all slashing and cutting of garments into various
devices was forbidden ; but the people were very fond of display, and perfect
disregard was shown by all classes of the community to any of these laws.
A notable decoration that appeared in this reign was the collar of SS. Various
accounts of its origin have been given, but the most probable one is that
S is the initial letter of Henry's motto, " Souveraine," which he had borne
while Earl of Derby.

The houppelande of Richard's reign, with its high collar, huge sleeves,
and full skirt, was still worn, and is always depicted scarlet in MSS. The
" bag sleeves " came into fashion during this reign. They were of great
size and fulness, but gathered at the wrist and at the shoulders.

In the reign of Henry V. little change was made in costume, for the
minds of men were occupied with more serious matters in the war with
France.

Long and short gowns with large sleeves, either sweeping and indented
at the edge or of the " bag sleeve " variety, were the common upper
garments of all classes.

In some instances small bells were worn, fastened to a baldric or belt
passing diagonally like a sash across the body from the shoulder to the waist.

Beards were not worn much during this reign, and moustaches were
only partially worn, for the fashion was to be clean shaven, and the hair was
cut close above the ears.

At the commencement of Henry V. 's reign the colour of the surcoat
was again changed to white.

Henry VI. was invariably plain in his dress, and we are told that he
refused to wear the long-pointed shoes worn by the gentry. It is an interest-
ing reflection on the unsettled condition of the country in the unfortunate
reign of this King that the costumes were numerous and diverse, being " a
curious mixture of the costumes of preceding reigns."

The most remarkable feature of the fifteenth century was the more
common use of caps and hats of fantastic shapes and the change of form of
the capuchon or hood into a regularly formed crown, with a thick roll, having
a long tiooet attached to it and trailing on the ground or tucked into the
girdle. (Fig-. 2a.)

A single feather is sometimes worn in the cap. (Fig. 5.) Long, tight
hose and short boots or buskins, and shoes with high fronts and backs that
turned over each way, were worn, all with long toes.

The gown or jacket begins to be cut even around the shoulders, instead
of being made high up the neck.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 109

MALE COSTUMES.

The face was still closely shaven.

The state mantles of the King- and nobles were made of velvet and lined
with white damask or satin.

Legal and other official habits consisted of long, full gowns, girdled
round the waist and trimmed and lined with fur, according to the rank of
the wearer.

During the reigns of Edward IV., Edward V., and Richard III., a very
characteristic style of costume begins to come into vogue. The store from
which we draw our knowledge — the brasses^ effigies, and illuminated MSS. —
is a very extensive one, and owing to the invention of printing and the use
of the wood block for illustration, we have still another source of information.

A very important feature of the costumes of this time was the excellent
fit of the garments. As Mrs. Ashdown says, in her British Costume,
" Broadly speaking, it had been perfectly possible for a dressmaker to cut
out and complete any garment worn by men up to that period; after the
reign of Edward IV. the era of the tailor began."

In Edward's reign the jackets and doublets were cut shorter than ever,
the sleeves slit so as to show the large, loose white shirts, and the shoulders
were padded with moss or flock.

Men wore the hair long, and had hats of cloth a quarter of an ell or
more in height, and all wore most sumptuous chains of gold. Shoes with
long, pointed toes, some as much as two feet long, called poulaines, were
also worn.

Sumptuary laws were again enacted in this reign against people who
dressed beyond their social position, and both the wearers and the tailors
and shoemakers were subject to fines for transgressing them.

In the reign of Richard III., gentlemen began to wear the long gowns
and more sober costumes that distinguished the reign of Henry VII. The
costumes of the nobility generally consisted of hose or long stockings tied
by points or laces to the doublet, which was open in front, about half-way
down the breast, showing a stomacher or vest, over which it was laced like
a peasant's bodice.

Over the doublet was worn a long or a short gown, according to fancy
and circumstances, the former hanging loose, the latter full of pleats before
and behind, plain at the sides and girdled tightly about the waist.

Small caps or " bonets " of various shapes were worn. Boots reaching
to the middle of the thigh are frequently seen in the illuminations of the
period.

The hair was worn very bushy behind and at the sides. (Fig. 9.)
Very rich materials were used for the garments of nobles and others.

110

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 111.

MALE COSTUMES.

The costumes of the lower classes during this period followed the more
sober costumes of this and preceding- periods, the materials being- coarse and
the cut simple.

The costumes of the retainers of the nobility imitated those of their
masters, and were very often made of rich materials and in the extreme
fashion.

PLATE 37.

(Fig. : 1) The Crown of Henry IV., from his effigy in Canterbury
Cathedral, 1422. It is of beautiful proportion and workmanship. (Fig. 2) :
Brass of Ralph Segrym, M.P., Mayor, 1449, St. John's Church, Madder-
market, Norwich. This is a good example of civilian costume of the time,
the baggy sleeves being very typical. The cloak is fur-lined, and has a fur
collar, fastening with three buttons on the right shoulder. (Fig. 2a) : Head-
dress of the period, composed of a thick roll of stuff encircling the head like
a turban, having a quantity of cloth attached to its inner edge which covers
one side, while on the other side a broad band or becca of the same material
hangs down to the ground. (Harl. MS., 2,278.) (Fig. 3) : Male costume of
Henry IV. 's reign. (Harl. MS., 2,332.) The sleeves of the gown are very
wide, and are gathered tight around the wrist. The gown or tunic reaches
only to the knee, where it is scalloped in the form of leaves. Tight hose and
boots reaching above, the ankle complete the costume. The hair is parted
in the front and is curled at the sides. (Fig. 4) : An Exquisite of the reign
of Edward IV., wearing a characteristic peaked cap of the time, called a
bycocket, with a black crown and a white brim. His short, green jacket has
wide sleeves edged with ermine, and his chausses are red. (Fig. 5) : A hat
of the time of Henry VI., from Cough's Sepulchral Monuments. (Fig. 5a) :
Head of Duke of Bedford, from a portrait of the time of Henry VI., showing
the peculiar way in which the hair was worn in this and the preceding reign.
(Fig. 6) : Figure of Richard, Duke of Gloucester, afterward Richard III.
(From the Royal MS., 15 E. 4.) He is attired in the most fashionable dress
of the day. His red hat has a gold band and jewelled buttons to secure the
feathers. His crimson jacket is furred with deep red, is very short, and is
gathered in close folds behind, the sleeves being extremely long. He wears
the Garter around his left leg ; his hose are blue, and he has the fashionable
long-pointed shoe and the clog or patten over it. (Fig. 7) : Another form of
the bycocket hat. (Fig. 8) : Hat of black cloth with the long pendant
twisted around the neck. (Harl. MS., 4,379.) (Fig. 9) : Costume of th.?
time of Edward IV. (Royal MS., 15 E ii.)

112

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

Tig -.I

Fig: 8

Tiq 10

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 113

FEMALE COSTUMES.

(Plate 38— Page 112.)

Little change was made in the costumes of ladies during these periods,
but there was a more wonderful variety in the head-dresses — many of them
striking and even picturesque — than during any other century of English
history. In the early part of this period the crespine or golden net caul, into
which the hair was gathered (Fig. 12), partly covered by a veil, was verv
common. The hote-hardi was still very popular, but many ladies wore the
full outer garment or mantle, called the houppelande, buttoned high up to
the neck, with wide sleeves, and reaching down to the feet. (Fig. 4-.)

Long-trained gowns were also worn, with stomachers, trimmed with fur
and velvet, and these displaced the super-tunic. Fur was very extensively
used by all classes, to the great disgust and contempt of some contemporary
writers.

Sumptuary laws passed in the reign of Henry IV. prohibited " the wear-
ing of furs of ermine, lettice, pure minivers, or grey," by the wives of
esquires, unless they were noble themselves or their husbands held the office
of Mayor of certain towns.

In the reign of Henry VI. the previous fashions were continued, with
numerous fantastic additions. Towards the end of the reign, short-waisted
gowns were worn, girded tightly at the waist, with enormous trains and with
turn-over collars of fur or velvet coming to a point in front. Sleeves were
worn of all descriptions.

The different varieties of head-dresses were known as (1) the turban,
(2) the horned head-dress, (3) the heart-shaped head-dress, and (4) the forked
head-dress.

The Turban Head-dress (Fig. 7) was in fashion for some time, even con-
tinuing until the next century, and was probably based upon the Turkish
turban.

It consisted of a light framework of wire, covered with silk or other
rich material.

The Horned Head-dress (Fig. 6) was probably the most grotesque form
of head-dress worn in this reign. The cauls at the side of the head were
made very large, and horns, from which depended the veil, extended horizon-
tally on either side of the head. This came in for very severe condemnation
and satire by the writers of the time, being compared to the horns of the
snail, of the unicorn, of the hart, and even of the devil himself.

The horns were worn so large that in some places " it was judged neces-
sary to enlarge the doors of the apartments," and when entering a room the
wearers had " to turn aside and stoop."

U4 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

FEMALE COSTUMES.

The Heart-shaped Head-dress (Fig. 9) was formed by the cauls being-
made higher, so that the pad resting on them was pushed upward at the
sides, and the head-dress assumed the shape of a heart.

The Forked Head-dress (Fig. 10) was a variation of the horned head-
dress, in which the horns were placed vertically instead of horizontally.

The costumes of the reigns of the Yorkist Kings are very amply illus-
trated from the numerous effigies, brasses, and MSS., and from the newly
invented wood blocks used in the new art of printing.

The ladies' costumes of the reign of Edward IV. were modifications of
those worn in the reign of Henry VI., but they were very splendid and most
extravagant. The fashion of wearing tails to the gowns fell into disuse, and
in their room borders of velvet or fur were substituted. The gowns were
exceedingly short-waisted, and the dress was cut very low at the neck.

The Steeple Head-dress (Fig. 11), nick-named " the chimney pot,"
came into use during this reign. It was conical or pyramidal in form, and
was generally about three-quarters of an ell in height. It was placed on the
head at an angle of about 45 degrees from the vertical, and in order to lessen
the tension on the head, a kind of framework of wire netting was worn under
it. To the apex was affixed a veil, often of fine texture, sometimes reaching
to the ground.

Another peculiar form of head-dress was known as the Butterfly Head-
dress (Fig. 8), introduced about 1470 A.D. It appears to have been a modifica-
tion of the steeple head-dress, the cone being truncated, with wires arranged
:il)out it, to which wings of gauze veiling were affixed.

With this head-dress the hair was worn tightly drawn back from the
forehead.

'1 he ladies of the middle class did not adopt these extravagant fashions.
I ' hey wore caps of cloth " with two wings at the side like apes' ears."

By the sumptuary laws, wives of persons whose income was less than
.£40 a year were forbidden to wear girdles ornamented with gold and silver
work, or any " corse of silk " made out of the realm, or any coverchief
exceeding a certain price, or the furs of certain animals.

PLATE 38.

(Fig. 1) : Joice, Lady Tiptoft, from the brass in Enfield Church, Middle-
sex, 1446 A.D. She is shown wearing a horned head-dress of very moderate
proportions and very elaborately made. She wears- a cote-hardi and gown
trimmed richly with ermine. The brass, which is one of the finest of the
kind in England, shows the armorial bearings upon the cloak also. (Fig. 2) :

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 115

FEMALE COSTUMES.

Head-dress of a lady in the reign of Henry VI., with a veil or kerchief
attached to it. (Harl. MS., 6,4.31.) (Fig. 3) : Head-dress of a lady in the
reign of Henry V., from the eitigy of Catherine, Countess of Suffolk, showing
the golden caul at the sides of the head. (Fig. 4) : Female costume of the
reign of Henry V., showing the horned head-dress covered with a kerchief,
the short waist, and the gown with very wide trailing sleeves and high collar
called the houppelande. (Fig. 5) : Brass of Margaret, wife of William
Cheyne, 1419 A.D. , at Hever, in Kent, showing the horned head-dress, the
close-fitting dress, and the mantle fastened across the bosom. (Fig. G) :
Horned head-dress of the fifteenth century, from the effigy of Beatrice,
Countess of Arundel, in the church at Arundel. This is considered to be the
finest illustration of the horned head-dress in existence. (Fig. 7) : A turban
head-dress. (Harl. MS., 2,278.) (Fig. 8): Butterfly head-clress, from the
brass of Lady Say, in Broxbourne Church, Herts, 1473 A.D. (Fig. 9) : Heart-
shaped heacl-dress. (Froissart's Chronicles, Harl. MS., 4,379.) (Fig. 10) :
A forked head-dress with small hanging veil. (Harl. MS., 2,278.) (Fig. 11) :
Female costume of the reign of Edward IV., showing the steeple head-dress,
with kerchief fastened to the apex. The gown is very full, and both it and
the train are edged with ermine. The turn-over collar is also shown, and the
square-shaped under garment with lacing. (Harl. MS., 4,379.) (Fig. 12) :
Head of a lady, from a brass at Sawtrey, Hants, 1404 A.D., showing the
crespine or golden net caul wrorn by ladies of the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, with a small veil hanging down by the side of the face.

PLATE ARMOUR.

(Plate 39— Page 116.)

The various modifications in plate armour were such as were found
necessary for greater ease or for more perfect protection, and were of a
progressive character. In order to prevent confusion it is customary to
divide this period of 200 years into five lesser periods, the first three being
roughly coincident with the Lancastrian and Yorkist Periods, the remaining
two with the Tudor Period.

1st Period : 1410—1430. 2nd Period : 1430—1450. 3rd Period :
1450—1500.

1st Period : 1410 — 1450. This is also known as the surcoatless period,
as the polished breast and back plates were worn without any textile covering.

Before the Hundred Years' War had broken, out again in the reign of
Henry V. — just before Agincourt — the types of armour had completely
changed. Knights gave up the use of the camail and jupon, and were

116

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 117

PLATE ARMOUR.

clothed in complete armour. Additional protections were placed in front of
the armpits, as roundles or pallettes, resembling- small shields, and fan-
shaped plates were placed at the elbow joints. The basinet was made much
more globular in form, and a piece of plate called the gorget or neck-piece
took the place of the camail to connect the basinet with the body armour.
The lower part of the basinet, protecting the chin, was called the beaver (" I
saw young Harry with his beaver on." H. IV., Pt. 1), and was fastened by
rivets to the upper part near the temples. The basinet now rested on the
gorget, and was so arranged that the head could be turned to right and left.

The breast-plate was of globular form, and there was a corresponding
plate over the back. From the waist to the middle of the thigh, a series of
narrow, flexible, horizontal overlapping bands or plates of steel, called taces
or tassets, fastened to a lining of leather, were worn.

They thus formed a kind of armoured kilt or short steel petticoat. The
sword-belt was narrow, and was worn diagonally over the taces, and the
general form of the sword remained unaltered. The misericorde continued
to be worn on the right side. The hauberk was sometimes worn under the
plate armour, for the lower edge is sometimes shown in effigies and brasses.
All the details of the above description are shown in Fig. 1.

'2nd Period : 1430 — 1450. This is sometimes called the Tabard Period,
as a new variety of short surcoat called a tabard was worn with short
sleeves over the armour, bearing the heraldic devices of the wearer, em-
blazoned down the front and also on each sleeve.

The chief characteristic of the period with regard to the actual armour
was the system of adding strengthening or reinforcing pieces of plate to the
armour.

Over the flanks on each side, depending from the taces, a small plate,
varying in shape, called a tuille, was appended. It was fastened by strings
and allowed free movement of the limbs.

The sollerets or feet coverings became longer, and plates like those on
the shell of a lobster were added to the gauntlets to cover and protect the
backs of the hands.

Additional plates varying- in size and form, were fixed to the elbows and
shoulders on the ordinary armour.

It is interesting to note that the right arm and shoulder were accoutred
so as to interfere as little as possible with the action when fighting ; while the
left side and bridle arm were more fully protected with additional defensive
armour. Large reinforcing plates called pauldrons extended over the
shoulders, sometimes being made with a kind of standing collar to protect
the neck from a direct stroke.

118 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PLATE ARMOUR.

One of the finest specimens of the armour of this period is that on the
splendid bronze effigy of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick. (Figs. 2
and 3.)

The brilliant artist and archaeologist, Charles Stothard, when making-
drawings of the figure, found to his great delight that it was movable, and
that the armour on the back was represented and finished as perfectly as
on the front.

3rd Period : 1450 — 1500. During this period the practice of reinforcing
the armour continued, and great modifications were made in the existing
pieces. The armour became more extravagant in form, dimensions and
adornment.

Enormous fan-like elbow pieces were worn, and the pauldrons or
shoulder pieces were very large.

This period includes the Wars of the Roses, and is, therefore, of con-
siderable interest. It has been said that, before this time, arms and armour
were European rather than English, but in this period, for the first time
since the Norman Conquest, England was cut off from the rest of Europe,
and was free to develop along- her own lines.

Distinguishing and party badges, collars and devices were freely worn,
and incorporated with the arms during this period. The salacle, a light
helmet, was principally worn in the Wrars of the Roses.

The horses of knights in the tournament and on the battlefield were
sometimes as heavily armed as the riders. The horse's head was protected
by a chanjrein, or face-piece, and movable plates of steel, forming- the crinet,
covered the mane, while burnished shields or plates of metal were fixed on
the breast.

The weig-ht of armour was so great that, when a knight was unhorsed,
he was utterly helpless, and at the mercy of his opponent, as it was impos-
sible for him to rise without assistance, and the victor had only the trouble
of coolly selecting the best chink in the junctures in the armour in which to
insert his sword or his dagger. As James I. afterwards said of armour,
owing- to its g-eneral cumbersomeness, " It was an admirable defence, as ;t
hindered a man from being hurt himself or of hurting others."

PLATE 39.

(Fig. 1) : Brass of Sir John Lysle, Thruxton Church, Hampshire,
1407 A.D. This is the earliest example of complete plate armour in existence
in England, but the brass was probably made ten years after that date.
(1) Gorget; (2) Beaver; (3) Roundles; (4) Taces (8 in number) ; (5) Fan-

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 119

PLATE ARMOUR.

shaped coudieres. (Fig. 2) : Front view of bronze effigy of Richard Beau-
champ, K.G., Earl of Warwick, from his tomb in the Beauchamp Chapel,
Warwick. The Earl died 1439 A.D. , and the effigy was executed in 1453.
The following points will be noted : (1) The head is bare, and rests on a
crested helm; (2) the breastplate shoulder-guards are reinforced, the paul-
drons having low, upright neck defences ; (3) the coudieres, or elbow pieces,
are large, and of the same size on both arms ; (4) there are five taces, show-
ing a skirt of mail beneath them, and there are two large tuilles. (Fig. 3) :
Back view of the same. (Fig. 4) : A skull cap of steel, called a casquetel,
with large ear-pieces, of the reign of Edward IV. (Fig. 5) : Basinet of the
reign of Henry V. (Fig. 6) : Basinet from the Register Book of St. Albans,
A.D. 1417. It rises to a point, upon which is placed a hollow tube to receive
the panache, or crest of feathers, and has a movable visor. (Fig. 7) : Salade
with movable visor. (Fig. 8) : Round salade with a jewelled plume. (From
Rouse's Life of the Earl of Warwick.) (Fig. 9) : Effigy of Sir Thomas
Peyton, in Isleham Church, Cambridgeshire, of the reign of Richard III.
The grotesque form of the enormous fan-like elbow-pieces and the large
pauldrons reinforcing the shoulder armour are particularly noticeable. (Fig.
10) : Figure of Sir Robert Wingfield in complete armour, from a painted
window in East Herling Church, Norfolk, executed between 1461 and 1480.
He wears a tabard, with his " arms " blazoned on the front and on each
sleeve.

DECORATED ARCHITECTURE.

(Plates 40-41— Pages 122-124.)

A.D. 1300 to 1377. Reigns of Edward I., II., and III.

The transition from the Early English, or Lancet style, to the Decorated
was much more gradual than from Norman to Early English, so gradual
that it is impossible to draw a line where one style ceases and another begins.
There can be no doubt that in some parts of the kingdom, Early English was
in use at the same time that, in other districts, the Decorated style was
becoming general, and thus the terms adopted to denote the different periods
must not be taken as definite or as commencing or closing at any particular
date, but merely as indicating the broad classification of the styles and details,
and for associating them with particular reigns for convenience of study.
The divisions are arbitrary, but very convenient in practice. Structurally,
there was not a great change in the buildings, but there was a more har-
monious relation and development of all the architectural features in walls,

120 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

DECORATED ARCHITECTURE.

piers, buttresses, windows, etc., both with regard to their size and their
enrichment, and it was because of this general use of ornament or enrichment
that it is called the Decorated Period. ' It rivals the preceding style in
chasteness and elegance, while it surpasses it in richness."

Great progress was made in the reign of Edward I., and the Decorated
work exhibits the most complete and perfect development of the Gothic arch,
which in the Early English was not fully matured, and in the Perpendicular
began to decline.

It is remarkable for its geometric tracery, its natural types of foliage,
and the undulating character of line and form in its ornamental details.

Windows. — The most distinctive features of the Decorated style are its
large windows and its mouldings. The windows are the chief glory of the
14th century Gothic. They vary very considerably in size, in form and in
intricacy.

As the window arches became broader, mullions or vertical bars of
masonry were required for their support, dividing the windows into lights,
and the upper portions of these mullions were developed into tracery, forming
circles, trefoils, or other geometric figures, and, afterwards, flowing lines.

It has been shown how the grouping of lancet-shaped windows and the
piercing of the space above them, under the arched dripstone, had produced
" plate tracery." As the piercings became larger, narrow and irregularly
shaped surfaces of stone were left. These were pierced, and the intervening
piers of stone came to be shaped like the mullions ; in fact, became a con-
tinuation of the mullions. This development, which was reached before the
middle of the 13th century, is called "bar tracery." At first, this bar
tracery was plain ; then " cusps " (PL 40, Fig. 5), or projecting points, were
introduced on the inner edge of the mullions, and added greatly to the rich
effects. The earliest Decorated windows have tracery on a purely geometric
basis. Exeter Cathedral is considered the best typical example of the early
part of this style, and the existing windows were constructed at the end of
the 13th century. The Chapter-houses at York and Southwell are other rich
examples. Windows with flowing tracery are, in general, later than those
with geometrical patterns, though they are sometimes contemporaneous in
the same building.

No rule is followed in the form of the arch over windows in this style.
Some ^are very obtuse, others very acute, and the ogee, or double-curved
arch, is not uncommon.

Square-headed windows are very common in this style, in many parts of
the country, especially in Leicestershire and Oxfordshire. This form of
window was so very convenient that its use was never discontinued, though
it was more commonly used in houses and castles than in churches, and

lows with a flat curved top are frequently used. Circular or " Rose "

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 121

DECORATED ARCHITECTURE.

windows in churches and cathedrals are also a fine feature of this style.
Notable among these are the windows at the end of the south transept in
Lincoln and Westminster.

Pillars. — In ordinary parish churches the pillars are frequently as plain
as in the Early English Period, and are generally octagonal in cross sec-
tions, but in richer churches they are clustered, and no longer have detached
shafts. The bases of the columns are often lozenge-shaped, or a square set
diagonally, to allow the light to penetrate better into the body of the build-
ing. The capitals are. frequently octagonal or bell-shaped, and sometimes
they are merely moulded or decorated with the " ball flower " (PL 49, Fig. 9)
and the " four-leaved flower " (PL 49, Fig. 10). In the preceding style a
conventional form of foliage was employed to decorate the capitals. But in
the richer examples of this style they are decorated with beautiful foliage,
more faithfully copied from Nature ; the vine leaf, the maple leaf, the oak
leaf with acorns, the rose, and the ivy being most commonly imitated. The
foliage is twisted horizontally round the bell-shaped head, and does not shoot
up vertically from stiff or upright stems, as in the Early English. The bases
are usually moulded only, consisting of two or three rounds or roll-moulds,
and stand upon a plinth, the height of which varies very much.

Mouldings. — The mouldings of this style differ from those of the Early
English mainly in not having the rounds and hollows so deeply cut — a charac-
teristic feature being the introduction of fillets or small flat bands. The
deepest hollows, too, are found, not between each member, but between
groups of members.

They are always very effective, and are so arranged as to produce a
pleasing contrast of light and shade, which is softer and more blended than
in the Early English mouldings. (PL 41, Fig. 10.)

A moulding peculiar to this style is the " roll moulding " (PL 41, Fig. 7),
in which the upper half projects over the lower. The hollows are frequently
enriched with running foliage or with flowers at intervals, particularly the
" ball-flower " and the " four-leaved flower," which are typical ornaments of
this period.

The surface of the interior walls is often covered with flat foliage,
airanged in small squares, called diaper work. (PL 9, Fig. 11.) This kind
of ornament is found in the Early English choir at Westminster Abbey, but
belongs more commonly to the decorated style.

Crockets and Finials (PL 41, Fig. 8) introduced into the Early English
style, were now used with greater profusion, and were treated with great
richness.

The Doorways are frequently large and richly sculptured, but in small
churches they are frequently plain. In large doorways the arch is generally
pointed; in smaller ones it is generally an Ogee (PL 41, Fig. 9), an arch

122

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

<Plate 40.

Fig -. 9 Fig : 10

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 12'3

DECORATED ARCHITECTURE.

formed of a double curve, convex and concave, which came into general use
in this country in the fourteenth century. The mouldings are commonly
very rich.

The Arches do not differ materially in general effect from the Early
English ones; they are not so acute, but are distinguished by the
mouldings and caps as described above. In some cases the mouldings are
continued down the pier without the intervention of a capital, forming a com-
pletely moulded opening.

Arcades or series of arches, were used in richly decorated buildings to
ornament the walls. The sedilia or seats on the south side of the choir, near
the altar, for the officiating clergy, were usually decorated in this form.
(PL 41, Fig. 6.)

Groined roofs or vaults of this style are distinguished from those of the
preceding style, chiefly by the introduction of numerous extra or intermediate
ribs and groins and by the natural foliage richly carved on the base. Stone
groining is imitated in cases where it would not be safe to place the weight
of a stone roof on the walls.

Timber roofs of this period are comparatively rare, but those of domestic
halls appear to have been more enriched than those of churches. It should
be noted that what are called " timber roofs " are frequently inner roofs or
ceilings, built for ornament only, with a plain, substantial roof over them, as
at Sparsholt, Berks. (PI. 40, Fig. 6.)

Gargoyles, or grotesque waterspouts in the shape of monsters, are a
noticeable feature, and are for the purpose of throwing the rainwater clear
of the walls and buttresses.

The Buttresses in this period received great attention. They were pro-
portioned with distinct regard to their function. They are found in a great
variety of form and of degrees of richness, but they are almost invariably
worked in stages and are often ornamented with niches with crocketed
canopies originally containing images, and they often terminate in pinnacles.
(PI. 41, Fig. 5.)

The Clear-story and the Trtforium. — In large churches and cathedrals
the upper portion of the nave is lighted by *i row of windows called the Clear-
story or the Clere-story. Below these, in the unlighted space under the roof
of the aisle, is a row of unlighted arches called the Triforium or Blind-story.
The decoration of these was, of course, similar to that employed in the. other
windows and arches of this period.

PLATE 40.

(Fig. 1) : Decorated window from Meopham — an example of early
geometrical tracery with cusps. (Fig. 2) : Decorated window from St.
Mary's, Beverley, showing the manner in which the lines of the mullions were

124

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY 125

DECORATED ARCHITECTURE.

carried up to fill the head of the arch with flowing tracery. (Fig. 3) : Deco-
rated Piscina from Fyfield, Berks., c. 1300 A.D., showing geometrical
tracery with a crocketed pediment, pinnacles and a battlement. (A Piscina
was a water drain, consisting of a shallow basin or sink with a hole in the
bottom to carry oft the water with which the priest washed his hands. It
was placed near the altar, and was very common in the thirteenth and
succeeding centuries.) (Fig. 4=) : Square-headed window from Dorchester,
Oxfordshire, c. 1330 A.D. (Fig. 5) : Detail showing a cusp. (Fig. 6) :
Decorated timber (inner) roof at Sparsholt, c. 1350 A.D. (Fig. 7) : Clear-
story window splayed (widened on the inside to throw down the light), from
Barton, Northants, c. 1320 A.D. (Fig. 8) : Band of decorated ornament
from the triforium of the nave of St. Albans. (Fig. 9) : The Ball-flower, a
characteristic ornament used on mouldings in the Decorated Period, being
a globular flower half-opened. (Fig. 10) : The Four-leaved flower, another
characteristic ornament of the Decorated Period. (Fig. 11) : Diaper work
from Lincoln Cathedral.

PLATE 41.

(Fig. 1) : Decorated Capitals from the Chapter House, Southwell,
characteristic examples of the richly carved and clustered caps of the period.
(Fig. 2) : Decorated Flying Buttress from the spire at Caythorpe, c. 1320
A.D. (Fig. 3) : Decorated Capital of the Transition Period (between Early
English and Decorated). (Fig. 4) : Decorated Corbel Head or Mask. Such
an ornament was placed at the end of a stone rib or dripstone. (Fig. 5) :
Decorated Buttress, with a niche for an image, from St. Mary Magdalene,
Oxford, c. 1320 A.D. It is also ornamented with pinnacles and crockets.
(Fig. 6) : Sedilia from Chesterton, Oxfordshire, c. 1326 A.D., decorated with
the Ball-flower. (Fig. 7) : Roll moulding, very characteristic of the Deco-
rated Period — a moulding made up of two portions of circular mouldings, the
upper part larger than and projecting over the lower. (Fig. 8) : Decorated
finial with crockets (on the side of the slope), from Lincoln Cathedral. (A
finial is a bunch of foliage which terminates pinnacles, canopies, pediments,
etc.) Crockets are projecting leaves, etc., used in Gothic architecture to
decorate the angles of spires, canopies, pinnacles, etc. (Fig. 9) : An Ogee
arch, ornamented with crockets, from Beverley Minster, c. 1350 A.D. (Fig.

10) : Section of decorated mouldings from Bray, Berks, c. J300 A.D. (Fig.

11) : Piscina from Wilford Church, Notts. This illustration is given to
show how builders, in renovating a church, altered and adapted work of a
preceding style. When the church was enlarged in the fourteenth century
this piscina was placed near the altar. The upper part was formed of
portions of two small Norman arches taken from two dismantled windows.
These were roughly trimmed to form a pointed arch to be in keeping with
the " pointed " style. (After H.F.)

126 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

TUDOR PERIOD.

MALE COSTUMES.

(Plate 42— Page 128.)
Henry VII.

The male costumes of Henry VII. 's reign were not brilliant, and Henry
himself, on account of his miserly disposition, was very soberly dressed. His
conduct in this respect naturally influenced the whole nation, though there
were exquisites at this time, as there always will be, who dressed in a very
extreme fashion. Strutt says that at the end of the fifteenth century " the
dress of the English was exceedingly fantastical and absurd, insomuch that
it was even difficult to distinguish one sex from another "; but this referred
more particularly to the dress of the nobility and gentry.

The custom of " slashing " came into fashion at this time, and was
probably due to the desire to show the rich lining or embroidered shirt
underneath. The hood fell into disuse, and broad felt hats or caps and
bonnets of velvet and fur with large, drooping plumes became general
" among the great and gay." A square cap peculiar to this period is still
shown on the heads of the knaves on our playing cards.

A long gown, which was of varying proportions, girdled at the waist,
having wide sleeves, a lining of darker cloth, and open at the upper part to
display the inner vest, was a common and a dignified costume. (PL 42,
Fig. I.}

Embroidery was restricted to the under garments, the shirts being often
decorated on the collars and wrists with needlework. The costumes of
private gentlemen were plain and unobtrusive in their character. (Fig. 2.)

The pointed toes of the shoes gave place to very broad ones, termed
sabbatons (Figs. 10 and 11), and the hair was worn long and flowing, though
the face was still closely shaven, moustaches and beards being worn by
soldiers and old men only.

Chausses, which had been generally worn up to this period, began to
give place to the separate breeches and hose.

Henry VIII.

The costume of the gentry of the reign of Henry VIII. consisted of a
full-skirted and girdled jacket or doublet, with large sleeves at the wrist,
over which was worn a short, full coat or cloak with loose, hanging sleeves
and a broad collar or cape of fur— a brimmed cap, jewelled and bordered
with ostrich feathers— stockings, and square-toed shoes, with ruffles at the
wrist. An embroidered stomacher or vest was sometimes worn over the shirt
and under the doublet. The skirts of the latter reached sometimes to the
knees, but were often made shorter.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 127

MALE COSTUMES.

On the whole, there were no great innovations of male costume made
during the actual reign of Henry VIII., for the same fashions appear to
have continued during its whole extent.

Henry passed sumptuary laws regulating the use of the rarer furs,
velvets, satins, and damasks to certain classes of society, while the working
clases were confined to the use of cloth of a certain price and lamb's fur
only, and were forbidden to wear ornaments of gold, silver, or gilt work.
Stockings of silk are generally supposed to have been unknown in England"
before the middle of the sixteenth century, and Henry VIII. never wore
any hose but such as were made of cloth.

The upper portion of the coverings for the legs, called trunk hose, were
slashed, puffed, and embroidered, and were fastened by points or laces to
the doublet (so called from being made of double stuff with padding between).

They were made of velvets, satins, silks, and golden and silver stuffs.
The large sleeves and capes of the various garments were fastened to the
body of the dress by means of points or by buttons, and were separate articles
of apparel, and often of different colour from the remaining portion of the
garment.

The waistcoat was first mentioned in this reign, and was worn under
the doublet. Slashed shoes were also worn.

Henry VIII. gave orders for all his attendants and courtiers to wear the
hair short, and that, of course, became the fashion for men throughout
the land.

The pictures at Hampton Court representing episodes connected witli
the Field of the Cloth of Gold have been called " general pictorial en-
cyclopaedias " of the costume of this reign. The portrait of the Earl of
Surrey at Hampton Court is a good illustration of the costume of the nobilitv
during Henry's reign. He is represented in a short doublet, open at the
neck down to the waist, displaying an embroidered shirt. Round his waist
is a girdle with a dagger in a richly gilt case fastened to it. His jerkin is
made very broad at the shoulder (a characteristic of this reign) and wide at
the sleeves, which are gathered, puffed, and slashed.

He also wears full trunk hose reaching to the knees, tight stockings,
and a small, flat cap with feathers. His hair is cut short in the prevailing
fashion.

It is interesting to note that breeches were often spoken of as " sloppes,"
and a certain class of clothier's shop is still known colloquially as a " slop-
shop."

It was tin- custom at this time for people in the lower and middle classes
to bequeath their articles of dress in their wills.

128

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. £

MALE COSTUMES.

The apprentices of London wore blue cloaks in summer, and in the
winter gowns of the same colour. Their breeches and stockings were usually
made of white broadcloth. Generally speaking, a person's station in life was
well indicated by his dress.

Edward VI. and Mary I.

During the reign of Edward VI. the earnest desire to settle religious
questions introduced through the Reformation, and the persecution and con-
sequent national depression in the reign of Mary, are responsible for the fact
that the costumes were not extreme in these reigns, being plain and service-
able, and the rank being generally indicated more by richness of material
than by extravagance of style. In this reign was introduced the small, flat
bonnet or cap, worn on one side of the head, preserved to this day in the
caps of the boys of Christ's Hospital (which they should wear but do not).
Blue coats were the common habits of apprentices and serving men, and
yellow stockings were very generally worn at this period. Their whole dress
is, in fact, the prevailing costume of the grave citizens of London at the
time of the foundation of the school in the reign of Edward VI.

The flat cap was known as " the city flat cap," common to citizens, and
it was also known as " the statute cap " because Elizabeth afterwards
ordered that everyone should wear " one cap of wool knit, thickened, and
dressed in England," or be fined 3s. 4d. for each day's transgression.

The broad-toed shoe was put out of fashion by proclamation in the
reign of Mary.

The portrait of John Heywood, a citizen who was held in high esteem
by Mary, is a good example of the costume of citizens and merchants of
London in her reign. (Fig. 12.)

Elizabeth.

During this reign the change of costume, which had commenced in the
reign of Henry VIII., was completed, and was of that fantastic character
now known as " the Elizabethan costume."

Elizabeth, by her strong individuality, would not be content " with the
same garments her grandmother affected." She was fond also of pleasure
and display, and the richness of her costume and that of her ladies naturally
brought about a corresponding richness in the costume of the men.

Before this time, the English had been largely indebted to foreign
influences for their changes in dress, but now their costumes were largely
developed in this country, and the many extravagances and the numerous
changes caused considerable surprise to Continental nations.

J3Q PICTORIAL HISTORY.

MALE COSTUMES.

The innovations in dress were as bold as those in literature and the
drama, and corresponded to the daring and adventures of her soldiers and
sailors in far-off seas.

The trunk hose were of various kinds, " the French hose being round
and narrow and gathered into a series of puffs around the thighs. The
Gaily hose were made large and wide, reaching down to the knees only.
The Venetian hose reached beneath the knee to the gartering place of the
leg."

The doublet had a long waist, and both it and the trunk hose were
heavily slashed. A short cloak or mantle with a standing collar, a ruff, and
a hat with band and feathers, were also worn. At first the doublet was worn
tight-fitting, but later in her reign the " peascod-bellied " variety was intro-
duced. It is seen in the body dress of our old friend Punch, " whose
wardrobe of Italian origin dates as nearly as possible from this period."

It fitted the body tightly, and was carried down to a long peak in front,
whence it obtained the name " peascod," and it was stuffed or " bombasted "
to the required shape. Trunk hose were stuffed with wool, rags or bran, and
were made very large.

Fig. 13 is a good example of the dress of a nobleman of this period.

The hats had high crowns and broad brims. Beards, which had been
worn in the reign of Henry VIII., continued in the reign of Elizabeth.

PLATE 42.

(Fig. 1) : Male costume of the reign of Henry VII., " a fair specimen
of the general form of dress adopted by the gentlemen of the age. ' ' It was
difficult at this time to distinguish one sex by the dress from another. (From
Royal MS., 19, C 8, A.D. 1496.) (Fig. 2) : Costume of a gentleman of the
Early Tudor period, with a close-fitting hat to which is affixed long pendant
streamers of cloth. ' This figure is remarkable for its simplicity, and may
be received as the type of a gentleman -unspoiled by the foppery of extrava-
gance." (From Harl. MS. No. 4,425, A.D. 1479 (one of the last of the price-
less Illuminated MSS., and one of the chief authorities for the costume of the
earlier part of this reign. (Fig. 3) : Flat cap, which was the general head-
dress of men in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. (Fig. 4) : Hat
with plumes of feathers of the time of Henry VII. From the same MSS.
as Fig. 2.) (Fig. 5) : Hat of the Yeoman of the Guard, with three plumes,
from a contemporary picture. (Fig. 6) : Hat of the time of Elizabeth, from
a picture of her funeral. (Figs. 7 and 9) : " Copotain " hats of the time
of Elizabeth, from contemporary pictures (Fig. 8) : Another common form
of hat of the time of Elizabeth. (Figs. 10 and 11) : " Sabbatons," or shoes
with very broad toes, puffed and slashed, in fashion in the reign of

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 131

MALE COSTUMES.

Henry VIII. They were generally made of black velvet or leather with silk
in the slashings. (From contemporary sources.) (Fig. 12) : Ordinary
costume of the middle classes such as was worn by the citizens and mer-
chants of London. (From Hey wood's " Parable of the Spider and the Fly,'
1556 A.D. (Fig. 13) : Costume of a nobleman of the reign of Elizabeth. He
wears an immense ruff, " a peascod-bellied doublet," quilted or stuffed and
covered with slashes. He also has Venetian breeches, slashed like the
doublet, stockings of fine black yarn, and shoes of white leather. (From a
portrait of the reign of Elizabeth.) (Fig, 14) : Wide, stuffed breeches,
called " bombasted " trunk hose, worn about 1575 A.D. (From a woodcut
in f The Book of Falconrie." (Figs. 15, 16, and 17) : Different styles of
beards worn in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. " Each class of
the community trimmed their beards after a fashion indicative of their pur-
suits." (Fig. 15) : " Spade " beard of a soldier. (Fig. 16) : " Stiletto "
beard of a soldier. (Fig. 17) : " Great round beard." (All from con-
temporary engravings.)

FEMALE COSTUMES.

(Plate 43— Page 134.)
Henry VII.

The chief article of attire in female costume was the robe, which con-
tinued to be short waisted, and was worn with sleeves either of the variety
now known as Bishop's sleeves or wide and confined at intervals from the
elbow to the wrist. The waist was small, and the neck was cut square.
Stomachers, belts and buckles, or girdles with a long pendant in front were
also worn. A warm cloth hood was worn folded back from the face over thr
head in thick pleats behind, the edges being embroidered (Fig. 1) with gold
or coloured threads. Caps and cauls of gold net from beneath which, in the
case of unmarried ladies, the hair hung loose down the back, and various
other forms of head-dresses were generally in use. The horned head-dress
and the steeple cap disappeared, but the most striking novelty for the head
was the pediment or pyramidal-shaped hood worn perfectly white. (Fig. 4.)
The stiffness of this article is a characteristic feature of the costumes worn
by aged ladies, who frequently ended their lives in a convent, or, at any rate,
frequently adopted the conventual form of dress in their widowhood. Very
numerous examples of this head-dress exist in effigies and brasses, the bands
being frequently edged with pearls and ornamented with precious stones.
It continued in use for about fifty years.

Henry VIII.

No great changes took place in female costume during this reign, but
there were considerable modifications in the forms of head-dresses. We have

132 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

FEMALE COSTUMES.

in existence the portraits (painted by Holbein) of the six wives of this fickle
monarch, and they give us a good idea of the fashions of women of high
degree during his reign of thirty-eight years.

The new articles worn were the habit-shirt or " partlet " and the waist
coat. The former sometimes had sleeves, and was made of rich materials.
The waistcoat was similar to that of the men.

The gowns of noble ladies were magnificent, and were made open to the
waist, showing the kirtle or petticoat, and had trains. Ladies' sleeves were
made wide and separate, like those of the men, and could be attached at will
to either gown or waistcoat. They were of very rich material, very gorgeous
in colour and elaborate in construction.

The dresses of women of the middle classes were sober in this reign.
They wore close hoods, and wore partly over their faces a muffle — an article
that became very fashionable and remained in use among elderly women until
the reign of Charles I. (Fig. 3.)

The coif or cap, familiarly known as the Mary Queen of Scots' cap,
came into use in this reign. (Fig. 12.)
Edward VL and Mary.

Female costumes were the same as in the previous reign. The ordinary
dresses of the commonalty were plain ; a hood or cloth cap and apron with
close collar and tight sleeves with a small puff at the shoulders were worn
(Fig. 6.)

Elizabeth.

Elizabeth was inordinately fond of dress and display, and from the por-
traits of her in existence we see very clearly the height of the fashions of
her reign.

At the commencement the costumes passed through a transition period.
Ladies copied men's fashions by having doublets and jerkins as the men had
buttoned up at the breast with a small ruff about the neck. The skirts at
this time were only padded to a slight extent at the hips.

Unmarried women wore low-necked dresses even out of doors at this
time.

About the middle of Elizabeth's reign the great change took place which

gave female costume of the sixteenth century its remarkable character.

ihzabeth herself was long waisted and narrow chested, and in this costume

waCs wo™™" .'mpns°"ed, n whalebone to the Kips, while an enormous ruff

hXhTo "'thr Tf^W f£m the fr°nt °f the ShOU'derS to near'y the
height of the head behind. From the bosom, partly bare descended the

°ZSf"r> T ?,-h S\de °f Wh!ch jU«ed outPhorfzonta,ly the enormou
of mc!-e recent t[mr?Ple'-a c°Jnstructio" of hoops similar to the crinoline

back and ha «T fi ^ected m°re at the sides than in fro"t or at the
-k, a had a dwarfing effect on the height of the figure. (Fig 10 )

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 133

FEMALE COSTUMES.

The cap or coif was occasionally exchanged for a round bonnet like that
of the men, or the hair was dressed with many curls and adorned with ropes
and stars of jewels or feathers. About the middle of her reign, Elizabeth
herself wore false hair, and this fashion was taken up by the ladies of her
court, so that it was made possible to build the hair up to a great height.
As Elizabeth's hair was yellow it was very fashionable to dye the hair the
same colour as the Queen's.

The ruff, which was so important a feature of the costume of the period,
made its appearance in England during Elizabeth's reign, and it reached its
greatest size about 1580 A.D. After the end of the century it began to
decrease in size.

Ruffs were now made of lawn and cambric, but originally they had been
made of holland. The employment of these lighter materials necessitated
the use of starch for stiffening. But as there was no one in England who
could starch or stiffen them, the Queen sent to Holland for some women to
come over as " starchers of ruffs." One Dutch woman who came over
taught the art of starching at a fee of £4 to £5 for each pupil, and 20s. in
addition for teaching them how to make the starch.

One of the writers of the time complains loudly of the practice of starch-
ing, saying : " The devil hath learned them to wash and dive their ruffs,
which being dry will then stand stiff and inflexible about their necks."

The starch was made of different colours — white, red, blue, and purple
In order that the enormous ruffs might remain in their original position,
they were supported by frameworks of wire called ff supportasses/' covered
with gold thread, silver, or silk. (Fig. 7.)

In 1579 Elizabeth issued orders that long cloaks should not be worn,
" nor such great excessive ruffles." It was in this reign that William
Lee, M.A., a Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, invented a stocking
frame, and worked with it at Calverton, a village near Nottingham. There
was considerable opposition to him and his machine from the other hosiery
manufacturers, and he left this country to take up his abode in Rouen.

Stockings were worn of " silk, jarnsey, cruel, or the finest yams, thread,
or cloth that could be had, and they were of all colours."

Ladies' shoes were of many colours and of many fashions. " Some of
black velvet, some of white, some of green, and some of yellow; some of
Spanish leather, some of English, stitched with silk and embroidered with
gold and silver all over the foot."

When riding abroad, ladies wore masks and visors of velvet with holes
for the eyes.

They wore much jewellery, and perfumed gloves embroidered with gold
and silver, and they carried looking-glasses about with them wherever they
went.

134

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

Pl*te43,

Fig; I

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 135

FEMALE COSTUMES.

PLATE 43.

(Fig. 1) : Costume of a lady of the early part of the reign of Henry VII.
The warm cloth hood took the place of the gauze veil on the head-dress, and
it was folded back from the face and pleated behind. The gown was open
from the neck to the waist behind, and was laced up. No girdle was worn.
The fulness of the sleeves and of the garment generally give a very heavy
appearance to the figure. (Fig. 2) : Another view of a similar cloth head-
dress. Figs. 1 and 2 are copied from Royal MS., 16 F 2. (Fig. 3) : Head
of a female figure of the reign of Henry VII., showing the face partly
covered by a muffler, which became very fashionable and was in use among
elder women up to the reign of Charles I. (Fig. 4) : Pediment, pyramidal,
or diamond-shaped head-dress of the reign of Henry VIII., from a portrait
by Holbein. (Fig. 5) : Head of " Cicely Page, who died ye XIIth daye of
March, Anno 1598," and is buried in Bray Church, Bucks, from her effigy.
" The plain hat, ruff, and open-breasted gown are a good specimen of part
of the dress of a country lady at the end of Elizabeth's reign." (Fig. 6) :
Female figure showing dress worn by a woman of the citizen class in the
time of Edward VI., from a picture showing his progress from the Tower to
Westminster. A cloth cap is worn with a border hanging round the neck,
and a gown with close collar and tight sleeves, the latter with small puffs
on the shoulders. (Fig. 7) : Back view of a ruff as worn in the middle of
Elizabeth's reign, copied from a Dutch engraving of the period, showing the
l( supportasse " or under prop of wire to keep the ruff in its original position.
(Fig. 8) : Head of a female figure from the tomb of Sir Roger Manwood,
1592, in St. Stephen's Church, near Canterbury, showing the French hood
as worn during the latter part of Elizabeth's reign. (Fig. 9) : Pyramidal
head-dress taken from a portrait of the Lady Mary, afterwards Queen
Mary I., by Holbein. The broad hands which are seen hanging down in
Fig. 4 are here looped up on either side of the head, and the bag-like portion,
which formerly hung down the back, is also brought up to the top of the
head and fastened there. (Fig. 10) : Costume of a lady worn about the
middle of Elizabeth's reign, from the print by Vertue representing the progress
of Elizabeth to Hunsdown House. This shows the enormous ruff and the
huge, ungainly-looking " fardingale," and the long stomacher brought low
down to a peak in front. (Fig. 11) : Costume of a lady of quality, 1588,
from Caspar Ruiz, during the latter part of Elizabeth's reign. The ruff is
here reduced to small dimensions, and the whole costume is much more
graceful than the grotesque figure shown in Fig. 10. (Fig. 12) : Brass of
Anne Rede, who died 1577, showing a ruff of ordinary size and a French
hood often spoken of as a Marie Stuart bonnet.

136 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PLATE ARMOUR.

(Plate 44— Page 138.)

(About 1500 A.D. to about 1600 A.D.)

4th Period, about 1500 A.D. to about 1526 A.D. — Armour had now
reached a great pitch of perfection. How perfect it was may be judged from
the fact that in many of the battles very few knights were slain.

Their greatest danger lay in being unhorsed and ridden over, and of
being slain while lying helpless on the ground. After a battle, the camp
followers and servants of the victors flocked about the men-at-arms who
had been overthrown, and slew most of them by breaking open the " vizards"
of their head-pieces and then cleaving their heads.

At the beginning of the sixteenth century the pointed sollerets gave place
to the broad-toed sabbatons (Fig. 1), cut off square or rounded at the toes,
following as in former times the fashion of the shoes in civil costume. The
breastplate was globular in form and narrow at the waist. A regular skirt
of chain mail was added now to the knightly costume, reaching half-way
down the thigh below the lowest part of the tuilles.

They were probably found more convenient to horsemen than solid plates
of overlapping steel (Fig. 1). Armour generally became more massive, and
the enrichment and ornamentation were very elaborate.

During the reign of Henry VIII. the helmets took the form of the head,
and had flexible, overlapping plates of steel covering and protecting the
neck. They were called Armets, and were worn with and without face-pieces.
As in earlier times, we find in pictures of the period a great variety of
fashion and great divergence both of arms, and armour brought together
in the same troop of warriors. The halberd, first mentioned in the reign of
Edward IV., was now a weapon in common use with the infantry (Fig. 5).
The hand gun or cannon was also first generally known in England during
the reign of Edward IV. It was now improved by the addition of a lock,
and was called an arc-a-bousa, corrupted into arquebus, and was familiarised
to the English by Henry VII.

5th Period, about 1525 A.D. to about 1600 A.D. — During this period " all
the rich and fanciful fertility of invention which distinguished the artists of
the sixteenth century was lavished on the enrichment and ornamentation of
armour," while as actual protective covering its value began to decline. It
must be remembered that " armour used on the battlefield was much lighter
and less complete than that used in the tournament, where protection to the
was more considered than his ability to hurt his opponent." In the
K T;°ndon there is> among others, a suit of armour given to Henry
. by the Emperor Maximilian as a wedding present on the occasion

wearer

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 137

PLATE ARMOUR.

of his marriag-e to Katherine of Arragon, which is considered to be one of
the finest in existence. The badges (roses, pomegranates, portcullis, etc.)
of Henry and of Katherine, with their initials united by a true-lovers' knot,
are engraved on it, and it is also elaborately ornamented and covered with
engravings from the Lives of the Saints.

The greatest innovation in the armour of this period was the introduc-
tion of the lamboy (Fig. 7) or outstanding steel skirt, which took the place
of tacas and tuilles, and covered the body from the waist to the knees in
fluted folds ribbed vertically, giving it much' the appearance of an inflated
petticoat. It was sloped away before and behind to allow the wearer to sit
with more ease in the saddle. The pauldrons or shoulder-pieces were made
very large, and the shield was also elaborately shaped and curved to form
an outer armour for the protection of all the left side of the body. Instead
of the shield, however, an additional piece of armour called the grande-garde
was sometimes screwed to the breastplate to protect the left side and shoulder,
while the great spear had also a piece of armour fixd in front of the grasp,
which not only protected the hand, but was large enough to make a kind
of shield for the left arm and breast. The tilting helmet disappeared
altogether about this period, and the head-piece was adorned with streaming
plumes. The armour generally, by its being fluted and laminated and puffed,
imitated the costume of the time.

But all over the continent of Furope, as well as in England, leaders of
experience were finding out that armour was useless and cumbersome ; »n
fact, it was becoming a questionable kind of protection. It was said that
many soldiers at thirty years of age were practically deformed or broken
down in health through the habit of constantly wearing armour. Presently
the troopers took the matter in their own hands by not commencing to put
on their armour until the moment of battle, and then, not having time to
arm themselves, they went into battle with their buff leather or padded
jackets as their only protection.

In the reign of Elizabeth, when long-waisted doublets and short trunk
hose became the fashion, the armour was considerably modified. The cuirass
or breastplate was made long waisted, copying the doublet, ridged and
brought to a peak in front known as the " peascod." The front of the thigh
was protected by laminated thigh pieces, which passed under the trunk hose,
while the lower part of the leg was protected by knee-caps and jambarts or
shin-pieces.

Buckled to the rim of the cuirass, and hanging down over the trunk
hose, were two large tassets, the most characteristic feature of Elizabethan
armour. They consisted of a number of hinged plates fastened to one
another ; they are usually rounded off at the knees and fastened to th*>
breeches by leather straps.

138

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

<g>

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 139

PLATE ARMOUR.

The pauldrons upon the shoulders were also large, but there were no
ridges or guards, and they consisted of several plates riveted together. They
were generally lined with leather. The helm was a close Armet, but very
frequently the Morion (Fig. 3), which was a variety of the salade, was worn.

The foot soldiers of the period were armed with a breast and back plate,
and with tassets reaching to the knees. The swords of the time commonly
had guarded or basket hilts. The pike was introduced into this country in
the reign of Henry VIII., and became the common weapon for infantry up
to the time of William III.

In the reign of Elizabeth, the armour seldom came lower than just
below the hip, and complete suits were used only for the tournament.

The brass of Humphrey Brewster illustrates well the armour of the
Elizabethan Period described above. (Fig. 10.)

PLATE 44.

(Fig. 1) : Brass of " Richard Gyll, squyer, late sergeant of the bakehous
wyth Kyng Henry the VII. and also wyth Kyng Henry the VIII.," in
Shottesbrooke Church, Hampshire, A.D. 1511. This shows the type of
armour in use at the end of the reign of Henry VII. There are high ridges
on the shoulder-pieces, very simple elbow-pieces, four narrow faces around
the waist, with two small turtles' over a tunic of mail. The broad toes of the
sabbatons are also shown. (Fig. 2) : Morion of the reign of Elizabeth,
A.D. 1560. (Fig. 3) : Another morion of the same reign from the Tower of
London. (Fig. 4) : Armet with crest of Sir George Brooke, K.G. , 8th Lord
Cobham, from his tomb in Cobham Church, Kent, 1480-1500. (Fig. 5) :
Halberd of the time of Henry VIII., the cutting edge being shaped like a
half-moon. The staves of these weapons were often covered with velvet
studded with brass-headed nails. (Fig. 6) : Partisan (a variety of the pike)
of the same period, with the side blades sharp on both edges. (Fig. 7) :
Lamboys from the armour presented by the Emperor Maximilian to Henry
VIII., now in the Tower of London. (Fig. 8) : Breast and back plates of
the " peascod " form, from about 1580 A.D. (Fig. 9) : English armet,
about 1500 A.D. (Fig. 10) : Brass of Humphrey Brewster, in Wrentham
Church, Suffolk, 1593 A.D. This is typical of Elizabethan armour. The
laminated shoulder pieces are particularly noticeable, nearly meeting over th»:
cuirass; the long tassets of over-lapping, hinged steel plates reaching to
and rounded off at the knees, the basket form of sword hilt and the long-
waisted peascod form of the breast plate are very characteristic. The tassets
were generally lined with leather, and the scalloped edges, forming an orna-
mental border, are plainly shown.

140

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 14!

PERPENDICULAR ARCHITECTURE.

(Plates 45-46— Pages 140-142.)

The Transition from Decorated to Perpendicular architecture is not so
apparent at first sight as between the other styles ; but it may be traced
quite clearly. The change was seen in the choir and transepts of Gloucester
Cathedral before the middle of the fourteenth century.

This Transition begins the decline of Gothic architecture from the perfect
and symmetrical Decorated to the style which showed more elaborate and
richer work, but was wanting in the elegant effect for which the Decorated
Period stands unequalled. The Perpendicular Period is very much the longest
in point of time, extending, as it did, over 170 years.

The name is both descriptive and appropriate to the style, and the chief
instrument by which this effect is produced is the straight-sided, shallow,
sunk panelling. In previous times the panel had been used but sparingly,
but now the whole surface, inside and outside, was covered with it. The
beautiful flowing tracery of the Decorated Period was supplanted by the
mullions, running, as a rule, straight up from the sill to the window top.
The spaces between were frequently divided and subdivided by similar
perpendicular lines, so that perpendicularity is most distinctly the character-
istic of these windows. In fact, by this subdivision the windows became
simply an arrangement of panels, pierced to let in the light. As the tendency
of the Perpendicular style is to employ the vertical line at the expense of the
horizontal, a general squareness spread from the characteristic tracing and
panelling to the other features and details.

In the later examples of this period the arches of the windows and door-
ways became flattened, and the four-centred Tudor arch, so called because
it was formed of curves described from four centres (PI. 45, Fig. 4), began
to be extensively used, until all beauty and proportion were lost, and stiffness
and squareness became the striking characteristics of this style. The later
windows had frequently great width in proportion to their height, and they
were placed so near together that the wall space was reduced and thi-
strength of the building entirely depended upon the buttresses.

The windows were originally filled with painted glass, and the pane!
form of the subdivision lent itself admirably to this decoration.

Square-headed Windows (PI. 45, Fig. 6) are frequent in this style, and
the doorways were generally set in a square frame (Fig. 4), though many ot
the later doorways are frequently very rich in the decoration over them.

The foliage employed in this style, by reason of its squareness, is much
less beautiful than that of the Decorated Period. It has neither the vigour
and beauty of the Early English nor the imitative skill of the Decorated. It
is angular, shallow, and often wooden in appearance.

142

PICTORIAL HISTORY

fig:9

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 143

PERPENDICULAR ARCHITECTURE.

An ornament used very extensively during this period was the so-called
" Tudor ornament." (PL 45, Fig. 7, and PI. 46, Fig. 7.) It is founded on
the fleur-de-lis alternate with a trefoil or ball, but although poor in invention,
has frequently a very rich effect, as in Henry VII. 's chapel at Westminster.

Perpendicular mouldings differ much from those of the preceding styles,
and show a marked falling off. They are, in general, shallower, having more
breadth and less depth. In arches they are often carried down to the ground
without any capitals or columns. In country churches the mouldings are
often feeble or coarse and clumsy.

The Capitals of the columns are either circular or octagonal. The bell
portion is mostly plain, but is sometimes curved, with foliage of a shallow
and formal character, twisted horizontally round it. Particularly in the
churches of Devonshire this foliage is found, and it is often spoken of,
consequently, as " Devonshire foliage."

The Buttresses are similar to those of the preceding style, but arc
frequently panelled and project more from the wall.

Many churches were built in the Perpendicular style, and the majority of
early churches were either enlarged or rebuilt during this period, so that it
is the prevailing characteristic English style, and there are comparatively
few churches which do not display some features belonging to it.

The redeeming features of the Perpendicular style are its towers, its
elaborate stone vaultings, and its timbered roofs.

The towers are often extremely rich, and are ornamented very elabor-
ately, having four or five storeys of large windows with rich canopies and
pinnacles, double buttresses at the bottom, and rich parapets with crocketed
turrets at the corners. One of the most beautiful is that of Magdalen
College, Oxford.

Parapets with square battlements become an important feature. They
are often panelled or pierced with tracery, which frequently contains shields
with armorial bearings and heraldic devices. A very rich form of vaulting-
was frequently used, composed of inverted, curved semi-cones covered with
foliated panel work. When seen from below, these present a fan-like appear-
ance, and the work received the name of " fan-tracery." (PL 46, Fig. 1.)
One of the richest examples of it is Henry VII. 's Chapel at Westminster
Abbey, where an almost incredible point was reached in the lightness and
delicacy of its lace-like stonework.

During the fourteenth century carpentry had been brought to a high
pitch of perfection. Timber roofs reached their highest development in
what is known as the Hammer-beam roof. (PL 46, Figs. 5, 6.)

In this, a bracket called the Hammer-beam (PL 46, Fig. 5 H) rests on
the top of the wall and projects into the building, to strengthen the latter
and to diminish the lateral pressure that falls on the walls. This form of roof

144 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PERPENDICULAR ARCHITECTURE.

lends itself to a highly decorative treatment, the finest example being that of
Westminster Hall (in the Houses of Parliament), erected in the reign of
Richard II.

PLATE 45.

(Fig. 1) : Perpendicular window from St. Mary's, Devizes, Wilts., about
1450 A.I). (Fig'- 2) : Perpendicular window from the Clerestory, York
Minster, A.D. 1361-1408. (Fig. 3) : Perpendicular capital with Devonshire
foliage, from Stoke-in-Teignhead, Devonshire, about 1480 A.D. (Fig. 4) :
Perpendicular doorway from St. Peter's, Chester. (Fig. 5) : Panelled but-
tress from the Divinity School, Oxford, about 1450 A.D. (Fig. 6) : Per-
pendicular square-headed window from Christchurch College, Oxford. (Fig.
7) : Perpendicular battlements, panelled and decorated with the " Tudor
flower," from S. Lavenham, Suffolk. (Fig. 8) : Part of arch from St.
Agnes', Cawston, Norfolk, showing a crocket (A) and cusping (B).

PLATE 46.

(Fig. 1) : Fan tracery from St. Stephen's Cloister, Westminster Hall.
(Fig. 2) : Perpendicular capitals and foliage from Beverley Minster, York-
shire. (Fig. 3) : Base of Perpendicular column from the Lady Chapel, Win-
chester, about 1460 A.D. (Fig. 4) : Section of Perpendicular moulding from
St. Mary's, Oxford, 1488 A.D. (Fig. 5) : Section showing1 construction of
Hammer-beam roof. H, H, hammer beams ; R, R, rafters. (Fig. 6) :
Portion of the Hammer-beam timber roof from St. Stephen's Church,
Norwich. The Eastern counties are particularly rich in these fine timbered
roofs. (Fig. 7) : The " Tudor flower " ornament from Henry VII. 's Chapel
in Westminster Abbey. (Fig. 8) : Plan of oblong Perpendicular pillar.
Oblong pillars are common in large buildings. (Figs. 9 and 10) : Base of
Perpendicular columns. (Fig. 11) : Carved Perpendicular ornament from
the (wooden) screen at High Ham.

STUART PERIOD (To William III).
MALE COSTUMES.

(Plate 47— Page 148.)
James I.

Little change was made in the early part of this reign from the costumes
worn at the end of Elizabeth's reign. The peascod doublet, the conical-
crowned hat, and the large trunk hose, also called " bombasted breeches,"
slashed quilted, stuffed, and laced, were worn as before. (Fig. 10.) The
cowardly despotism of James led him to guard his person, at all times

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 145

MALE COSTUMES.

awkward and ungainly, with quilted and padded clothing- in order that it
might be dagger-proof. The " great round abominable breech," as the
satirists termed it, now tapered to the knee, and was slashed all over and
covered with lace and embroidery, as shown in Fig. 10, which represents his
Majesty, in 1614. Corsets were also worn at this time to give the required
shape to the upper part of the body.

The hat of the period, a truncated cone, will also be noticed, with a
feather at the side and turned-up brim. It was frequently ornamented with
precious stones. With regard to the bombasted breeches, an amusing tale is
told of a man who was being prosecuted at this time for having his breeches
stuffed with prohibited articles, but he was acquitted because he proved to
the satisfaction of his judges that his stuffing " consisted merely of. a pair
of sheets, two tablecloths, ten napkins, four shirts, a brush, a glass, a comb,
and n night-cap. ' '

The ruff was sometimes exchanged for a wide, stiff collar, standing out
horizontally and squarely, and starched and wired as usual, but plain instead
of pleated, and it was sometimes edged, like the ruff, with lace. These
collars were called " bands," and were usually stiffened with yellow starch.

A slight alteration in costume was made in James's reign. Short
jackets or doublets were worn, and the trunk hose, instead of being slashed
and laced, were covered with broad, loose strips, richly embroidered or
adorned with buttons, displaying the silk or velvet trunk in the narrow
intervals between the strips (see Plate 50, Fig. 1, which shows Prince Henry,
the eldest son of James I.).

The clothes of the nobles were very gorgeous, being made of silk and
velvet, and ornamented with lace, gold and gems. It was said that George
Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, a favourite of James I., had a white velvet
suit, decorated with diamonds valued at fourteen thousand pounds. Silk,
worsted, and thread stockings were now almost universally worn.

In a comedy written in 1607, a gentleman's wardrobe is thus enumerated :
" A cloak lined with rich taffeta, a white satin suit, the jerkin covered with
gold lace, a chain of pearl, a gilt rapier in an embroidered hanger, pearl-
coloured silk stockings, and a pair of massive gilt spurs."

Pure white costumes of silk, velvet, or cloth were very fashionable at
this time.

Jewels were sometimes worn in the ears of gentlemen, and they also had
a custom of allowing a long lock of hair, called a fl love-lock," to hang over
upon the breast (Fig, 2).

The costume of a yeoman of the period consisted of a narrow-brimmed
hat with flat crown, a doublet with large wings and short skirts, a girdle
about his waist, trunk breeches, with hose drawn up to the thigh and
gartered below the knees.

146 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

MALE COSTUMES.

Charles I. and the Commonwealth.

It is said that the male costumes in this reign were " the most elegant
and pictursque ever worn in England." The characteristic costume worn by
Charles in his portrait by Vandyke is often spoken of as the Vandyke costume
and was introduced about the middle of his reign. In the earlier part, the
fashions of his father, James L, were continued! The change from the
" bombasted " or stuffed breeches to the elegant costume of this reign is
ascribed to the refined tastes of Charles and his Queen, and also to the fact
that the size of the stuffed breeches made it impossible for gentlemen to find
seating accommodation at masques, etc., when each spectator took up the
place of three persons in a rational attire.

At the commencement of the Civil War, the Royalist party or Cavaliers,
and the Republican party or Roundheads, were as opposite in their costumes
as they were diverse in their opinions.

' The Cavalier's costume consisted of a doublet of rich materials, silk,
satin, or velvet, with large, loose sleeves, slashed up the front, the collar
covered with a falling band of the richest point lace. A short cloak was
worn carelessly over one shoulder. Long breeches, fringed or pointed, met
the broad tops of the boots, which were trimmed with lace or lawn. A
broad-leaved Flemish beaver-hat with a rich hat-band and plume of feathers,
was set on one side of the head, and a Spanish rapier hung from a mag-
nificent baldrick or sword belt, worn sash-wise over the right shoulder."

In the troubled times of this reign, the silk or velvet doublet was often
exchanged for a richly-laced buff (leather) coat. A broad sash or satin scarf
was tied round the waist in a large bow.

The beard was worn very peaked, with small, upturned moustache, and
the hair was long in the neck, and sometimes powdered.

The extravagant costume worn by some is shown in Fig. 2, which
depicts an exquisite of 1646. Among the most noticeable features in this
costume are the " love-locks," tied with ribbon, on either side of the head
(which were a special abomination to the Puritans), the patches on the face,
and the shirt protruding from the partly-open vest, the short breeches
' ornamented with many dozens of points at the knees, and, above them,
on either side, two great bunches of ribbon, of several colours."

The tops of his boots are very large, fringed with lace, and turned
down almost to the heels.

Very different from this figure was that of the Roundhead, with close-
cropped hair, clothes of extreme simplicity, severe cut, and sober colours, as
shown in Fig. 4

t It will be gathered from the foregoing remarks that the dress of the
various classes of the community presented a considerable mixture.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 147

MALE COSTUMES.

When Cromwell was in power, the general tendency was towards plain-
ness of attire.

Charles II.

When Charles II. ascended the throne, at the Restoration, great extrava-
gance and folly were shown by his courtiers in their costume, after the stern
rule of the Puritans, and many few fashions were introduced from France,
where Charles had resided for so long a time. This was " the natural re-
action after twenty years of uncertainty, 'gloom, and fanatical oppression.
The doublet was made very short, open in front, without any waistcoat, show-
ing a rich shirt, which bulged out in front over the waistband of the loose
breeches, the latter, as well as the large, full sleeves, being ornamented with
ribbons and points or laces."

Beneath the knee hung long, drooping lace ruffles, and a falling collar of
the richest lace enveloped the neck. A high-crowned hat, with a broad brim
and a plume of feathers, still preserved its cavalier character. A short cloak,
edged deep with gold lace was usually worn or carried over the arm. But the
practice of copying French fashions gave rise to the monstrous " periwig/'
a corruption of " perruque " or " peruke." (Fig. 3.)

The periwig had, however, been worn in England for many years, but
did not become fashionable until this reign.

With its introduction, there came a change in the form of the hat.
" Down went the crown, and up went the brim at the sides," and a kind of
ruche of feathers replaced the waving plume of the Cavalier. This was, in
fact, the first step towards the cocked hat of the 18th century.

A garment called the " petticoat breeches " was introduced into England
in 1658." These are well illustrated in Figs. 6, 7, and 8 (from a drawing
about 1658). The doublet, or jacket, which, in the early part of the reign,
barely reached to the waist, was' now lengthened, reaching the middle of the
thighs, with sleeves to the elbows, terminated by rows and bunches of
ribbon, from under which bulged forth the sleeves of the shirt, ruffed, and
adorned also profusely with ribbons. When buttons and button holes were
added down the front, it became a coat.

Neckcloths or cravats, of Brussels and Flanders lace, came into use
towards the close of the reign, being tied in a knot, with the ends hanging
down (Fig. 5).

The sober citizen of London was dressed in black coarse woollen,
breeches, a broad skirted doublet, a girdle about the middle, and a short
black coat. A broad-brimmed hat, with a great twisted hat-band, with -i
rose at the end of it, completed his costume, and the natural hair was worn
uncovered by a wig.

148

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

f i^.-e Tig. 7. Fig.- 8

Fig .-14.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 149

MALE COSTUMES.

James II. and William III.

There were few novelties in civil costumes during these reigns. The
petticoat breeches were exchanged for those tied beneath the knee. The
periwig became more monstrous, and it was the fashion for the beau to comb
his wig in public just as a modern gallant would twirl his moustache.

Gentlemen appeared in little, low hats, with a bow at the side; and long
coats and waistcoats were worn, with rows of buttons down the front,
breeches, moderately wide, reaching to the knee, close stockings, and high-
heeled shoes, with roses or buckles (Fig. 15).

The full-bottomed wig was worn by the learned professions. The broad
brims of the hats were frequently turned up on two sides, and were orna-
mented with feathers or ribbons. " To turn up the brim or flap of the hat
was to ' cock ' it ; the mode following the custom of the Duke of Monmotith
was called ' the Monmouth ' cock."

The broad, falling bands around the neck were replaced by small Geneva
bands, similar to those now worn by barristers.

PLATE 47.

(Fig. 1) : Costume of a gentleman of the time of Charles I., from a con-
temporary print. (Fig. 2) : An exquisite of 1646, from a rare broadside,
entitled " The Picture of an English Antick," with all details of the costume
exaggerated, patches on the face, and two love-locks tied with bows of
ribbon. (Fig. 3) : Head of George, Earl of Albemarle, showing the volu-
minous periwig of the time of James II. (Fig. 4) : A Roundhead, from a
print of 1649, showing the plainness and simplicity of costume adopted by the
Puritans. (Fig. 5) : Neckcloth which succeeded the ruff and band, and was
generally worn by the courtiers during the reign of Charles II., by whom it
was introduced from France. (Figs. 6, 7 and 8) : " Petticoat breeches,"
three types, as worn in 1656, 1658, and 1659, from Holmes 's " Contemporary
Notebook on Costume," preserved in the British Museum. (Fig. 9) : Head
of Sir Thomas Meautys, secretary to Sir Francis Bacon, showing a waved
love-lock reaching to the elbow. (Fig. 10) : King James I. in hunting
costume, from " A Jewell for Gentrie," published in 1614. He is shown
wearing the stuffed or " bombasted " breeches. (Fig. 11) : Costume of a
Cavalier in the early part of Charles II. 's reign, from Ogilvie's " Book of
the Coronation." (Fig. 12) : A shoe (introduced from France), worn by the
courtiers of Charles II., from a contemporary work, 1670. (Fig. 13) : A
boot with wide tops, worn in 1646, from a print of the time. (Fig. 14) : \
Jack-boot of the time of William III., such as was worn by the Cavalry of
the time, from Meyrick's " Arms and Armour." (Fig. 15) : Winter costume
of a gentleman of the time of William III.

150

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

Tig-*.

Tig-. 10.

Tig-.b

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 151

FEMALE COSTUMES.

(Plates 48-49— Pages 150-152.)
James I.

The female costume of this reign presents few variations from that in
use at the end of Elizabeth's reign. The portrait of Anne of Denmark,
Queen of James I. (PI. 49, Fig. 1), in the general character of the dress,
resembles that of Queen Elizabeth painted by Holbein. The enormous
farthingale was worn throughout this reign by the nobility, the ruffs and
collars worn at this time by the ladies being -generally stiffened with yellow
starch, like those of the gentleman.

" The fondness of ladies for painting their faces and exposing the bosom
was severely reprimanded by the divines and satirists at the early part of the
17th century. While a ruff or band of immoderate size stretched forth from
the neck, the front of the dress was cut away immediately beneath it, nearly
to the waist, which made the fashion more noticeable, as all the other part
of the bust was over-clothed, while the bosom was perfectly bare."

Masks were worn by ladies on all public occasions, and it was considered
a sign of impropriety to appear without them (Fig. 2).

The ruff went out of fashion during this reign, because Mrs. Annie
Turner, a starcher of ruffs, who was executed for poisoning Sir Thomas
Overbury, wore a starched ruff of the approved colour at her execution.

Charles I. and the Commonwealth.

There was little change in female costume at the beginning of this reign.
The French hood and farthingale were still worn, and the high-crowned hat
was generally worn by countrywomen and the wives of the citizens (Figs. 5
and 7), especially when they belonged to the Puritanical party. In the
course of the reign of Charles, there came a change in female costume, con-
temporary with and as elegant as that which took place in the male costume.

The hood, the farthingale, and the starched bands disappeared. A good
specimen of the new costume is given in Fig. 1, after Hollar. The dress is
full, and falls gracefully about the body ; the bodice Is tight-fitting, and the
sleeves are rich and full, but gathered at the wrist, and there is an elegant
falling collar edged with lace.

The long petticoat was generally displayed in a certain measure by the
robe, which was, at times, quite gathered up at the waist.

As a matter of course, the ladies of the Republican party, following
the example set by their men folk, dressed very soberly, some of them
adhering to old-fashioned articles of dress, such as the hood and high-
crowned hat. A fashion introduced in the previous reign was that of wearing-
patches on the face. Fig. 3 gives a curious specimen of this fashionable

152

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 153

FEMALE COSTUMES.

absurdity. It excited the derision of the satirists, who repeatedly decried it
in their works ; but it continued in fashion for a long time — until the end
of the 17th century.

The usual costume of a Puritan woman is shown in Fig-. 5.

The female costume in the later years of the Protectorate is illustrated
by Fig. 6 from the monumental effigy of Elizabeth Sacheverell, 1657 A.D ,
in Morley Church, Derbyshire.

Charles II.

With the Restoration, England threw off the sober, kill-joy aspect
that it had worn, and the Court, with its gaiety, set the fashion in a studied
negligence and elegant deshabille.

The glossy ringlets of the ladies, escaping from a simple bandeau of
pearls, or adorned by a single rose, fell in graceful profusion upon bare,
snowy necks, and the arms were bare to the elbow.

This was carried to such an extent that a book was published entitled
" A Just and Seasonable Reprehension of Naked Breasts and Shoulders,"
with a preface by Richard Baxter.

The richest and brightest materials were employed for the dresses and
petticoats. The costume of this period is very well known from the portraits
of the ladies of the Court by Sir Peter Lely (see PI. 49, Fig. 2).

James II. and William III.

There was no change in female costume during the short and unfor-
tunate reign of James, but when William and Mary ascended the throne,
they and their entourage brought with them, as might be expected, a number
of Dutch fashions. The very low-necked dresses were replaced by those
with a formal stomacher.

The elegant full sleeve gave place to a tight one, with a cuff above the
elbow, from which fell a profusion of lace in the form of ruffles.

The hair, which had been allowed to hang loose in ringlets, was now
" put up " and combed from the forehead like a rising billow, and sur-
mounted by piles of ribbons and lace. This was called the " commode,"
and" was sometimes covered by a lace scarf or veil that streamed down each
side of the coiffure.

Stiff stays, tightly laced over the stomacher and very long in the waist,
became fashionable, so that a lady's body, from the shoulder to the hips,
looked like the letter V.

PLATE 48.

(Fig. ]) : A lady of the Court of Charles I. (1643), after the engraver
Hollar, wearing a lace collar on a low cut neck. The robe is not draped,
and the hair is combed tightly back from the forehead and gathered in close

154 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

FEMALE COSTUMES.

rolls behind, being allowed to flow freely at the sides. (Fig. 2) : A lad>
wearing a mask of the time of James I., from a contemporary print. She-
holds a folding bone fan in her right hand, and attached to her girdle, hang-
ing over the farthingale, are a looking glass, a ball-shaped pomander (con-
taining perfumes) with tassels, and a toilet case, probably of silver. In the
Court of James I., which was very dissolute, the mask was worn on all public
occasions by ladies; and those who appeared without it were called " bare-
faced." (Fig. 3) : A lady wearing patches, from a woodcut in Bulwer's
" Artificial Changeling," 1650. The custom of patching was introduced in
the reign of James I. A coach, with a coachman and two horses, with postil-
lions, appears on her forehead ; both sides of her face have crescents upon
them ; a star is on one side of her mouth, and a plain circular patch on her
chin. (Fig. 4) : A lady of Charles I.'s reign, showing the arrangement of
the hair, with a coif covering the head. (From a tomb in Morley Church,
Derbyshire.) (Fig. 5) : An English tradesman's wife, 1649, after Hollar.
(Fig. 6) : Dress of an elderly lady of the middle class during the Protectorate.
She wears a close hood and band, with ample gown. (From the effigy of
Elizabeth Sacheverell, 1657, in Morley Church, Derbyshire.) (Fig. 7) : A
Puritan woman, 1646, from a contemporary print. (Fig. 8) : A " Tower "
head-dress, also known as a " Commode," as worn at the close of the 17th
century. It consisted of rows of lace stuck bolt upright over the forehead,
rising one above the other, forming a kind of pyramid, with streaming
lappets hanging over the shoulders from the head. The hair was combed
upwards to form a support to the structure. (From a contemporary print.)
(Fig. 9) : Side view of a similar head-dress, of one " storey " only, backed
by dark coloured ribbons, the hair at the front and sides being arranged in
short, close curls. (From a contemporary print.) (Fig. 10) : Head of a
lady of the early time of Charles II., showing the method of dressing the
hair^with a " foretop " or tuft of hair turned up from the forehead. 'This
fashion, being introduced by Catherine of Braganza, was probably Portu-
guese. (From a print in the Pepysian Library.)

PLATE 49.

(Fig. 1) : Anne of Denmark, Queen of James I. (from a contemporary

This costume differs in no way from that worn at the Court at

the end of Elizabeth's reign. The farthingale, or enormous hooped petticoat,

rejected more at the sides than in front. It was absolutely flat on the

top, with a series of radiating pleats upon the surface of it. The exquisite

isign in needlework upon the robe, with gems worked into the pattern, is

shown clearly m the illustration. The ruff, composed of rich lace and

needlework, stretches back from the neck, and the front of the dress is cut

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 155

FEMALE COSTUMES.

very low. The Queen holds a feathered fan and a book in her hands.
(Fig-. 2) : A lady of the Court of Charles II. (from a contemporary portrait).
There is the greatest contrast between the costume shown in Fig-. 1 and
this, the former being most uncomfortable and artificial. Fig. 2 shows the
prevailing- character of the female costume of this reign — unconfined ease.
" The ringlets hang- loosely upon the exposed neck, which is quite innocent
of the transparent lawn of the band or the partlet. The gown is striking
by its very simplicity, the sleeves being- merely looped material covering the
undersleeves of lawn."

ARMS AND ARMOUR.
(To end of CHARLES II.)

(Plate 50— Page 156.)
James I.

During the reign of Elizabeth the decay of the use of armour had set
in on account of the enormous weight and unwieldly nature of the harness.

It prevented free action, and, indeed, seriously crippled the physical
frames of many of the wearers.

The increasing use of fire arms also tended to hasten the disuse of
armour, for it became difficult to make plates that would be sufficiently strong
to oppose a bullet, unless the armour were made of great thickness. By
itie end of the reign of James I. its use had been so modified that the armour
of the heaviest cavalry terminated at the knees. Sometimes the arms were
encased in armour, and occasionally complete armour was worn by the
commanders.

A contemporary engraving of Prince Henry of Wales, the eldest son
of James I. (PI. 50, Fig. 1), shows the nature and extent of the armour
usually worn..

. Through the intercourse with Spain, the cavalry soldier was often
termed a cavalier instead of lancer. The infantry consisted of pikemen,
armed with pikes or spears 18ft. long, and musketeers, armed with fire
arms. Before this reign, on account of their weight, a soldier carrying a
fire arm also bore a forked rest in which to place the musket when firing
it; but at this time the caliver or matchlock, that could be fired without
a rest, came into use generally.

The musketeers were armed with long, rapier-like blades (for their
personal defence), nicknamed a " sweyne's feather " or a " hog's bristle "
(Fig. 9).

156

PICtORlAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 157

ARMS AND ARMOUR.

Charles I. and the Commonwealth.

During the struggle between King and people, the armour consisted, at
the most, of helmet, backplate and breastplate, or cuirass, with tassets.

In fact, the only armour worn by many noblemen and gentlemen was a
cuirass over a buff leather coat, with a helmet or hat to cover the head ; and
some entire regiments of cavalry were raised, attired in this fashion and
named " Cuirassiers." They were armed with a good sword, stiff, cutting,
and sharp-pointed, and pistols hanging at ,the saddle.

The lancers carried a pike-shaped lance, about 18ft. long, a sword
similar to that carried by the cuirassiers, and one or two pistols.

One class of cavalry was called dragoons, because they were armed with
a fire arm shorter than that in general use, called a " dragon."

The full length portrait of Sir Denner Strutt, 1641 (Fig. 10) from his
tomb in Whalley Church, Essex, well illustrates the armour of the period as
worn by officers in the field. The upper part of the body is completely
armed, but the lower part is not so, as the back of the figure and the
thighs, which would, in fact, be defended by the position of riding, could
need no other protection in the field. The front of the thigh is covered, and
the entire leg below the knee. A broad sword-belt passes across the chest,
and the plain fashionable collar and long hair repose peacefully on the armed
shoulders. Some officers wore helmets completely covering the head (Fig.
8), but often helmets of the form shown in Fig. 5 were in use. Flexible ear-
pieces covered the cheeks, and overlapping plates (lobster-tailed) covered
the back of the neck. The costume of a General of the Parliamentary
Army (Lord Fairfax, General for the County of York) is shown in Fig. 2,
where the only articles of armour he wears appear to be the cuirass and
gauntlets, the former over a buff coat. His breeches also appear to be of
buff leather, and large boots, with wide tops, encase his feet and legs. The
modern fire-lock was invented about this time, and a spark being struck by
a piece of steel from a flint, so that the spark fell upon the powder in the pan.

Charles II.

The military costume of this reign was nearly that worn in the Civil
Wars.

The defensive armour of the cavalry consisted of " a back, breast, and
pot (helmet), the two latter to be pistol proof." As offensive arms ^
carried a sword and case of pistols with barrels not under 14 inches in
length. The musketeers were ordered to carry a musket with a barrel not
under three feet in length, a collar of bandoliers, and a sword.

158 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

ARMS AND ARMOUR.

During- this reign the bayonet was first invented, at Bayonne, and
was made like a dagger, with a round wooden hilt, screwed or merely stuck
into the muzzle of the gun. It is now known as a " plug bayonet." The
gun could not be fired while the bayonet was fixed without the loss of the
bayonet also.

PLATE 50.

(Fig. 1) : Henry, Prince of Wales, eldest son of James I. (from Dray-
ton's " Polyolbion "), showing the amount of armour that was generally
worn. The Prince wears only armour to the waist, with large, bombastecl
trunk hose, and is represented as balancing a pike. (Fig. 2) : Costume,
with armour of " Ferdinand, Lord Fairfax, the father of the more celebrated
Parliamentary General, who also served in the same cause, and was
appointed General for the County of York. ' ' He wears as armour only the
cuirass and gauntlets, (figs. 3 and 4) : Plug bayonets (the earliest form),
invented at Bayonne ; formerly in the Meyrick collection. (Fig. 5) : Single-
barred helmet with " lobster-tail " neck piece and ear-pieces, usually worn by
dragoons. (Fig. 6) : Helmet with triple bars which protect the face, as worn
by harquebussiers in 1645. (Fig. 7) : Pot helmet or open head-piece, with
cheeks, and a fluted ornament over the top, of the time of Cromwell. (Fig.
8) : Close helmet of the time of Charles I., with ear-pieces and a perforated
vizor which may be drawn down to cover the face. (Fig. 9) : A " sweyne's
feather " or " hog's bristle," a kind of rapier, carried by the musketeer
for his defence. (Fig. 10) : Effigy of Sir Denner Strutt, 1641, from his tomb
in Whatley Church, Essex, illustrating the armour of the period as worn
by officers in the field. (Fig. 11) : A pikeman of the time of James I. (from
a broadside in the possession of the Society of Antiquaries). He wears .1
morion-shaped helmet with plumes, back and breast plates reaching to the
waist, with two broad tassets fastened to the breast plate over padded
knee breeches. He is armed with a long pike and sword. (Fig. 12) : A
musketeer of the time of James I. (from the same source as Fig. 11). Mus-
keteers at first wore morions on the head, but, later on, large hats with
plumes were adopted. This one is represented as wearing only back and
breast plates, and he is armed with a musket and a sword. In his right hand
he carries a rest for his musket, and slung over his shoulder he wears a
bandolier or set of leather cases, in each of which a complete change of
powder for a musket was carried, to facilitate the loading of the piece.
This was used until the end of the 17th century, when the cartridge-box
came into use.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 159

ANNE, GEORGE I. AND GEORGE II
MALE COSTUMES.

(Plate 51— Page 160.)

The reign of Anne (a Stuart), is taken with those of the early Hano-
verians, as the costumes of the three reigns were so similar.

Anne and George I.

With the former of these reigns, all the chivalric costume except the
sword disappeared, the latter still completing the full dress of the Court
of St. James'.

Planche, in his " History of British Costume," very tersely describes
the costume of the gentlemen of these reigns : —

" Square-cut coats and long-flapped waistcoats with pockets in them,
the latter meeting the stockings, still drawn up over the knee so high as to
entirely conceal the breeches, but gartered below it; large hanging cuffs and
lace ruffles; the skirts of the coats stiffened out with wire or buckram, from
between which peeped the hilt of the sword, deprived of the broad and
splendid belt in which it swung in the preceding reigns ; blue or scarlet silk
stockings, with gold or silver cloaks ; lace neckcloths ; square-toed, short -
quartered shoes, with high red heels and small buckles ; very long and
formally curled perukes, black riding-wigs, bag-wigs and nightcap-wigs ;
small three-cornered hats laced with gold or silver galloon, and sometimes
trimmed with feathers, comprise the habit of the nobleman and gentleman
during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I."

The large-skirted coat is really the precursor of the modern frock-coat.
Full-bottomed wigs were very expensive to the wearer, for in a wig-maker's
bill, dated December 17th, 1712, we find an item as follows : — " For a long,
full-bottomed periwig, £12 :10 :0." Many interesting peeps are given us at
the costume of the time from the advertisements which appeared in the
public papers of the losses or robbery of clothes.

In 1714 a gentleman advertised that he was robbed of his wardrobe,
consisting of " a scarlet cloth suit, laced with broad gold lace, lined and
faced with blue a fine cinnamon cloth suit with plate buttons, the waistcoat
fringed with a silk fringe of the same colour; and a rich yellow flowered
satin morning-gown lined with a cherry-coloured satin, with a pocket on the
right side."

George I. was not inclined to changes in dress, for he was by no means
young when he succeeded to the throne. Indeed, it is said that from the
days of Charles II. till the accession of George III. the Court gave little
encouragement to dress.

160

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 161

MALE COSTUMES.

The beau of 1727 is described as dressed in " a fine linen shirt, the
ruffles and bosom of Mechlin lace, a small wig with an enormous queue or
tail, his coat well garnished with lace, black velvet breeches, red heels to his
shoes and gold clocks to his stockings, his hat beneath his arm, a sword
by his side, and himself well scented."

There were many minor changes in articles of dress, such as the intro-
duction of the Ramilies cock of the hat (Fig. 3) soon after the battle of
Ramilies, and a wig also took its name from the same event. It was invented
by an enterprising wig-maker, and had th'e tail plaited to the taste of the
Swiss female peasant, having a black tie at the top and another at the
bottom. It is not flowing at the sides, but consists of a bushy heap of well-
powdered hair (Fig. 3). The fashion of " cocking " the hat or turning up
the brim, had many changes, and by the cock of the hat, the occupation of
the man who wore it was known ; and it varied from the modest broad brim of
the clergy and countrymen to the slightly upturned hat of the country
gentleman or citizen.

A large hat, called the Kevenhuller hat, of extravagant proportions, was
worn (Fig. 7), and it was generally patronised by military men or bullies
about town after the type of the Mohocks, Bloods, &c.

In the reign of George 11. there was no alteration in the general character
of male costumes. The pigtail appeared in 1745, and some young men wore
their own hair, dressed and powdered, about 175J.

The costume of the ordinary classes during these reigns was very
simple, and consisted of a plain coat, buttoned up the front, a long waistcoat
reaching to the knees, both having capacious pockets with great overlapping
flaps, plain bob (short and round) wigs, hats slightly turned up, and high
quartered shoes.

The works of Hogarth afford abundant examples of the costumes of the
reign of George II. Thanks to his skilful pencil we are familiar with the
square-cut coats, flapped waistcoats and knee breeches of the first half of the
18th century. The use of muffs by men may be traced back to the exquisites
of Louis. XIV., and were as commonly carried by men as by women.

PLATE 51.

(Fig 1) : Costume of a gentleman of the time of Queen Anne and
George I. (Fig. 2) : A clergyman's hat (1745), from Hogarth. (Fig. 3) :
A fashionable cock, as worn by merchants and well-to-do Londoners, known
as the Ramilies cock, with the Ramilies wig. (Fig. 4) : Costume of a gentle-
man of the time of George I. (1720). (Fig. 5) : Costume of a gentleman of

162

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 163

MALE COSTUMES.

the time of George II., from " The School of Venus, or the Lady's Mis-
cellany,'' 1739. He wears a small wig- and hat, and a long wide-skirted
coat. (Fig. G) : A plain and decisively cocked hat, which was in fashion
in 1745, and a bag-wig beneath it. (Fig. 7) : The Kevenhuller hat, of
extravagant proportions, as worn by military men, or bullies about town.
(Fig. 8) : Costume of a gentleman, from a print dated 1744.

FEMALE COSTUMES.

(Plate 52— Page 162.)

At Anne's accession little change was made in the costumes of ladies,
as the Queen was of too retiring a disposition to introduce any originality
in that direction.

In 1711 Addison, in the " Spectator," devoted a whole number to the
subject of ladies' head-dress, commencing with a declaration " that there is
not so variable a thing in nature," adding, " within my own memory I have
known it rise and fall about 30 degrees. About ten years ago it shot up to
a very great height, insomuch that the female part of our species were
much taller than the men" (allusion to the Commode). " I remember
several ladies that were once very near seven feet high, and at present want
some inches of five feet." After about fifteen years the high Commode
again came into fashion, but the startling novelty was the hoop-petticoat.
It widened gradually from the waist to the ground, the gown being looped
up round the body in front and falling in loose folds behind (PI. 52, Fig. 1.).
A writer of the time says of this fashion : " Nothing can be imagined more
unnatural, and, consequently, less agreeable. When a slender woman
stands upon a basis so inordinately wide, she resembles a funnel, a figure
of no great elegancy."

About this time, ladies, particularly in their riding costumes, imitated
the costumes of the men, wearing a cocked beaver hat and feathers, hair
curled and powdered and tied like a man's, coat and waistcoat like a man,
with a petticoat below the waist. Sir Roger de Coverley, when looking at a
young sporting lady, was about to address her as " Sir," until he cast his eye
lower and saw her petticoat.

In contrast with the extravagance shown in the quantity and quality of
the materials used for ladies' dresses, how cheaply the poor could dress at this
time may be gathered from an entry in some parish accounts in Norfolk in
1719 : " Paid for clading of the Widow Bernard with a gown, petticoat,
bodice, hose, shoes, apron and stomacher, 18s. 6d."

1(H PICTORIAL HISTORY.

FEMALE COSTUMES.

In the time of George I. there were few innovations in fashion set by
the Court.

In the reign of George II. the ladies still laced as tightly, and their
hoops were as ugly and inconvenient as ever ; but generally speaking, every
lady dressed only as pleased herself, so that there was an enormous variety
of costumes worn at all public assemblies. At the close of this reign there
was a great rage for pastoral plays and Court masques, in which the ladies
of the Court and the noblemen appeared as country-folk, shepherds, shep-
herdesses, milkmaids, &c.

Their garments were cut in a simple style after the characters whom they
represented, but they were of very costly materials, with diamonds and other
precious stones as ornaments. Ladies often wore white muslin aprons similar
to that of a modern waitress, and it is said that Beau Nash, the Master of
the Ceremonies, and " King of Bath," disliked them so much at social
gatherings, that he took one off a Duchess at one of the assemblies, and
threw it among the waiting women.

The fashions in dress changed so rapidly, however, and were so
numerous, that it is impossible to record all the variations of the times.
Their diversity and variety will be seen by looking at any of the prints
recording social events, which are found in our public collections and are
reproduced in the magazines.

PLATE 52.

(Fig. 1) : A lady with a very tightly laced bodice and hoop petticoat,
in fashion about 1718. (Fig. 2) : A lady in the fashion of 1755, showing a
later development of the hoop petticoat, when, owing to the torrent of invec-
tives levelled at it, it became more constricted in its dimensions. In this
form it much resembles the farthingale of Elizabeth's time. (Fig. 3) :
Hooded head-clress worn in 1727; a'complete envelope for the head, com-
monly used in riding and travelling, as well as when walking in the parks.
It was called a Nithisdale, because when Lord Nithisdale escaped from the
Tower dressed as a woman, by the assistance of his devoted wife, his features
were concealed in a hood like this. (Fig. 4) : Hat of the milk-maid type,
such as was affected by ladies in 1727 (from the " Musical Entertainer ").
(Fig. 5) : High-heeled and small-pointed shoe of embroidered silk, with a thin
sole of leather such as was worn by the lady in Fig. 7. (Fig. 6) : The clog
for the shoe seen in Fig. 5 is made of leather, ornamented by coloured
silk threads worked with a needle. Figs. 5 and 6 are from Hone's
' Everyday Book." (Fig. 7) : A good specimen of the fashion in the hoop
petticoat, from a curious print called the " Review," published about 1740.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 1 (>5

FEMALE COSTUMES.

The hoop, which was formed of whalebone, stretches the dress on all sides,
so that it rises from the ground, and allows the small-pointed, high-heeled
shoes to be seen The wearei had to double the hoop round in front, or
lifted it up on each side when she entered a cloor or carriage, and, when
seated, she occupied the space usually allotted for half a dozen of the male
sex. (All the above are from contemporary engravings.)

GEORGE III.
MALE COSTUMES.

(Plate 53— Page 166.)

King George III. was very young when he came to the throne, and he
was retiring and modest in his personal habits, so that he did not set the
fashion in any extravagant direction. The nobility and gentry started all
that was new in the fashions without waiting for the royal sanction to their
flippancies and extravagances.

Both ladies and gentlemen dressed simply at first, Fig 1 being the type
of the male costume of the time, It was only remarkable for the great
quantity of lace with which the coat and waistcoat were trimmed.

The dress of the countryman at this time was conspicuous for its
" bagginess. " The garments were full and easy, the natural hair was worn ;
a loosely-twisted neckcloth, enormous hat, and easy shoes completed a dress,
which " was remarkable as fitting only where it touched."

At the commencement of the reign, men's hats were worn with verv
wide brims (about 6| inches wide), and cocked in various styles according
to the profession of the wearer. A favourite cocked hat was the Nivernois.
It was very small, with large flaps, fastened up to the shallow crown by hooks
and eyes. The corner in front was spout-shaped, and stiffened out by wire.

Gold-laced hats were generally worn again in 1775, because the wearers
thought that they gave them a military and distinguished appearance, and
it is said that many men wore them to escape the attentions of the press
gang, that were remarkably active about this time. In 1772 a new fashion
was introduced by young gentlemen who had been travelling in Italy. They
formed themselves into the Maccaroni Club, which was intended as a rival
to the Beefsteak Club, and distinguished themselves by a most extravagant
and eccentric costume.

The new-fashioned dandy was known as a Maccaroni (Figs. 2 and 3).
His hair was dressed into an enormous toupee, with large curls at the sides,
while behind it was gathered and tied up into an enormous club or knot,
that rested on the back of the neck. Upon this, a very small hat was often

166

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

53.,

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 167

MALE COSTUMES.

worn (Fig-. 3). A full, white handkerchief was tied in a large bow round
the neck. Both coat and waistcoat were shortened, and were edged with
lace or braid. The garments were decorated with the wearer's initials,
pictures of windmills, horsemen, hounds, &c., showing to what extent a
ridiculous fashion can be carried. Two watches were worn, one in each
waistcoat pocket, from which hung large bunches of seals. Silk stockings,
and small shoes with diamond buckles, completed the costume, which,
however, remained in fashion only one season. -

About the middle of the reign of George III., the square-cut coat and
the long-flapped waistcoat of the three preceding reigns underwent an altera-
tion. The stiffening was taken out of the skirts, the waists were shortened,
and the cut of the present Court suit introduced. Cloth became the general
material for the coat, and velvet, silk, satin, and embroidery, were reserved
for Court dress or waistcoats and breeches only. The stockings were worn
under the breeches, and shoes had large buckles. The lace cravat was
abandoned in 1735, and a black ribbon, worn around the neck, was tied in
a large bow in front. White cambric stocks, buckled behind, succeeded
these, and then followed muslin cravats.

Round hats began to be worn in the mornings, and shortly after this
time the French Revolution in 1789 completed the downfall of the three-
cornered hat on both sides of the Channel. A flat, folding, crescent-shaped
beaver, still called a cocked hat, distinguished the beaux at the theatre, and
the chapeau-de-bras, a small triangular silk article, was slipped under the
arm of the courtier.

The original three-cornered hat remains in the head-dress of State
coachmen of Royal and noble families, and of the Lord Mayor of London,
while the chapeau-de-bras is still worn as part of the Court dress.

The French Revolution also affected the wig. It had, during the latter
half of the 18th century, become smaller and smaller, and the natural hair
was plastered and powdered till it was, at last, as ugly as a wig. This
fashion remains in the present day in the powdered hair of footmen in full
dress. About 1793, French fashions, copied from the costumes of the
leaders of the Revolution, became very much the vogue in this country.
A high sugar-loaf hat covered the head, and the flowing hair was powdered ;
a frilled shirt, a white striped waistcoat, a loose cravat of white cambric
tied in a large bow, were worn, and a long green coat covered the upper
part of the body. The breeches were tight, and reached to the ankle, being
buttoned from the bottom, up the sides to the middle of the thigh, and
low top-boots were worn.

Towards the end of the reign, the shirt collar appeared, and the ruffle
vanished. The coat was made with lapels and with a tail cut square in

16$ PICTORIAL HISTORY.

MALE COSTUMES.

front above the hips, like the modern clress-coat. The waistcoat was cut
ridiculously short, and pantaloons and Hessian boots were introduced about
the same time.

PLATE 53.

(Fig-. 1) : Costume of a gentleman at the commencement of the reign of
George III. It is remarkable only for the extra quantity of lace with which
it is decorated, and the small black cravat which he wears. (Fig. 2) : Side
view of head-dress of a Maccaroni, showing (1) the height to which the hair
was raised and plastered, (2) the row of curls around it, and (3) the large
" club " tied with a broad ribbon. (Fig. 3) : Complete costume of a Mac-
caroni (1772) showing a different treatment of the hair from that in Fig. 2, the
ridiculously small hat, and the ornamented coat are also shown. (Fig. 4) : A
hat of the style worn in 1786. (Fig. 5) : The last form of the cocked
hat. Both Figs. 4 and 5 may be taken as specimens of the latter days of the
wig, "large curls, ties and bob, ending in a single pigtail." (Fig. 6):
Fashionable riding dress in 1786. The costume consists of a broad brimmed
hat with band and buckle, powdered wig and pigtail, a long-tailed coat with
large buttons, tight buckskin breeches buttoned at the knee, and high boots.
(Fig. 7) : A hat of the newest fashion of 1792, gaily decorated with gold
strings and tassels. The natural hair is worn powdered, and the hig"h coat
collar is very characteristic of the time. (All the above are from contem-
porary prints.)

FEMALE COSTUMES.

(Plate 54— Page 170.)

Both George III. and his wife were decorous and retiring in their
habits, and during their reign the fashions were started and maintained by
the nobility and gentry of their Court.

The latter " did not wait for the royal sanction to their flippancies, and
their taste or want of taste ran riot during this reign to an extent that
equalled the absurdities of any previous period, and which makes the history
of fashion during that time more varied than that of any similar length of
time."

At the commencement of the reign, ladies' dresses were generally
simple enough ; but about 1763 the fashion came over from France of dressing
the hair by curling and crisping it, and raising it by adding pomatum, upon
a foundation of " many a good pound of wool," into such an erection " that
my lady is dressed for three months at least, during which time it is not in
her power to comb her head," So enormous were these head-dresses, that a

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 169

FEMALE COSTUMES.

satirist said : " Our fine ladies remind me of an apple stuck on the point of a
small skewer." A sign of the times was the number of works written by
hairdressers, which appeared with many illustrations, describing- the various
styles of these monstrosities of hairdressing, " for in those days hairdressers
were great men."

When the Maccaroni costume was adopted in 1772 by some of the
dandies, many ladies followed suit with a costume on similar, extravagant
lines, particularly copying the enormous toupee.

In 1775 another fashion came in, depicted in Fig. 1. The head-dress is
called a half-moon toupee, combed up from the forehead, large curls being
made at the sides, and a plume of feathers surmounting the structure.
Round the neck is a simple ribbon. The gown is high behind at the neck,
and low in front, with a large bunch of flowers stuck in the breast, and the
body is tightly confined in stays strengthened with steel busks. The sleeves
reach to the elbow ; long gloves are worn, and the fan is constantly
displayed.

The gown is open from the waist, and gathered in festoons at the
sides, the edges being ornamented with silk ribbons in puffs, forming a
diamond shaped pattern and edged with lace. The petticoat, which is
displayed by the open gown, is similarly decorated, and small, high-heeled
shoes with rosettes complete the dress.

The head-dress continued as monstrous as ever until, in 1782, it reached
the enormous size shown in Fig. 6. One hairdresser, on completing his task,
told the lady that " heads, when properly dressed, kept for three weeks ";
that they would not " keep " longer may be seen from the many redoes
given for the destruction of the insects which bred in the flour and pomatum
so liberally bestowed upon the head-dresses. Needless to say, these struc-
tures gave unlimited materials to the many satirists and caricaturists of the
period. About 1786 the heads began to lower, and the hair was allowed
to stream down the back, a fashion attributed to the portrait painters, led
by J5ir Joshua Reynolds. Hats with enormous brims were worn of the style
shown in Fig. 4, which represents a lady in a fashionable riding dress of 1786.

In 1789 the hair began to be worn " frizzled " in a close bush all over,
with pendant curls on the back and shoulders (Fig. 5). The high bonnet of
the French peasants was introduced .and was worn trimmed with lace, so that
»t hung over the face like an extinguisher. The puffed out chest, the little
frilled jacket and tight sleeves, were also very characteristic of this time.

A curious fashion came in during 1783, in the use of straw as an orna-
ment of dress. It was used to decorate everything, from the cap to the
shoe buckle, and naturally this was the era of straw bonnets. In 1794

170

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 171

FEMALE COSTUMES.

extremely short waists became fashionable; that is to say, the waists of
dresses were carried up to the armpits. In derision of this fashion, a song
commencing,

" Shepherds, 1 have lost my love,
Have you seen my Anna? "

was parodied thus by a wag" :

'' Shepherds, I have lost my-rwaist,
Have you seen my body? '

The gown was worn without a hoop, and fell in straight, loose folds to
the feet. The fashion of powdering- the hair fell into disuse, for Mr. Pitt,
computing that it would bring in a revenue of about ^"210,000, put a tax
upon powdering the hair, and almost everyone, to his disgust, abandoned
the fashion.

Although the hoop had been discarded in private life for some time, it
appeared regularly at Court in as great state as ever (Fig. 7).

It was decorated with ribbons, cords, tassels, and bunches of flowers ;
the waist was pinched, and the head overloaded with feathers, jewels,
ribbons, and ornaments — altogether a most uncomfortable attire.

Many of the fashions at the end of George's reign became tasteful and
simple, and illustrations of them will be seen in the portraits, engravings,
and caricatures of the time.

PLATE 54.

(Fig. 1) : Costume of a lady in 1775, from an illustration in the " Ladies'
Magazine " of that year (taken from a drawing made at Ranelagh). (Fig.
2) : A bonnet " of unassisted British taste " of the time of the Regency, 1811-
1820. (Fig. 3) : A head-dress about 1768, from a curious work written by
a hairdresser named Stewart, under the astounding title of " Plocacosmos,
or the Whole Art of Hair Dressing." It is a large but light compound of
gauze, wire, ribbons and flowers, sloping over the forehead. (Fig. 4) : A
lady's fashionable riding costume in August, 1786 (from a print). (Fig.
5) : A lady of fashion in 1789 (from a print dated 1790). (Fig. 6) : Head-dress
of a lady, 1766 (in Stewart's " Plocacosmos "). (Fig. 7) : A lady in
Court dress in 1796. The hoop petticoat, though fallen into disuse generally,
was retained in the Court dress.

172

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

^T)

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 173

THE MONASTIC ORDERS.

(Plate 55— Page 172.)

1. The Benedictines (Fig-. 1) are the most ancient of the Monastic
Orders, and have always been the most learned. They were founded by St.
Benedict in Italy about A.D. 529, as a monastery for 12 monks, in order
that they might live, in a religious community, a Christian life with lofty
ideals. Originally, St. Benedict's idea was not to found an Order whose
branches should extend throughout Europe as one organisation, but rather
that the various houses should be independent of one another.

The Order spread very rapidly, being very rational and elastic in its
rules, and it displaced the others that were in existence. Pope Gregory the
Great gave to it his high approval, for as the learned Abbot Gasquet
says : — " In his (Gregory's) opinion, it manifested no common wisdom in its
provisions, which were dictated by a marvellous insight into human nature,
and by a knowledge of the best possible conditions for attaining the end of a
monastic life, the perfect love of God and of man."

Its rule did not enforce ascetism, and great liberty was given to the
heads of the Order to modify its regulations to suit special circumstances.
The Mission sent to England by St. Augustine, A.D. 597, consisted of a Prior
and Monks of St. Benedict's rule ; and as Christianity spread in this country,
so the number of houses of the Order increased, until " during the whole
Saxon period, this was the only form of monasticism in England."

2. The Cluniacs grew out of the Benedictines, being established at
Cluny, near Macon-sur-Saone, A.D. 912. By the Benedictine rule, all
religious houses were self-centred. The Cluniac rule established a new prin-
ciple— that there should be a great central monastery, with dependencies
spread over many lands, all owing allegiance to the central authority. In
every case, the Superior of the lesser houses was not elected by the com-
munity, but was nominated by the Abbot of Cluny.

The Order was established in England shortly after the Norman Con-
quest, and when the monasteries were suppressed in the 16th century, there
were thirty-two Cluniac Monasteries in this country, one only — at Bermond-
sey — being an abbey.

3. The Cistercians (Fig. 2).

This was the most nourishing offshoot of the Benedictines, and was
founded at the Monastery of Citeaux, A.D. 1092. Though not the founder
the greatest organiser was an Englishman, St. Stephen Harding. The
Cistercians formed themselves " into an organised corporation, under the
perpetual pre-eminence of the Abbot and house of Citeaux, with yearly Chap-
ters, which all Superiors were bound to attend."

174 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

THE MONASTIC ORDERS.

The Order spread very rapidly, and the first abbey was founded in
England A.D. 1129. At the general suppression there were one hundred
Cistercian houses in this country.

4. The Carthusians (Fig. 3).

This Order was founded in the llth century on very strict and ascetic
lines. The monks lived a life of the greatest austerity and practised the most
self-denying ordinances. Their clothes were mean and rough; they never
ate meat — fish and eggs being the only animal food allowed, and that only
on two days in the week. On two days they had pulse or herbs boiled,
and on three days bread and water — only two meals a day being taken.

The first Carthusian house was founded in England A.D. 1180, and there
were only eight monasteries of the Order in this country at the dissolution
of the monasteries.

Most of the above Orders had houses of Nuns affiliated to them.

GENERAL PLAN OF A MONASTERY.

(Plate 56— Page 176.)

The Abbeys and Monasteries of the Benedictines and the Orders founded
from them, with the exception of the Carthusians, were built on the same
general plan.

The Church itself was, of course, the principal of the monastic buildings,
and the most important part of the Church was the Presbytery, with the
High Altar and the Choir. The Church was always cruciform and the
Presbytery was the eastern arm. To it only the monks who were in priestly
orders had access. The Choir, or Quire, frequently stretched in the Nave
beyond the Transepts, and was divided off from the more public part by the
great screen.

In northern climates the Church was generally situated on the northern
side of the monastic buildings. Being a lofty and substantial structure, it
afforded protection, and acted as a screen to the other buildings from the
keen north winds. Next to the Church in importance came the Cloisters,
which were generally, in England, placed on the south side of the Nave.
Around them were grouped the principal buildings. The Cloisters were
covered and paved walks, surrounding a rectangular space called the Cloister
Garth. They were the common dwelling place of the community, for in
them the greater part of the work of the monks was carried on. The
Northern Walk, by the wall of the Church, was naturally the warmest, as
it had a southern aspect, and here the monks worked. The Prior sat near
the eastern end of this walk, where there was the usual entrance to the
Church, and along this side, the other seniors sat — not arranged in order

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 175

GENERAL PLAN OF A MONASTERY.

of seniority, but in the positions that best suited them for the respective
tasks on which they were engaged. The Abbot sat apart at the end of the
eastern cloister nearest the Church door. In the same cloister, but toward
the southern end, the Novice Master gave regular instruction to the novices,
and the Western Cloister was given up to< the junior monks.

The Southern Cloister, with a north aspect, was sunless and cheerless,
and was not generally used as a working place. Here were placed the lava-
tories, and the towel cupboards.

Abbot Gasquet, in his English Mona'stic Life," says: — "Day after
day for centuries, the Cloister was the centre of the activity of the religious
establishment. The quadrangle was the place where the monks lived and
studied and wrote. In the three sides — the Northern, the Eastern, and
Western walls — were transacted the chief business of the house, other than
what was merely external. Here the older monks laboured at the tasks
appointed them by obedience, or discussed questions relating to ecclesiastical
learning or regular observance ; or at permitted times joined in recreative
conversation. Here, too, in the parts set aside for the purpose, the younger
members toiled at their studies under the eye of their teacher, learnt the
monastic observance from the lips of the Novice Master, or practised the
chants and melodies of the Divine Office with the Cantor or his assistant.
Ho\v the work was done in the winter time, even supposing that the great
windows looking out on to the Cloister Garth were glazed or closed with
wooden shutters, must ever remain a mystery."

The Refectory, also called the Fratry, or Prater House, was the dining
hall of the establishment. It was always placed, with the kitchens, &c., as
far as possible from the Church, so that the smell of the cooking should not
penetrate the sacred structure. As a rule, the wralls of the Refectory were
wainscotted, and the floor was covered with hay or rushes. The monks sat
in a single row on each side, with their backs to the wall. The Superior sat
at a high table at the Eastern end, and a pulpit was erected at the western
side or southern end of the hall. From it, one of the novices read aloud
part of the Scriptures in Latin during meal times.

In Cistercian monasteries the Refectory was placed at right angles to
the Southern Cloister, but in those of the Cluniacs and Benedictines its
length ran east and west along this Cloister.

The kitchen, buttery, and other offices connected with the cooking and
storing of food, were naturally placed near to the refractory.

The Chapter House was situated on the eastern side of the Cloisters,
being built near the Church. It was always a room of noble proportions and
design, and here the Abbot and monks met daily to transact the solemn
business of the Order. The latter sat along by the wall and the former in
the east.

176

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

O CHflPttR

5|o HOUSE

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 177

GENERAL PLAN OF A MONASTERY.

In a vestry or sacristy near it were kept, beside other things, the
books of the house.

The Parlour was a room in which the monks did what talking was neces-
sary, when strict silence had to be observed in the cloisters, and here some-
times they interviewed visitors. It was generally situated near the Chapter
House.

The Common Room, also called the Calefactory or Warming House, was
a room to which the monks resorted in winter to warm themselves at the
common fire, and it was also used at times 'for the purposes of recreation.

Above the Chapter House and the other buildings on the eastern side was
the Dormitory or Dorter of the monks, and it had one set of stairs leading
to it from the Eastern Cloister, and another set leading down into the church.

Generally, too, on the eastern side was a passage leading to the Infir-
mary, which was placed some distance away from the other buildings, and
near to it was the Miserieorde, a room where monks, by permission of the
Abbot, might eat meat, which was at other times forbidden.

By the Western Cloisters were the Cellar and the Fratry of the lay-
brethren or Conversi, and over these was placed their dorter.

There was also, in addition to these, a Guest House, often of great size
and very well appointed, where strangers were entertained. This was gener-
ally built in such a place where it would least interfere with the privacy of the
monks ; and there was also an Almonry, where food and clothing were distri-
buted by the monks to the poor who came for relief.

THE FRIARS AND CANONS.

(Plate 57— Page 180.)

From the beginning of the 10th to the end of the 12th century, a series
of religious orders arose, each aiming at a more successful reproduction of
the monastic ideal.

In the 13th century there arose the Orders of Friars, who were inspired
by the principle of devotion to the performance of active and actual religious
duties among their fellow-men, rather than by that of monastic seclusion.
Their plan was " to mix with the world and work for the salvation of the
world " in a state of absolute poverty.

Their houses were built in the poorest quarters of large towns, but they
only used the houses as temporary resting-places, preaching and carrying out
their ministrations throughout the country, and attending to the physical and
spiritual needs of the lowest and poorest, including the lepers and the out-
casts. They were great preachers, and this was particularly striking, be-
cause preaching had fallen into disuse among the monastic orders.

178 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

THE FRIARS AND CANONS.

" Nothing- in the histories of Wesley or of Whitfield can be compared
with the enthusiasm which everywhere welcomed them," and it is said that
the work of the Friars staved off the Reformation for '200 years.

As students, the Friars did not confine themselves to theology, but culti-
vated the whole range of science and art, and members of the Orders held
very distinguished academical posts throughout Europe.

A candidate for admission to one of the Orders studied theology for three
years, and was then examined on his work, receiving, if successful, a com-
mission limiting his mission to a certain district (when he was called a Hmi-
tour), or allowing him to go where he listed (a lister).

As may be imagined, much strife arose between these wandering
preachers and the parochial clergy. There were four Orders of Friars :
Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. They were called
Friars because, out of humility, their founders would not have them called
Father, like the monks, but simply Brother (Frater, Frere, Friar). The
Dominicans and Franciscans came into being at the beginning of the 13th
century.

Dominic, an Augustinian Canon and a Spaniard of noble birth, conceived
the idea of founding an Order of men who should spend their lives in preach-
ing, and at the same time St. Francis of Assisi, the son of a rich Italian
merchant, was inspired with n similar idea. Dominic and Francis met at
Rome 1210 A.D., but, though an attempt was made to combine their move-
ments, it was found impossible to do so.

Each adopted the Augustian rule, and each required that his followers
should have no property, either personally or as a corporate body. They
were to work for a livelihood or live on alms.

The Dominicans were learned, energetic and dogmatic ; the Franciscans
retained somewhat of the character of the pious, ardent enthusiast, from
whom they took their name. The Dominicans were called Black Friars, as
their habit consisted of a white tunic with white girdle, and a white scapular)
with a black mantle, hood and shoes. (PI. 58, Fig. 3.)

The Dominican nuns wore the same dress, with a white veil.
^The Franciscans were called Grey Griars, from the colour of their habits,
or Cordeliers, from the knotted rope which formed their characteristic girdle.

Their habit was originally a grey tunic, with lono-, loose sleeves, a
knotted cord for a girdle, and a black hood. The feet were always bare or
only protected by sandals. In the 15th century, the colour of the habit
was changed to dark brown. (PI. 57, Fig. 1.)

The Franciscans were first introduced into England at Canterbury,
3 A.D., and there were sixty-five houses of the Order in England besides
four houses of mmoresses.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 179

THE FRIARS AND CANONS.

While the Dominicans retained their unity of organisation, the Francis-
cans divided into several branches, under the names of Minorites, Capuchins,
Minims, Observants, Recollets, &c.

The Carmelites took their name from Mount Carmel, where they
originated.

They were driven from Palestine by the Saracens in the 12th century,
and then spread into Europe, coming to England about 1245 A.D.

Their dress was a white frock over a ,dark blue tunic, and they were
hence known as White Friars. In the 16th century they had about forty
houses in this country. (PI. 57, Fig. 2.)

The Augustines, or Austin Friars, were founded in the middle of the 13th
century, consisting originally of hermits and solitaries, who lived under no
rule at all. They were incorporated by Pope Innocent IV. into a new Order
with the above name.

They wore a black gown with board sleeves, girdled with a leather belt,
and a black cloth hood. They had thirty-two houses in England.

Besides these four principal Orders of mendicant Friars, there were a
number of lesser Orders, the chief being the Crutched Friars (so called be-
cause they wore a red cross on the breast and back of their habit) ; Friars of
the Sack, who wore a plain, bag-like garment of coarse cloth or sacking ; and
Friars of the Holy Trinity, or Trinitarians, who made part of their work the
ransoming of Christians captured by the infidels.

All the minor mendicant Orders (excepting the four great Orders) were
suppressed 1370 A.D.

THE CANONS.

A great monastic family was known under the name of Augustinians,
from St. Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, who, it is said, established monastic
communities in Africa, and gave them a " rule," or method of life.

In the middle of the ninth century all the clergy — priests, canons, clerks,
etc. — who had not entered the monastic ranks were incorporated into one
great Order to observe the rule of St. Augustine. The Canons Regular, as
they were called, were the clergy of Cathedral and Collegiate Churches, living
in a community on the monastic model. They wore during divine service a
surplice, and a fur tippet or almuce over a long black cassock, and a four-
square cap called a baret or biretta.

They had much more liberty than the monks. A writer in the thirteenth
century says : " Among them one is well shod, well clothed, and well fed.
They go out when they like, mix with the world, and talk at table."

180

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 181

THE CANONS.

There were several classes of them in England known as —

1. Augustinian Canons.

2. Premonstratensian Canons.

3. Gilbertine Canons.

The Augustinian, Austin or Black Canons (PI. 57, Fig. 3), so called
from the habit of the order, were found in Europe after the twelfth century,
and were very popular in England. At the time of the Dissolution they had
about 170 houses in England, two of the Abbeys — Waltham Cross and Ciren-
cester — being governed by mitred abbots.

The Premonstratensian Canons were named after Premontre, in France,
where they originated in the twelfth century. They wore a white habit, and
were known as White Canons. Welbeck Abbey was the chief house in
England, and at the Dissolution there were 34 houses of the Order in this
country.

The Gilbertine Canons were founded by St. Gilbert, Rector of Sempring-
ham, in the twelfth century. The Order was one for both men and women,
and in the double monasteries the canons and nuns lived in separate houses,
having no communion. The men wore a black habit with a white cloak, and
a hood lined with lamb's wool.

The women were in black, with a white cap. The Order had 26 estab-
lishments in England at the Dissolution.

PLATE 57.

(Fig. 1) : A Franciscan Friar. (Fig. 2) : A Carmelite Friar. (Fig. 3) :
An Augustinian Canon.

MILITARY MONASTIC ORDERS.

(Plate 58— Page 182.)

The military Orders, consisting of men who combined the religious duties
of monks and the military exercises of knights, were the Knights Hospitallers
and the Knights Templars.

The Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem (PI. 58, Fig. 1) were
originally not a military Order.

This Order took its name and was founded at an hospital in Jerusalem
by the merchants of Amain, in Italy, for the purpose of affording hospitality
to the Pilgrims coming to the Holy Land. It was dedicated to St. John the
Baptist, and the first business of its members was to provide for such

182

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 183

MILITARY MONASTIC ORDERS.

pilgrims at that hospital, and to protect them from insults and injuries on the
road. The open country was perpetually exposed to the incursions of
irregular bands of Saracen and Turkish horsemen, and any of the hapless
pilgrims who were captured were put to death or sold into slavery.

The Order was instituted about 1092 A.D., and was very much favoured
by Godfrey of Bouillon and his successor, Baldwin, King of Jerusalem.

The kindness of the Hospitallers to the sick and wounded soldiers of the
First Crusade made them popular, and several of the Crusading princes
endowed them with estates ; while many of the Crusaders, instead of return-
ing home, laid down their arms and joined the brotherhood.

After a time, when their endowments became very great, they recon-
stituted the Order on the model of the Templars. From this time the two
military Orders formed a powerful standing army for the defence of the
kingdom of Jerusalem,

As monks, they followed a rule of life founded upon that of St. Augus-
tine, and wore a black mantle with a white cross on the left shoulder.

They soon came to England, and had a house built for them in London
about 1140 A.D. , and from poor and mean beginnings obtained so great
wealth, honours, and exemptions, that their Superior here in England was
the first lay baron and had a seat among the Lords in Parliament ; some of
their privileges being extended even to their tenants. When on military
duty, the knights wore the ordinary armour of the period, a red surcoat with
a white cross on the breast, and a red mantle with a white cross on the
shoulder.

The smaller establishments upon their manors and estates were called
commanderies, and the head of the house was known as the Commander.

Sometimes their houses were called preceptories, but this term was more
generally applied to the establishments of the Knights Templars.

They had their headquarters at the Hospital of St. John, near Clerken-
well, where the gate (rebuilt in 1540) may still be seen. There were about 53
cells or commanderies attached to this hospital in different parts of the
country, where the novices might be trained in piety and in military exercises.

When the Christians were driven put of Jerusalem, the Knigh'ts of St.
John passed to the Isle of Cyprus, afterwards to the Isle of Rhodes, and
finally to Malta, where they maintained a constant warfare against the
Mahommedans, acting as the police of the Mediterranean and doing their
best to oppose the piracies of the Corsairs.

The Order was divided at Malta according to nationality — the English
knights, the French knights, etc., each nation having a separate house
situated at a different point of the island for its defence.

The Order was suppressed in England in 1541, resuscitated in Mary's
reign, and finally abolished on the accession of Queen Elizabeth.

]84 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

MILITARY MONASTIC ORDERS.

Knights Templars. (PI. 58, Fig. 2.)

The Knights Templars, or simply the " Templars," were instituted
1118 A.D., and werejso called from having their first residence adjoining the
Temple at Jerusalem. Nine knights bound themselves into a fraternity,
which adopted the fundamental monastic vows of obedience, poverty, and
chastity, and, in addition, their business was to guard the roads for the
security of pilgrims in the Holy Land. Many members of the noblest houses
in Europe joined the Order, and endowments flowed in abundantly. Gradually
dependent houses were established on its estates in nearly every country of
Europe. Their rule, like that of the Hospitallers, was according to that
of St. Augustine, and their habit consisted of a large white mantle with a
red cross on the left shoulder, over the ordinary armour of the period. They
came to England early in the reign of Stephen, settling first at Holborn in
London. Afterwards their headquarters were removed to Fleet Street, and
were known as " The Temple." On this ground they built a monastery,
barracks, cloister, council chamber, refectory, a river terrace as exercise
ground as well as for religious meditation, a tilting ground where the Law
Courts now stand, and a very beautiful church. This establishment now for
many years has been given over to the Law, Chaucer having been one of the
first law students there. The original church, with its round nave, after the
form of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, still remains — a
monument to the wealth and influence of the ancient Templars. The banner
of the Order was of black and white cloth, called beauseant (PI. 29, Fig. 24),
and they adopted this word as a war cry.

The rule allowed three horses and a servant to each knight, and married
knights were also admitted to the Order.

In England their numbers increased very rapidly, and they obtained large
possessions, but in less than two hundred years their wealth and power were
thought to be too great. They were accused of horrid crimes, and were
everywhere put into prison. Their Order was suppressed by Pope Clement
V. in 1309 A.D., and totally abolished by the Council of Vienna 1312 A.D.
The Superior of the Order in England was styled Master of the Temple, and
was often summoned to Parliament.

Like the Hospitallers, the Templars built churches and houses on their
estates called Preceptories. When the order was suppressed, these lands and
houses, eighteen in number, were handed over to the Hospitallers.

In the Temple Church there are nine effigies of knights, which are
certainly the finest and most interesting collection of monumental figures of
this early period possessed by any one church in the kingdom. They exhibit
the military costume as it is said to have been worn at the Crusades.

According to the sculptor who restored the effigies, the Templars wore
long beards, and their general dress consisted of a hauberk or tunic of ringed

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 185

MILITARY MONASTIC ORDERS.

mail reaching- to the knees, with sleeves, gloves, and chausses covering the
legs and feet of the same kind of mail, a light sleeveless surcoat of white with
a red cross over the hauberk, girded about the waist by a belt ; another belt
passing transversely round the body over the right shoulder and under the
left arm, by which a long or kite-shaped shield \vas supported; a sword belt
obliquely across the loins, with a long, heavy sword attached, and single-
pointed or " prick " spurs.

Over all was worn a long white mantle fastened under the chin and reach-
ing to the feet, with a red cross on the left shoulder.

On the head was worn a linen coif, and above that a bowl-shaped skull-
cap of red cloth turned up all round. When completely armed, the coif and
cap were exchanged for a hood of mail covering the neck and head, and
over that one of the large heaumes or helmets was worn.

PLATE 58.

(Fig. 1) : A Knight Hospitaller. (Fig. 2) : A Knight Templar. (Fig.
3) : A Dominican Friar.

ECCLESIASTICAL COSTUMES AND
VESTMENTS.

(Plate 59— Page 186.)

There were two great divisions of Mediasval Ecclesiastics, the Major
Orders and the Minor Orders.

The Major Orders included the Archbishop, the Bishop, the Priest, the
Deacon or Gospeller, and the Sub-deacon, or Patterner, as Chaucer calls him.

The Minor Orders comprised the Acolyte (symbol, a candle), the Exorcist
(a holy water vessel), the Doorkeeper (a key), the Lector (a key), and in some
cases the Sexton.

In the monastic times all these had the shaven crown or tonsure.

For many centuries ecclesiastical vestments remained unchanged, those
used in the Church at the Conquest being practically identical with those
used at the time of the Reformation.

The everyday garment was the cassock, a long garment with long
sleeves, made of heavy woollen material. It was generally black or brown in
the case of the inferior clergy, and scarlet for Doctors of Divinity.

In cold weather the cassock was frequently lined with sheepskin or fur,
was provided with a hood, and was girded with a thick knotted cord or
cingulum. The vestments or ceremonial garments, worn when officiating at

18fi

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

•SP

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 187

ECCLESIASTICAL COSTUMES AND VESTMENTS.

the services of the Church, were much more elaborate. A long, close-fitting
while garment, like a coat with narrow sleeves, reaching to the feet, was
worn by all, even to the doorkeeper. It was called the alb, and was confined
at the waist by a girdle.

Priests arid dignitaries of the Church had six pieces of embroidered
needlework or cloth of gold called apparels fastened to the alb, at the bottom
of the skirt before and behind (2), on the wrist of each sleeve (2), and on the
breast (1) and back (1).

Around the neck was worn the amice: It was a kind of large linen
handkerchief, with embroidered work along one of its sides. It was turned
down like a collar, showing the embroidery (which appears in brasses like a
collar), and leaving the throat of the wearer exposed.

A stole or narrow embroidered band was hung around the neck, reaching
nearly to the feet, the ends being fringed.

In brasses only the ends appear, the upper portions being covered by the
other vestments.

A short piece of embroidered work called the maniple, with ends fringed
like the stole, was worn over the left arm, being fastened to the sleeve. At
the time of the Conquest the maniple was a napkin with which the priest
wiped his face and brow during Mass.

Over the other vestments was worn a circular or oval garment called a
chasuble. It had an opening in the centre through which the head was
thrust, and its ample folds rested at either side upon the arms. It was worn
plain or with an embroidered border.

In later times the chausuble and alb were sometimes made of coloured
materials.

The chasuble, maniple, and stole were all of the same material and
colour.

The priest wore these vestments during the services, and when he died
he was buried. in them.

They were put on in the following order : Amice, alb, maniple, stole,
and chasuble, and they are often spoken of as the " eucharistic vestments."

Bishops and Mitred Abbots wore the same vestments as priests, but with
the addition of the tunicle and dalmatic below the chasuble, sandals, gloves,
a ring set with precious stones on the third finger of the right hand, mitre,
and pastoral staff.

The dalmatic was a garment shorter than the alb, slit up for a distance
on either side. (PI. 59, Fig. 3.) Like the chasuble, it was made of rich
material.

The tunicle, worn underneath the dalmatic, was similar to it in shape,
but made of linen.

The only ecclesiastical ornaments which underwent any change were the
mitre and crozier.

188 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

ECCLESIASTICAL COSTUMES AND VESTMENTS.

At first the mitre was of white linen, and low in height. As time went
on it was made of silk and ornamented with embroidery and jewels, and it
became higher in form. (From the time of the Reformation the mitre was
not recognised as part of episcopal attire in the Established Church, but in
1885, after a lapse of 50 years, it was resumed by the Bishop of Lincoln,
who wrote it then for the first time amid considerable protests.)

The Pastoral Staff, or so-called crozier, was borne alike by Archbishops,
Bishops, ana Abbots, qnd was usually held in the left hand or against the left
arm, leaving the right free to be uplifted in blessing. It terminated in a large
shepherd's crook or scroll, the curved volute being often richly ornamented
with foliage. The staff was made of rarer wood, such as cedar or ebony, and
was shod with a pointed ferrule. The top was detachable, and was usually
made of metal or of ivory.

Before Archbishops was also carried a Cross, a staff bearing a cross
at the top. They also wore the pall, or palium, a narrow loop or circle of
white lambswool placed over the shoulders, with a weighted band hanging
down before and behind. Looked at from tfie front, it appears like the
letter Y. It was made only in Rome, and was especially bestowed on all
Archbishops by the Pope.

In processions the clergy wore cassock and surplice as they do now, with
the almuce, a large cap turned down over the shoulders, and lined with fur,
which varied in colour according to the degree of the wearer ; the hood and
the cope. The cope was a kind of cloak, and became the most gorgeous of
medieval ecclesiastical garments. It was made in every conceivable colour,
and heavily adorned with the richest gold work encrusted with jewels.

When spread out flat, it was in shape a perfect semi-circle, and was
decorated at the front edges with bands of embroidery from collar to hem.

A famous cope is the Syon Cope now preserved in the South Kensington
collection.

In the Middle Ages the clergy, when not engaged in their official duties,
often dressed similarly to the laity, and though they were ordered to wear the
tonsure and a sober dress, these instructions were very often neglected and
ignored.

Many of them dressed in bright colours, often in the extreme of fashion,
wearing knives at their girdles, brightly coloured shoes with long toes, and
jewellery.

At the time of the Reformation, when the English clergy abandoned the
medieval robes, they also desisted from wearing the tonsure, which had for
many centuries been the distinguishing mark of the clergy, and they seem
generally to have adopted the academical dress for their official and ordinary
attire.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 189

ECCLESIASTICAL COSTUMES AND VESTMENTS.

PLATE 59.

(Fi.v;. 1) : Brass of Lawrence Seymour, 1337, Hig-ham Ferrers Church,
Northamptonshire, showing the Eucharist Vestments, Amice, Chasuble,
Maniple, Alb, Stole, and Apparels. (Fig-, L>). : Brass of Robert Langton,
D.C.L. , 1518, at Queen's College, Oxford, in rich ornamented Cope, wearing
also a doctor's cap. These are often spoken of as the Processional garments.
(Fig. 3) : Brass of Abbot de la Mare, at St. Alban's Abbey, died 1396 ; brass
made in his lifetime, between 1360 and 1375. The whole Brass, of Flemish
manufacture, is one of the finest in England. The Abbot is " vested in
Eucharist vestments, with jewelled mitre and pastoral staff," the latter with
the Agnus Dei in the head.

PILGRIMS.

(Plate 60— Page 192.)

The fashion for going on pilgrimage appears to have sprung up in the
fourteenth century, but we hear of it at a much earlier time than this.
Christian pilgrimages began in visits to the scenes of Our Lord's early life.

As the custom grew, facilities were offered to lighten the journey.
Adventurous shipowners organised a kind of service, so that pilgrims could
travel to the Holy Land vid, Rome.

When the journey was made on land, the pilgrims took advantage of
the hospitals and hostels which were founded here and there along the regular
routes to rest themselves and obtain food. Treaties were made by monarchs
to secure the safe passage of their subjects through foreign lands. Pilgrims
were freed from all tolls, and anyone doing them bodily injury was liable to
excommunication.

In the Holy Land the Orders of Knights Templars and Knights Hos-
pitallers were founded to safeguard them from the attacks of wandering
bodies of Saracens, and to lodge them safely when they reached Jerusalem.

The next most important pilgrimages were those to the tombs of SS.
Peter and Paul at Rome, the centre of Western Christianity, and to the
shrine of St. James at Compostella, in Spain.

The English people, who were prevented from making pilgrimages tx»
Jerusalem, Rome, or Compostella, could probably spare time for a snorter
journey, and pilgrimages to English shrines became very common.

The most popular of these were that of St. Thomas Becket, at Canter-
bury, and that of Our Lady (the Virgin Mary), at Walsingham (twenty-seven
miles from Norwich), where there was a miraculous statue of the Virgin. To
the former came also many pilgrims from the Continent of Europe.

190 PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PILGRIMS.

Nearly every Cathedral and Monastery, too, had its famous saint, to
whose shrine the people restored. There were St. Cuthbert at Durham, St.
William at York, St. Hugh at Lincoln, St. Edward Confessor at West-
minster, and St. Edmund at Bury, and many others.

There were also famous Roods (figures of our Lord on the Cross), statues
of the Virgin, and Holy Wells ; and a place of great attraction was Glaston-
bury, to which many travelled to see the famous Holy Thorn, said to have
been planted by St. Joseph of Arimathaea.

Members of all classes of society undertook these pilgrimages. Rich
people with no occupation could afford the leisure and cost of these journeys,
and the poor, who gave up their regular work and made the pilgrimage, could
count on hoard and lodging at the numerous hospitals, monasteries, at the
parish priest's rectory, and in every gentleman's hall.

The poor pilgrim repaid his hosts by entertaining them with the news of
the lands through which he had passed, and by amusing the household after
supper with marvellous saintly legends and travellers' tales.

He raised funds, too, on his return journey by retailing holy trifles and
curiosities, which were sold wholesale at the shrines frequented by pilgrims,
and sometimes he would made a bolder flight by carrying some fragment of
a relic, a joint of a bone, or a couple of the hairs of a saint, and he received
payment from people lor bringing to their doors some of the advantages of
the holy shrines which he had visited. This, however, was an abuse, and
was visited by heavy penalties by the Church.

The main purpose of these pilgrimages was, of course, to gain direct
spiritual advantage, but some were expiatory and penitential; others were
made out of gratitude for special mercies, recovering from illnesses, &c.

It is said that in the 8th century, some English merchants carried on a
kind of smuggling trade in foreign countries. They put on the pilgrim's
garb, and carried their goods in bales, which they said contained provisions
for their journey, and were exempt from paying any duty.

The preparation of the pilgrim in the Middle Ages was a solemn matter.
Before he started on his journey, he went to Church, and, after Confession,
his scrip and staff were blessed and handed to him,, and his habit (if he were
^omg to Jerusalem), was blessed also. He then took the Holy Sacrament,
and it is surmised that a certificate of his having been blessed as a pilgrim
was then handed to him.

After that, he was conducted out of the parish, to commence his journey
by the priest, with the Cross and Holy Water borne in procession.

A certain costume was worn, spoken of as " pilgrim'* weeds," consisting
of a robe, hat, staff, and scrip.

The robe is said to have been of wool, sometimes of a very shag-g-y
appearance. (Fig. 2.)

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 191

PILGRIMS.

The hat was round, with a wide brim, and was commonly made of felt.
But the special insignia of a pilgrim were his scrip and staff. The scrip was
a small bag", slung- by a cord over the shoulder to hold his food and a few
necessaries, and to it was often affixed a special sign. or token, indicating- the
pilgrimage he was making-. The pilgrim to the Holy Land, too, wore a cross
formed by two strips of coloured cloth sewn on the shoulder of his robe.
Diiferent colours were used to indicate the nationality of the pilgrims — e.g.,
the English wore a white cross, the French red, and the Flemish green.

The staff or bourdon varies in appearance in different MSS., but was
generally like a long walking stick, often with a knob at the top and one
lower down. (Figs. 1 and 3.) Sometimes below the top is a hook (Fig. 2),
to which a water-bottle or small bundle could be attached.

Many pilgrims also carried bells, as they were " thought to possess
locomotive and other miraculous powers.'' (Cutts.)

When the pilgrim reached the Holy Land and had visited the holy
places, he was entitled to wear the palm, showing that he had accomplished
his pilgrimage, and from this badge he was known as a Palmer. Probably
it was fastened as a sprig of palm on the hat or scrip.

To give an idea of the number who undertook these pilgrimages, it may
be mentioned that in one month during the First Jubilee, 200,000 of them
went to Rome.

The chief badge for this journey bore the effigies of St. Peter, St. Paul,
and the Cross Keys, and another was the Vernicle or Kerchief of St.
Veronica. The sign of the Compostella was a scallop shell. (Fig. 8.)

These badges, known also as Pilgrims' signs or Pilgrims' tokens (PL 60,
Figs. 4, 6, 8, 10), were made of lead or pewter, and as one was obtained at
each shrine visited, a pilgrim who made a long journey might come back:
with many of these signs displayed about his person.

The chief sign of the Canterbury pilgrimage was an ampul or ampulla
or flask of lead or pewter.

It is said that after the murder of Becket, the monks of Canterbury
collected his blood from the pavement and made a miraculous cure by
administering a drop to a sick lady who visited the shrine. Thereupon they
mixed a drop in a chalice of water and gave it- as a medicine to many sick
who came to be cured, and in order that the medicine might be carried away
and administered to other sick people, these small metal flasks were made to
contain it.

On their return, the pilgrims hung these flasks in their parish churches
as sacred relics. (Figs. 5, 8, and 9.)

Another " sign " of Canterbury was a bell, and it is owing to this fact
that a well-known flower is called the Canterbury bell. Following the

192

PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PICTORIAL HISTORY. 195

PILGRIMS.

example of the monks of Canterbury, the guardians of other shrines dipped
their sacred relics into water and put up this sacred water for use as medicine
into small flasks, which they sold to pilgrims.

In the old MSS. we read of many wonderful miracles performed by tht
administration of these holy waters to sick and diseased persons. Special
roads appear to have been made to the chief shrines. There was the
" Pilgrims' Road " across Kent from London to Canterbury, and the
" Palmers Way," and the " Walsingham Green Way " to Walsingham.

The towns of pilgrimage were larg-ely a collection of inns, and churches
and hostels for poor pilgrims, the later institutions often being supported by
local guilds.

Pilgrims made their journeys either singly or in bands for the sake of
protection and company, and to enliven their way they sometimes hired a
musician to play the bagpipes.

When the pilgrims reached the shrine, they made their offerings, took
part in prayer, and were shown the holy relics, which they were often allowed
to kiss.

At Canterbury the shrine of St. Thomas was covered with gold and
encrusted with many precious stones of great size and value ; for the principal
of them were offerings from sovereign princes.

A great result of the practice of making pilgrimages was the development
of national sentiment, for people in foreign lands were brought together from
different parts of the same country. " It also broke down the provincialism,
gave a holiday and fresh air and change of life and scene. Finally it intro-
duced the pilgrims to foreign lands, and so helped on the growth of
commerce."

PLATE 60.

(Fig. 1) : A barefooted Pilgrim of the fourteenth century, from British
Museum, Royal MS., 15 iii. (Fig. 2) : Ludgate's Pilgrim, from Harl. MS.,
4826 (fourteenth century). His scrip bears a scallop shell, the pilgrim's sign
for Compostella, and he wears a rough, shaggy robe. (Fig. 3) : A Palmer,
from Cott. MS., Tib. A vii. His hat is slung behind him, and the crown of
his head is shaved, as was often the custom. (In Figs. 1 and 2 a beard is
worn, for often the pilgrim on setting out, made a vow that he would not
cut his hair or his beard while on the pilgrimage.) (Fig. 4) : A Pilgrim's
Sign — the five small circles representing the five wounds of Christ. (Fig. 5) :
A lead Ampulla from the. shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury. (York
Museum.) It bears a figure of the Archbishop, and on the scroll a legend
which is translated as " Thomas is the best physician for tthe pious sick/'
It probably dates from the early part of the thirteenth century. (Fig. 6) :

liM PICTORIAL HISTORY.

PILGRIMS.

A Pilgrim's Sign of St. Catherine, consisting of a Catherine Wheel. (Four-
teenth century.) (Fig. 7) : A Reliquary in form of sphere of open-work
tracery, containing fragments of shells, from the shrine of St. James of Com-
postella. (Fourteenth-fifteenth centuries.) (Fig. 8) : An Ampulla in the form
of a scallop shell, with handles for suspending it around the neck by a cord,
from Compostella. (Fig. 9) : An Ampulla from the shrine of St. Thomas
Becket, Canterbury, bearing on one side a representation of the murder of
Becket, and on the other, three figures within an arcade. (Fig. 10) : A
Pilgrim's Sign from Canterbury, containing a figure of St. Thomas, the
right hand uplifted in blessing and the left holding the crozier. (Figs. 4, ft,
7, 8, and 9 are from the Guildhall Museum London.)

History and Geography Publications.

THE "BERGER" HANDWORK CARDS.

By H. R. WELLER, A.M.C.
CARDBOARD AND PAPER MODELLING CARDS

for the

HISTORY and GEOGRAPHY LESSON.

A series of 32 cards (size 7^X5^ ins.), with full instructions, and
where necessary, directions for colouring the models are added.

This series will be found especially helpful during the year
preceding instruction in light woodwork.

Teachers will also find them useful when models are required
to illustrate History and Geography Lessons.

A- SAXON -HOUSE-

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FrcMneworkof
wooben beams
|"il led in with
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6rick5: roofed
with&coverof
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hole in roof :n<?

IE!

<- -2-K— 2-><r 2.~>
Colour : black beam*/

bar-
red: cover the
roof o| model
yvifn b&st ' o\'<\
colour toimi- •

Some of the Models are ;

TUDOR HOUSE AND SHOP.
PILLORY.
NORMAN CASTLE.
STOCKS AND WHIPPING

POST.

KNIGHT'S CABRIOLET.
CORACLE.
SEDAN CHAIR.
FRIDSTOOL.
OLD MARKET CROSS.
RAM AND RAT.
PALANKIN.

BIRCH BARK CANOE.
SAMPAN.
PYRAMID.
LOG CABIN,
HOWDAH.
THE PILLORY.
BUNKER'S HILL MONUMENT.

RediiCzd Illustration.

Price per box, net, 3S. 6d- I post free, 3s. 9d-

ILLUSTRATIONSfortheHISTORY LESSON

THE " SUGGESTIONS"
HISTORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS.

By H. W. DONALD.

Four Sets of Plates containing illustrations of Armour,
Architecture, Pottery, Musical Instruments, etc., ranging
from the time of the Ancient Britons to the Victorian era.

Each set contains 24 cards.

USES:

(1) To illustrate the History Lesson.

(2) To form the basis of Conversational History Lessons.

(3) To connect Drawing with History.

SET C.

(65 Illustrations.)
Tudors

SET A.

(80 Illustrations.)

SET B.

(76 Illustrations.)
Ancient Britons Normans
Romans Plantagenets

Danes and Vikings Houses of Lancaster & York Stuarts
Anglo-Saxons Tudors Hanoverians

Price, per Set, net, Is. 6d. ; post free, Is. 9d.
Packed in strong cardboard case.

SET D.

(65 Illustrations.)
Illustrates European History

in Armour, Architecture,
Domestic Appliances
Musical Instruments, &c.

HISTORY TEACHING by BIOGRAPHIES.

By ALICE EVE, B.A., L.L.A.
A HANDBOOK for TEACHERS in two Volumes.

Volume I.
JULIUS CAESAR to Sir FRANCIS DRAKE.

Volume II.
Sir WALTER RALEIGH to EARL ROBERTS.

Each volume contains 30 biographies.

The purpose of these volumes is to teach History by grouping
historical facts round the lives of famous men and women.
Each set of notes is preceded by two paragraphs, one giving the aim of
the Lesson, and the other, apparatus for use in connection with it, e.g.

EARL OF STRAFFORD (Vol. II. xxxv .) ;

Aim. — To teach the beginning of the great dispute between
King Charles I. and his people.

Apparatus —Map of British Islands, Portraits of Charles I., Strafford,
Buckingham, Pictures of Cavaliers and Puritans of the time.
Picture of Westminster Hall.

Price, each volume, net, 3S.; post free, 3S. 4|d. Two volumes, post free, 6s. 9d.

"Britannic" Historical Geography Books

FOR CORRELATING

HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY and MAPPING.

(Left page) HISTORICAL SUMMARY.

The •• Britanalc

(Right page) OUTLINE MAP.

Historical Geography Maps. No. 6 .Part I.

England before the Norman
Conquest.

THE CHIEF EARLDOMS.

On his accession to the throne
of England Canute divided the
country into four Governments,
viz. : —

WESSEX,;
EAST ANGLIA,
MERCIA and

NORTHUMBRIA.

He took charge of Wessex him-
self, and three Danes were placed
as Earls over the others.

THE GREAT SAXON EARLS.

He afterwards appointed English-
men to the government of these
Earldoms : —

Leofric becoming Ewl of Merciat
Godwin, Earl of Wessex, and
Siward, Earl of Northumberland.

In each lesson the historical
narrative is followed by notes
describing fully the correlated
work to be done in connection
with the storv.

C H

(Reduced specimen pages,)

Part I.

From the Roman Invasion, B.C. 55, to
the Wars of the Roses, A.D. 1485.

MAPS.

Roman Britain.

The Early Home of the English.

Anglo-Saxon Conquest.

Saxon England in ihe 7th century.

England between the Danes & Saxons

England at the Conquest.

England and Normandy.

Dominions of the Plantagenets.

Scotland in 1285 A.D.

French Campaigns.

Four Famous Battles.

Wars ot the Roses.

Part II.

From the Tudors, A. D.I 485, to
the Crimean War, A. D.I 856.

MAPS.

Maritime Discoveries.
The Tudors, 1485-1603.
The Great Civil War. 1642-1648
The Revolution of 1688,
The Jacobite Rebellions.
The Seven Years' War.
The War of Independence.
English Rule in India.
The Peninsular War.
Battle of Trafalgar.
The Waterloo Campaign.
The Crimean

Part III.

Europe 1600-1914.

MAPS.

Division of Territory after 30 years*

War.

Europe after Treaty of Utrecht.
Europe after Treaty of Paris.
Paris, A. D.I 789. [1795&1796.
Campaigns of A D. 1 792, 1 793, 1 794,
Peace of Amiens, A.D. 1802.
Europe afttr Wagram.
CongressofVienna&Trealyof P^fis.
Central Europe, A D.I 866.
Franco-Prussian War.
Eastern Europe, A. D.I 878.
Balkan Peninsula. 1914.

HISTORY for the JUNIORS and INFANTS.

HISTORY IN PICTURES AND STORIES.

By B. M. AND D. M. ASLING.

For READING and COLOURING.

(Adopted by the London County Council )

The PLAN. — The story, written in simple and attractive form, is on the left

page. On the opposite page is an outline drawing, with full particulars

for colouring, for the child to colour.
The AIM. — To show in story and picture how the boys and girls lived and

dressed in those far-off days. To show what their homes were like.

To provide an opportunity for comparing then and now.

PERIOD. — From the Cave Man to the Norman Conquest.

CONTENTS : Book III.

Book I. Book II. The Coming of St. Augustine.

Celts and Phoenicians exchanging English Villagers pursuing a thief in the
A Cave Man. goods 7, h century.

A £' n I?'"1311 ajl P 1C T A Pictt The Nor'hmen "ailing upanEnglishriver

A Pit Dwelling and the People who juliu§ Caesar iooking at the shores King Aifred vi,iting a $chool

A D-C M U' \T/ u of Britain. Duke William of Normandy preparing

Tk 1 ^?anat 7 The Building °f Hadrian's Wall. to invade England.

ine Lake IJwell A Roman Road in Britain. A Norman Noble riding through an

A man roakmg copper spear heads. A Roman Road ;n Brhain to.day £ ^ yil, JR ]Q66*

Saxons building a house in Britain. A Norman Manor House.
Price, each, net, 5d. ; post free, Qd.

STORY LESSONS IN HISTORY.

By EDNA LAKE,

An original scheme of 23 lessons correlating History, Geography,
Literature and Handwork, covering the period from William I.
to Queen Elizabeth.

Fully illustrated with designs for Paper or Cardboard Modelling
and Free Paper Cutting,

In each lesson the historical narrative is followed by notes describing
fully the correlated work to be done in connection with the story, e.g.

LESSON III.-THE WHITE SHIP.

HISTORY— The White Ship.
GEOGRAPHY— The English Channel.
LANGUAGE— Some words we get from the

French.
LITERATURE OR STORY — The Church Builders.

COMPOSITION— Ships.

CHALK OR BRUSH DRAWING — Ships.

PAPER OR CARDBOARD MODELLING — A Ship.

SAND AND CL-AY MODELLING — A Church.

FREE PAPER CUTTING — A Ship (12th century).

Price, net, 3s 9d. ; post free, 4s. 2d.
Complete Catalogue of Publications sent post free on request.

CHARLES and SON, Ltd. SSS3&,10

Donald, H.

DA
110

Handbook of Pictorial History ,D6

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