A HANDBOOK OF
TROPICAL GARDENING
AND PLANTING
F. MACM1LLAN
Main Lib. AGRIC, DEPT.
A HANDBOOK
OF
TROPICAL GARDENING AND PLANTING
A HANDBOOK
OK
TROPICAL GARDENING
AND PLANTING
WITH SPECIAL REFEREXCE TO CEYLOX
H. F. MACMILLAN, F.L.S.
•i
(Superintendent* Roytil Hottinic (itirdens, Ceylon).
AUTHOR OF " II.LrsTKATKD (illDK TO THK
ROYAL KOTAXIC (iAKDEXS. I'KKADKXIYA." KTC.
SECOXD EDITIOX
ALL RIGHTS RKSKKVKI)^
H. W. CAVE & Co.,
AMEN CORNER. COLOMBO.
MCMXIV.
PRINTED BY
H. \V. CAVK & CO
COLOMBO.
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION
The need for a practical work of this nature, especially
adapted for the Tropics, has apparently been long felt, judging by
the demand for information on the subjects treated in this hand-
book. Of books on horticulture in temperate countries, there is no
end, but they are generally of little guidance in tropical regions,
where the conditions of climate, labour and methods of working
are so different. A writer in the Ceylon Observer recently
remarked: "How much more attractive and interesting our bun-
galow gardens and compounds might be made if the right sort of
information regarding their care were available. Too often they
are tended only by the garden-cooly, who has no pretensions to
any knowledge of gardening, and things which grow, do so more
by luck than good management." The aim of the author has been,
therefore, to supply as concisely as possible and in a manner to
suit the practical man in the held or garden, the kind of information
which is most generally sought for. not only on horticultural
matters, but also on general planting or agricultural subjects.
In practice there is no sharp line of distinction between
Planting or tropical farming and Horticulture, and the main prin-
ciples underlying both are the same. "Agriculture in the tropics,"
said SIR WILLIAM THISF.LTON DYER, "is essentially extended
gardening; it has little relation to the agriculture of temperate
countries, and its methods are those of horticulture." According
to LIEBIG, "perfect agriculture is the foundation of all trade and
industry, the foundation of the riches of state." "Scientific horti-
culture," said DR. BAILEY, "joins hands with the plant biologists
on the one hand, and with commerce on the other."
Gardening or horticulture is obviously advancing in Ceylon, as
in other tropical countries, and it is being recognised, slowly but
surely, that it plays an important part in home adornment and
comfort, as well as in rural improvement and sanitation. Nowadays
292624
VI
many planters, mercantile and professional men, manifest a keen
interest in their garden, and in some cases become experts in the
cultivation of certain classes of plants which claim their special
attention. Superintendents of estates or plantations in lonely
districts admit that the presence of choice flowering plants or trees
about their bungalow have an exhilarating influence, and when
these are absent it is usually clue not so much to indifference on
the part of the superintendent as to circumstances over which he
has no control. In Rubber districts especially, the depressing
effects of long interminable stretches of sombre-looking rubber
trees is well-known, and recently several companies have shown a
desire to have attractive flowering trees (as urged by the writer in
a recent pamphlet) planted around the bungalows of their
superintendents.
For ladies, gardening has special attractions; the cultivation
and arrangement of flowers is not only especially appropriate to
them, but they are also frequently successful competitors with men
in the art.
I leave it in the hands of readers to judge of the merits of this
work, if it has any. The general arrangement of the plants or
crops, useful or ornamental, into sections according to the elevation
and purpose for which they are especially suited, will, I trust, be
appreciated. To facilitate reference and save the time of readers,
considerable use has been made of tabular forms which contain
only the most essential particulars. The planting products in
Chapters XXII and XXIII are considered in accordance with their
importance in Ceylon. Though a botanical arrangement has been
avoided in preference to an economic or practical one, the
botanical name and Natural Order or family of each plant or
product mentioned throughout the book are invariably given.
Most people nowadays know the meaning of plant affinity, and to
these a knowledge of a plant's scientific name and family often
conveys some idea as to its general character or utility. The
common or vernacular names, when sufficiently popular or well-
known, are given in English, Sinhalese, and Tamil, also in some
cases in Hindustani and Malay.
My thanks are due to several gentlemen as well as ladies who
have kindly supplied me. with valuable suggestions and information.
LADY BLAKK has favoured me \vith useful notes on various
ornamental plants, and MRS. WESTLAND and other ladies have
contributed recipes for jams, jellies, preserves, etc. I am especially
indebted to MR. E. E. GREEX, F.E.S., F.Z.S., Government Ento-
mologist, and MR. T. FETCH, B.A., B.SC., Government Mycologist,
who obligingly furnished me with much of the information in the
chapters on Insect Pests and Fungus Diseases respectively ; to
DR. R. H. LOCK, M.A., SC.D., Assistant Director, Royal Botanic
Gardens, for useful guidance; to MR. M. KELWAY BAMBER, M.R.A.C.,
F.I.C., etc., Government Chemist, who has read, and contributed
to, the chapters on Soils and Manures; to MR. J. K. NOCK* Curator
of Hakgala Gardens, for much information on Up-country fruits,
vegetables, etc.; to MR. C. DRIEBERG, B.A., K.H.A.S., Secretary of
the "Ceylon Agricultural Society" and Superintendent of School
Gardens, who has written the Calendar for the Low-country and
afforded assistance in other ways; and to the Hon. the Principal
Collector of Customs, Colombo, who has courteously obliged me
with statistics of exports. Finally I desire to acknowledge the
constant courtesy of MESSRS. H. W. CAVE & Co., the printers,
whose work I think speaks for itself.
For the loan of several excellent half-tone and electro blocks,
I have to thank The Agricultural Economist & H or ti cultural Review,
The Gardener's Chronicle, The Ceylon Agricultural Society; also
MESSRS. PLATE & Co., MESSRS. WALKER Soxs & Co., and MESSRS.
BROWX & Co. My thanks are likewise due to MR. H. W. CAVE, M.A.,
MESSRS. F. SKEEX & Co., THE COLOMBO APOTHECARIES Coy.
and MR. T. PETCH for permission to use certain photographs.
With the exception of these, the photographs for all the illustrations
have been taken by myself.
Among useful works of reference which I have consulted, I
would especially mention the following: — WATT'S Dictionary of
Economic Products of India, CAMEROX'S revised edition of Firmi tiger's
Manual of Gardening for India, WOODROW'S Gardening in India,
XICHOLL'S Tropical Agriculture, MUKERJI'S Itufian Agriculture,
HALDAXE'S Sub-tropical Cultivations and Climates, NICHOLSON'S
Encyclopaedia of Gardening, WATSOX'S revised edition of Thompson's
Gardeners' Assistant, FERGUSOX'S Ceylon Handbook and Directory,
FREEMAX AXD CHAXDLER'S The World's Commercial Products,
BAILEY'S Pruning Book, MAXWELL-LEFROY'S Indian Insect Pests,
PEARSOX'S Book of Garden Pests, SORAUR'S Physiology of Plants,
WILLIS' Agriculture in the Tropics, TRIMEX'S Flora of Ceylon and
WRIGHT'S Hevea brasilicnsis.
H. F. M.
"Whose lamented death has since < centred.
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION
The rapid exhaustion of the first edition has given the author
an opportunity of enlarging and fully revising the work, the book
being now considerably increased in size. Some of the chapters
have been entirely re-written and extended, and several new
features have been added, among these being the following subjects:
Use of explosives in agriculture, inter-crops and catch-crops, dry-
farming, intensive or French gardening, sericulture, lac-culture,
selections of trees, plants, etc., for cemeteries or memorial purposes,
selection of Ceylon indigenous plants, poisonous plants, sacred trees,
remarkable or curious seeds and fruits, insectivorous, fly-catching,
and myrmecophilous plants. The illustrations also have been
almost doubled in number.
I have to express my indebtedness especially to MESSRS. JOHX
PARKIN, M.A., N. C. ROLT, and C. DRIEBERG, B.A., for valuable
assistance and suggestions; also to MESSRS. R. N. LYXE, Director
of Agriculture, for kind encouragement; C. H. KXOWLES, B.SC.,
Superintendent of Agriculture, Fiji; GEO. BRYCE, B.SC.; and J. W.
IRWIX, of Coorg, for a photograph of coffee cultivation. For the
loan of some excellent blocks, I have to thank MESSRS. SUTTOX
& Soxs, Reading; RYDER & Soxs, St. Albans; BROWX & Co. and
WALKER & Soxs, LTD., Colombo.
H. F. M.
Royal Botanic Gardens,
Peradcniya,
May, 12th, 1914.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION I.
CHAPTER I-AIJKS
I Climate, Soils, etc. - 1—15
II Plant-life, nutrition, etc. - 16 — 22
III Manures, natural and artificial - 23 — 36
IV Green-manuring, mulching, inter-cropping, etc. 37 — 42
V Soil operations : Tillage, drainage, rotation, etc. 43—50
VI Propagation ; Grafting, budding, plant breeding, etc. 51 — 73
VII Cultural operations: Planting, transplanting, shading, pruning,
ring-barking, etc. 74 — 82
VIII Garden and estate tools and implements, labels, etc. 83 — %
IX Laying out gardens: choice of site, preparation of ground,
hedges, paths, borders, lawns, etc. 97 — 128
SECTION II.
X Tropical fruits - 129—189
XI Sub-tropical or Temperate fruits 190—205
XII Tropical Vegetables or Food-products 206—233
XIII Sub-Tropical or Temperate Vegetables 234—256
XIV Spices, condiments, etc. • 257—289
SECTION III.
XV Flowering and ornamental foliage trees - 290 — 316
XVI Selections of foliage and flowering shrubs, climbers, etc.. for
low elevations 317—367
XVII Selections of pot-plants (Foliage and flowering). Palms,
Bamboos, Orchids, Ferns, etc. 368—394
XVIII Selections for medium or high elevations: Ornamental foliage
and flowering trees, shrubs, annuals, etc. 395 — 439
XIX Sand-binding plants, trees, etc.. suited to the sea-side 440—445
XX Shade trees for p.irks, field crops, Windbelts. Timber, etc. 446— 454
XXI Railway. Rest-house, and School Gardens: Memorial trees;
Plants for Cemeteries, etc. - 455 — 168
SECTION IV.
XXII Standard products of Ceylon, Tea, Coconuts, Rubber, Cocoa.
Rice. Cardamoms, Tobacco, etc. 469-502
XXIII Minor Products of Ceylon: Arecanuts Annatto, Camphor,
Cinchona, Citronella, Coca, Coffee, Cotton. Croton oil. Kola-
nut, Areca-nut, Xux-vomica, Sugar-cane, etc. 503—525
CHAPTER PAGES
XXIV Miscellaneous Economic Products of the Tropics: Edible
products, Drugs, Oils, Dyes, Fibres, Guttahs, Lac and
Sericulture 526—570
XXV Perfume-yielding plants; honey plants; Ornamental seeds;
curious fruits and seed; poisons, insectivorous plants, etc. 571 — 583
XXVI Pasture, grazing, fodder plants, edible herbs and flowers;
medicinal plants of Ceylon - 584 — 600
XXVII Garden and estate enemies and friends; weeds, etc. 601 — 61 1
XXVIII Insect pests, and termites; insecticides, fumigation, etc. 612 — 627
XXIX Fungus diseases, preventive measures, fungicides. Spraying,
etc. 628—636
XXX Transport and packing of plants, seeds, bulbs, flowers, etc.
Storing of seeds • 637—643
XXXI Useful references, measuring land, trees, timber, etc. Recipes
for jams, jellies, etc. • 644 — 654
XXXII Calendars of work - - - 655- 662
ERRATA
PAGE
118 for Casuarina equisitofolia read C. equisitifolia.
120 for Malpighia coccinea read Malpighia coccifera.
124 line 5, for Soil of potting plants read "Soils for pot plants."
215 line 12 from bottom, for Tamba-karawila read Tumba-karawila.
248 18 ,, ,, for Oca-quina read Oca-quira.
317 after Allamanda Schottii read A. violacea ; flowers rosy-purple ; height
5 to 7 ft.
325 line 2, for ilicifolio read ilicifolia.
359 for flabilefer read flabellifer.
378 for Alocasia Argyrea read A. argyrea.
389 Sceutellaria should be Scutellaria.
398 for Ailanthus read Ailantus.
399 for Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana read Cupressus funebris, and under the
former read : A handsome pyramid-shaped small tree, with crowded
fern-like leaves ; 4-6,000 ft.
line 11 from bottom, for C. knightiana read Cupressus knightiana, and for
C. in following leading lines read Cupressus.
404 for Philadelpus read Philadelphus.
405 line 11, for Wiganda read Wigandia.
421 for Lebelia read Lobelia.
431 for Tigrida read Tigridia.
435 for Clyclamen read Cyclamen.
537 after Asclepias curassavica read perennial, not perennia
,, ,, Brayera read N. O. Rosaceae.
547 line 6, for Agave rigida var. Sisalana read Agave Sisalana.
564 line 5, for Nectrandra read Nectandra.
572 under Lemon-grass read Cymbopogon, not Andropogon.
A HANDBOOK
OF
TROPICAL GARDENING & PLANTING.
CHAPTER I.
CLIMATE AND SOILS
Climate. — Climate is the principal factor which controls the
growth of plants, and constitutes the conditions which render a
country suitable for the abode of man and animals. One of the
first questions the planter or gardener in the tropics has to consider
is whether the climate is suitable for the cultivation he intends to
take up. Climate mainly depends upon latitude and altitude ; it is
usually hottest at the equator at sea-level, and coldest the furthest
away from it and the highest above sea-level. It is also, however,
materially affected by the distance fiom the sea, form and slope of
the land surface, the nature of the soil and its vegetation, and
other circumstances. The influence of altitude is specially notice-
able in the tropics, the temperature becoming appreciably cooler
as one ascends in the hills. Thus, while at Colombo it is hot and
tropical, at Xuwara Eliya, 6,000 feet above the level of the
sea, it is cool and temperate. For about every 300 feet of elevation
there is a reduction of about one degree in the temperature, and it
is estimated that for about every 270 feet elevation the effect on the
temperature is equivalent to receding a degree from the equator.
Thus, Kandy being about 1,500 feet above sea- level, its average
shade temperature is about 5 degrees cooler than that of Colombo.
At X u warn Eliva the difference is even more marked, so that if
2 CLIMATE
Pidurutalagala, our highest mountain (8,296 ft.), were about
8,000 ft. higher still, it would probably be covered with perpetual
snow. The cooler climate of the hills not only renders possible
the cultivation of certain plants or crops which1 are indigenous to
temperate regions, but also affords residents and visitors a very
grateful substitute for the more bracing climate of a temperate
country. The fiat northern and eastern portion of Ceylon are charac-
terized by a dry arid climate, to which typical forms of thorny
vegetation or scrub are indigenous. Here, however, certain crops
may thrive under special methods of cultivation better than in the
wet zone, being specially adapted (xerophytic) to the arid climate,,
as for example the useful Palmyra palm, which in the dry zone
luxuriates and forms a valuable product.
In Ceylon there thus occur four distinct types of climatic
zones, viz: — (1) the hot and moist zone, from sea-level to about
1,000 feet elevation with a well distributed rainfall of 70 to 120 or
more inches, and a mean shade temperature of about 80° Fah.;;
this is confined to the south-western part of the island ; (2) the
hot and dry zone, formed by the flat country of the northern and
eastern part of the island, with a rainfall confined to only a few
months of the year ; (3) the intermediate zone, from 1 ,000 to 4,000
feet, with a rainfall of 80 to 130 or more inches; (4) the montane
or cool zone, from about 4,000 feet to the highest altitude (8,296
feet), with an evenly distributed rainfall of 85 to 150 or more
inches. In the months of January and February, cool night
temperatures are usually experienced in the lowr-country ; thus at
Colombo a night temperature of 65° F. and at Kandy of 50° F. have
been recorded ; whilst at Nuwara Eliya a slight frost frequently
occurs in the period named. Such a diversified climate allows of
the successful cultivation of a large variety of plants or crops from
different latitudes, and within a comparatively small area. Conse-
quently there may be seen in Ceylon a considerable number of
acclimatized plants from Brazil, Mexico, Pacific Islands, Malay,
Tropical Africa, India, etc., luxuriating in the low-country ; whilst
at the higher elevations many species from cooler regions, as.
Europe, South Africa, Australia, Peru, etc., are perfectly at home,
many having become naturalised.
Seasons. — SIR EMERSON TENNANT said : The line is faint that
divides the seasons in Ceylon. No period of the year is divested
of its seed time and its harvest in some part of the Island, and the
ripe fruit hangs on the same branches that are garlanded with
CLIMATE 3
open buds." Tims there are^no seasons in Ceylon, in the sense
the word is used in temperate countries. The uniform moist
climate of the south-western districts is only varied by a period of
comparatively short rainfall between January and March, known as
the "dry season." No "cold season" occurs here as in India,
though during the dry season named, as well as the hotter months
(March to May), most people prefer to enjoy the more bracing air
of the hills, which is then dry and crisp. So that the only
variety in the climate is afforded by the two annually recurring
monsoons, viz., the south-west monsoon, commencing at the end of
May and lasting till October, and the north-cast monsoon, lasting
from October to May. The rainfall of the former is more or less
confined to the south-west of the Island, while the eastern side of
the country receives its most copious rain from the north-east
monsoon, chiefly in November and December, its driest seasons
being from June to September. In the northern part of Ceylon, the
rainy season is mostly confined to the three months of October to
December, very little rain falling from April to September. The
hottest period of the year, all over Ceylon, is from March to Mav.
LOCAL INFLUENCES ON CLIMATE
Forests. — These constitute one of the most important con-
ditions affecting climate. The presence of forests prevents erosion
of the soil, retards the evaporation of moisture, enables the soil to
retain a large proportion of rain water, and tempers the atmosphere
both by cool vapours from the soil and by preventing the sun's
rays from reaching the earth. It is also claimed that forests
cause precipitation of the clouds, resulting in more frequent
showers and heavier rainfall than would otherwise be the case;
but this is a disputed point. When the forest is cleared away,
radiation from the land is increased, the soil is less retentive of
moisture, and the air, as well as the soil, becomes drier and warmer.
A similar effect takes place when swampy and marshy land is
drained and brought into cultivation. The climate of islands and
maritime districts is usually much more equable than that in the
interior of continents, the atmosphere in the former being
frequently loaded with clouds and vapours. Lakes, marshes and
rivers have usually an unfavourable effect on climate, as they give
rise to fogs, especially at night, which chill the ground and render
the vicinity unhealthv.
4 CLIMATE
Aspect. — This also has an important influence on climate, a.
northern and an eastern aspect being, as a rule, cooler and moister
than southerly and westerly ones; in a north verandah, for example,,
plants which require a cool temperature thrive much better than
in a verandah facing south. In a mountainous country, aspect is,
of course, often affected by the lay of the land, and ridges, alter-
nating with valleys or ravines, often cause an appreciable difference
in the climate of places relatively near to each other. Similarly in a
narrow valley, while one side, being partially shaded, may be cool
and damp, the other side is warm and dry ; so that plant-life would,
differ materially on either slope.
Wind-breaks. — The climate may be considerably improved
locally by the planting of shade and wind-break trees, for these-
not only break the force of the winds, but also tend to lessen the
excessive evaporation of moisture, and temper the sun's rays..
Exposed and windy situations have a different climate from?,
sheltered places, although the soil, rainfall and aspect may be about
the same, Wind-breaks may be said to be as essential to many-
plantations as a break-water is to an open harbour
Soil formation. — Climate is also affected by the nature of
the soil. There is a greater radiation of heat from sandy than clay
soils, so that districts with sandy soils invariably have the highest
temperature. This largely accounts for the intense heat in parts,
of Egypt, Bengal, Arabia, etc., during certain seasons of the year.
Irrigation, it is admitted, has a marked beneficial effect on
climate ; thus the enormous lake-like dams or reservoirs, like that
at Assouan in Egypt for accumulating the Nile waters, and others,
in India and Ceylon, must have an important influence in cooling;
the surrounding atmosphere.
CLIMATE
Table showing Elevation, Average Rainfall, and Mean Temperature
at the Principal Towns or Stations in Ceylon.
STATION
Eleva-
tion
in feet
AVERAGE
RAINFALL
Mean
Temperature,
in Fahr. degrees
Inches
Days
Colombo
20
87
174
81
Guile
48
92
200
80
Matara
15
71 117
80 approximate
Hambantota
50
37
88
80
Batticaloa
26
59
101
80
Trincomalee
12
63
108
81
Jaffna
11 47
71
82
Mannar
12 38
65
82
Puttalam
27 47
81
81
Cfiilaw
10
55
90
81 approximate
Xegombo
6
69
100
81 do
Katnapura
84 151
213
79
Kegalle (Ambanpitiya
729 122
163
79 approximate
about 3 miles west of K'galle)
Kurunegala
381
81
155
80
Anuradhapura
295
54
102
80
Matale
1,208
84
164
76 approximate
Badulla
2,225
75
122
73
Bandarawela
4.036
62
132
67
Randy
1 .654
81
191
76
Xawalapitiva
2,400
154
175
74 approximate
Deltota
3,500
109
199
73 do
Hatton
4,141
152
215
69 do
Bogawantalawa
4.300
111
227
65
Agrapatana
5,200
87
196
60 approximate
Xuwara Eliya
-6.240
94
204
58
6 SOILS
SOILS
Soils are formed by the gradual decomposition or wearing
away of rocks, under the influence of weather, glacial or volcanic
action, assisted by the presence of plant-life. Variations of temper-
ature have an important effect on the formation of soils, for rocks
expand by heat and contract by cold. Thus in the hot tropical
sunshine, the surfaces of the rocks expand and are again contracted
by the cool air of the nights ; this causes them to crack, and par-
ticles crumble off, thereby giving rise to a small but constant addi-
tion to the soil. Plant- life also assists in the formation of soils
in two ways, i.e., mechanically and chemically. The roots enter
crevices of rocks, and by their gradual increase in bulk act like
wedges in forcing the two sides apart ; the force thus exerted,
even by the roots of very small plants, is considerable, being
sometimes sufficient to break through concrete, or lift stone
pavements. Roots have also, by means of their acid sap, a solvent
action on rocks, and thus assist in their decomposition. Vegetation
further contributes to the formation of soil by depositing dead
leaves and stems on the surface in the form of humus, to the
presence of which is usually due the black colour of garden soils.
Other important factors in the formation of soils are rivers and
streams, the sea, and, in some cases, wind. Rivers grind down
rocks and stones, and carry particles of rock or gravel to the
plains or valleys, depositing it in the form of mud, which is known
as alluvial soil. Such deposits are usually rich in plant-food.
The wind occasionally adds fertile matter to soils by carrying sand,
dust, straw, leaves, etc., and depositing them in hollows.
All soils may be classed as either (1) transported, when they
are carried from a distance, as by any of the agencies named
above ; or ( 2 ) sedentary, local, or indigenous when they remain
where formed. To the latter belong by far the greater portion of
Ceylon soils. In some cases the surface soil is transported, while
the sub-soil is sedentary, or vice versa. Transported deposits, as
alluvial soils, are, as stated above, usually characterized by greater
fertility than those which are sedentary.
CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL
The five substances of which all soils may be said to be
composed of are : sand, clay, lime, vegetable matter or humus, and
stones.
SOILS 7
Sand. — This is principally" composed of quart/, Hint, or silica.
It imparts a loose porous consistency to the soil, assists the air and
water in finding their way through the land, and aids the roots of
plants in their efforts to penetrate in all directions. In agricul-
tural and horticultural practices, sand is frequently added to the
soil so as to render it porous and " sweet." Thus in potting com-
posts, sand is usually a necessary constituent.
Clay is composed of two chemical bodies, known as silica
and alumina, in combination with water. When wet, it is sticky
and plastic; but when burnt, as was formerly done in the culti-
vation of stiff soils, it loses its plastic property and becomes brittle.
Liming has also this effect on clay soil, depriving it of its sticky,
binding nature. There are various kinds of clay, some white,
from which china-ware is made ; others yellow, from which
are made bricks, pots, chatties and other earthenware articles.
Clay is colder, and retains much more moisture than sand. A
certain proportion of clay is a highly desirable constituent in all
soils, and no land can be efficiently and economically worked
unless clay be present to an appreciable extent.
Lime. — This usually occurs in soils combined with carbonic
acid as a carbonate of lime in various forms, as chalk, lime-stone,
and coral. It is present in large quantities in the shells of land-
snails and some marine animals, besides coral. Ceylon soils
generally are lacking in lime, which when present usually occurs
in the form of dolomite.
Humus or vegetable-mould is formed by decayed vegetable
matter, such as leaves, roots, stems, etc., and exists to some extent
in all cultivated soils as a dark brown substance. It often occurs
abundantly on the surface of the ground in forests. Humus
may be said to be the most important constituent of all soils for
the planter or gardener. It has a great influence on the capacity of
soils for retaining moisture, renders their cultivation easier, and
encourages the activity of soil bacteria. Soils which are deficient
in humus are liable to cake and become very hard in dry weather,
and quickly lose their heat in cool weather. (See under Manures).
Leaf-mould may be distinguished from humus as being
composed almost entirely of decayed leaves ; it is a valuable
ingredient in composts for pot-plants, tender seedlings, etc.
Stones are simply particles of the original rock from which
the soil was formed. If they do not exist in too great a number
8 SOILS
(10X of small stones not being considered harmful) they serve a
useful purpose in the soil, as they render it lighter in character,
affording porosity and assisting in the retention of moisture. The
stones are weathered by the atmosphere and other agencies, in the
same way as the rocks from which the soil was made, so that
their gradual wasting away adds material to the soil.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.
Soils are classified in accordance with their physical or
chemical composition, and are divided into classes, sub-classes, etc.,
according to the proportion of clay, sand, lime and humus they
contain. The principal classes are: —
Clay or argillaceous soils. — These contain over 50 per cent,
of clay. They are heavy and dense, very retentive of water,
are cold and difficult to work, and require to be well-drained in
order to be properly cultivated. In periods of drought, plants on
clay soils are apt to suffer, as the roots cannot penetrate into stiff
clays, or obtain water from the subsoil. Though such soils may
contain an abundance of mineral food for plants, it is often
rendered unavailable by their stiff texture. This may, however,
be corrected by the addition of sand, lime, or suitable manures, and
by drainage. Clay soils of moderate texture have, nevertheless,
very important advantages in the tropics, owing to their power of
retaining soluble manures and moisture. . (See under Clay}.
Loamy soils are composed of 30 to 50 per cent, of clay,
under 5 pe>' cent. ( if any) of lime, and the remainder of sand and
vegetable mould.
Sandy loams contain from 20 to 30 per cent, of clay, and
may be with or without lime.
Loamy sands comprise 10 to 20 per cent, of clay ; lime may
be present or absent.
Sandy soils. — These contain not less than 70 per cent, of
quartz sand ; they have little cohesion, are very porous, and
contain little nourishment for plants. Such soils can be improved
by the addition of clay, marl or chalk.
Marly soils. — These contain from 5 to 20 per cent, of lime,
and may partake of the characters of the first four classes, or of the
eighth.
Calcareous soils contain over 20 per cent, of lime, and
may partake of the characters of a loamy soil with 30 to 50 per cent.
SOILS y
of cl.iy. or sandy soil with over 70 per cent, of sand. On the
authority of MR. BAMBKK. the Government Chemist, neither marly
nor calcareous soils occur in Ceylon.
Gravelly soil is a term applied to the presence of a consider-
able amount of gravel or stones in soils, without reference to their
composition ; such soil may partake of the characters of the sandy,
clayey, or calcareous classes.
Vegetable mould. — This applies to soils which contain not
less than 5 per cent, of humus or vegetable matter ; they may in
their turn partake of the character of clayey, loamy, or sandy soils;
or they may be composed almost entirely of vegetable matter, as.
in the case of peat.
Peat is a black soil formed by the decay of marsh plants and
bog mosses, as Sphagnum. A black plastic peat-like soil occur*
on mountain plains in Ceylon at elevations above 5,000 feeU
usually forming a Hat barren area, but it in no way forms a
substitute for peat. Peat bogs are not adapted for cultivation in
their natural condition, although they are the favourite resort of
certain plants. Rhododendrons and allied plants thrive best on
well-drained peaty soils. To render peat-bogs fertile, the excess
of water must be drained off, and lime and sand added. The
effect of this treatment is to aerate the soil, destroying the inju-
rious acids present, and preventing the stagnation of water.
Surface soil and sub-soil. — These are convenient terms, the
former to distinguish the top layer of soil, which is usually
distinct by its darker colour (owing to the presence of humus)
and looser texture than that underneath, i.e., the sub-soil. The
latter, though usually more compact and of a lighter colour, varies
considerably in character. It may consist mainly of sand, or of
gravel or clay, or even resemble the surface-soil. The surface-soil
varies in thickness according to locality and surrounding influences ;
in forests and highly cultivated lands it is usually deep, but on
steep hill-sides and in dry places it is shallow.
Heavy and light soils.— Although sandy soils are heavier
than clay ones, agriculturists and horticulturists call a clay soil
"heavy," and a sandy soil "light." These terms, however, refer
to the facility with which the soils are worked, and not to their
relative weights.
Cold or warm soils. — Clay soils retain much more mois-
ture than sandv soils, and this causes a great difference in regard
1 0 SOILS
to their temperature. The former are therefore sometimes spoken
of as cold, and sandy soils as warm. As a certain amount of
warmth in the soil is necessary for plant life, this indicates the
importance of draining low-lying, cold, clayey land.
Volcanic soils. — These are formed by the lava which has
flowed over the surface of volcanoes, and subsequently become
subject to the action of the atmosphere. Soils of volcanic origin,
as those of certain islands, are usually very fertile. Such soils
may practically be said not to exist in Ceylon.
Submarine or coral soils are found in certain islands which,
by volcanic or other agencies, have been lifted up above
the sea.
Chemical composition of soils. — All soils are composed of (1)
vrganic and (2) inorganic elements. The former comprise
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon, which disappear as
vapour or smoke wrhen an organised body, vegetable or animal, is
burnt in the air. The first three are gases, and the last is a sub-
stance, one form of which, charcoal, is familiar to every one.
Besides these, there are two other substances, namely, sulphur
and phosphorus which are sometimes called secondary organic
elements, because they are frequently, but not always, found in
organised bodies. The inorganic elements which are always to
be found in combination with other elements in lands suitable for
cultivation are potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and iron.
With the exception of magnesium, calcium and iron, all these are
essential constituents of plant-food.
Examination of soils. — The following simple mechanical
tests are given as a ready means of ascertaining approximately the
condition of a given soil:-— Weigh out J Ib. of earth after it has
been well dried, boil it for a short time in a pint of water, and
then pour all into a glass vessel. Into this insert a piece of blue
litmus paper ; if the paper turn to a red colour, it shows that acid
humus is present in the soil, and that lime is necessary to counter-
act the acidity. Then add more water, stir well, and pour off
-carefully the muddy water into a large vessel, care being taken
that none of the sand which settles to the bottom is lost ; stir up
the sand with fresh water, which is again poured off into the
larger vessel. This is to be done several times until the sand be-
comes clean and free from mud. The contents of the larger
vessel are to be allowed to remain for several hours until the fine
mud settles to the bottom, when the clear water is to be carefully
^SOILS 1 T
poured oft". The s:ind and the mud should then be dried and
weighed separately, when, by comparing their bulk or weight,
the proportion of sand and earthy matter in the soil can be
ascertained.
To discover the presence or absence of lime in a soil. — Besides
the blue litmus paper test for lime, as described above, the
presence of lime may be ascertained thus:— Take some 10 or
20 small samples from different parts of the ground, mix them
well together, then place a small sample in a tumbler and pour on
it a wine-glassful of muriatic (hydrochloric) acid. If the liquid
tizz and bubble freely, the soil may be considered to contain a
sufficiency of chalk ; but if it only effervesces feebly, it is safe to
conclude that a dressing of lime is desirable.
To ascertain proportion of humus in the soil. — Heat for an
hour to a red-heat, a given quantity of thoroughly dry earth
in an iron or clay vessel ; the soil rapidly blackens if much humns
is present, and then turns red or yellowr, the vegetable matter
being burnt off ; when cool, weigh the earth, and the loss in.
weight will give the proportion of humus in the soil.
The capacity of soils for holding moisture. — This power of
soils is mainly dependent on the mechanical texture or porosity
of the soil material. In a soil consisting of solid particles of fairly
uniform size, the interspaces are about 40 per cent, of the volume,
whether the particles are large or small ; but if the particles are a
mixture of large and small (as gravel and sand), the volume of the
interspaces is much diminished. On the other hand, if the par-
ticles themselves are porous, as in the case of chalk, loam, and
especially humus, the volume of the interspaces is much increased.
It is this volume of the interspaces that determines the amount of
water which a soil will hold when perfectly saturated, or the
amount of air which it will contain when dry. The influence of
humus on the capacity of a soil for holding moisture is remarkable.
SCHUBLER found that after 72 hours exposure to moist air, humus
had taken up nearly 2\ times as much water as clay, and 40 times
more than sand, which, under the same circumstances, took up
16 times less than clay. A simple way of ascertaining the power
of any soil to hold water is given thus: Fill a flower- pot nearly to
the top with dry soil, and then weigh it ( the weight of the poU
both wet and dry, must, of course, be known). Then gradually
pour water on the soil until it begins to drop from the bottom.
12 SOILS
As soon as the dropping has ceased, weigh the whole ; the differ-
ence in weight will approximately show the proportion of water
held by the soil.
Capillary action of soils. — The power of soils for drawing
up- water from the lower strata towards the surface is of the
greatest importance from the cultivator's point of view. It is
possessed in a greater or less degree by all soils, being greater in
proportion as their pores are hner. Sand possesses this power to
the least extent, and fine clay to the greatest; thus a clay soil is
always wetter than sanely soil placed under the same influences.
There is, however, a limit to the fineness cf particles which
favours capillarity, and when this limit is passed, fineness is dis-
advantageous, since the minute particles ot earth are then apt to
•cohere together so closely that few, if any, spaces are left between
them for the admission of water. Therefore too open a tilth
is not desirable, especially for light soils ; hence the necessity for
rolling such soils after ploughing and harrowing- From the sub-
soil, moisture is gradually and steadily sucked up and transmitted
to the upper cultivated surface. When the surface soil is left undis-
turbed and becomes hard, much of its moisture passes off by eva-
poration. One of the chief objects of tillage or good cultivation is
to cut off the column conducting the underground water at a point
below the actual surface of the soil, so that the supply of moisture
shall be brought to the roots of the plants instead of escaping freely
into the open air. A mulch or any dry covering that can be
placed between the atmosphere and the soil also has the effect of
checking the evaporation of moisture. When soil is nearly dust
dry, nitrification ceases ; thus soil-stirring operations in dry weather
not only preserve the soil moisture, but keep the nitrifying
organisms employed. The process of soil capillarity may be illus-
trated by taking a lump of loaf-sugar to represent the hard-caked
soil. Hold one end of the lump so that it touches the surface of a
cup of water, when instantly the whole lump is moistened ; then
take about the same quantity of granulated sugar (equalling in
height the thickness of the loaf sugar), and hold on a screen so
that the lower surface of the sugar just touches the water ; in this
it will be found that the water rises very slowly, and not until
some of the sugar is dissolved will it reach the top. KING calculated
that 6'24 tons of water a day evaporated from 1 acre unstirred
.soil, while only 4'52 tons evaporated when the surface was raked
or harrowed.
W//..S 13
Fertility of soils.— The fertility of a soil depends, said
LIKBIG. "on the bulk and composition of the previous crop residues,
and the extent to which these have been subsequently destroyed."
Evidently, therefore, the crop which leaves behind the largest
amount of roots, foliage, etc., will best maintain or increase the
organic capital of the soil. Fertility of soils has been summarised
as being dependent on the following conditions, viz. (1) a
•sufficiency of available plant-food; (2) a suitable texture or
mechanical state of the soil; (3) absence of injurious compounds;
<4) a healthy percolative subsoil ; (5) a suitable climate, season
and aspect. The absence of any of these conditions will, to some
extent, render a soil infertile. Needless to say, one of the most
essential factors that control soil fertility is the amount of
moisture present, for on this depends the healthy action of the nitri-
fying bacteria. Agricultural chemists now distinguish between
fertility analyses and complete analyses, the latter only indicating
the amount of plant food present in the soil, whereas the former
aims at showing the proportions available to the crop — a very
different thing.
Sterilisation of Soils. — An important fact in agricultural
•science which has recently come to light is the beneficial effect of
the sun's light and heat on the surface soil. Hitherto the long
spells of hot dry weather which periodically occur in the tropics,
and during which the soil becomes extremely hard and dry, has
been generally deplored, and it has been commonly felt that if only
one could cover a fallow area with some crop that would stand the
drought, the ground, protected by it from the scorching sun, would
lose less of its moisture and be more fertile later on. Recent experi-
ments have shown, however, it is claimed, that sterilizing the ground
by intense heat restores or enhances soil fertility, the conclusion
arrived at being that such sterilization kills off the organisms which
prey on the useful bacteria in the soil, allowing the latter to increase
more rapidly. From this it is deducted that the fertility of the
soil is largely increased, and at no expense to the cultivator, since
most of the bacteria are engaged in the useful work of fixing
nitrogen from the atmosphere into a form suitable for plant-life
or in converting unsuitable compounds into the nitrates which
plarts require.
It is thus concluded that so far from the scorching sun's
rays being inimical to the fertility of the soil, by killing off larger
organism, and enabling bacteria to grow and increase, they add
14 SOILS
appreciably to it, and that by forking up or ploughing the surface
layers so as to maintain these in a loose state, their action would
reach to a greater depth, and be therefore more pronounced. It
will often be seen in the tropics that after a long period of drought
the soil will show signs of extraordinary fertility. It has been
, found in the case of soils which have become exhausted by inten-
sive culture in glass-houses, that by heating these to a temperature
of 140° Fah. fertility may be largely restored and all the eel- worms
and other injurious insects present killed, the soil becoming again
capable of producing healthy vigorous crops.
Exhaustion of soils. — The term is based on money values
rather than on scientific conceptions, and has no precise definition.
Although no soil can be entirely exhausted, generally speaking it
becomes so, as regards any particular crop, whenever the cost of
cultivation comes to as much as the crop is worth. Thus the word
"exhaustion" refers to the available character of the plant-food
present in the soil. Most cultivated soils contain a store of plant-
food which it would take many crops to exhaust ; but a large
proportion of the elements of this food is present in such a form
that plants are unable to make use of it. Thus an acre of land
may contain many thousand pounds of phosphoric acid, potash, or
nitrogen, and yet be in "poor condition;" while an application of
a suitable fertiliser, supplying 50 pounds of readily available
phosphate or nitrogen may greatly increase its productiveness.
Theory of toxic substances in the soil. — According to recent
theory, infertility in a soil, — i.e., inability to produce good crops,
—may sometimes be traced, not necessarily to the absence of plant-
food, but to the presence of compounds injurious to plant-growth.
These compounds are attributed to decomposition products of plant-
tissue, excretions from growing roots and germinating seeds, etc.
Crops are thus supposed to form toxic substances in the soil which
are deleterious to the crop following. The presence of excessive
quantities of organic matter in the soil, as applied in the form of
organic manures, is also considered capable of producing similar
toxic effects, and the action of suitable artificial manures, proper
rotation of crops, good drainage, etc., is to neutralise or destroy
these. A special advantage of crop rotation is that, while the
excreta of one kind of crop may not be harmful to another,
different species assist, it is considered, in the destruction and
removal of the excretions of others.
^SOILS 15
Ceylon soils, as a rule, are poor and shallow, and their
character in general may be summed up thus : (1) Sea-coast, soils
loose and gravelly or sandy, often with a large proportion of
laterite ("cabook") ; these are usually of a deep reddish colour,
and in some localities a deposit of white silvery sand occurs on
the surface; in such soils, however, the Cinnamon, Coconut palm
and certain other crops flourish, provided the rainfall is sufficient.
(2} Inland, up to medium elevations in Southern and Central
Provinces, soils of a reddish clay, often with a proportion of laterite,
and containing but a small percentage of humus. (3) Up-Country,
soils more of a loamy character, usually with a larger amount of
humus; rich loamy soils occur only in certain limited areas. Black
peaty clays occur in valleys or swamps at the higher elevations. (4)
North Central Province, soil variable, in some places hard and
poor; in others it is deep and black, free from stones and easily
worked, as at the Maha-illuppalama Cotton Experiment Station,
(5) Jaffna Peninsula, soil described generally as of a hard clayey
nature.
Method of Taking Samples of soil for Analysis. — After clear-
ing the surface of the ground of leaves and twigs at any
selected spot, dig a small square hole 18 in. to 2 ft. deep, remov-
ing all the soil. Then cut a thin section from top to bottom of
one side of the hole, and collect this in a clean basket or sack
Repeat this operation in five or six other spots where the soil is
uniform in appearance, and thoroughly mix the samples so obtained.
From the mixture take sufficient soil to fill a box 6 in. by 4 in.
by 4 in., and label the box with the name of the estate or
garden. Where the soil varies considerably, separate samples
should be taken in the above manner. Particulars as to elevation,
rainfall, crop growing or to be grown, and previous manuring
(if anv) should be sent with each sample.
CHAPTER II.
PLANT LIFE
Most plants consist of shoot and root systems, the former
ascending, seeking the light, bearing branches, leaves, flowers,
and fruits ; the latter descending and avoiding the light. The part
at which the twro diverge is popularly known as the " collar. 'r
Some plants have one or more of these parts wanting, but it is
unnecessary to consider these here.
The roots (descending axis) hx the plant in the soil or
substratum ; they absorb nutriment in a fluid state from the soil
and in many cases act as reservoirs of food stored for the growth
of a succeeding season, e.g., Yams, Carrot, Dahlia and other
tuberous-rooted plants. To enable the roots to penetrate the soil
without injury, their delicate tips are protected by root-caps. In
most plants these are very minute, but in some they are large
and plainly seen ; in the thick hanging, aerial roots of the Screw-
pines (Pandanus) the root caps are very large, and can be pulled
off by hand. Towards the ends of the roots root-hairs are
produced ; these apply themselves to the particles of the soil, and
by means of the acid fluid permeating their thin cell walls, they
dissolve ingredients which they absorb and then use in the nourish-
ment of the plant.
The shoot or stem (ascending axis), generally arising above the
surface of the ground, exposes the leaves and other appendages
to the full influence of light and air, conducts the necessary mineral
substances from the roots to the leaves, and also the food supply
from the leaves to the roots. Stems are erect (as in trees), climbing,
by hooked spines, tendrils, etc., (as in Calam is and Vines), twining
(as in Ipomoea), creeping (as in Sweet-potato, Pepper, Vanilla, etc.),
or underground (as in Ginger). Underground stems (known as
rhizomes] superficially resemble roots, but can be distinguished by
their possessing rudiments of shoots and leaves in the form of
scales with buds in the axils. Ordinary stems are of two types,
dicotyledon and monocotyledon. The former represent the majority
PLAXT LIFE 17
of trees, shrubs and annual plants, in the stem or shoot of which
there is a soft central cylinder of pith, surrounded completely by
wood, and external to this by cortex and then bark. The bark or
cortex is separated from the wood by the fibrous layer or bast, on
the inner side of which is a thin, watery or viscid layer called the
cambium or formative tissue. In plants of this type which exist
for more than two years, new layers of wood and bark are succes-
sively formed from the cambium. In the second type of sh-ii
(monocotyledon), as occurs in palms, bamboos and grasses, the
pith occupies the whole of the stem, the wood and bast being
scattered throughout in strands (vascular bundle*), instead of being
continuous and solid ; there is no separable bark, that being
represented by a hard external layer called the rind ; in these the
stem is hardest externally (whilst in the former type the hardest
parts of the stem are internal), there is no cambium, and therefore
the stem does not normallv increase in thickness.
The leaves are usually composed of a thin layer of green
tissue termed the mesophylL which contains the chlorophyll bodies
or green colouring matter. This is held together by a framework
of ribs commonly known as veins, or botanically as vascular bundles.
Each surface is protected by a special layer of cells known as the
epidermis. In the lower surface of ordinary leaves are microscopic
openings, called stomala, leading into the substance of the leaf ;
through these the inhalation and expulsion of air and moisture take
place. In a few exceptions the leaves are placed edgewise towards
the source of light, as those of Eucalyptus, Loranthus, etc., the
stomata in these being equally distributed over both surfaces of the
leaf ; in floating leaves, as in Water-lily, the stomata are on the
upper surface. The functions of leaves may be compared to those
of the stomach and lungs of animals.
The roots, stems and leaves being concerned in the supply and
elaboration of food, are called Organs of Xutrition, whilst the
Mowers are the Organs of Reproduction, producing fruits and
seeds.
Flowers. — A typical Mower consists of four distinct series or
circles of parts, the outer of which, composed of small green, leaf-
like organs called sepals, forms the calyx ; the next inwards, a circle
of brightly coloured and sometimes scented leaves, called petals,
forms the corolla; when both sepals and petals are similar in
appearance and colour, as in Lilies, they are known collectively as
the perianth; this term is also sometimes used when one of the
18 PLANT LIFE
circles is absent, as in the Croton flower. The third series,
consisting as a rule of a few or many thin stalks, bearing swollen
bodies at their tips, are the stamens or male organs ; the stalks are
known as the filaments, and the swollen bodies as the anthers, which
contain the pollen. The fourth and innermost circle consists of the
pistil, the lower inflated part of which is the ovary, containing the
ovules, which when fertilised become the seeds. At or near the
apex of the pistil is the stigma, through which the pollen tubes
penetrate to fertilise the ovules. The intervening part, when present,
between stigma and ovary is called the style. Flowers are
pollinated when the pollen from the anthers is transmitted, either
naturally or artificially, to the stigma. The act of fertilisation is
brought about by each of the pollen grains developing a tube which
grows through the stigma down the style to one of the ovules,
when its contents fuse with a special cell of the latter. The
functions of the exterior circles, calyx and corolla, may be con-
sidered as protective and attractive respectively ; while the stamens
and ovary are essential for reproduction. These latter may be
present in the same flower (hermaphrodite), or they may exist in
separate flowers (unisexual}. Flowers which possesses stamens
and not a pistil are called staminate or male flowers ; female or
pistillate flowers are those in which the stamens are absent. Some
plants bear both kinds of flower on the same individual and are
called monoecious; others bear them on separate individuals, as the
Date palm and Nutmeg tree, and are known as diwcious.
Seeds. — Every perfect seed contains an embryo, which is the
future plant in a rudimentary state. If the shell be taken off a bean
seed, for example, the following parts can be easily distinguished.
(1) two fleshy bodies placed face to face called cotyledons or seed-
leaves, known also as "nursing leaves ;" (2) a minute projection at
their base pointing upwards, called the plumule or future shoot ;
(3) a longer projection, also at their base, but pointing downwards,
called the radicle or future root. In germination the radicle
grows downwards, the cotyledons separate, and the plumule develops
upwards, the whole seedling living and increasing on the reserve
food stored in the nursing leaves until the roots are functionally
active, and the young parts and leaves above ground assume their
green colour. In other seeds, as cereals, palms, grasses, etc., the
embryo is very small, and is surrounded by a mass of tissue
(endosperm) which may be either of a mealy consistency (as in
Maize), oily (as in Hevea), or horny (as in palms). In these cases
NUTRITION OF PLANTS 19
the endosperm, and not the cotyledons, provides the requisite
nutrition for the young plant.
NUTRITION OF PLANTS
In the youngest stages of its life, as has been shown, the plant
is supplied with nourishment from the food stored up in the seed
for that purpose. By the time the roots and leaves have been
formed, this supply becomes exhausted, and the plant must now
obtain its food from the soil and the air. Through their delicate
root-hairs the roots absorb from the soil various chemical salts in
solution, which are transported upwards through the stem and
distributed to the leaves. The acid sap of the root, together with the
CO2 (carbon dioxide) gas, probably assists the moisture in dissolving
the mineral matter in the soil. The leaves imbibe from the atmos-
phere, through their stomata, fcarbon dioxide, the carbon of which
enters into combination with the substances absorbed by the roots
to form sugar and then starch, and also albumen matter. The
process of forming starch by the agency of chlorophyll (the green
colouring matter in the leaves and green parts of plants) is called
assimilation or, to use the more modern term, photosynthesis. This
can only take place under the influences of light and air, the latter
supplying the CO2 and the former the energy by which the
carbon is split from it. During sunlight the stomata of the leaves
are continually giving off oxygen which has been separated from
the CO' taken in. the carbon itself being retained by the leaf.
In darkness no fixation of carbon can take place, as light is
necessary for the splitting of the CO2, so no starch is formed
and at the same time no oxygen is evolved. Consequently the
process of respiration, which is always going on, becomes evident
through the evolution of CO2 In sunlight this is masked as the
CO'2 formed in the leaf by respiration is immediately concerned
in assimilation.
As the saline matter is carried up from the soil through the
plant in extreme dilution, the excess of water thus absorbed has to
be got rid of in the leaf. This passes out through the stomata in
the form of water vapour and the process is known as transpiration.
It is important therefore to distinguish clearly between the three
processes of assimilation, respiration, and transpiration.
Food of plants. — The main elements necessary in the food
of plants may be said to be hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen,
sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium and iron.
20 NUTRITION OF PLANTS
The supply of the first three elements comes from the air and water,
the remainder are taken up in the form of salts from the soil.
Nitrogen is of the greatest importance, being an essential
constituent of every organic body. It constitutes the chief bulk of.
our atmosphere, but plants (other than Leguminous species) are
unable to assimilate it in a free state, that is, unless it is first
chemically combined with another element. Plants most probably
absorb their nitrogen from the soil in the form of nitrate or
ammonia compound. Besides nitrogen, the other elements likely
to be deficient in the soil are phosphorous and potassium. These
are often supplied in the form of phosphates and potash salts.
Soil bacteria and Nitrification. — It is now known that the
appropriation of nitrogen by plants is clue to the agency of bacteria,
which exist in all fertile soils. It is considered that the presence
of active bacteria in the- soil is as necessary to plants as the working
of the yeast plant is to the brewer. These microscopic organisms,
or ferments as they are called, perform the useful function of con-
verting the nitrogenous organic matter in the soil into nitrates, or
soluble plant-food. The process is accomplished by the action of
two separate groups of bacteria, and is termed nitrification ; one
group of these organisms convert ammonia into nitrites, and the
other change nitrites into nitrates. Although both organisms are
always present in fertile soils, the one cannot perform the work of
the other. A favourable degree of warmth and moisture are
essential to the active operations of these bacteria ; at low tem-
peratures their work is retarded, and at a certain degree of cold-
ness it practically ceases. Hence an open porous soil, assisted by
good tillage and mulching, encourage their activity and thereby
tend to promote oxidation of the organic matter in the soil.
Nitrogen-collecting Bacteria. — It is well-known that on the
roots of certain Leguminous plants there usually occur nodules
or tubercles, which vary in size from that of a pin's head to a pea.
These nodules contain a species of bacteria \vhich abstract and fix
the free nitrogen of the air. The nitrogen thus becomes stored up
in a combined form in the roots and stems of such Leguminous
plants, and when the roots of these are left in the ground, or the
whole crop dug in as green-manure, the soil is considerably
enriched thereby with nitrogen. Only Leguminous plants (chiefiy
those of the sub-tribe Papilionaceae) obtain their nitrogen in this
way, all other plants, so far as is known at present, depending for
their supply on nitrates formed by the soil bacteria from organic
XUTRITIOX OF PLAXTS 21
substances in the soil. This property of Leguminous plants has
long been recognised in agriculture, and Leguminous crops are
therefore esteemed an important factor in the rotation of crops, and
also in what is known as green-manuring."
Nitro-bacterine, Nitragin, or Bacteria culture. — The nitrogen-
gathering bacteria of Leguminosa; have in recent years been
isolated, and cultures of them are placed on the market as a
commercial product, in different forms known under the names of
iiitrtigin, nitro-culture and nitro-baclcrine. Certain soils are said
to be practically devoid of the right kind of bacteria, and unless
some means of introducing the germs be resorted to they will not
produce a healthy Leguminous crop. This deficiency is claimed to
be met by applying artificial cultures of the necessary organisms,
as those named, the principle of their use being much the same as
that of mushroom spawn.
Bacteria inoculation. — The means of applying these bacteria
cultures is either by inoculating the seed, or the soil into which the
latter is to be sown, with water containing the special variety of
germ required for the crop. Inoculation of the soil deficient in
bacteria was the first method suggested, portions of the soil so
treated being afterwards transferred to the larger fields for the
purpose of inoculating the latter. This method, however, involves
certain disadvantages, viz., excessive cost of transport and labour,
and the danger of introducing insect or fungoid pests and objection-
able weeds. These difficulties are obviated, it is claimed, by
inoculating the seeds, this being effected by thoroughly moistening
the latter with a liquid solution of the culture, and then drying
them in the shade. So far, however, opinions are divided as to the
general merits of bacteria culture and inoculation.
Water in its relation to plant-food. — Water is an essential
factor in the life of a plant ; it enters very largely in its composition,
enabling it to retain rigidity, and carries nutritive substances in
solution through the plant's body. Water constitutes by far the
greater bulk of fresh vegetable substances (at least 80 %), and also
forms a large percentage of ordinary cultivated soils. The solution
of mineral substances and gases, for absorption by the roots of plants
as food, is dependent on the presence of water. When the amount
of water at the root is deficient, the plant wilts, and unless a timely
supply is restored to the roots the plant withers and dies.
Water differs in several respects according as it is obtained
from rain, ponds, streams, springs, or wells. Rain-water is free
NUTRITION OF PLANTS
from mineral matter, but usually contains a small percentage
of ammonia which it obtains from the atmosphere ; it also contains
carbon dioxide, so that it is able to dissolve carbonate of lime in
the soil. Rain-water is thus said to be "soft," and is preferred for
watering plants or crops. Spring or well-water usually contains
varying quantities of carbonate of lime and other mineral matter,
when it is said to be "hard" ; in some cases it also contains large
quantities of iron oxides, and these form encrustations on bodies
placed in the water ; this is often characteristic of well-water in
the northern part of Ceylon, which consequently is injurious in
that condition to plant or animal life. Such water should always
be exposed for some time to the sun before use. Running- water
also contains in the form of sediment different mineral substances
varying in quantity according to the source of the water and the
course through which it runs. Irrigation waters in their passage
through the soil remove large quantities of nitrogen (in the form
of nitrates) and other valuable ingredients from the soil. It has
been established by experts that the quantity so removed is in some
cases so great that if the water could be supplied to crops in
sufficient quantity it would supply the place of manure.
CHAPTER III.
MANURES
The use of manures is, briefly, to supply nutritive matter for
•encouraging and sustaining plant-growth. They restore the ferr
tility of an exhausted soil, and enrich a naturally poor soil. Any
substance, therefore, added to the soil which has the power, either
directly or indirectly, of increasing its fertility may be considered
as a manure. It may contribute directly by supplying what is
required, or indirectly by its chemical action on dormant sub-
stances already present, but not in a suitable state for being
absorbed by the plants. Manures, more especially farmyard or
pen manures, may also improve the physical condition of the soil,
rendering heavy clay land lighter and more porous, and sandy soils
denser and more retentive of moisture. Growth in plants cannot
take place without the main constituent parts of which they are
composed being extracted from the earth. The continued pro-
duction of crops, therefore, necessitates the withdrawal of an
enormous supply of certain elements from the soil, and it is evident
that if no means be taken to restore the substances thus removed,
the soil becomes gradually "exhausted" (see under Soils). Accord-
ing to LIEBIG, "the best fertiliser for any particular crop is that
which contains the amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash,
etc., which are removed from the soil by a typical good yield of
the crop in question."
The immediate effect of a manure depends, (1) on its solubility,
and (2) on the suitability of the plant-food which it contains for the
use of the crop or plant it is applied to. Suitable mixtures, made
up according to the special need of different crops, usually afford
most satisfaction. Manures may be divided into two classes, viz. —
(1) Organic (or Xatnral) manures, as those composed of vegetable
or animal substances ; and (2) Inorganic, or Artificial manures, which
are of mineral origin. While most manures act directly by sup-
plying the three chief elements of plant-food (nitrogen, potash, and
phosphoric acid), certain kinds are of value chiefly on account of
24 MAXi'RES
their properties of liberating the plant-food in the soil, or of cor-
recting soil acidity, fixing ammonia, or destroying various pests.
Such substances are known as Indirect fertilisers, and include lime,
marl, gypsum, charcoal, etc.
In applying "artificial" manures, it is well to remember that
seldom should more than i Ib. to the square yard be applied
at a time ; this is equal to over 1 ton to the acre, while 1 Ib. to
the square yard is over 2 tons 3 cwt. to the acre.
ORGANIC MANURES
Farmyard, or natural manure. — By this is generally under-
stood the manure produced by horses, cows, or other cattle kept
on the estate or farm. The excrements of different animals possess
special fertilising properties, but for ordinary purposes farmyard
manures are best mixed together, both solid and liquid. The
liquid portion should be soaked up by the litter, so that the latter
may have moisture enough to allow of its decomposition, instead
of being left to dry, when it is rendered almost useless. Farmyard
manure deteriorates by violent heating, but partial decomposition
by slight fermentation before adding to the soil is essential in order
to render its constituents more soluble. It is even injurious if
applied in a "fresh" state, affecting both crops and the nitrates of
the soil. For improving the permanent fertility of soils, farmyard
manure is the most important of all fertilisers. In addition to its
manurial properties, it has valuable physical effects upon the texture
and water-holding, powers of the soil, and in dry seasons these may
count for more than fertilisers towards ensuring good crops. It
restores humus in the soil, gives cohesion to sandy soils, rendering
them more retentive of moisture and resistant to drought, and
renders clay soils more porous and workable. It may be assumed
that a ton of average well-rotted farmyard manure contains 10 to
12 Ib. of nitrogen, about the same of potash, and 4 to 6 Ib. of
phosphates.
Stable, or Horse manure. — This is called a " hot " manure
because, owing to its loose texture, it easily undergoes decomposi-
tion or fermentation, producing a high degree of heat. On this
account it is very liable to lose more or less of its nitrogen in the
form of ammonia. It is usually richer than cow manure, but more
liable to loss on keeping.
Goats' dung. — This is sometimes procurable in the neighbour-
hood of cooly lines. It is a good manure, though its action seems
MANURES
to be comparatively slow. FIRMIXGKR, in JUrtfTa, stated : " I have
often used it for a manure ; but^ietTas it seems to me. with any
marked advantage. Sheep's dung, being similar, would probably
give like results."
Poultry dung. — The dung of fowls is somewhat similar to
guano, though far le>s valuable than that material, weight for weight.
The difference in quality is largely due to the fact that the food of
fowls is very different from the tish diet of the sea-birds which
produce guano. Fowl manure usually contains about 2 to 4 per
cent, of nitrogen, while good Peruvian guano may contain as much
as 20 per cent.
Night-soil. — It has often been stated that there is no manure
equal in fertilising value to night-soil. The late DR. BOXAVIA, of
Lucknow, confirmed this opinion, and found that night-soil pro-
duced special " richness of colour in Mowers, and vigour and succ-
ulence in vegetables." On the Continent of Europe, night-soil is
highly valued as a manure.
Poudrette. — In some large European and American towns,
night-soil is dried and made into a transportable form which is
sold under the name of poudrette ; but as it is prepared by adding
largely such materials as gypsum, ashes, earth, sawdust, etc.. the
mixture is considered to form but a poor fertiliser.
Blood meal. — This is usually considered an excellent manure,
being rich in nitrogen (2 to 15 % ). FIRMIXGKR. however, in speak-
ing of his experience of it in India, said : " I discovered no advantage
whatever in the use of such a manure over that of decayed cowdung,
while the unforeseen nuisances attending it determined me never to
use it again." BAMBKR recommends it in Ceylon as a useful source
of nitrogen. Owing to its concentrated form, it is easy of transport
where long and difficult journeys are concerned. It may be
applied to general crops at the rate of about 200 Ib. per acre.
Fish guano. — Fish manures form very valuable fertilisers,
containing as they do a high percentage of ammonia, combined
with a fair proportion of phosphate. Their decomposition is very
rapid, and the quantity applied to the land must be limited owing
to their considerable strength. Such manures are more safely used
if mixed in a compost of soil and refuse, so that their powerful
fertilising properties can be more evenly distributed. In Ceylon,
Hsh guano is used with good effect for coconuts and other culti-
vations near the sea-coast, being applied at the rate of about 500 Ib.
26 MAXURES
per acre ; it is also largely used in manure mixtures for Tea, on
the growth of which it has a marked effect. It should not, how-
ever, be applied to soils above any water supply, as by polluting
the latter it has been known to be a cause of dysentery, etc.
Bones. — Both for field and garden crops, for fruit and other
trees, bones in some form or other are extensively employed as a
manure. When used in merely a crushed state their decomposition
is slow, consequently their fertilising properties are lasting ; reduced
to a powder or meal, and applied as a manure, the results are
observable in a much shorter time. The usual commercial forms
in which bones are applied to the soil are : J inch bones, bone-
meal, and bone-dust. Bones are considered to have the best
effects on soils that are deficient in lime ; they are commonly used
as a manure for rice-fields in Ceylon, and yield good results.
Soils rich in decomposing organic matters, such as leaf-moulds, are
greatly enhanced in fertility by an application of bone-meal.
Guano. — This valuable manure, obtained principally from
islands off the coast of Peru, and various other places on the coast
of South America, is usually the excrement of sea-birds. It has
been deposited there during the course of centuries and varies in
quality, that found in the regions which are liable to heavy rainfall
or shifting sands being of least value. The best guano is supposed
to be that which comes from Chincha Islands, where the supply is
said to have now become greatly diminished. The guanos of
commerce may be classified under two heads : — (1) nitrogenous
guano, of which the " Peruvian" is a type ; (2) Phosphatic guano,
of which the u Bolivian " is an example, — the latter being inferior.
The chief fertilising properties of guano having been ascertained
by analysis, various artificial manures are nowr prepared as sub-
stitutes for it. Sometimes sulphate of ammonia is added to
nitrogenous guano, the mixture being then known as " Fortified
Peruvian Guano." Guano should always be mixed with about six
times its bulk of fine earth, loam or ashes ; the mixture may be
applied at the rate of about 4 or 5 cwt. per acre, according to the
nature of the crop. For pot-plants, guano may very advanta-
geously be applied in solution with water, the proportion varying
according to the size and variety of plant for which it is required.
About 1 oz. to two gallons of water may generally be used with
safety.
Leaf-mould. — Leaves, when thoroughly decayed and reduced
to a state of mould, form a sort of manure known as leaf-mould.
MANURES
This contains a considerable proportion of potash and nitrogen,
and is a most valuable growing medium, either alone or mixed
with other substances, being eminently suited to the growth of
most plants. All fallen leaves and vegetable refuse in a garden
should therefore be collected and thrown into a deep pit or trench,
dug in some obscure corner in order to provide leaf-mould. In
dry weather, water should be supplied to the pit, so as to give its
contents a thorough soaking, thus hastening decomposition. Leaf-
mould is particularly suited for the cultivation of pot-plants,
especially palms, ferns, and such fine foliage plants as naturally
grow under shade in the jungle. (See under Soils).
Castor, Ground-nut, or Poonac-cake, etc. — These are the
residue of castor-oil seeds, ground-nuts, coconuts, etc., after the oil
has been extracted. They are esteemed as manures, being usually
rapid in action, and are somewhat largely used on up-country estates
in Ceylon. BAMBER states that castor-cake is " one of the most
useful manures for Tea, and an excellent basis for other mixtures,
the percentage of nitrogen in the best castor cake being about 6 % ,
though often only 5% in some grades." On all garden crops, and
especially Roses, castor-cake is considered to have excellent results.
Rape and cotton-seed cake are also valuable manures.
Jadoo, or Jadoo-fibre. — This potting material, or " growing
medium " as it is called, has been patented some years ago by
COL. THOMPSON, in England. It has for its foundation peat-moss,
which is of an exceedingly spongy and absorbing character, not
unlike fine coconut fibre in appearance. This is said to be boiled,
impregnated with nitrate of potash, bone-meal, gypsum, soot, etc.,
and then fermented. When the substance is ready for use it is
almost free from any smell, and is a clean and light material to
handle. It is especially adapted for such plants as are required
for growing in -doors. As a propagating medium, especially for
germinating seeds, it has been highly spoken of. It used to be
imported by a firm in Colombo, but apparently the cost of trans-
port has prevented it becoming popular in the tropics.
Sea-weeds. — Along the Ceylon coasts, and particularly in
the north, sea- weeds are frequently used as a manure, being
applied in the fresh state, either for digging into the ground or for
forming a mulch on the surface. The percentage of nitrogen,
potash, and phosphoric acid which sea-weeds contain is, however,
considered small, so that their effect on soils is not a lasting one.
28 MAXURES
Town-sweepings sometimes form a useful manure. Though
iu some cases they consist largely of sand, in others they contain
large quantities of organic matter. The refuse from the neighbour-
hood of markets are especially useful as a manure, while scrapings
from side-drains often contain a large amount of humus and other
manurial substances ; their liability to contain troublesome weeds
is, however, an objection to their use on field crops.
Coir-dust. — This decomposes so slowly that it can hardly be
said to be of much value as a fertiliser. It has, however, a bene-
ficial mechanical effect on certain soils, especially such as are
deficient in humus. It may with advantage be used to give " body"
to potting soils, but it should always be well leached in the open
air and rain before use. In the neighbourhood of Colombo and
coast towns generally, this is largely employed for pot plants.
Woollen refuse and shoddy. — These are waste materials from
woollen and cloth mills, and are used in Europe to some
extent in the manufacture of manures. It is said that they usually
contain from 5 to 10 per cent, of nitrogen, and that their manurial
effects extend over two or three years. The more finely divided
the material the more readily it decomposes in the soil, and the
more evenly it can be distributed. This form of manure is com-
monly used in the cultivation of Hops in England.
INORGANIC MANURES
Lime. — Lime is a necessary element of the food of plants,
enters into the composition of every form of vegetable life, and few
soils that do not contain it in some form. But as a manure in
itself, lime rarely needs to be added to the soil ; as an indirect
fertilising agent, however, it is of the greatest importance. It
being necessary for all organic or vegetable matter in the soil to
undergo decomposition before the contained elements are rendered
available for use as plant-food, lime in its hot or caustic condition
is one of the most powerful agents for effecting such decomposi-
tion. Thus an application of lime to "acid" or "sour" land,
often has most beneficial results ; whilst its action on heavy or
inert soils is an important aid to fertility, causing the soil to become
friable, and thereby giving free access to air and water, which
encourage the growth of soil bacteria. It is considered that any
soil containing less than ^ per cent, of lime cannot be brought to a
high state of fertility. Lime is valuable for pasture land, as well
as for field and garden crops, whilst its effect as a preventive
against fungoid diseases (e.g., club-root) and insects in the soil is
MAXCRES 29
well-known. The quantity that should he applied varies according
to the nature of the soil. In hot countries the soil requires less
lime than in cool or temperate regions, owing partly to the more
rapid rate of decomposition that naturally takes place in the former.
In Ceylon, an application of 2 to 3 c\vt. per acre is usually con-
sidered sufficient for Held crops, and this in the case of Tea is
generally applied with buried primings. For garden purposes 6 to
8 oz. per square yard is a safe dressing. Clay soils require more
lime than light loams or sands. In the case of land which contains
but little humus, lime should only be applied in very small quan-
tities, otherwise exhaustion of the soil will result. Ground that is
frequently manured, as an old vegetable garden, will be much
improved by small applications of lime, which act as a corrective
of inertness resulting from liberal manuring. Except for such
plants as Rhododendrons, for instance, to which it is really in-
jurious, the application of lime to rich garden soils should be
attended to every third year or so. It should be remembered
that lime will not supply the place of organic manure, that it merely
renders this available for the nourishment of plants, and that in
some cases its application to the soil may even be injurious. An
old maxim of farmers is that —
Lime and lime without manure,
Makes both farm and farmer poor.
The exhaustive effect of continued liming of the soil, whilst
adding insufficient organic matter to the latter, is also aptly put in
the adage, — " Lime pays the father, but ruins the son."
Coral lime, which is almost a pure carbonate of lime, is what
is usually employed for manurial purposes in Ceylon. It is
imported from India and the Maldive Islands in hard lumps, and
is either ground to a fine state and sold as ground-coral, or burned
in kilns, when it is supplied as burnt or quick-lime.
Chalk acts both mechanically and chemically when applied to
the soil. It renders soils which are light and incapable of holding
sufficient moisture more compact and retentive, a quality which pre-
vents the rain washing away the soluble substances necessary for
the support of plant life. Chalk is a variety of carbonate of lime
and, in addition to the latter, contains to a varying extent clay, sand,
potash, soda, oxide of iron, phosphoric and sulphuric acids.
Gypsum, or Sulphate of lime, is a combination of lime,
sulphuric acid and water ; it belongs to the class of indirect
nitinurcs, and exists to a large extent in ordinary superphosphates..
30 MANURES
Though opinions regarding its fertilising action are divided, its use
is often attended with much success. It may be applied at the
rate of 3 to 5 cwt. per acre or about 3 oz. per square yard, and is
found to produce the best results when used in wet weather. It is
considered best adapted to light sandy soils, though it is also
sometimes successfully employed on heavy clays.
Ashes. — Wood-ashes contain potash and soda, besides other
inorganic elements of plant-food, and therefore form a valuable
manure. They are suitable for applying by themselves, or for
intermixing with dung or other manures. The charcoal which
the ashes usually contain in small pieces has the important property
of absorbing ammonia and other gases, and again giving them off
for the nourishment of plants. Wood-ashes are on this account
valuable as a deodoriser. Coal-ashes have useful manurial effects
in some cases, especially on stiff clayey soils, owing to the sulphate of
lime or gypsum they contain, and have been found to encourage the
growth of leguminous vegetables. (See Peat, under Soils).
Magnesia is essential to the growth of plants, it being always
present in their ashes in variable proportions. Applied as a manure,
it is considered that it may act directly by serving as food for the
plant, or indirectly by uniting with insoluble mineral substances,
and rendering these available as plant-food. "Japanese experts
show that the ratio of lime to magnesia in soils has an important
bearing on many, crops." '(BAMBER).
Ammonia. — Ammonia is one of the most important compo-
nents of manures, and one which has a powerful stimulating action
on the growth of plants, usually producing a luxuriance of dark
green foliage. It is formed by the decay of organic matter in the
soil, and also in the air, and is the source from which plants derive
their nitrogen. Ammonia is supplied to plants by the decomposi-
tion of organic manures capable of forming it, or by the use of
some of the salts of ammonia. Of the latter the most commonly
employed is —
Sulphate of ammonia. — For garden crops or pot-plants this
may be dissolved in water (^ ounce to 1 gallon of water) and
applied as a liquid manure, having in this way most beneficial
effects on plant growth. BAMBER recommends it as u a very useful
ingredient in mixtures, as it supplies soluble nitrogen in a most
concentrated form ; the quantity so employed may be from 25 to
50 Ibs. or more per acre." This and other salts of ammonia are
very powerful in their action, and need to be used with caution.
MANURES 51
Nitrate of soda (Chili saltpetre). — Of nil the nitrogenous
manures, nitrates are the most rapid in action, as the nitrogen they
contain is actually in a condition in which the plant am take it up
at once without change. Being readily soluble in water, it is easily
washed out of the soil by rain or heavy artificial waterings ; it
should therefore be applied rather in a dry season and when the
plants are well-established and in active growth. Nitrate of soda
is obtained from Chili, and is sometimes called Chili saltpetre.
Owing to its high percentage of nitrogen (about 15#), it has very
stimulating effects as a manure, and should be used in small dress-
ings occasionally, rather than in one heavy application. It is
readily assimilated by plants, and is considered especially suited
for root and grain crops. For garden crops an application of about
1 Ib. per 40 square yards, or 1 cwt. per acre, applied as a surface
dressing, is considered a sound practice. It is computed that 3 cwt.
of nitrate of soda is equal in value as a fertiliser to 80 tons of
farm-yard manure.
Calcium nitrate is manufactured in Norway, and is obtained
by extreme heat, achieved by means of the electric arc flame,
under which atmospheric nitrogen is made to directly combine with
oxygen. The chemical combination produces nitric acid gas.
The compound is afterwards passed through water and lime, and
finally a solid nitrate of lime (calcium nitrate) is obtained.
Potash is found in large quantities in the ash of plants, and
is a valuable constituent of manures. It is of special value to
starch and sugar producing crops, as potatoes, beet, etc., as also
to fruit crops, constituting as it does the principal ingredient in the
ash of fruits. Potash is of special importance in the process of
assimilation, in which starch is converted into sugar. It is rarely
used as a manure by itself, being usually applied in conjunction
with nitrogenous or phosphatic fertilisers. Soils which are sandy
or gravelly, or have become exhausted from continuous cropping
or from lack of manuring, stand most in need of this form of
manure. The chief source of potash salts, of various grades, lies
in the saline deposits at Strassfurth and other places in Germany.
Nitrate of Potash (sometimes called Xilrc, or Stillpclrc) is a
combination of potash and nitric acid. It is a powerful manure,
containing both -nitrogen and potash, and is especially adapted for
fruit production. The frequent use of this is, however, considered
to have the effect -of exhausting soils of organic matter. It is
recommended for forking in among Tea plants at the rate of about
100 Ib. per acre.
32 MANURES
Sulphate of potash usually contains about. 50% of potash,
and is considered to be the cheapest and best form of applying,
potash to the soil. In orchards it may be applied at the rate of
about 1 Ib. per tree, and to Tea plants about 1 12 Ib. per acre may
be given, as with buried primings.
Kainit. — A compound of sulphate of potash and magnesia,
now much used as a potash manure. It is imported from Germany,
and usually contains 12 to 14 per cent, of potash, and about 35 per
cent, of common salt.
Muriate of potash. — Also a product of German potash mines,
said to contain about 50 to 60% of actual potash.
Superphosphate. — This is perhaps the most important and
universally used form of phosphatic manures. It is made by treat-
ing rock-phosphates, bones, etc., with sulphuric acid, afterwards
drying the product. As usually prepared, it should contain about
17% phosphoric acid soluble in water. A form known as "Con-
centrated Superphosphate" is imported which contains about 44%
soluble phosphoric acid.
Basic slag, Basic cinder, or Thomas' phosphate is a by-
product obtained in the manufacture of steel. Iron ores contain
irregular quantities of phosphorus, and the object of the steel-
maker is to get rid of all the phosphorus in the iron. To effect this the
iron is melted in contact with limestone, which extracts the phos-
phorus and forms a slag. This, when ground to a hue powder,
forms what is known as basic slag, which may vary very consider-
ably in quality, though usually it contains 30 % to 40 % phosphate.
Basic slag has grown in favour as a form of manure in Ceylon,
more especially for applying with buried Tea primings or green-
manure ; in this way it may be applied at the rate of about 3 to 5
cwt. per acre. For fruit trees, roses, etc., it may be applied with
good results at the rate of 4 to 6 ox. per square yard.
Phosphate of lime. — All organic manures, and some kinds of
chalk and marl, contain phosphate of lime. This is also found in
nearly all plants, and, on account of its supplying phosphoric acid,
constitutes a valuable addition to soils. Phosphatic manures are
noted for stimulating plants into vigorous growth, thereby render-
ing them better able to assimilate the potash contained in the soil.
Chilinit is described as a new fertiliser, composed of the
fertilising ingredients in the waste from sugar refineries. u Nitri-
fying bacteria are cultivated in a portion of the molasses, which is
MAXURES 33
then mixed with lime and sand, and gently dried at a low heat.
The product usually contains 3 % to 4% nitrogen and 8 % to 9 %
potash."
Calcium Cyanamide, or Nitrolim. — A new nitrogenous fertiliser
in the form of fine friable powder, which is prepared from
the atmosphere by the aid of a powerful electric furnace, said to
be now becoming a rcognised substitute in Europe for nitrate of
soda and sulphate of ammonia. The process of manufacture is
stated to be " by heating lime and coke to a temperature of 2,500
degrees centigrade in electric furnaces of the resistance type.
Calcium carbide is thus produced ; the carbide is then heated in
retorts, and at 1,100°C., atmospheric nitrogen is introduced and
absorbed, the new compound being known as calcium cyanamide
or nitrolim. This is usually guaranteed to contain 20 % nitrogen.
It is said that nitrolim has sometimes an injurious effect on young
plants and that, in order to obtain the best results, it should be
mixed with nitrate of lime, in the proportion of 2 parts of the
former to 1 part of the latter.
Salt (Chloride of sodium). — Common Salt, which contains soda,
chlorine, and other substances, has been used for manurial
purposes from very early times, and in some countries is still so
employed to some extent. Especially for such plants or crops as
are indigenous to the sea-side, as Coconuts, Asparagus, Beetroot,
etc., salt is considered by some to be very beneficial as a manure.
Yet it is a disputed point whether it has any manurial value, direct
or indirect, it being often asserted that it has none. The presence
of sodium and chlorine in the ash of most plants is considered by
some to be due to accident rather than necessity, the quantities
present being very variable. Further, it is stated that even were
salt a necessary plant-food, its presence in all soils is already
sufficiently abundant to obviate any necessity for its application.
It is, however, as an indirect fertiliser that the beneficial effect, if
any, of salt chieHy lies. DR. AIKMAX, in his book on "Manures and
Manuring" remarks that "the action of salt in decomposing the
minerals containing lime, magnesia, potash, etc., is similar to the
action of lime ; it acts upon the double silicates and liberates these
necessary plant-foods, also on the phosphoric and silicic acids,
which it sets free." As a preventive of rankness of growth, how-
ever, the effect of salt is generally admitted. On the other hand it
is thought that, having a great affinity for water, the application of
salt is of benefit to crops by absorbing moisture from the sub-soil as
34 LIQUID MANURES
well as from the air. Salt is often recommended and used as a
manure for Coconuts in Ceylon. BAMBEK considers its application
beneficial in some cases, and recommends it for Coconuts at the
rate of 1 Ib. per tree. Whatever be the merits of salt as a manure,
there seems to be much difficulty in regard to the proper amount
to apply. When applied in excess its action is most deleterious,
20% in a soil being considered sufficient to render the latter
barren. Thus it was customary in ancient times, after the conquest
of a hostile town, to u strew salt on the enemy's fields, for the
purpose of rendering them barren and unfertile." BAMBEK has
found on analyses that the Ceylon rainfall yields from 28 to 112 Ib.
of common salt per acre per annum, according to the amount of
rainfall and the proximity to the sea.
LIQUID MANURES
Although this term is generally considered to imply the
drainings of dung heaps, stables, etc., yet almost any manure may
be applied to the soil in a liquid state. Manure of this description,
though most beneficial to vegetable and other crops, should only be
used when the plants are in a healthy state of growth. It can also
be profitably applied to composts, so as to induce a more rapid
fermentation of their organic matter. It is claimed that liquid
manure has a great advantage over solid, being stronger, quicker of
action, and capable of being more evenly diffused over the land..
Most of the highly concentrated artificial manures are doubtless
best applied in solution, but this is not always practicable. Liquid
manure may be made by adding a small portion of some concen-
trated fertiliser to a can of water, and applied at once to the plants
it is intended to stimulate. This is a ready and clean method of
preparing it, but one which requires some caution in guarding;
against the dose being too strong. All chemical manures intended
for use when dissolved in water should be tried first in a weak
solution, and the strength increased gradually if results warrant it.
Liquid manures, as already stated, are most effectually employed
when the plants are in an active state, yet in want of a stimulant
for assisting the development of their crops, or for sustaining their
growth.
Soot or Soot-water.— Soot is seldom obtainable in the tropics,,
except perhaps at some Up-country bungalows. In countries
where it is available, it is considered a valuable manure, as well
as an insecticide, being used either in a dry state mixed with
other manurial substances, or dissolved in water, the latter
COMPOSTS 35
form being generally preferable. Soot-water is made by placing
the soot in a canvas bag, afong with a stone to sink it while dry, in
a cask or tub of water: about i bushel of soot to 10 gallons of
water is sufficiently strong. As the liquid is taken out, more water
is added until the virtues of the soot are exhausted. It is claimed
that the application of soot-water to the soil in which pot-plants
grow increases the size and deepens the colour of flowers and
foliage, and enhances the general vigour of the plants. On cold
soils especially it is considered useful, as the dark colour of the
soot favours the absorption of heat from the sun, and thus tends
to the production of earlier crops. A ton of average chimney soot
in England contains about 3 Ib. of nitrogen, 1 5 Ib. of potash, and
17 Ib. of phosphoric acid. Apart from its manurial properties,
soot is said to materially assist in keeping down the larvae of
destructive insects.
Soap-suds. — "These," said DR. LIXDLEY, "have an undoubted
value, because of their potash, irrespective of the organic matter
they contain." For potted plants, an occasional application of soap-
suds is considered very beneficial. FIRMIXGER, in India, said : "I
scarcely know of a better and more effective insecticide. By
syringing and washing the leaves of potted plants with soap-suds,
I have preserved them from the attack of blight, mealy-bug, and
other enemies of the gardener. Plants in a sickly condition have
often been restored to health by merely washing their leaves with
soap-suds. In fact if you wish to keep your plants in a luxuriant
growth, wash and syringe them with soap-suds once or twice a
week, especially those exposed to dust." PROFESSOR DUXSTAX points
out that the above quotation from LIXDLEY refers to so/7-soap, since
//</n/-soap contains soda, but no potash.
COMPOSTS AND MIXTURES
Any mixture of different soils or manures, made up in varying
proportions, either for potting plants or applying to field or garden
crops, may be called a compost. Whilst manure mixtures are
important in agriculture, soil composts are equally indispensable in
horticulture. The combined effects of a suitable mixture are
much more marked, and the application more economical, than if
the different ingredients were applied separately. Some manures,
natural or artificial, of which only small quantities are necessary,
are best mixed with other substances in order to ensure their even
distribution ; others, again, (e.g., guano) are so powerful that, in an
unmixed state, instead of proving beneficial, they would actually be
36 COMPOSTS
injurious to plants ; all such are, therefore, best applied as mixtures.
For potting plants, valuable composts are prepared by mixing loam
or ordinary soil, leaf-mould, well-decomposed manures, and a
small proportion of fine sand and charcoal ; the proportions used
should vary according to the nature of the plants for which they
are intended and the texture of the ingredients. While many arti-
ficial fertilisers may be mixed together with advantage, certain
others are quite unsuited for combination. Thus, kainit may be
mixed with basic slag, sulphate of ammonia with superphosphate,
but neither of the latter should be mixed with basic slag, nor
superphosphate with nitrate of soda. Neither should sulphate of
ammonia come in contact with lime.
THREE GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN MANURING
PROFESSORS WILFARTH and WIMMER have found that the
appearance of plants will sometimes afford an indication of what
food they are most in need of. Thus : —
Nitrogen. — When the plants want nitrogen the leaves are
said to lose their normal green colour, and take on a clear green
or a yellowish tint, and to dry finally \vith a clear brownish-yellow
colour. Nitrate increases the colour and vigour of foliage. So
powerful is this influence, that the energies of a fruit- bearing plant
may be diverted to the production of foliage by too liberal an
application of nitrate.
Phosphoric acid. — When phosphoric acid is deficient, the
leaves become a deep clear green, almost blue-green colour. With
a greater scarcity there appear on the leaves (first at the margin and
later on the whole leaf) dark-spots, and the leaf dries with a dark-
brown to a black-green colour. Phosphates promote fruitfulness
and early ripening of fruit crops.
Potash. — A scarcity of potash is said to be coincident with
spotted leaves, the spots appearing in the margin, and later becom-
ing distributed over the whole leaf, the stalk, mid-rib and veins
retaining their green colour. The leaf also curves or curls \vith its
convex side upwards, and finally dries up. Potash also improves the
quality of fruits and flowers, increasing the sugar contents of the
former, and the scent and quantity of the latter.
CHAPTER IV.
GREEN MANURING, MULCHING,
INTER-CROPPING, &c.
Green manuring consists in growing special crops, either
alone or intermixed with others, for the purpose of dicing or
ploughing into the soil in a green state, when they have reached
a suitable height, or before flowering. This mode of enriching the
soil is considered to be one of the most economical as well as
efficacious, the fresh vegetable matter being returned to the soil
with greater benefit, than when it has been decomposed and
much of its goodness has been lost in the process of rotting and
fermentation. For improving the condition of light sandy soils
especially, green-manuring is of the greatest value. Briefly, the
following are the principal benefits derived from the application of
green- manures or cover- crops, viz : —
(1) The addition of humus or vegetable matter to the soil,
which increases its capacity for retaining moisture.
(2) The prevention of surface-wash on steep land.
(3) The improvement of the mechanical condition of the
soil by the action of the roots of the green-manure
plants or cover crops.
(4) The protection of the soil and roots of crops from the
excessive heat of the sun.
(5) The suppression or diminution of weeds, and therefore
economy of labour.
(6) The decomposition of the vegetable matter gives rise
to acids, which act as solvents on the soil consti-
tuents, thus rendering available more material for
plant nutrition.
(7) The fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the soil by
leguminous plants, especially those of the sub-order
Papilionaceae.
Whilst all plants, weeds included, are useful for adding organic
matter to the soil, when dug into it in a green state, yet all are not
38 GREEX iMAXURIXG
equally valuable. However well the first six of the objects above
named may be achieved by the use of non-leguminous plants as
green-manure, it is generally believed that only leguminous species
have the power of utilising free nitrogen, which they effect through
the agency of the bacteria nodules on their roots. (Sec Chapter II).
In selecting plants suitable for green-manuring, those which
are more or less of a herbaceous character and rapid growth,
capable of forming a good cover on the ground in a short space of
time should be chosen. Creepers or climbers are not usually so
suitable as bushy herbaceous annuals, and, if used, care must be
taken that they do not twine round the stems of the growing crop.
The following are recommended for the purpose, all belonging to
the family of Leguminosae : —
• — Aeschynomene indica. "Diya-siyambala." -S. Annual, 1-2 ft. high,
found in moist places, dry region.
— Alyssicarpus vaginalis. "Aswenna," S. 2-3 ft. high. Dry Low-
country.
— - Arachis hypogoea. Ground-nut. Herb, 12-16 in. high. Sea-level
to 2,000 ft.
Cajanus indicus. Pigeon-pea, or " Dhall "; "Rata-tora." S. — Shrub.
Sea-level to 2,000 ft.
Canavallia ensiformis. " Wal-avvara." S. "Koli-avarai." 7'.—
Perennial twiner. Low-country.
C.— obtusifolia. "Mudu-awara," S. Creeper. Sea-side.
-^Cassia mimosoides. "Bin-siyambala," .S. An annual, 2-3 ft. high,
common in Low-country; leaves sensitive. Thrives up to
3,000 ft.
Cicer arietinum. Chick-pea; "Kadala," S. Annual herb, 1 ft. high.
" "Crotalaria juncea. Sun-hemp. "Hana/'.S. An erect annual.
Semi-dry. Low-country.
C.— retusa. "Kilu-kiluppai," T. "Kaka-andanahiriya." S. Low-
country shrub.
*"* C.— striata. A herbaceous shrub, 2-3 ft. high. Low-country up to
3,000 ft.
C.— Walkeri. (=C.— semperflorens). Perennial herb, 2-3 ft. Montane
zone.
— Desmodium Wightii. A tall herb. 2-3 ft. high. Low-country.
TDolichos biflorus. Horse-gram ; "Kollu," S. Small close-growing
climber.
D.— Lablab. "Dambala," S. Low climber or creeper.
Glycine hispida. Soya Bean. Leafy herb, 1-2 ft or more Thrives
up to 2,500 ft.
* Sow at the rate of 2 Ib. per acre in rows, t Sow at the rate of about 12
to 15 Ib. per acre, broadcast.
S=SlXHALESE ; 7= TAMIL
GREEX MAXURIXG 39
Indigofera aspolathoides. "Sivanaivembu." T. Kata-kohomba," S.
Dry region.
I — tinctoria. Indigo. "Nil-awara," -S. A low shrub, common in
the Low-country.
I. — viscosa. Annual. 2-3 it. high, common in dry region.
Mucuna utilis. Velvet-bean. Climber or creeper. Thrives in
Low-country and up to 3,000 ft.
M. -pruriens. " Achariya-pala," .S.— Annual twiner. Dry and inter-
mediate regions.
Phaseolus lunatus. "Bonchi." or "Dambala." S. Herbaceous
twiner. Thrives up to 3,000 ft.
~T.— semierectus. An erect annual, 2-3 it. Low-country.
— P. — trinervis. Jerusalem Pea. Semi-creeper, about 2 ft. high, quick
and close grower. Up to about 3.000 ft.
— Psoralea corylifolia. "Bodi," S. "Kavoti." T. Annual. 1-3 ft.
dry region.
Sesbania aculeata. "Dhaincha." S. Annual. 1-3 ft. Low-country,
including dry region.
Tephrosia purpurea. "Kavalai," T. "Pila."S. Perennial herb,
1-2 ft. Low-country.
T. — Candida. "Boga-medelloa." Shrubby perennial. 4-7 ft. high.
Soft pubescent leaves; white H's. Up to about 3,000 ft.
Trifolium alexandrinum. Berseem, or Egyptian clover. Much
esteemed in Egypt as a soil renovator and forage crop, especially
on marshy land.
Vigna Catiang. Gas Me. S. Cow-pea.— Perennial twining herb.
Low-country.
LEGUMINOUS TREES SUITABLE FOR LOPPING
FOR GREEN MANURE,
OR FOR PROVIDING LIGHT SHADE
Acacia decurrens. Tan-wattle, i — Quick-growing trees ;
Acrocarpus fraxinifolius. ) 3,000 to 6,000 ft.
Adenanthera pavonina. " Maclatiya," S. A tall tree of the Low-
country.
Albizzia moluccana. ) Large fast-growing trees. Thrive up to
A.— stipulata. 4,000 ft.
Erythrina lithosperma.— Dadap. Fast-growing, sappy tree. Low-
country, to 3.000.
E. — umbrosa. "Bois Immortelle." Quick-grower; thrives best at
1 .000 to 3000 ft.
Pongamia glabra. "Punku,"'/. "Magul-karanda," S. Large tree
of the Low-country.
Tamarindus indicus. Tamarind. "Siyambala," S. Large slow-
growing tree. Suited to dry region.
S=SlXHALESE ; 7=TAMIL
40 MULCHING
MULCHING OR SURFACE-DRESSING
The practice of mulching or surf ace- dressing is of very
considerable benefit to crops, and during dry weather its adoption
is especially to be recommended. Mulching will prevent the
surface soil from forming a hardened crust, and thus retard the
evaporation of moisture ; it provides humus in the soil, and in
many cases economises labour by checking weeds and doing away
with the necessity for frequent watering. The mulch may consist
of green vegetable matter or leaves, stable litter or other refuse,
which may be spread over the surface of the ground, and either
lightly forked into the soil or merely left on the surface as a
protective covering. Leaves obtained from the jungle, or any
rapidly decaying organic matter that may be available will answer
the purpose of a mulch or surface-covering, but certain plants contain
a larger proportion of nitrogen than others ; these afford the
best mulch and may be grown as cover-crops. The following are
some of the principal plants whose leaves or young twigs are
commonly used for mulching in Ceylon.
FOR THE LOW-COUNTRY, INCLUDING THE DRY
REGION :—
Adhatoda vasica. "Adathodai." T. - Shrub. 4 to 6 ft.
Azadirachta indica. Margosa ; "Kohamba," S. --Small tree ; leaves
used as mulch in Tobacco cultivation.
Calotropis gigantea. "Wara," S. Large, quick-growing shrub.
Cassia auriculata. " Ranawara." S. " Avari," 7. (Leguminosa^.- A
sea-coast annual.
Coconut husks. Used largely on. and in the neighbourhood of,
Coconut plantations. (See under Coconuts).
Croton lacciferum. "Keppettiya," S.— A small tree, the leaves of
which are commonly used as a mulch in Betel cultivation.
Erythrina lithosperma. "Dadap." (Leguminosa.-). (See under
(ii'ccn Manure.)
Ricinus communis. Castor-oil plant. A quick-growing, tall annual,
naturalised in Ceylon along river banks, etc.
Tabernaemontana dichotoma. 'Divi-kaduru, ' S. Asm ill tree;
leaves used for mulching in low-country.
Tamarindus indica. Tamarind (Leguminosae). A large tree, leaves
commonly used for surface-dressing for Tobacco in dry region.
Tephrosia Candida. Boga-medelloa. Shrubby perennial, 4 to 7 ft.
high. (See under Green-Manuring),
S=SlNHALKSE; 7— TAMIL
Ml'LCHIXG 41
Tephrosia purpuraa. "Kivalai." T. (Leguminnsrc). Commonly
employed as a mulch in the dry region.
Thalassia Hemprichii. Sea-weed. "Chatalai" or "Sathalai." TV—
Commonly used in Ceylon for coconut and rice plantations near
the coast.
Thespesia populnea. "Stiriva."— A mt-dimn-si/ed tree.
FOR UP-COrXTRY:—
See under "Green Mn miring." also "Shade trees for Crops."
IXTER-CROPS AXD CATCH-CROPS
The growing of two or more crops together on the same land
has many advantages over the exclusive cultivation of single
products, and though for economic reasons the latter system is usually
adopted, it obviously lends itself to the rapid spread of pests or
diseases. Plants in their natural state, where numerous species and
families are found growing together, are not nearly so subject to
such enemies as are large areas of single products.
Advantages of subsidiary crops. — The main advantages
claimed for inter-and catch-crops may be briefly stated thus :—
(1) check on the spread of plant pests and diseases ; (2) revenue may
be obtained at more frequent intervals or in the interim of waiting
for a crop which takes several years to come into bearing — e.g.,
Rubber and Coconuts ; (3) the soil conditions may Ire improved ;
(4) weeds are kept in check; (5) mixed products have usually a
longer life ; and (6) it obviates the unwisdom of having all one's
eggs in one basket.
Disadvantages. — On the other hand, the system of inter-
cropping may have serious disadvantages under certain circum-
stances, as when the proper combination of products are not chosen
In this case the soil may become unduly exhausted, the inter-crop
or catch-crop may retard the growth of the principal crop, and the
proper attention of the management and labour force may be
diverted from the latter. It must be admitted, however, that with
suitable distance-planting, many of these disadvantages may be
overcome.
MR. HERBERT WRIGHT estimates that about 100,000 acres of
Hevea rubber in Ceylon are mixed with Tea at low and medium
elevations and with Cocoa at medium elevations. In Sumatra,
few estates are planted with Hevea alone, while in Malaya and Java
also a considerable proportion of the Hevea plantations are inter-
planted with other crops.
S-St\HAI.KSK ; r=TAMII.
42 INTERCROPS
The following are some of the crops most adapted for inter-
cropping or catch-cropping. The difference between the two
classes, it may be mentioned, is that the former are generally of a
perennial nature, while the latter are annuals or crops of short
duration, yielding moderately quick returns.
Inter-crops : —
Tea with Hevea rubber (the latter at the rate of about 25 trees to the
acre) at low elevations.
Cacao with Hevea rubber (the latter about 50 x 30 feet.)
Cocao with Coconuts.
Coca with Hevea rubber.
Coconuts and Hevea rubber are sometimes planted in alternate
rows.
Pepper as a creeper on shade trees, among Tea or other crops or along
roadsides, etc.
Vanilla as a creeper on shade trees, among Tea or other crops or along
roadside, etc.
Ipecacuanha (perennial), grown as inter-crop with Rubber, etc., in
Brazil, also in Malaya to some extent.
Rubber or Coconuts planted at wide distances apart among
Citronella or Lemon grasses.
Catch-crops :
Cotton. \
Cassava (Tapioca).
„, .... Sometimes grown as an annual crop between
v/nillies. . . IT .. . .
the rows ot Hevea or Manihot rubber for
Bananas ,. , .
~ the first tew years.
Groundnuts
Arrowroot
Tobacco is grown on young rubber clearings in Sumatra.
Coffee (especially C. robusta). much grown as a catch-crop with
Rubber in Java.
-
CHAPTER V.
SOIL OPERATIONS
Tillage. — The main objects of tillage, whether in the form of
digging, ploughing, or otherwise are : — to loosen the soil so as to
facilitate the absorption of rain and the admission of fresh air, and
to enable the roots of plants to penetrate the soil more easily.
Further, tillage should aim at maintaining a proper supply of
moisture in the soil, rendering the latter permeable to rain, encour-
aging the activity of soil bacteria, and generally suppressing the
growth of weeds. Therefore, thorough tillage is often as essential
as manuring, especially for root-crops. Plants can only obtain the
full benefit of manures when the land is maintained in a proper
state of trlth. DEHERAIX conducted experiments which showed
that "trituration or pounding of the soil is a powerful method of
causing active nitrification." According to an old adage,
"Tillage hinders 'vaporation
Tillage works weed Yadication.
Tillage helps food 'laboration."
A SIXHAI.KSK PLOUGH.
44
OPERATIONS
Modes of Tillage. — The different methods employed for tilling
the land vary considerably in different countries, according
to the means available, though the principle underlying all is the
same. From the wooden spikes or flint spears which in early
times served the purpose of stirring the soil, as they do even at the
present day in some primitive countries, to the modern steam
plough used on large farms is a great stride in evolution. Digging
BUFFALOES PLOUGHING KICK FIELD
by means of spade, fork, or mam noty (the latter implement being
that which is commonly used in Eastern tropics), is adapted to
certain confined areas, as gardens, etc., but ploughing, followed by
harrowing or similar means of levelling the surface, is the most
economical and practical method for preparing the ground for
general field crops. Ploughing as carried out in Ceylon, India,
Malaya, etc., with buffaloes or oxen as draught animals, is usually
performed in a very primitive fashion, the object being to stir up or
fork the soil rather than turn it over as a furrow. In some districts
in Ceylon, the ground is only puddled or churned by means of
wading buffaloes or bullocks, the land being first softened by
being Hooded with water. The type of plough generally used by
SOIL OPERATIONS
45
the natives of Ceylon, India, etc., consists of a simple wooden im-
plement with a small iron pointed socket for a coulter. The
whole plough, in some c:ises, weighs but a
few pounds, so that a cooly can readily sling
it on his shoulders and c:irry it where vet-
desired. Heavier and more substantial
ploughs have from time to time been intro-
duced, but so far the natives prefer their own
primitive article as being more suited to their
requirements.
Use of explosives in Tilling. — As a
means of breaking up hard impervious soil
or sub-soil, more especially in the preparation
of large holes for planting trees, the practice
of exploding dynamite charges buried in the
soil has recently been much advocated nd
appears to be generally attended with bene-
ficial results. The immediate effect is to
break up the soil in a way which cannot be
achieved by deep ploughing or trenching.
A hard and impervious sub-stratum may thus
be made penetrable to the roots of plants
or crops, allowing of the free percolation of
water through it and liberating, in many cases,
essential elements of plant food. For ordin-
ary sub-soiling, a 2 oz. cartridge to each hole
(costing about 4d. or 25 cts. of a rupee) is sufficient. More
powerful charges of 3 or 4 cartridges may be used for blowing up
tree stumps or breaking obstructive boulders, but in this case the
operator must seek protection behind a tree or other object.
The method adopted in using dynamite for purposes of holing
is described as follows : —
A hole is bored with a crowbar where planting is to be done, about 2\ feet
or more in depth. At the bottom of the hole is placed the cartridge of
dynamite, provided with a detonator and fuse. Then the hole is filled
with moist earth and beaten down gently. On exploding the cartridge,
the surface of the earth will be seen to rise a few inches and subside,
and after a few minutes smoke follows from the cracks in the earth.
On removing the earth loosened by the explosion, it will be found that
a round hole has formed at the point where the cartridge was laid, with
innumerable fissures extending fora few feet into the surrounding soil.
Fallowing. — In the case of crops that are of short duration in
the soil, fallowing is sometimes adopted for restoring fertility to the
SOIL /ERATOR.
43 ROT ATI OX OF CROPS
land, after the crop has been harvested. The cropping being
stopped, a rest is provided for the soil, during which a new supply
of plant-food becomes stored up, and this becomes available
for the succeeding crop. For the more permanent crops, however,
such as Tea, Cocoa, Coconuts, and Rubber, fallowing cannot
obviously be adopted, and manuring and tillage operations must
then be relied upon to meet the requirements of the crops grown.
Leaving the ground fallow for a certain period has also the bene-
ficial effect of ridding the soil of fungi or insects pests.
ROTATION OF CROPS
Plants differ, as shown by their ash, in the relative proportions
of plant-food they require and obtain from the soil. Therefore
when successive crops of one kind are grown on the same ground,
those elements which are most consumed obviously become
exhausted. Consequently the soil becomes "poor" or unproduc-
tive, the crop weak and sickly, and even the application of costly
manures does not satisfactorily restore fertility. The principle
of cropping by rotation is to avoid this, by preventing two crops
of the same kind succeeding each other. The advantage of
the system is undoubted, and in some temperate countries its
PLANET JUNIOR CULTIVATOR.
adoption is usually made a compulsory rule in the farmer's lease. In
the tropics, however, rotation is often impracticable, owing to the fact
that many of the crops grown are of a perennial nature and, once
planted, last from a few to a great many years. But wherever
possible, as in the case of garden or annual crops, (root-crops,
grains, pineapples, and vegetables) as well as tiowering-plants, the
ROT ATI OX OF CROPS 47
principle of alternating crops should he practised. The question
of a practical system of rotation to replace the wasteful method of
chena cultivation in Ceylon (by which virgin land is cleared, culti-
vated for a season or two and then abandoned for a number of
years) has yet to be satisfactorily solved. Rotation of a kind is some-
times applied to rice cultivation in the tropics, though seldom in
Ceylon. Rotation also exerts a beneficial mechanical effect on the
soil, owing to the more or less different mode of preparation of the
land required for different products, as well as by the quantity of
roots, etc., left in the ground by successive crops. Certain roots
penetrate the ground deeper than others ; these aerate the subsoil
and, when the crop is removed, remain in the ground to rot.
Proper rotation is also claimed to be an excellent preventive against
fungoid diseases and insect pests, these dying of starvation when a
crop intervenes that on which they live or feed. Weeds, too, are
checked (sometimes exterminated) by means of crop rotation.
It will generally be noticed that when plants of one kind are grow-
ing together in great numbers and for many succeeding years, they
are liable to be attacked by insect pests and fungoid diseases.
Any system of rotation adopted must, of course, vary according to
the variety of crops that are desirable to grow ; thus different systems
are used in different countries. DR. WILLIS recommended the
following system for chena lands in Ceylon : —
First Year. — Tobacco, Indian-corn or Maize, Cotton, Citronella
or Lemon grass (these last may be left on for about three
years) ; all fairly exhausting crops. Pen cattle on the land between
crops, and dig in green-manures, e.g., Pila leaves, etc.
Second Year. — Root crops, e.g.. Cassava, Sweet- Potatoes,
Yams, Arrowroot, Onions, Ginger, Turmeric, etc., Pen cattle, etc.
Third Year. — Dry grains e.g. (Kurrakan), Chillies, Gingelly,
Gourds, small fruits, Castor-oil plants, grasses for fodder. Mustard,
Murunga. Pen cattle, etc.
Fourth Year. — Gram, Ground-nuts, Peas or Dhal, or other
leguminous crop to enrich the soil in nitrogen.
Fifth Year. — As first year, and so on.
For Tobacco land, MR. C. DRIEBERG recommends a 3-course
rotation, thus: — (1) Tobacco, (2) Leguminous crop, e.g., beans,
grams, ground-nuts etc. (3) Grain-crop, e.g., paddy, kurrakan. amu.
maize, etc.
For gardens, the following rotation is recommended: — (1)
Cabbage, (2) Carrots or Beet, (3) Peas, (4) Celery, (5) Potatoes.
48 IRRIGATION
IRRIGATION .
Irrigation is practised chiefly in dry countries, where, in many
cases, the cultivation of crops is entirely dependent upon it, as in
the northern part of Ceylon. In a moist climate, as in the south-
west of Ceylon, irrigation is adopted only in the cultivation of Rice
or other water-plants. In countries where the rainfall is limited,
however, intermittent irrigation is applied with good results in the
cultivation of fruits and other crops. The methods of accom-
plishing irrigation depends upon the facilities which the situation
offers, the water being conveyed from natural sources or artificial
reservoirs to the land by means of canals, streams (called "ellas"
in Ceylon), pipes, or spouts. In parts of India and in the Jaffna
district in Ceylon, irrigation water is hauled up from deeply sunk
wells by means of rope and pulley with buckets, and distributed
along diverging and transverse channels. A general mode of rais-
ing water in parts of India is by means of a large bag made of
bullock-hide ; the bag is suspended from a pulley over the well,
and this is drawn up by a pair of bullocks as they are made to run
down a declivity. The "Persian wheel" method of raising water
is commonly adopted in Northern India. This consists of a large
vertical wheel, fixed in the mouth of a well ; over it a looped
chain of earthenware pots is suspended, the lower part of which
reaches the water. As the wheel revolves, one length of the chain
is continually rising with pots of water, which discharge them-
selves into a trough fixed at the summit, and return empty to be
filled again. By means of a horizontal wheel and a beam, bullocks
are made to work the apparatus. Wind-mills also are sometimes
employed very successfully for raising water from wells.
Different systems of irrigation are adapted for different
countries, according to circumstances. A simple system is to
conduct water through the land by small canals, the soil obtaining
its supply by the water percolating through the porous earth. The
"catch-work" method of irrigation is adapted for sloping land, and
consists of a series of transverse trenches or channels ; the wrater is
conducted through the upper trench, runs along the surface and
escapes through regular outlets into the next trench, and thence to
the one below, and so on. Similar to this is the "terracing system,"
which is carried out extensively in rice cultivation on the hill-sides
in Ceylon, where it forms a striking feature in the landscape. (See
under Rice). Artesian wells and tube- wells are largely used in
some countries, being especially suitable where the soil is loose
DRY HARMING 49
and sandy. They are successfully employed in parts of India, but
are not adapted to localities where the soil is of a clayey or hard
laterite nature.
In some countries where large rivers run through low-lying
land, as in the case of the Nile in Egypt and the Ganges in India,
the river itself is allowed to run over the land when in Hood and
full of rich mud. The latter is thus deposited, as the water sub-
sides, on the land, which is thus enormously increased in fertility.
SIR W. WILLCOCKS considers that one good deposit of slime or mud,
brought down by the Nile from the detritus of volcanic rocks, could
produce six excellent crops in succession. With the extensive
irrigation works which have now been made in the countries
named, irrigation becomes less dependent upon the Huctuating
rises of the great rivers. Some of the larger irrigation tanks in
Ceylon, for example, have an area of over 4,200 acres, and resemble
large and beautiful lakes. An important principle of irrigation is
that the water supplied must neither be excessive, nor allowed to
remain on the land so as to become stagnant. Therefore provision
must always be made for overflow and the free movement of the
water.
DRY FARMING
The term "dry farming" is applied to a system of cultivation
adopted for lands in dry districts, the principle being to conserve
moisture in the soil, or to increase the capacity of the latter to store
water, mainly by the following means :—
(<r) Deep and thorough preparatory tillage ; (/>) packing the soil by a
" sub-soil packer " and heavy rolling. A sub-soil packer is an implement,
the object of which is to press the soil under the surface, while the
surface-soil is left in a loose condition.
Supplementary to these operations are also measures which
secure good intertillage, comparatively thin seeding and wider
spacing, thus admitting of perfect development of the plants. In
the case of grain crops, the seed should be moistened before sowing
so as to assist germination, while planting should be followed by
thoroughly pressing the soil round the plants. By observing these
rules, good crops are now said to be obtained in parts of India
where the annual rainfall is only about 1 5 inches.
DRAINAGE
Proper drainage, whether natural or artificial, is essential to all
cultivated soils. The objects of drainage are, briefly, to enable the
rain to become absorbed by the soil and pass through it ; to
50 DRAINAGE
render the soil porous, though maintaining a sufficiency of moisture
for plant-life ; to remove superfluous water and prevent stagnant
water remaining in the soil. A porous soil contains small spaces
between its particles, and these, when not occupied by water, are
rillecl with air, which conduces to bacterial activity and nitrification
and is essential to plant-growth. Some lands are naturally well-
drained, which may be seen from the fact that when rain falls on
them it percolates through without leaving the soil sodden or
saturated. Soils which are not properly drained become impreg-
nated with acids which are injurious to plant-life ; in such cases
the soil is cold, and causes the roots to rot off from the ends, the
plants under such conditions being sometimes referred to as
suffering from "wet feet." A damp soil is always colder than a
porous one, for the reason that water is colder than air.
Surface drainage, i.e., open trenches or ditches at certain
intervals, are essential on steep lands, so as to prevent or check the
washing away of the surface soil by torrential rains. This system
of drainage is extensively employed throughout the Tea-planting
districts, and is indispensable to the preservation of the soil. The
drains are usually about 2 to 3 ft. in depth, and vary in the distance
apart according to the gradient and physical characteristics of the
land. On very steep land such drains should not be more than
25 to 30 ft. apart, while on gentle slopes they may be as many yards
distant.
In gardens or ornamental grounds, however, open drains
would be unsightly if not impracticable, and for that reason they
should be covered, notwithstanding the extra cost thus incurred.
In making a covered drain, drainage tiles or stones should be
placed in the bottom of the trench, large spaces and crevices being
left in the bottom, and Finishing with a layer of smaller pieces at
the top. Brushwood, fibre, or straw may be placed over this, and
the soil then filled in. (See Drains and Culverts}.
CHAPTER VI.
PROPAGATION
Plants are propagated in various ways ; some which increase
at a rapid rate by one method cannot be similarly raised by another,
while in some cases all methods of propagation fail. The follow-
ing are the principal modes of propagation in use :—
Propagation by Seed. — This is the most natural mode of
increase, and is the one by which the vast majority of plants
naturally spread and produce their species, the off-spring being
more or less true according as the flowers are disposed to become
influenced by foreign pollen affecting their fertilisation. The
production of seed may be said to be the aim of the life of every
plant in a state of nature. Where exact counterparts of plants
cannot be ensured by raising from seed, propagation by vegetative
means, as by cuttings, buds, grafts, etc., may be resorted to.
Selection and Saving of Seed. — In the raising of seed of
most kinds, it is important that selected plants or trees should be
set apart for the purpose and cultivated with special care, so as to
encourage the production of perfect and well-nourished seed. The
seed from each plant should be sown separately, each batch of
seedlings transplanted into a separate plot, and the crop measured
or weighed. In this way the parental plants are tested by their
performance. It is, however, also advisable where practicable to
select individual seeds. Inferior or unproductive plants should
be eliminated, and imperfectly formed flowers or fruits removed
where possible. Vigour may also be concentrated in the seed
by thinning out the flowers or fruits, retaining only the best. This
not only applies to annuals which may be grown for ornament or
use, but also to fruit-trees, Tea, Coconuts, Cacao, Cotton, Rubber,
or other products. It is of importance that seeds should be perfectly
ripe before they are gathered, as otherwise their germination and
the vitality of the seedling will be affected. Change of seed from
one district to another has often a beneficial result, and the practice
is generally approved by the best agriculturists and horticulturists.
(See under Plant Breeding at end of Chapter).
52 PROPAGATION
Vitality of Seeds. — It may be assumed that most seeds
germinate best if sown as soon as ripe. Although many seeds, if
carefully stored, retain their vitality for many years (as palms), they
decline appreciably in vigour with age, and the progeny of old seed
is generally less robust than that from seed recently harvested. In
the case of plants of the Gourd family, however, old seed is
sometimes preferred, as this is considered to yield plants of a more
fruitful and less leafy nature. Ceara rubber seeds, too, are generally
supposed to germinate better when at least a year or two old
(See under Testing Vitality of Seeds).
Sowing Seed. — Seeds vary in size and character so much
that no hard and fast rule can be laid down for sowing. Certain
conditions are, however, essential in all cases. All seeds are best
sown in line, light soil, easily permeable to the young roots as well
as to the plumule. The surface soil should be made moderately
firm and even ; this will ensure the seeds being sown at a uniform
depth, and aid in maintaining a moist surface. The proper amount
of soil for covering the seeds varies according to the size of the
latter. A good general rule is to cover seeds to a depth equal
to their smallest diameter. Large seeds should not be buried much
below the surface, whilst small seeds may as a rule be covered
one-tenth of an inch. Seeds sown in the field, plot, or nursery- bed
require to be buried deeper than is necessary for germination, so
as to protect them from vermin, etc., and to allow for wash by rains.
Seeds which take long to germinate, as Nutmeg, Palms, etc., should
be sown about an inch below the surface. In all cases of garden
or field crops, the seeds should, whenever practicable, be sown in
rows, never broadcast if avoidable. Sowing in rows economises
seed, and enables the seedlings being better attended to in regard
to weeding, thinning out, etc.
Sowing at stake, which is sometimes adopted in the case of
field crops, as Rubber, Tea, etc., consists in sowing the seeds in
the position which the plants are to occupy when grown up ; thus
holes are prepared in lines and filled in, the position being marked by
placing the stake (already used for lining) in the centre ; one to three
seeds are sown close to the stake, the weaker seedlings being
afterwards removed as required.
In sowing very small seeds, as those of some annuals and
vegetables, one is very liable to sow too thickly. A good plan is to
" bulk" very small seed by mixing with it finely sifted soil or saw-
dust, as this enables the seed to be sown more thinly and evenly.
When seedlings are large enough to handle they should be
PROPAGATION 53
carefully thinned out or regulated, retaining the stronger ones and
discarding the \ve:iker. Large seeds are in many cases affected in
their germination by the position in which they are sown, although
this is a matter not often taken into account by cultivators.
MR. FETCH, the Ceylon Government Mycologist, has found that
deformity in seedlings of Para-rubber is chiefly due to faulty
position of the seed in germination, the shoot or plumule in
consequence becoming entangled with the stalk of the seed-leaves
(cotyledons). Out of 50 seeds which were sown horizontally with
the inner or Hatter surface downwards (which is considered the
proper position), 48 germinated normally, while from a similar
number sown vertically with the micrcpyle uppermost, only 9
normal plants were obtained. In the case of Coconuts it is
customary to sow the nuts on their side, with the stalk end
slightly raised.
Basket or Bamboo-plants. — For most trees or shrubs, an
excellent plan is to sow the seed in plant-baskets or bamboo pots ;
in some cases two or three seeds may be sown together, the weaker
seedlings being afterwards removed, leaving only one in each basket
or bamboo. This method of raising plants not only facilitates
transport, but also enables the plants, with their roots in the soil
intact, being planted out in almost any weather with comparative
safety. In the case of Rubber, Tea, etc., the advantage of basket-
plants over stumps or seedlings from nursery-beds is obvious, and is
usually well worth the extra cost entailed. Where baskets are not
obtainable, sections of bamboo will answer the purpose, but these,
unlike the plant-baskets, must be removed from the plants when
the latter are being planted out. This is easily accomplished thus:
split the bamboo along two sides with a blow from a knife, lay the
plant on its side and invert the two halves of bamboo ; this enables
the latter to be easily removed when the plant is fixed in position
and the soil is filled in around it.
Germination of Seeds. — The seed may be divided into
three parts, viz., the germ, the body, and the skin. The germ or
life principle is the embryo, consisting of the miniature plant with
the leaves and stem in an undeveloped state. The body or
endosperm is the reserve food which nourishes the embryo in
germination until the root is advanced enough to derive nutriment
from the soil. The skin or shell of the seed is for the purpose of
protection. The four conditions essential to successful germination
are : (1) a certain amount of moisture, (2) a favourable degree of
heat, (3) a continuous supply of fresh air, and (4) protection from
54 PROPAGATION
strong light. In the absence of any of these conditions successful
germination cannot take place. When the seed-coat or shell is
hard and horny, it precludes air and moisture from the embryo, and
thus prevents germination until it has sufficiently decayed. Certain
seeds with extremely hard shells or endosperm take a long time to
germinate, varying from 2 or 3 months, as in the case of the
Nutmeg, to almost as many years, as with certain species of palms.
In many cases, however, germination may be assisted by either
tiling or rasping the horny shell, or subjecting them to repeated
soakings in almost boiling water. The former method may be
applied to seeds with a hard horny shell, as those of Ceara-rubber
(Ma iii hoi Glaziovii), while the latter may be adopted in the case of
seeds with a very hard endosperm, as Indian-shot (Canna), Wattles
(Acacia), and other leguminous sorts. The "rasping" or "tiling"
process is perhaps best carried out by holding the seed, when
large enough to handle, for a few seconds against a revolving grind-
stone. A cooly with a seed in each hand, while another cooly
turns the handle, will thus soon get through a large number of seeds.
A method, known as the "bush method," sometimes adopted for
hard-shelled seeds, is to burn a small bundle of hay or ferns over
the seed-pot or bed, afterwards watering the soil with a tine rose.
Another way of facilitating the germination of very hard seeds, is
to place them in a hot fermenting dung heap. Indian Shot (Canna)*
Ceara Rubber seeds and others have been successfully started in
this way. Soaking such seeds for about 5 minutes in a solution of
sulphuric acid has been tried with good results in America. In
hastening the germination of old or hard seeds, camphor dissolved
in water has been found to have a marked effect. Experiments
have also shown that treating seeds with chlorine water (2 drops
chlorine to 60 CC. of water), and then placing them in the sun
will accelerate germination. Another aid to germination is to water
the seeds with a weak solution of formic acid (1 in 500), or with
alkaline substances, as ammonia, soda, etc.
Testing vitality of seeds. — A popular \vay of testing the
vitality of seeds is to place them in water, when if they float they
are presumed to be bad. This, however, is sometimes misleading,
as some seeds when in their prime tioat, and sink when in a bad
condition, or vice versa. Seeds will either sink or float according
to their specific gravity. Those which sink when good are of
doubtful character when they swim. A strong saline solution,
made with common salt, is employed in Japan for testing rice and
other seeds. In this case, as above, all seeds that float are rejected,
PROPAGATION 55
and those that sink selected- for sowing. A practical test is to cut
or break open a certain percentage of the seeds ; if in good con-
dition the interior of the seed will present its natural and cheesy
consistency. The surest test of vitality, however, is to sow a small
representative quantity under the most favourable circumstances,
as in specially prepared pots or beds under shelter. The proportion
of seeds which thus germinate bears to the number sown, will afford
proof of the quality of the seed. For testing very small seeds, they
may be placed between wet blotting paper or damp cloth. It is a
good plan when seeds are of doubtful quality to soak them in hot
water previous to sowing ; very often this may add 20 to 30 per
cent, to the number of seedlings which would otherwise be obtained.
Acclimatized seed. — This term is applicable to seeds of any
introduced and acclimatized plant, but in India it refers to European
annuals and vegetables which thrive sufficiently well to produce
good seed, capable of yielding satisfactory crops. In that country
it has been found that in some cases such seeds give better results,
at least for a time, than imported seeds. Though certain flowering
annuals produce good seeds in the hill districts of Ceylon, no one,
so far as I am aware, finds it worth while to save seed of European
vegetables grown here. As a general rule, cultivation in the tropics
has a deteriorating effect on the quality of all flowering plants and
vegetables from temperate climates. Therefore imported seeds
and fresh strains usually give the best results, and these are easily
procured fresh from England or Australia.
Seeds of Aquatic Plants (water-plants), such as Xcluinbiiiiii,
Xymphirn, Victoria regia, etc., should be sown in pots submerged
in shallow water. The pots should be raised on bricks, or such
like supports, so as to bring them close to the water surface, thus
securing greater warmth from the sun's rays than if placed deeper.
Shallow still water is always the warmest.
Fern Spores should be sown upon tine sandy loam in well
drained pots or pans. The spores should be gathered before the
spore-cases have burst, and be sown at once, the soil being well
watered before the spores are scattered over the surface. The
pans or pots should then be stood in saucers of water, and a pane
of glass placed over the top until the spores have vegetated.
Instead of separating the spores from their cases (sporangittws),
fragments of matured fronds may be laid on the surface of the
prepared soil, when the spores will fall out themselves. Neither
covering of soil nor watering is required, it being sufficient to
56 PROPAGATION
keep the vessel in which the pot is placed tilled with water, as
described above.
Orchid seed. — Experts in orchid-growing formerly sowed the
seeds upon the surface of the material in which the orchid pi ints
were growing, as owing to the presence of a symbiotic fungus it was
supposed th'it the seed could only be grown in this way. Good
results are, however, now generally obtained by sowing orchid seed
on finely chopped moss or similar moist medium.
Propagation by Cuttings. — With the exception of seeds, this
is the commonest method of propagition and, as a rub, the most
expeditious and satisfactory. Propagation by cuttings as compared
with that by seed has special advantages. By the former tlvj peculiar-
ities of the parent are reproduced as if the cutting were still a part
of it, whereas by seed the special characters of the parent are
often noc perpetuated. In the tropics, a very large proportion
of plants may be readily propagated by cuttings, especially if
these are inserted in suitable soil during the rainy weather ;
some species, as the Dadap (Erylhrina lilhosperma), thus strike root
so easily that if stems or branches are used as fence posts they will
soon develop roots and sprout into leaf. In other cases, however,
as with species characterized by hard wood or hollow stems, it is
difficult, if not impossible, to induce cuttings to strike root. For
successful propagation by cuttings, the following conditions are
important, viz.: (1) firm and sufficiently ripened shoots from which
the cuttings are taken ; (2) a suitable rooting medium composed of
a light porous sandy soil, or fine sand only ; and (3) a higher tem-
perature with closer atmosphere than that in which the plants grow
when established.
It is believed that most cuttings strike root more readily if
inserted in the ground sloping- wise instead of erect, and in the East
the natives invariably practise this when planting cuttings for the
Cassava crop, or cuttings to form hedges. The explanation prob-
ably is that the cuttings are thus more firmly fixed and that there
is less evaporation of moisture from the portion underground. In
preparing cuttings, the end of the shoot to be in the ground should
be cut across with a clean slanting cut, just below a leaf-bud. The
lower leaves should be cut off, leaving 3 to 4 eyes or buds to be
under the soil when planted ; the upper leaves if of a large size may
be reduced to half. As to what is the best size for the cutting,
this depends upon the nature of the plant. In the case of soft-
wooded species, it is necessary to take rather large cuttings with a
certain amount of firm woodiness ; cuttings of young succulent
PROPAGATIOX 57
growth are liable to decay, especially if planted in the open ground.
All cuttings succeed better at one season than another, and in many
cases the most suitable period can only be found out by experiment.
Generally speaking, however, cuttings will strike best at the com-
mencement of the active growing season.
In taking cuttings of plants which are grown for their fruits or
Mowers, the upper shoots should be chosen ; thus in the case of
Pepper, Cubebs, etc., it is well known that cuttings which are taken
from the uppermost shoots are more productive and yield earlier
crops than those obtained from the lower shoots. Similarly with
flowering plants, cuttings taken from the extremity will flower early
and in a comparatively small state. Thus, plants raised by cuttings
from the flowering shoots of the climber Camocnsia maxima, which
usually takes several years to attain a flowering condition if raised
from seed, have been found to blossom at Peradeniya in the
nursery- bed when only about 16 inches high.
Although an open nursery is suitable for propagation by
cuttings of most kinds of plants, many of the choicer sorts require
to be struck in sand, under glass or other artificial covering. In
. glass-houses where artificial heat and moisture are under control,
and bell-glasses for covering the cuttings are available, many kinds
of plants may be raised by cuttings which would be impossible
without these means. The bell-glass is of great advantage in
preventing excessive evaporation and maintaining a warm and moist
atmosphere around the cuttings. It is well known that cuttings
will strike better when placed against a porous substance, as the
inside of a flower-pot half full of sandy soil or sand only. This
fact has lately been taken advantage of in establishing a low hard-
wooded plant, Malpighia cocci f era, as an edging to the drives in
Peradeniya Gardens. Edging tiles were first laid along the sides
of the drives and paths, and the Malpighia cuttings, being inserted
against these, struck root readily and formed an excellent dwarf
edging not unlike Boxwood. A simple method of striking small
cuttings is as follows : Fill a flower-pot half full of sand and soil ;
insert cuttings of a length sufficient to reach, within a little, the rim
of the pot ; sink the pot in the earth, and cover with a pane of
glass. The glass should be turned each morning so as to dispose
of the condensed moisture on the underneath side. Another
excellent plan, practised in India, is thus described: — "Procure a
large flower-pot, and at the bottom of it place large loose pieces of
brick, just so high that a small flower-pot placed inside upon them
may have its rim on the same level as the rim of the large pot.
58 PROPAGATION
Fill in the space between the pots with perfectly dry sand or earth.
Then till the inner pot with pure sand, and insert the cuttings.
Take another pot just of a size that when inverted it may lit in on
the earth between the rims of the large and small pots ; break out
its bottom, and lay over it a piece of window glass. Water the
cuttings as they require it with tepid water, allowing none to fall
on the earth between the pots. When condensation of moisture
takes place on the pane of glass, merely turn it over."
Striking cuttings in water. — This method is sometimes
practised with ornamental plants, and with but little trouble is
usually successful. The points to be attended to as conducive to
success are : (1) Cuttings to consist of the ends of young vigorous
shoots ; (2) capacious opaque or shaded bottles ; (3) water to be
changed often to avoid its becoming foul ; (4) the water to be re-
placed with tepid water when changed ; (5) the cuttings to be
sheltered from wind and direct sun. Aquatics and most plants
which like moisture can be readily multiplied by means of cuttings
kept in water or in a moist condition.
Cuttings of Cacti. — Striking cuttings by drying them in the
sun is effected in .the case of Cactus and similar succulent plants.
Sections of these being taken and placed on dry sand will, when
become partially shrivelled, produce roots. If placed in the soil in a
freshly cut condition, they are liable to decay.
Propagation by Layers. — A layer is a branch or shoot, part
of which is introduced into the soil, and strikes root whilst Jed by
the parent plant, with which, however, its communication is
generally partially interrupted by a cut, slit, or ligature. When
propagation by cuttings fails, layering may be resorted to, the latter,
though a slower process, being often a more certain method. The
operation is as follows : Select a branch of ripened wood of the
plant to be layered that will bear being bent down to the earth
without breaking ; cut the branch half through with a sharp knife
just under one of the leaf-buds, towards its extremity, and then
pass the knife upwards, so as to slit the branch about an inch or
two up. The slit-piece, with the leaf bud at its extremity, called
the " tongue," should be kept open by inserting a small pebble or
piece of brick. Bend the branch down, and where the tongue falls
remove the earth to the depth of 2 or 3 inches ; the tongue part of
the branch is secured in that position by a forked peg, and then
covered over with a mixture of fine sand and leaf-mould. This
must be kept shaded and moist, to facilitate which an inverted
flower-pot may be placed over the spot where the slit is. There
PROPAGATION 59
are various modifications of this method, and these may be varied
to suit individual plants or trees or local circumstances. When the
branch to be layered is too rigid to bend down, it may be made to
pass through a broken flower-pot or other receptacle, the latter
being filled with leaf-mould and sand, and placed on a support.
A simple and successful method is to pass the branch longitudinally
through two half-round tiles, the space between these being filled
with fine sandy soil, and the ends filled with moss to prevent the
soil running out ; the tiles are then tied together, and the whole
watered regularly.
LAYERING : — (<») TONGl'KING : (/')
Gootee layering. — This mode of propagation has been prac-
tised in India and China from early times. It is adopted in the
case of trees which are difficult to .raise by cuttings, or to which
other methods of layering cannot be applied. The modus openindi-
is as follows : Select a firm healthy branch with well-ripened
wood ; immediately under a leaf- bud or node, take off a small
ring of bark, about one inch wide ; or make a slanting deep cut
upwards, placing a sm ill stone or a piece of stick in the groove to
keep it slightly open. To this apply a ball of cluyey soil, holding it
securely together with coir fibre, tow or moss, bandaging all
firmly round the branch. A little above this hang an earthenware
pot, and through the hole in the bottom of the latter draw from
60
PROPAGATION
within a piece of thin rope ; a knot tied at the end of the rope
should fit tightly against the hole of the vessel above. The rope,
secured by its knotted end within the pot, is carried on at full
stretch and coiled round the gootee. By this means the water,
with which the vessel is kept supplied, oozes slowly out, trickles
down the rope, and so distributes itself over the whole gootee. In
^
GOOTEIi GRAFTING.
from three to four months, according to the plant in hand, young
roots should be seen protruding through the gootee, when the
branch may be cut from the parent tree, and planted where it is
intended for it to remain. The operation should be carried out in
the wet season, commencing when active growth in the tree begins.
A modification of the "gootee" contrivance is a piece of thin
tin plate, folded in the shape of a funnel, and fixed with clips round
PROPAGATION 61
the branch. It is tilled with moss or soil, which is kept moist by a
drip from a bottle of water - fixed above it, with the cork pierced
so that the water can drip slowly on to the branch operated upon.
Propagation by Suckers. — A sucker is a stem or shoot which
springs from a subterranean portion of a plant or tree. Two kinds
of suckers may be distinguished, namely root suckers, which arise
from adventitious buds on the roots, and stein-suckers which spring
from the base of the stem below the surface of the soil. The
former can be severed from the parent plant and removed with
roots attached. Bananas (Plantains) are a familiar example of this
process of propagation. Stein suckers spring from the base of the
stem, at or below the surface of the soil, and their growth is at the
expense of the part of the plant above them. Plants which have
been heavily pruned or pollarded, often produce stem-suckers freely.
The latter when required for propagation may be encouraged to
produce roots by partly severing them with a knife from the stem,
and earthing them up with some good sandy mould, which should
be kept moist. Stem-suckers are generally injurious to the plant
producing them and, especially in ^the case of grafted or budded
plants, should be cut away as fast as they appear, unless they spring
from the scion and not from the stock. Pineapples are generally
propagated by means of stem-suckers.
Propagation by Leaves. — Many succulent plants, as Begonias,
Gloxinia, Bryophyllum, etc., may be increased from leaves. The
latter should be placed on a damp surface of a light sandy soil, and
kept in position by being partly buried, or held down with small
wooden pegs.
Propagation by Eyes. — Many plants, especially those of a
succulent nature, may be propagated readily by eyes or buds. The
method is simply to take a plump shoot or stem on which there are
buds not yet developed ; cut this in a slanting direction into short
lengths, about 3 inch above and below the bud. The pieces, having
at least one eye or bud upon each, are planted firmly in a pan or
box of fine sand and soil, with which they should be just covered.
The sand or soil should be kept moist and shaded, and the eyes
may be further encouraged to start into growth by a sheet of glass
being kept over the surface.
Propagation by Roots. — Some plants may be readily in-
creased by cuttings of the roots, these being inserted in a sandy
mixture of soil, and kept damp and shaded. Aerial roots, developed
from the upper limbs or branches of species of Ficus and other
62 PROPAGATION
trees, may sometimes be used as a means of propagation. When
these reach the ground they at once fix themselves in the soil, and
in a short time form stout independent columns or trunks. The
latter will afford support to the parent tree and thus prolong its
life, or they may be severed, and thus become independent trees.
Where "Gutta Rambong " (Ficus, elastica) is systematically culti-
vated for rubber, these root-stems are regularly tapped for their
latex. The method adopted in Peracleniya Gardens for enabling
the aerial roots of Ficus trees to reach the ground and strike root is
as follows : Long bamboo stems (preferably the Giant-bamboo)
are split into two, the transverse divisions being cut out ; the two
halves are placed together round the aerial root, or at least the
portion of it nearest the ground. The bamboo sections are then
tied together, the lower ends securely fixed in the ground, and the
top filled in tightly with moss to prevent the ingress of rats or
squirrels, which feed on the delicate young roots.
Division of Root-stock. — By this method plants which grow
in clumps, or have a fibrous or tuberous root-stock, as herbaceous
perennials, are easily multiplied. "Division" consists in separating
portions of the main plant, each portion bringing with it some
of the roots ; if planted under suitable conditions either in pots or
out in the field, these soon become established and form new clumps.
To many plants of this nature the process of lifting, dividing and
replanting each year is beneficial rather than otherwise, as if left
undisturbed for a long period the soil becomes impoverished and
the plant more or less exhausted. Orchids and herbaceous peren-
nials are generally multiplied by division.
Propagation by Bulbs, Corms, and Tubers. — Bulbs or tubers
may appear on plants either underground, or on the stem or
branches above the ground. In some Yams (Dioscorea) both
underground and aerial tubers are found on the same plant. A bulb
is composed of either modified leaves in the form of scales, as in
Lilium, or of the thickened bases of ordinary leaves folded round
each other, as in the onion and Crinum f'Tolobo," S). Bulbil is a
term applied to a small bulb, but more generally to aerial buds when
they assume the form of small bulbs, as in the case of some ferns,
Sisal-hemp and allied plants. Sometimes such bulbils are produced
in large numbers (e.g., Sisal-hemp), and take the place of seeds in
the function of reproduction, the seeds themselves being habitually
either abortive or infertile. These bulbils, if planted in a nursery
bed, will in due course grow into large plants. A conn is a short,
solid, conical tuber or a modified underground stem, from which
PROPAGATION
63
roots spring chieHy from below, but also on the sides and upper
portion ; buds also are scattered over the upper surface. Corms
multiply usually by means of offsets. Caladiums and most other
Aroids are propagated by planting either the whole corm, or only
the " eyes " (buds) which are developed on the upper side of the
latter. A tuber is a thickened rhizome or stem, bearing buds or
node-like scars, examples of which are Yams, Sweet-potato and
Artichoke. Propagation of these is effected simply by division.
SHOWING AERIAL ROOTS OF FlCllS illtissilJlil BECOMING ROOTED IN THE
GROUND AND FORMING INDEPENDENT STEMS.
The Heshy subterranean growths of the Dahlia are not true tubers,
but enlarged succulent roots, as they do not bear buds.
Propagation by Runners and Rhizomes. — This natural mode
of propagation is well seen in the strawberry plant and in some
"running" grasses. A slender branch is sent off from the base of
the stem ; it runs along the ground, and at its end produces a
new plant. The branch withers and dies as soon as the new plant
is rooted. Some plants also have creeping stems (rhizomes), which
root along their under surface, and develop new plants from buds
on the upper side. This is characteristic of the Ginger family and
most grasses.
64 GRAFTING
Grafting. — Grafting consists in placing together two cut sur-
faces of one or of different plants in such a way as to cause them
to unite and grow together. The plant on which the graft is inserted
is called the stock, and the part inserted the scion. The action of
the one on the other is often very marked, sometimes producing
what are called "graft-hybrids." Some fruit-trees may grow freely
on a certain stock but scarcely bear any fruit, whilst on another
stock they produce abundant crops, though they may not grow so
vigorously. The possibilities of grafting are of the greatest impor-
tance in horticulture, more specially in fruit-growing industries, and
through its medium trees, shrubs, etc., may be propagated when
other reproductive means fail. Among its other advantages are :
The good qualities of the scion are retained ; seedling fruit-trees
are brought more quickly into bearing by being grafted on fruit-
bearing stocks ; and in some cases the two sexes of dioecious plants
may be brought together on one stock in order to ensure their
reproduction by self-fertilization. In Ceylon, however, as in most
tropical countries, grafting is seldom practised.
Certain conditions are essential for the success of the operation.
The scion and stock should have a natural affinity to each other,
either as varieties, species, or genera of the same natural order ;
also the natural vigour of the stock and scion should be somewhat
similar. The operation should be carried out in the shade in moist,
growing weather, and the parts protected from the sun until the
union is complete. In all cases it is necessary to exclude the air from
the graft by covering it with grafting- wax or clay, bound round with
matting or fibre. A fundamental principle is the necessity of form-
ing a direct communication between the layers of inner bark
(cawbiuin) in both the scion and stock ; otherwise no union takes
place, as the pithy or woody parts do not unite. There are various
methods of grafting that may be practised, according to the size
and variety of the subject which it is intended to propagate, and
each method may be varied to some extent as may be desired.
The following are the modes most generally employed : —
Whip or tongue grafting. — This is one of the best methods
and is extensively practised in cool countries. The stock is cut in
a sloping direction, just above a node. The scion is then similarly
cut through obliquely ; a thin tongue is cut in this in an upward
direction, and a corresponding cut made in the stock ; the scion is
fitted into the latter so that the inner barks of stock and scion come
GRAFTIXG
65
CLEFT-GRAFTING.
in contact with each other. The graft is then
bound firmly to keep the parts in position, and
covered with clay or grafting wax for excluding
the air.
Cleft grafting. — The stock is split open
by a chisel, and the scion, being cut wedge-
shaped, is ritted in the cleft, so that the inner
barks may meet each other. This mode has
obviously certain objections, and is chiefly
adapted for plants with old stocks.
Sadile-graftin*. — In this the stock and
scion must be of nearly equal thickness, as the
former is cut sloping on each side, like a wedge,
and the latter is split up the centre and thinned so as to allow of
it fitting accurately on top of the stock. This
method is suited to shrubs and young-wooded
plants.
Wedge-grafting. — This is the same as the
preceding plan, with the position of parts reversed.
Crown or Rind-grafting is ap-
plied to trees of considerable si/e.
A scion, about 6 inches long, is select-
ed ; the lower half is cut in a sloping
direction, and the notch or shoulder
formed in cutting it is made to
fit on top of the stock. It is then
inserted between the bark and wood.
This can only be done at the com-
mencement of the growing season, when the bark
and wood easily separate.
S ADDLE-
GRAF f ING.
CROWX
OR
RIXD-
(iKAFTING.
SIDE-GRAFT1XG
Side-grafting consists
in inserting scions into the
branches or sides of the
stock, without cutting away
the head of the latter. It is useful for
supplying, where deficient, a branch or
stem to any part of a tree. The scion being
splice-cut and thinned out, it is inserted
under the bark, the union being bound up
and covered with clay or wax.
66
BUDDING
INARCHING.
Veneer-grafting is chiefly used for propagating trees and
evergreen shrubs. The scion is cut with an even splice-cut, about
1 in. long ; a corresponding quantity of bark is taken
off the side of the stock ; both are then ritted to-
gether, without a cleft or incision being made in
the wood.
Grafting by approach, or Inarching. — This is
the best system of grafting known, and natural
examples are frequently seen in trees growing together.
It is specially suited to the tropics, and is successfully
applied to Mangoes and other fruit trees. Nutmeg,
Cacao, Coffee, etc., may also be propagated in this
way. The scion in this case must be grown in a pot
or bamboo, so as to be movable, or planted close to
the stock. In the case of large trees which it is desired to increase
in this wav, a temporary platform may be erected near the tree upon
which the scion-plants are placed in pots ; the shoots of the tree may
thus be easily bent down to reach the scions. The mode of pro-
cedure for inarching is to remove a similar portion of the wood
from both the parts intended for joining ; these must then be care-
fully htted together and secured with tying material and a bandage.
When the parts have united, dissever the scion from the parent
plant below the bandage. The grafted plant must be kept in a
shaded place until it has commenced active growth, and stock and
scion have become thoroughly incorporated.
Herbaceous-grafting is applicable
for increasing plants of a herba-
ceous nature while still growing. By its
means the Melon has been grown suc-
cessfully upon the Cucumber, the
Tomato on the Potato, etc. The stock
and scion being nearly similar in texture,
the former is carefully split, and the
scion prepared wedge-shaped and in-
serted rather deeply, allowing the barks
to coincide, as in all other methods.
Tie with worsted, cover th - cut with grafting- wax, and shade from
the sun.
Budding.— This process, which is a species of grafting, con-
sists of taking an " eye " or bud attached to a portion of the bark, and
HKKBACKOrs-GKAFTlXG.
BUDDIXG
67
inserting it in the stem or bnmch of another plant. A condition
necessary to success is that the sap be in active circulation, so that
the bark may detach itself readily when gently lifted from the
wood. This is found to take place best where very marked seasons
of growth or " Hushes " occur. In equatorial regions, \vh-re the
A Bl'lJDINc; KNIFE.
seasons are not so marked as in temperate countries, the operation
of budding is not always successful. There are various forms of
budding, each better adapted to particular circumstances, as Shield
or T-budding, Flute or Tube-budding, and Annnhir or Ring-budding.
The first-named form is the one chieHy practised for roses and fruit
trees. The modus operandi is thus : Select a shoot well furnished
with plump dormant buds from the plant desired to be increased ;
cut off the leaves at half the length of the leaf-stalks. Remove a
bud from the shoot by entering a knife i an inch below the bud,
between the inner bark and the wood,
sloping the knife outwards above the
bud. The small portion of wood
taken with the bud is carefully re-
moved. In the bark of the young
shoot in which the bud is to be insert-
ed, make an incision in the. form of a
" T." Raise the bark carefully, push
the bud gently into the opening,
bind it securely to exclude air, leav-
ing only the point of the bud exposed.
Dull cloudy weather and morning or
evening are the best time for bud-
cling, and the operation must be
performed as quickly as possible, as
both bark and bud are injured if ex-
posed to the air for any length of
time. Special knives are supplied
for the purpose, and an instrument
known as the " bud-transplanter " may also be employed.
FIRMIXGER said : " In the upper Provinces of India budding
is performed with great facility at two seasons of the year ; but,
KKCTANCH'I.AK PATCH -Kt'DDlXCi
OK MAN(K).
BUD-GRAFTIXG
for some reason I am unable to explain, I have not found such to
be the case in the vicinity of Calcutta, where budding can so seldom
be performed with success that it is rarely or never attempted,
inarching being uniformly adopted instead." MR. FAWCETT, late
Director of Botanic Gardens, Jamaica, recommends budding as a
quick way of establishing a Mango orchard in that country.
MR. HARRIS of Jamaica has been successful in budding Cacao, and
found that the Criollo and Calabacillo thus "gained enormously in
vigour and productiveness." Budding is applicable to various kinds
of fruit trees. In the West Indies it is claimed to have been uso suc-
cessfully applied to the Nutmeg trees, the grafting of which has not
proved practicable, that the sexes of these may now be brought
under the control of the cultivator." In regard to budding Mangoes,
the secret of success is said to lie "in taking the buds from about
the middle of the growing shoot where they are well developed,
and yet not too tender, at a time just prior to a vigorous stage of
growth in the tree to be budded.
Bud-grafting. — In Queensland and the Southern United
States, this form of budding has of late been adopted with success
in the propagation of the Mango. It is considered to be much
more rapid than "inarching" or "grafting by approach," and does
not, like the latter, involve the erection of a structure laden with
pots around the tree to be
multiplied. As applied to the
Mango, the mode of procedure
is thus described : Seedlings
2 to 3 years old, with stems
about an inch in thickness, are
selected for stocks. A rect-
angular piece of bark is removed
from the stock, and in its place is
inserted a piece similar in shape,
with a bud in the centre, taken
from the variety of Mango
which it is desired to propagate.
The bud-wood (i.e., the shoot
from which the bud is taken)
should be not less than 2 years
old. Precision in fitting the
bud- bark with the incision in
the stock are important factors
BUD-GRAFTING OF MANGO. for success. A small quantity
XL'RSERIES 69
of grafting wax should be smeared over the edges of contact.
and the bark then tied firmly with strands of bast, as shown
at C in the accompanying figure. After this, the graft (excepting
the bud) should be covered with strips of cloth clipped in melted
paraffin wax, as a further preventive against the admission of air
and moisture between the cut surfaces of stock and scion. If un-
duly exposed to the sun, shade should be provided by means of
strips of paper tied over the bud. After union of stock and scion
has taken place (which should be effected in 2 or 3 weeks), the
bandaging may be removed, and the stock pruned back.
Grafting-clay is a composition for covering the graft to
exclude air and moisture until a union of the stock and scion is
effected. It consists of two parts clay and one of cow-dung.
These ingredients should be beaten together and thoroughly mixed
until of the consistency of fresh putty, sometime before being
required.
Grafting-wax. — This is employed in grafting small or delicate
plants, where the use of clay is scarcely practicable, but may also be
applied to large plunts if desired. It is of various forms, and may
be purchased in boxes from seedsmen. To make grafting-wax,
melt slowly together one part linseed oil or tallow, one of beeswax,
and four of resin. For use, re-melt in a glue-pot, and when the
wax is of consistency to work freely, apply with a small brush.
Nurseries. — A necessary part of the equipment of a garden
or estate is a nursery for the propagation of plants. The essential
points of a good nursery are shelter from wind, a plentiful supply
of water, light shade, and fine, loose, well-drained soil. On an
estate, a sheltered valley with a stream running through, should be
selected as the most suitable site for the purpose. The ground
should be cleared of brushwood, rough stones, roots, etc., the soil
trenched or deeply dug, and raised into beds of uniform level.
The beds may be a few inches high and of any convenient size,
but for facility of working they should not be wider than 3 or 4 ft.,
and an alley of 12 to 16 inches must be left between them. The
surface soil must be brought to a fine tilth, and freed from stones,
especially for seed-beds. Xo stable or farmyard manure should be
mixed with the soil, unless it be in a thoroughly decomposed state ;
alluvial or loamy soil, with some well decomposed leaf-mould and
fine sand added, forms the best medium for germinating seeds as
well as for striking cuttings, layering, etc. Temporary shade for
beds must be afforded. This is easily provided by fixing forked
70 PLANT BREEDING
sticks, about 2 ft. high, alongside the beds, light bamboos or other
sticks being placed over these lengthwise and across, while cadjans
or other material used for shade can be laid on the top and regu-
lated or removed as required.
Nursery-, or Propagating-sheds. — In the hill districts some
protection from wind and raiii is usually indispensable. A service-
able shelter may be afforded by erecting a half-span roof of thatch,
either over the beds where formed, or in a sheltered corner
specially set apart for propagating purposes. The roof should be
about 3 ft. off the ground at the back, about 5 ft. in front, and
facing the morning sun. Such structures- are also useful for the
cultivation of such crops as Tomatoes, Cucumbers, Violets, etc.r
which thrive best under protection.
PLANT BREEDING
The term plant-breeding is applied to the improvement of
plants by producing new strains, whether for economic or
ornamental purposes. Its effects are of equal importance to
the planter, farmer or gardener, and upon it depends the prorit-
able cultivation of many crops or races of plants. The great
progress made in horticulture and agriculture during recent
years is chiefly due to the patient efforts of the plant-breeder.
Briefly stated, the process consists of crossing or hybridising
selected species or varieties wrhich possess specially useful or desired
characters, the method of procedure being to transfer the pollen or
male element from the flower of the one plant to the pistil (respec-
tive organ) of another. By this means, together with the aid of
high cultivation and a process of careful selection of the best
varieties, many entirely new races of plants have been evolved.
Thus have originated most of the choicest flowers of the garden,
and the most luscious and productive fruits and vegetables.
Until comparatively recently, the possibility of producing a
hybrid was considered to be confined to plants of different species
belonging to one genus, it being generally believed to be impossible
to produce a cross between different genera. Now/, however, we
have bigeneric and multigene'ric hybrids, and new generic names
have been created for them. Thus, there is the Citrange, a cross
between a citron and an orange ; the Phnncoi, a hybrid between
the plum and the apricot. Great advances have been made especially
in the bigeneric hybridisation of orchids, so that we are now
familiar with such bigeneric titles as Odontioda (a hybrid between
MEXDELISM 71
Odontoglossum and Cocbliod i), Miltonioda (a hybrid between
Miltonia and Cochlioda), Vnylslckeara (a multigeneric hybrid
lvt\\veu Miltonia and Odontioda), Laelo-cattleya, and others. (See
beginning of Ch'ipter, tinder Selection and suving of seed).
MENDELISM
The 1 iw of heredity known as Mendel's Law, discovered in
the sixties of the last century by the ABBE GREGOR MENDEL, has
now become almost a household word, and may be described as the
basis of scientific plant-breeding. Until this law was demonstrated
all breeding, or cross-breeding, was effected to a large extent in
the dark, and although as a general rule the peculiarities of the
present generation might reasonably be expected to reappear in the
progeny, what would actually happen could only be guessed at
beforehand. Often when crosses were attempted, although the
greatest care was exercised, no apparently successful result was
obtained, the progeny exactly resembling one parent only. MENDEL
conceived, however, the idea that the puzzling results of cross-
breeding must be governed by some settled law. He therefore
set himself to work to find it out, and in order to do so started his
experiments on the simplest lines he could conceive. He selected
the various forms of the edible or garden pea on the following
grounds : Firstly, the flowers of these are so constructed that from
the outset their anthers and stigmas are protected from outside
pollen (which, of course, would produce unwished for crosses) by
being enveloped in the keel of the flower, and by opening this keel
before the flower was fully grown, he could extract the unripe
pollen-bearing anthers and insert instead the ripe pollen he desired
to use, thus ensuring the desired cross. Secondly, these plants show
definite and distinct characters, such as differently coloured flowers,
and variously coloured and shaped peas, as well as pods. Finally,
as they are annuals, a fresh generation could be obtained every
year for the purpose of studying and tabulating results, and starting
fresh experiments. From these experiments MENDEL discovered
that the characters aforesaid fell definitely into two distinct cate-
gories, viz., (a) dominant and (b) recessive. A dominant character
is one which appears to the exclusion of the other in the immediate
offspring of a cross, the character which fails to appear being
recessive.
The next discovery was that in a cross involving a dominant
and a recessive character ; all the offspring resembled the dominant
one, so that apparently the recessive parent had failed altogether
72 MENDELISM
to act, even though it was this parent which bore the seed, for the
same result occurred whichever was the seed bearer. This rirst
family of "dominants" being self-fertilised, the next remarkable
result was that from their seeds arose two kinds of plants, viz.,
dominants and recessives, like the grand-parents, but always in the
proportion of three dominants to one recessive when the average
of a large number was taken. Here then was an obvious law, and
long series of crossings and intercross! ngs proved that the characters,
"dominant" or "recessive," never intermingled absolutely, but only
temporarily ; so that when another period of reproduction occurred
they were capable of dissociation or segregation.
"In the reproductive cells," says DR. R. H. LOCK, "the domi-
nant and recessive characters separate completely only on being
represented in each cell. Such cells occur in equal numbers.
When the reproductive cells unite they do so at random, so that in
the long run the combination DD, DR, RD, and RR are equally
recessrve. DD is a pure dominant like the dominant parent, and
will always breed true to this character unless again crossed ; the
same applies to RR, DR and RD which are crosses like the original
cross ; like it they are dominant in appearance, and their further
behaviour is exactly the same. The apparent 3 to 1 ratio is thus
explained. It is really a ratio of 1 : 2 : 1.— i.e., ID : 2 DR : 1 R.
D and R breed true. DR makes up again like the original cross."
In MENDEL'S experiments the same ratios of "dominant" and
"recessive" came out in all cases where sufficiently distinct
characters presented themselves; and, above all, the same "dominant"
prevalence in the first family was found to assert itself. This, for
the plant-breeder, was in itself an invaluable discovery, since with-
out this knowledge it often took years to establish a really reliable
strain. He now knows that, instead of rejecting his crosses as
failures, he has in them probably precisely the cross he desires,
and has only to cross them again to obtain it in the succeeding
family. Furthermore, he now knows exactly how to proceed in
order to obtain a pure and constant strain on systematic lines. To
those who may desire to pursue experiments on Menclelian lines, it
is advisable to point out that it is only by doing so to a fairly large
extent that this ratio becomes clear on averaging the results. The
principle underlying the predominance of the dominant characters
over the recessive in the results obtained has been compared to
that shown by mixing up a large number of black and white shots
in a bowl, three black and one white, and employing a blind man
MENDEL1SM 73
to pick out four at a time r the law of chance will then determine
tint the groups of four will average out three blacks to one white.
Those who desire further information on this interesting and
important subject should refer to DR. R. H. LOCK'S Pamphlets on
plant-breeding, or, for more advanced information, to his book
entitled "Variation, Heredity and Evolution."
CHAPTER VII.
CULTURAL OPERATIONS
PLANTING
Planting, or the transference of plants, trees, shrubs, etc.,
from their pots or nursery beds to places in the open ground where
they are intended to remain, may usually be done in the tropics at
any time, except in the dry season (see under Climate), the most
essential condition being that the soil be in a moist, though not
excessively wet, state. In the low-country of Ceylon, planting
operations may commence at the setting in of the monsoon
rains, but should not as a rule be attempted during the months of
January, February, and March. As regards the hill districts,
however, certain delicate annuals and exotic plants are liable to
suffer from excessive rain, and these should not be planted out
until the burst of the Monsoons (June and October) has somewhat
abated. Except perhaps in very wet weather, a good watering
should invariably be given to plants when either planted out or
transplanted from one place to another. As annual crops should
be sown in drills, so all shrubs or trees that are cultivated as crops
should be planted in rows, the plants in each row alternating with
those in that next to it.
Holing. — It is very important, especially in poor soils, that
sufficiently large holes be made in the first place, for otherwise the
plants are liable to languish and become stunted or irregular in
growth. The proper size of the hole depends upon the nature of
the tree to be planted and on the character of the soil. For
moderate-sized shrubs, the holes should be about 2 ft. in diameter
and about 20 inches deep ; while for fruit and other trees they
should be proportionately larger. In any case it is well to dig
large deep holes, and fill to the depth required by the particular
plant in hand. The soil that is taken out should be mixed with
some manure, or any well-decayed organic matter available, before
rilling it in again. It is important that the soil should be pressed
firmly about the roots of the plant when the latter is placed in
PLAXTIXG 75
position. With most plants it is customary to till in the soil so that
when quite settled it is slightly higher on the surface than the
surrounding level ; this avoids the risk of stagnant water accumu-
lating round the young plant. With coconuts, however, it is usual
to only partially rill in the hole when pi inting the seedling, so that
the crown of the latter is left about a foot below the level of the
ground. Not only is the young plant thus afforded beneficial
shelter, but its roots obtain a deep and firm hold of the soil, and
the hole becomes filled up in course of time by the process of
weeding and weathering. (See Use of Explosives, p. 46).
Puddling roots. — An excellent practice, either in planting or
transplanting, is to puddle the roots in mud immediately the plants
are taken out of the ground. A mixture for puddling may be made
simply by adding water to some earth, and stirring it until of the
consistency of thick paint. If the soil be too porous for the purpose,
it can be made adhesive by adding cowdung or clay. By dipping
the roots in the mixture a coating adheres to them which has the
effect of excluding the air, thus to an important extent keeping them
moist. This method is especially beneficial in the case of plants
which have to be carried over long journeys, or are unavoidably
out of the ground for a considerable time ; while during a period
of uncertain rainfall its adoption may be recommended for almost
any class of plants.
Transplanting. — It is often necessary in gardens, and even
on estates, to transplant shrubby plants or small trees, either to
more suitable places or for the purpose of filling vacancies or
replacing weakly plants. In the case of large bushes or spreading
trees, it is advisable to cut these well back first, so as to reduce
their foliage or transpiring surface, thus balancing the latter
with the check received at the roots. Having well-soaked the
ground with water, dig a trench round and under the tree or shrub
so as to leave a good ball of earth adhering to the roots. The ball
with the roots must be kept intact, and if the soil be of a loose
nature matting or sacking should be tied around it. By sliding in
planks underneath, the tree or shrub may then be safely removed.
This should be replanted exactly at the same depth as it was growing.
After cutting off any injured portions of the roots, fill in the hole
with good soil, pressing or ramming it firmly around the roots as
you proceed. Finish by giving a thorough soaking of water,
placing a layer of mulch on the surface ; fix supports round the
tree to prevent its being moved about by wind, and shade well
until new leaves have developed.
76 PLANTING
Shading. — In the tropics it is absolutely necessary to protect
young plants, on being first put out in the open ground, from the
powerful rays of the sun, by means of some temporary shade. Even
when well established, many plants are always liable to be injuri-
ously affected by direct exposure to the sun during the hot dry
season, and are greatly benefited by partial shade. For some
quick-growing young crops, as Tobacco, Vegetables, etc., it is
usually sufficient to shade them with any large leaves or fern
fronds that may be at hand, these being fixed in the ground by
their stalks and bent over the tender seedlings. Twigs or fern
fronds which do not readily drop their leaves or leaflets when
withered are the most suitable for the purpose. The pretty fern
Gleichcnia is, for this reason, a most useful plant, its wiry persis-
tent fronds being especially suited for inserting slanting- wise in the
surface of nursery beds. For newly planted seedlings or other
young plants, plaited palm leaves, especially those of the coconut
(cadjans) afford excellent temporary shade, the leaves being loosely
woven into a basket-like shape which is placed over the plant
and held in position by means of 3 sticks fixed in the ground.
Watering. — Though it is always best to plant in rainy
weather, it is often impossible to follow the progress of the elements,
and as moisture as well as shade is usually a necessary condition
for newly planted plants, watering by artificial means must be
adopted when the rain fails. (See Watering of Pot Plants).
Tree-guards and supports. — In public grounds especially, pro-
tection of some sort is, without exception, indispensable to young
plants which are intended to form useful or ornamental trees. A
fence of the "solid" or "male" bamboo forms a substantial protection
for a time, but the most effectual and durable supports and
barrier are iron tree-guards ; those in which the uprights are
pointed at the top and bent outwards are preferable. In exposed
or windy situations, it is often necessary to support plants indivi-
dually, especially those with slender stems, by fastening them to
firm stakes fixed in the ground. Such support should as a rule be
provided at the time of planting, and care must be taken that the
plant does not chafe against it, and that the tie is not left on too long.
Planting Distances. — The proper distances for planting apart
vary, of course, according to the nature of the plants or crop,
and also to some extent according to local conditions of soil and
climate. As a general rule every individual plant or tree should be
afforded sufficient space to allow of its healthy and profitable
PLAXTIXG
77
development. Such distances, in this work, are usually given under
the different classes mentioned, except where a repetition of
this is unnecessary or impracticable, in which case the necessary
spacing may be inferred from the approximate size of the res-
pective species at maturity. When marking out the land for
planting, the rows should be at equal distances apart, but it is
usually desirable that the distances between the rows be greater
than that between the plants in the rows, thus facilitating working
between the rows. The plan known as the quinciiin; shown in
ALTERNATE OR QUINCUNX PLANTING
figure, is the proper method of placing the plants in rows. In this,
as will be seen, the plants in any row alternate with those in the
row on either side, while they are also in straight lines in which-
ever direction looked at.
TABLE OF PLANTING DISTANCES
The following table shows the number of plants to the acre
at distances of one to thirty feet apart, and the area in square
feet available for each plant :—
Distance
apart in
feet
1 by 1
liby U
2 by 2
2iby 2i
Area for
each plant
Number of
Area for
Distance each plant
Xumber of
in square
plants to
a
part ii
i
in square
plants to-
feet.
the acre.
feet.
feet.
the acre*
1
43,560
3
by
3
9
4,840
2|
19,360
3i
by
3i
12i
3,556
4
10,890
4
bv
4
16
2,722
6}
6,970
5
by
5
25
1.742
78 PRUXIXG
Distance
apart in
feet.
Area for
each plant
in square
feet.
Number of
plants to
the acre.
Distance
apart in
feet.
Area for
each plant
in square
feet.
X umber of
plants to
the acre.
6
by
6
36
1,210
16
by
16
256
170
6
by
7
42
1,037
17
by
17
289
150
7
by
7
49
889
18
by
18
324
134
8
by
8
64
680
19
by
19
361
120
9
by
9
81
537
20
by
20
400
108
10
by
10
100
435
22
by
22
484
90
12
by
12
144
302
24
by
24
576
75
13
by
13
169
257
26
by
26
676
64
14
by
14
196
222
28
by
28
784
55
15
by
15
225
193
30
by
30
900
48
For numbers not <^iven in the above table, take the square of the distance
apart the trees are required to stand, in feet, into 43.560 ; the result is the
number of plants required per acre.
PRUNING
There are various modes of pruning, each class of plants
requiring more or less different treatment, but the principle under-
lying all methods is the same. This may be briefly described as
the concentration of vigour into certain parts of the plant by the
cutting away of other portions, either of the stem, branches, roots,
or leaves. The object in view may be the production of a larger
yield or better quality of fruits or flowers, straight clean trunks (as
in timber and rubber cultivation), twisted or bent stems (for
furniture- making, etc.), wide spreading branches (for shade), or an
abundance of young shoots and foliage, as in Tea cultivation.
PRUNING KNIFE.
By means of pruning, trees or bushes may be induced to assume
a form which will not only add to their productiveness, but also
facilitate the harvesting or plucking of the crop. The plants should
be encouraged when young to form an evenly balanced head, with
the branches radiating regularly from the centre. The more up-
right and straight a shoot grows, the freer will be the circulation
of its sap, and therefore, as a rule, the more active its vitality.
The effect of pruning is analogous to that of manuring, and this
fact is taken advantage of when hard priming is applied to bushes
PRL'XIXG
SKCATKUKS. OK PRfXIXi; SHKAKS.
which become stunted or "sick." Pruning nviy also be resorted
to in order to rid plants of certain fungus diseases or insect pests.
In Ceylon, the pruning of fruit trees is seldom practised, with
the exception of the Grape-wine in the Northern Province and, to
a small extent, European fruit-
trees in the hill districts.
Although the absence of a res-
ting period in the tropics affects
the question of pruning, there
can be no doubt that some
modified form of it to suit local
circumstances should be adopted in order to maintain the trees in
a productive condition, and to obtain the best quality of crop. In
India a similar effect to that of pruning is
sometimes produced by the crude practice
of either stripping oft the leaves, or sub-
jecting the trees to a "good thrashing,"
as is done in the case of unfruitful Mango
trees. The latter operation is effected by
means of a long pliable bamboo, and
although too crude to be recommended,
yet its effect in retarding exuberant
growth, and so tending to fruitfulness, is
said to be sometimes conspicuous.
Pruning of Shade or Flowering trees.
—The object in regard to the pruning
of these should be to obtain a form
which, while developing the natural beauty
of the tree, will tend to prolong its life
and usefulness. The longest lived trees
are those with a straight, erect and un-
divided trunk ; therefore the production
of such a form should be encouraged
when the tree is young, by shortening
back shoots or branches which rival the
leader, and so direct the vigour of the tree
to the centre.
General Principles of Pruning. — The
following principles are of general
application, whether for large or small
TKKK-PKl NKK.
$0 PRUNING
trees : —
(1) For fruit trees, thin out branches so as to allow free
access of light and air ; remove all dead wood, snags, superfluous
suckers and shoots.
(2) Always use a sharp knife or saw, and cut in such a way
as to ensure quick healing.
(3) When cutting back lateral branches, always cut at a fork.
(4) In removing a large branch, saw it off roughly (cutting
the under-side first, and then the upper a few inches further from
the stem than the first cut) a foot from the trunk, and finally saw
off and plane the surface of the stump left.
(5) Smear coal-tar over the cut surface ; otherwise the action
of sunheat may crack the wound, thereby allowing moisture to
enter and enabling parasitic fungi to obtain a footing.
(6) When cutting branches, especially large ones, avoid
leaving stumps several inches long ; always cut a branch in a line
and flush with the outside of the stem or branch from which it
springs.
(7) The cut should always be made in a slanting or upright
direction, so as to throw off the rain.
(8) In general, pruning should be performed when growth is
least active.
PKU XING-SAW.
Thumb-nail Pruning. — A term applied to the nipping off of
the terminal young bud, as done by the thumb-nail and forefinger,
being a form of pruning conveniently applied to tender plants. At
one time it was recommended for young Hevea rubber trees, being
adopted when the trees were about 10 to 12 ft. high, the object
being to induce a more rapid growth in girth of the stem and a
branching top. This, however, is not now generally practised.
Root Pruning. — This is sometimes employed in the cultivation
of fruit trees, its object being to counteract a too luxuriant
woody growth, which results in paucity of fruit. The usual
method of carrying it out is to cut a trench round the tree at a
suitable distance from the stem, and as deep as the roots ,go. All
the roots as they are found are cleanly cut, and if a long tap-root
81
is suspected of entering the, sub-soil it should be searched for by
careful undermining, and severed. In the North of Ceylon, where
the climate is comparatively dry, the practice in regard to the
Grape-vine is to remove the soil from around the base of the stem,
and cut away some of the smaller roots. After exposure for a
week or two the trench is filled in with manure, which is covered
over with the soil previously removed. Similar treatment is
applied in India to the Mango and other fruit-trees. "This," said
FIRMIXGER, "though apparently opposed to theory, is in fact more
efficacious in practice, and the trees treated thus bear prodigiously."
In the cultivation of fruit generally, the
object should be to encourage the
growth of fibrous roots near the surface,
and prevent the development of strong
woody roots into the sub-soil.
Cavities in Tree-trunks. — V e r y
often when a tree has been long
neglected, the trunk is seriously injured
by cavities caused by the decay of dead
or broken branches. It is not claimed
that pruning can remove defects of this
nature ; but it can, with proper appli-
cation, arrest the progress of the evil.
The edge of the cavity should be cut
smooth and even, and all decomposed
matter in the interior carefully removed.
A coating of coal-tar should then be
applied to the surface of the cavity,
and the mouth plugged with a piece of
well-seasoned hard wood, securely
driven into place, the end of the plug
being then carefully pared smooth and
covered with coal-tar. To guard
against the attacks of insects or fungi, it is sometimes advisable to
nail a piece of zinc over the board, in such a way that the growth of
the new wood may in time completely cover it.
Bark-, or Hide-bound trees. — It is believed that in some
-cases cortical or bark pressure becomes so great as to retard the
growth of the tree, preventing the formation of the normal amount
of new wood. In temperate climates this unhealthy condition is
considered to be indicated by the natural shedding of the leaves
BRAXCH-PRUXER.
82 PRUXIXG
being impeded. The remedy adopted is to make longitudinal
incisions in the bark, without removing any tissues. This is
believed to relieve the bark pressure, being followed by a natural
increase in thickness of the affected stem.
Ring-barking, or Ringing. — These are terms applied to the
removal of a strip of bark, varying in breadth from a few inches to
as much as two feet, according to the size of the tree, from near
the base of trees which it is desired to kill by starvation. It is
commonly adopted in some countries for killing large or other
trees which would be costly to cut down. To be quite successful
it must be performed during the period of greatest cambial activity,
i.e., when the sap is up, as it is popularly called, the bark being
then most easily separated from the wood ; the excised bark must
be cut sufficiently deep to expose the cambium, that is, the bast
layer or inner bark must be removed, otherwise the operation will
be ineffectual. The chief effect of this is to cut off the downward
flow of sap and food material between the leaves and the roots.
Where the trees are required for their timber, the process of
killing by ring- barking is considered to improve the quality of the
latter. A form of ringing is sometimes adopted to hasten the
ripening of fruits, and, as a last resource, to render unfruitful trees
productive. The principle is also employed in different methods
of propagation, as a means of inducing the formation of a callus on
cuttings or layers.
Pollarding or coppicing is a necessary process in the culti-
vation of certain tropical products, more particularly of Cinnamon
and Cinchona. In effect it is also applied to Tea, Coffee, Camphor,
etc., since it consists of cutting back the main stem and branches so
as to keep the trees dwarf, and induce productive young growth.
CHAPTER VIII.
GARDEN ADORNMENTS, LABELS, IMPLEMENTS, ETC.
Seats. — These are always an essential part of the equipment
pf a garden, more especially in the tropics, and it is safe to say that
much of the enjoyment of the garden depends upon them. Com-
manding views, overlooking terraces, spots of special interest or
attraction — these are the kind of positions where seats should be
placed. In the low-country they are especially appreciated when
placed under the shade of trees, arbours, etc. The ground under-
neath the seat should be gravelled or paved, so as to avoid the
discomforts of damp grass and probable intrusion of land-leeches.
A SKKYICKABI.K GARDFX SKAT.
ants, etc. The form of seat used may vary from a plain wooden
bench to elaborate cast-iron designs. Rustic seats made of knotted
branches, though sometimes much in favour, are usually most
uncomfortable. The most satisfactorv and economical seats in
84 GARDEX ADORXMEXTS
Peradeniya Gardens consist of wrought-iron ends, with narrow
strips of wood forming the seat and back. All seats, with perhaps
the exception of rustic ones, should be painted, and this requires
to be done at least once a year. The most suitable colour, for the
low-country at any rate, is light-grey. This does not become dis-
coloured so rapidly as other tints, and in many cases it improves,
rather than deteriorate, in colour by exposure to the weather. Both
green and chocolate paints very quickly become dark and dirty-
looking. Zinc or other good kind should always be used in
preference to lead paints.
Adornments. — Gardens in the tropics are as yet seldom
embellished with such artificial adornments as statuary, beautiful
vases, elaborate fountains, etc., as are met with in gardens of
temperate countries. Yet other and simpler devices in the form
A KANDYAN MEMORIAL (THWAITES*), PEKADENIYA GARDENS.
of arbours, arches, and trellis-covered walks on which ornamental
creepers or climbers may be trained, are often adopted, and with very
pleasing effect. Any adornments used should, as far as possible, take a
practical form and serve a useful purpose ; thus a fountain may be
utilised for the growth of water plants, rearing rish, etc. ; vases
should be adopted for the successful display of ornamental plants ;
while pergolas may be made to provide cool shade as \vell as means
for the effective display of ornamental climbers.
Pergolas. — A pergola consists of an archway over a walk,
usually formed of rough stems and branches of trees, or piers of
GARDEX ADORXMEXTS 85
masonry, on which climbing roses or other suitable plants may
ramble. Pergolas are especially agreeable in the tropics owing to
the cool shade they afford ; but here the frame-work, to be durable,
should be of iron (not wood) and covered with open wire-netting.
A pergola which is much admired in Peradeniya Gardens com-
prises a number of bolt-iron arches, these being covered with
different species of Aristolochia ("Fly-catching" plants), Ipomoea,
Bignonia, Congea, etc. A pergola should for preference be
on level ground, and not curve or twist ; it may be of any
length, but ought not to be less than 7 ft. wide or 7 ft. high.
Arbours. — These may be of various designs to suit circum-
stances. A simple and cheap form may be made of iron frame-
work, fixed in the ground by means of sections of bamboo, which
are buried in the earth and then rilled with concrete ; wire-netting
is fastened over the iron frame-work, and on this showy climbing
plants are trained. Arbours made of wood-work, with the sides
formed of rustic and knotted branches, and the roof covered with
shingles, are very appropriate for the hill districts. Some pretty
examples of these may be seen in Hakgala Gardens and Nuwara-
Eliya Park, in Ceylon.
Visitors' shelters. — No public garden in the tropics should
be without some structure that will provide shelter for visitors, and
this should to some extent be made to combine ornament with
utility. In Peradeniya Gardens, memorial structures, erected to
the memory of past directors, serve the purpose of useful shelters
to the public.
Fountains are well adapted to gardens in the tropics, where,
in the hot season especially, the spray or the rippling sound of
water is particularly pleasant. The base of the fountain, while
serving as a useful reservoir, may be turned to good effect by culti-
vating various water-plants in it.
Vases for out-door. — Very fair imitation of European vases
are sometimes made in Ceylon of concrete, from given moulds.
Good specimens of these may be seen in the Gordon Gardens,
Colombo, where they are very ornamental, especially when rilled
with well-grown and suitable plants. The Sinhalese potters make
earthenware urns on elaborate hollow pedestals, which, though
liked by some people, are very fragile, and only suited to a verand ih
or other position under cover.
86 P07\S AND OTHER RECEPTACLES
POTS AND OTHER RECEPTACLES
Pots. — The Sinhalese potters can sometimes turn out very
satisfactory pots to a given pattern, but those which they make on
their own initiative are usually ungainly and unsatisfactory, being
either too deep and perpendicular, bulging in the middle, or dis-
proportionately narrow at the base. Good pots should become
gradually narrower from the top towards the bottom. If the
sides are perpendicular, the plant with its ball of earth cannot be
turned out without breaking the pot. Generally speaking, pots of
large sizes should not be so deep as they are wide at the top ; while,
on the contrary, the depth of small-sized pots should equal or
exceed their top width. A very common mistake in Ceylon
gardens is to use pots unnecessarily large, for these are both
obtrusive and unsuitable for the healthy growth of plants.
Hanging Pots. — These may be made in quite a variety of
forms. The perforated kind, in which Maiden-hair ferns, Sela-
ginella, etc., may be successfully grown, is perhaps the most
effective. Those made of concrete and studded with pebbles are not
desirable, being very heavy and devoid of porosity. Very effective
are the bottle-shaped earthenware urns, around which a layer of
loamy soil is held in position by means of close wire-netting ; into
this dainty ferns and suitable plants are dibbled, and these obtain
a constant and regular supply of moisture by absorption through
the urn, which is kept full of water.
Bamboo-pots. — Sections of bamboo, which may be obtained
of various sizes, with the transverse division left in one end and a hole
punched through it for drainage, make very useful pots for certain
purposes. They are extensively used in Peradeniya Gardens for
propagating work, and (larger kinds) to some extent as receptacles
for growing orchids. For the latter purpose they are cut into
small sections, resembling shallow pans, several holes being made
in the sides and bottom for aeration and drainage.
Horizontal hanging bamboos, bamboo vases, etc.— Sections
of the Giant-bamboo can be utilised in various ways for the
purpose of growing ornamental plants, and also as " Mower- vases " in
corners of drawing rooms, corridors, etc., on temporary occasions.
Their chief fault is that they are not durable, as even under cover
they soon split and decay, owing to their being kept in a constantly
damp condition. As horizontal hanging "pots," single joints of any
large bamboo can be used very effectively. For this purpose leave
the division in each end intact, cut out one side to about one-third
POTS A\I) OTHER RECEPTACLES 87
its diameter, and fasten a wire at each end for hanging by ; a
few holes should be made in the intact (lower) side for drainage.
Tubs. — Wooden tubs, either made for the purpose, or con-
sisting of whisky or wine casks cut into two, make useful recep-
tacles for growing large plants, as palms, etc. Such tubs should be
painted green, and raised off the ground by means of bricks placed
under ne:ith. An iron handle fixed to opposite sides of the tub
will facilitate the removal of the latter when necessary. If made
locally by a carpenter, a simple and effective form is a square tub,
slightly narrowing towards the base, fastened together at the
corners by means of a couple of clamps with pegs at both ends ; this
can be taken to pieces or put together when desired, and when
painted white, with the clamps in green, looks neat and ornamental-
Tins and metal receptacles are often employed, and some-
times successfully, for growing plants in, but their use cannot be
generally recommended. Apart from their ungainly appearance,
plants cannot be expected to thrive so well in these as in pots
or receptacles made of a porous material. When, however, only
tins are procurable and have to be used, a number of small holes
should be driven into the bottom, and a quantity of potsherds
or small pieces of brick placed over these for drainage.
Seed-pans. — These are most useful in propagating work
whether for seeds or cuttings. Those usually made in Ceylon are
circular in shape, and about 3 inches in depth ; they vary in size,
but should not exceed 12 inches in diameter, for if too large, they
are less portable and are more liable to be broken.
Seed boxes are especially useful in the hill districts, both for
raising seedlings under some protection from the weather, and also
for pricking them off afterwards before finally planting out. The
boxes should not be more than about 3 inches deep, and should be
provided with free drainage.
Painted pots. — Not infrequently one sees in verandahs and
at railway stations earthenware plant-pots painted in green or other
striking colours. This is owing to a mistaken idea of artistic beauty,
as well as to the oriental innate love of striking colours. The
writer recalls a case where a well-meaning garden cooly painted all
the pots in his charge a vivid pink ! It should be remembered
that there is nothing unsightly or unbecoming about earthenware
Hower-pots if kept neat and clean, and that their natural colour is the
most pleasing one. Smearing them with paint destroys their porosity,
which is an essential quality for the successful growth of plants.
88 PLANT LABELS
PLANT LABELS
The utility and interest derived from a garden, especially a
public or botanic garden, must to a large extent be in proportion to
the use made of neat, legible labels, bearing the names or other
information of the plants, trees, shrubs, etc. One important fact
must not, however, be lost sight of, i.e., labels should always be
made as inconspicuous as possible, for otherwise they are apt to
become offensive to the eye. Small plants should as far as practi-
cable have small labels in proportion to their size, but the largest
trees need not have unnecessarily large ones. The upkeep of
labelling in tropical gardens is a matter of considerable difficulty,
owing partly to the attacks of termites, which destroy most forms of
dead wood, and partly to the liability of metal labels being stolen
or becoming corroded. Various sorts and designs of labels have
been resorted to, and the following are some of the principal kinds
now used : —
Wooden labels. — These are perhaps the most convenient
form for ordinary purposes ; they may be of any size and shape,
can easily be altered to suit requirements, and are neat while they
last in good condition. Those which are intended to remain in
the ground should be of the hardest wood. Deal- wood labels in
the tropics are only suitable for very temporary purposes, as for
seeds in pans or boxes under cover ; these being planed, should
be rubbed over with white-lead paint, as they are then easier to
write on, look best, and last longer. Large stout wooden labels,
made of hard woods, as Pehimbiya (Filiciutn), She-oak (Casuarina),
Iron-wood (Mesua], Palu (Miniusops), are extensively used at the
Royal Botanic Gardens in Ceylon for trees, shrubs, etc. These
are painted black, and the name printed in white zinc paint with a
line brush ; the stem of the label is afterwards dipped in tar, and
allowed to dry before being put out to the trees. An improvement
on this form, recently adopted in Ceylon, is to stamp the name on
the smoothed surface by means of steel dies, the impressions being
then filled in with good white paint. Thus not only does the latter
remain on much longer, but the impressions if properly made will
last almost as long as the label.
Bamboo-splint labels. — A splint of hard bamboo, with one
end sharpened for fixing in the -ground, and the other flattened and
planed, will make a cheap and serviceable label. When writing
upon it, first rub some white paint on the planed surface, and use a
soft lead pencil.
PLAXT LABELS 89
Lead Labels. — This is perhaps the best permanent label for
trees and shrubs, and is used exclusively for such at the Royal
(i irdens. Kew. It consists of a piece of sheet-lead, about 3 inches
long by 2 inches wide, with about i inch of one long side turned
over to form a rim, below which 2 holes are pierced for suspending
by wire. The letters composing the name of the plant, etc., are
punched in with punch-type, the impressions being tilled with white
lead or /inc. and the surface afterwards rubbed over with an oiled rag.
Brick labels. — To obviate the destructive effects of termites,
brick labels, made to a given mould, have for many years been
largely used in the Botanic Gardens, Ceylon. The top has a slop-
ing smooth surface, which is painted black, the name and other
particulars being printed on in white-lead or zinc paint. Though
this type of label is not durable, it is comparatively cheap and is
also, of course, termite-proof.
Zinc labels. — Narrow pieces of clear sheet zinc make excellent
labels for pot-plants, orchids, hanging baskets, etc., and are exten-
sively employed in the Ceylon Botanic Gardens. These are written
on with an indelible ink, which can be obtained ready-made (See
Indelible Ink, below).
Sheet-iron labels. — Strips of sheet-iron painted black, with
the name, etc., written on in white, are said to be often used for
labels in India.
The "Imperishable Stratford" labels. — These excellent labels
are made in England to order, of almost any size and shape
required and may include any name, description or notice as may
be desired ; the names, etc., should be typed when sent to the
manufacturer with the order. The "Stratford label" is cheap
while satisfactory, and differs from the "Acme" in being made
of white metal, with the raised letters in black. These labels are
largely used for plants and trees in Botanic Gardens in India and
Ceylon, and also throughout the West Indian Botanic Gardens.
They may be kept in a legible condition by an occasional cleaning
followed by a coat of paint over the raised type. In order to effect
the latter, mix some paint to the consistency of printer's ink, spread
this out on a smooth hard surface, pass a squeegee over the paint
and then over the raised letters.
The "Acme" labels. — These are made of stout zinc, with
raised letters on black ground. They are supported on stiff wire
stems, or have a pair of eyes for suspending by wire or nailing to
a wall.
90 PLANT LABELS
Ivorine label. — This label, which is a composition of thick
parchment-like substance, of the appearance and consistency of
ivory, is now largely used in Europe for labelling" pot-plants,
especially orchids. It is of neat appearance, is said to be imperish-
able and unbreakable, and it can be written upon by either pencil
or pen, the writing being indelible, except when well rubbed with
soap.
Waterproof labels. — For the temporary labelling of plants,
etc., as in packing them for transport, these labels are most service-
able and convenient. They are made of Manila substances, with
a parchment surface and are easily written upon with ink or pencil.
Preservatives for wooden labels. — Wooden labels should
always have the part that is to be fixed in the ground treated with
some preservative before being put out. Various compounds of
creosote, copper sulphate, carbolic acid, etc., are used for the
purpose, all with more or less success. Dipping the labels in
boiling tar, and then plunging them in sand, is adopted with satis-
factory results in Ceylon. MR. W. NOCK, late Superintendent of
Hakgala Gardens, found the following method an excellent one:
Mix fine .coal-dust with linseed oil until of the consistency of thick
paint ; boil the mixture, and while in a state of boiling dip into it
the part of the label which goes in the ground. When the labels
are dry, the operation should be repeated. Slightly charring, and
afterwards tarring, the portion of the label to be in the ground has
an excellent preservative effect.
Indelible ink for zinc labels. — A solution of platinum bichloride
(one tube of 15 grains 'to about l| fluid oz. of water) forms
one of the best and most durable forms of writing fluids for
zinc labels. It can be used either with a steel pen or a pointed
piece of palm-leaf petiole. Special writing fluids may be obtained
from nurserymen, but when neither these nor the platinum are
procurable, a useful substitute may be made as follows : Take one
part salamoniac, 1 part verdigris, and 10 parts water ; mix well
together and keep in a glass-stoppered bottle ; shake before using.
A strong solution of copper sulphate will also answer the purpose
to some extent, but is less efficient.
TOOLS AXI) IMPLEMENTS
91
GARDEXS AND ESTATE TOOLS AND
IMPLEMENTS
Though the number of tools actually required for a garden or
an estate in the tropics is not large, there are many which are not
generally known and which would not only facilitate various
operations in connection with garden or field work, but also prove
a considerable saving of labour. The stock-in-trade of a garden
coolie is often limited to a mammoty, watering-pot and a sickle,
and it is only at the expense of time and labour that he gets over
STUMP EXTRACTOR.
the work with these. The quality of the work done, however, is
not always as it should be. Of late years the number of useful and
labour-saving implements for the farm and garden has been con-
siderably augmented, more especially by inventions from America.
Though many of these are obviously unsuited to the conditions of
labour in the tropics, others are of easy application and effect
a considerable saving of labour as well as of individual energy.
Needless to remark, it is true economy to employ the best and
most suitable tools. Though the following list includes many that
are not necessary for a small garden, all are more or less indis-
pensable in a large or public establishment, while most will also be
found useful for estate work.
92
TOOLS AXD IMPLEMENTS
Name,
Approximate
English &
Vernacular
Purpose for which generally used pn,°f fXaryin8
quality.)
:
Rs.
Ala van go, or
Crowbai
Digging holes, levering, etc.
1 -50-4-50
Ant-extermi-
nator
Fumigating ant nests : very effectual
75-00
A ntipest, or
Kn ap-sack
sprayer
Fine fluid spraying
60-00
Auger. "Awa-
kara " S.
Boring holes in tubs, boxes, etc.
1'30 2 50
Averruncator
See Tree-pruner
—
Axe, "Poro-
wa " S. "Ko-
dali " T. -
Felling or cutting trees, chopping wood, etc.
1-30-4-00
Basket, gar-
den, hand -
Gathering flowers, seeds or vegetables -
075- TOO
Basket, man-;
ure. " K o o -!
day " S. - Carrying manure, soil, gravel, etc. It is carried
on the head, and in the tropics usually takes
the place of the wheel-barrow.
G-25-0'35
Basket, trans-
port (large)-
Removing leaves, grass, light rubbish, etc.
075
Bill-hook,
" Wak-pihi-
va " S.
"Vetu-
Kathi" T-
Lopping branches, 'etc.
1 -75-2-50
Branch-
shears
Excellent for cutting stout branches
6-00-8-00
Brooms, -1
"Eikel" S. -
Sweeping paths, etc. -
0'10-0-15
Do., bass.
"Rata-kossa"
S.
Cleaning concrete floors, etc. -
l-65-2'00
Budding-
knife - See under Knife
Crowbar - See Alavango
Dibber - Making holes for planting out seedlings, cuttings.
etc. - 0'50
Disc-plough - See Plough
Edging-iron- Indispensable for cutting turf-edges, as of paths,
beds. etc. - - - - 2'00-3'00
Edging-she
ars
Flower-gath
ering s c i s
sors
- For trimming grass-edges of paths or borders
Fork, digging
u Mulluwa "
S.
Do., weedingj
Especially convenient for cutting flowers of thorny
plants.
Digging earth, turning manure, etc.
Weeding and forking up surface soil
6 '00 -7 '00
3-00-3-50
2-00-3-00
0'60
S'=SINHALESE ; 7— TAMIL.
TOOLS AX I) IMPLEMENTS
93
Name.
English &
Vernacular
Purpose for which generally used
Approximate
price (varying
according to
quality).
Fruit-picker,
% Kekka " vS. Picking fruit (or flowers) from branches that are
not easily accessible.
G.irden en-
gine - A \vater-barro\v with a force-pump and hose.
Most useful for syringing, spraying, or water-
ing plants over head.
Gloves, prun-
ing - Enabling spiny plants being pruned or handled
with ease.
Rs
100-200
- 150'00
Grind-stone -
Indispensable for sharpening tools.
Grubber, va-
rious forms - A draught implement, with or without wheels,
and furnished with several long broad teeth,
used for cultivating or forking up the soil bet-
ween crops.
H a m m e r,
"Mittiya" S. Miscellaneous
Do., sledge - Breaking large stones, splitting logs, etc.
Han d-c a r t,
" Ath -ca ra-
tha," S. - Serviceable for removing plants, soil, manure, etc.
Hoe, Dutch
or thrust - Weeding loose paths, beds, etc.
Hoe, draw - Useful for weeding, earthing up crops etc.
Do., grub - Digging, cutting trenches, etc.
Do., roller - Suitable for weeding soft soil or gravelly walks
Hone, or
sharpening
stone - Necessary for sharpening small tools
Knife, b u d -
ding;" Pehi-
ya," S. - Budding plants. A small blade, with a white han-
dle reduced to an edge at the end.
Do., grass;
sickle, or
hook. "De-
ketha" S. - Used for cutting grass, rice crops, etc., instead of
scythes. -
Do., pruning
or grafting - Priming, grafting, etc.
Ladder, step;
"I n ny -
magga" S. - Essential for reaching trees, tall shrubs, etc.; in-
dispensable in a garden.
Lawn -
mower - See mowing-machine
Lawn sprink-;
ler - Useful for watering lawns, flower-beds, etc.
Lawn -weed -I
er or Daisy-'
grubber -j Extracting deep-rooted weeds, as " Ltadi "
2'50
28'0()
12TO-3(VOO
roo-2-oo
0'25 per Ib.
65'00-80'00
0-75
0-60
125
2-00
0'50- 150
3-00-4-00
0'75
3 '50 --4 '00
7-00-1200
7-00
T50
S=SIN'HALESE ; r=TAMIL.
94
TOOLS AXD IMPLEMENTS
XTl t-»T _»
Approximate
.IN A 1X1 ft
English &
Vernacular
Purpose for which generally used
price (varying
according to
quality.)
Mallet, or
Rs.
wooden
hammer.
Driving stakes into the ground, etc., also breaking
up hard soil-clods.
O'SO
M a m m o t y
"Udella" S.
"Mamoty"?'.
Kodaly, Hind
Digging, weeding, &c. ; the most general imple-
ment used by labouring coolies, with the blade
at right angles to the handle.
roo
Mam moty-
fork, "Poha-
ra-mulluvva"
S.
Digging, grubbing, stacking manure, &c.
1 00
Mattock
Cutting roots in digging » r trenching
2'00
Monkey -jack
See stump Extractor.
—
Mowing-
machine,
chain gear -
Mowing lawns ; indispensable in a large garden
90'00-150'QO
Do., c o g -
wheel geared
Light and portable ; suitable for smiill garden.
18'00-30'00
M ea suring
tape
Measuring plots, timber, &c.
3-50-5-00
Nail extractor
Useful for opening cases, extracting nails, &c.
'4-50-7-00
Oil-can," Tel-
kendiya" S.
Necessary for oiling mowing-machines, &c.
rso
P e a v y, or
" Cant-dogs."
Levering large logs, stones, &c.
5-00
Tick (both
ends point-
(Loosening hard soil in trenching, picking
ed); Pickaxe,
f roads, &c.
1'60
"Pickasia" S.
;
Planet Jr. cul-
tivator
An. excellent combination of tools, as drill, grub-
ber, drill -harrow, surface scarifier, hoe, ridge,
&c.
30-00
Pliers, wire-
cutting
Straining, cutting wires, £c.
roo
Plough; "Xa-
gula " S.
Ploughing paddy fields or other soft ground.
2-50-20-00
Plough, disc-
or harrow
Adapted for bullock draught, suited to open free
soil. "
125'OQ
" Porawa" S.
See Axe
—
Posthole-
digger
Digging holes for fence posts or for plants.
6'50
Rain-gauge -
Measuring rainfall
7'00
Rake, daisy -
For cutting the flowers off dwarf -growing weeds,
so as to prevent seed-production.
2'5()
Rake, iron -
Indispensable for smoothing the surface of seed-
beds, paths, &c.
O'45-l'OO
Do., hay.
(wooden or
wire)
Raking grass or leaves off lawns.
075-100
-S=Sl\'HALESE ; 7=TAMIL.
TOOLS AX I) IMPLEMENTS
.
x
Approximate
Knglish'ifc
Vernacular
Purpose for which generally used
price (varying
according to
quality.*
Rs.
Raffia.
An excellent tying material, much u^ed in gardens
in K u rope.
7d. per Ib.
Reel, garden
An iron reel with stout cord ; indispensable in
making or maintaining straight or curved edges. -
175
RolL-r. gard-
den
Rolling and levelling paths, lawns, greens, etc.
35OO-60 00
Root-puller -
Pulling out plants with long tap-roots from lawns. -
T50
Saw. hand -
Cutting branches, pruning, etc.
I'SO
Do., pruning
A variety of saw with a short, narrow blade. - 1'50
Do., cross-cut
Cutting logs, trees, etc.
1 50
Scrape. weed-
ing
Used by coolies for keeping down weeds among
nr*
Tea. etc. -
Scvthe - Most serviceable for cutting long grass or corn.
A small pattern can be worked successfully by
coolies. - ---
Scythe -stone Sharpening scythes by drawing it lightly along
each side of blade alteinately.
Secateurs, or
p r u n i n g
scissors
Seed -sower,
riddle-bow -;
Shears, hed-
ge-cutting -
Do., spring
or >heep
Shovel, " I s -
k o p a y -hen
da " S.
Sieve. " Pen-
A powerful little instrument for use in one hand
in pruning.
Sowing seeds broad-cast
Indispensable for maintaining neatly kept hedges,
and useful for clipping bushes generally.
Popular with coolies for trimming grass verges.
- Removing gravel, earth -work. etc.
Soil stirrer.
or aerator -
S p a n n e r .
shifting
Spirit-level -
"Spade. " Is-
kopay " S. -
Sifting soil, etc. for potting composts. There are
different sixes, from i to I inch mesh.
A central fork with revolving arms set at different
angles.
Adjusting nuts, lawn-mowers, etc.
Taking levels of plots, roads, buildings, etc.
Mixing or turning soil, cutting turf, earth, etc.
Small light spades only are suitable for coolie
labour. . - - -
Sprayer,
Knapsack - See Ami pest.
Stump extrac-
tor, or Mon-
key-jack
An excellent implement for extracting tree-stumps
or roots. -
0'25
650
080
150-300
350
3 '50- 7 50
200
2-00-300
3'50-6OO
8OO
500
300
1 75-300
15000
S=Sl\HAI.KSF : 7=T\MII..
96
TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS
Name,
English &
Vernacular
S u 1 p hurator.
or p o \v d e i
sprayer
Syringe, gar-
den; " Va s -
thi -k oodu-
\va " S.
Tree-pruner -
Trowel, "Ku-
da-skoppay "
S.
Verging she-
ars
Wateri.ng-
can, " Watu-
ra-kendiya"
S.
Do. rose
Wedges ,
steel. "Koo-
niya " S.
Weeding
fork, hand -
Weeding
fork and hoe
combined -
Do. hook
Wrench
Purpose for which generally used
Distributing sulphur or tobacco powder on plants
affected with mildew or insect pests. -
Squirting or spraying water on plants, both for
cleansing them and moistening the atmosphere ;
also spraying with insecticides
Pruning tall shrubs or trees.
Planting out small plants.
See Edging shears.
In daily use for watering plants in pots, beds or
borders ; 2-gallon capacity is a most convenient
size.
Forming a spray from a watering-can ; should
consist of brass, with the perforated face re-
movable by a screw.
Splitting logs, etc.
Stirring surface of beds or border
Weeding. -
Useful in weeding rocky soil
See Spanner
Approximate
price (varying
according to
quality.)
Rs.
8'00
6-00-1 6'00
7'50
0'40
3'50-8-QO
0'25-rOO
1-25
0'60
O'50-l-OO
0-25-0'SO
3'00-7'00
S=SlXHALESE ; 7— TAMIL.
CHAPTER IX.
LAYING OUT A GARDEN
How to lay out a garden is often a more vexing problem than
how to manage when accomplished. But it is well to remember
that however much the success of a garden depends upon its
original design and apportionment, the work of laying out may be
said to be a progressive one, and can hardly ever be considered to
have attained a finished state. It is in this fact that much of the
charm of gardening lies, — the ever-varying opportunities of effect-
ing changes and carrying out new ideas. In giving the following
suggestions, it must be remembered that no hard and fast rules can
be recommended for application in all cases, as so much depends
upon local circumstances, the climate, lay of the land, supply of
water, labour available, etc.
Position. — A favourable position may be said to be the most
valuable asset that a garden can possess. Yet much can be accom-
plished, with properly directed effort and a due expenditure of
money, in overcoming serious obstacles and physical advantages; thus
a wilderness may sometimes be converted into a delightful garden or
a most pleasurable resort. One of the first considerations should
naturally be, how to transform and beautify present conditions
with the least possible expenditure of time and labour. It should
be remembered that it is often easier to beautify an ugly object
than to remove it, and that immovable obstacles may sometimes be
turned into ornaments. In commencing a garden, the mistake is
sometimes made of cutting out all the existing vegetation, for-
getting that this, although it may be "jungle," may not only have
certain ornamental features, but will also furnish useful shade or
shelter until at least other trees will have had time to grow up.
Moreover, where virgin vegetation exists, a j^ood effect may be
quickly obtained by isolating it in clumps, or separating shapely
trees to form solitary specimens, levelling and turfing the ground
between. Details can be attended to later, and a choicer variety
of plants may gradually take the place of the less desirable ones.
LAYIXG OUT A GARDEN
99
Water-supply. — This is an essential provision for every garden,
and the laying out or arrangement of the grounds must to some ex-
tent be modified in reference to it. In the low-country of Ceylon,
the garden is usually supplied from a well ; up-country, a diverted
stream or specially constructed channels generally meet require-
ments. It is important that the source of supply should be placed
where the water will have the readiest access or be easiest carried
to all parts of the garden. If a well, it should be somewhat con-
cealed from view by having shrubs or trees planted around.
Preparation of the ground. — The ground must be thoroughly
trenched and drained, the soil being turned over to a depth
of 16 or 18 inches, and all large stones, roots or other obstructions
removed. A certain amount of levelling will be necessary, it being
important to obtain a uniform, even surface with a fine tilth. The
texture and nutritive condition of the soil should, according to its
needs, be improved by the addition of suitable manurial material.
If the land be steep, it should, be formed into terraces, which lend
themselves to a very pleasing effect.
Designing. — When a clear conception is obtained of what is ac-
tually desired, a sketch or diagram, however crude, should be made
in order to materialise the minds' plan.
The ground may thus be easily apportion-
ed, and spaces allotted to the various pur-
poses as may be required. This will not
only save time and labour, but probably
also confusion and disappointment later on.
At the outset it is essential to distinguish
between the front and back of the garden.
The main features should first be marked
out, starting with the drive or leading
walk, followed by the secondary walks ;
these as well as the borders, etc., may
easily be traced on the ground by means
of string and wooden pegs.
Planting out. — In the low-country,the first attention must be to
provide a certain amount of shade or screen where such do not al-
ready exist ; while at the higher elevations it is equally important to
furnish shelter against strong winds by means of wind-breaks in the
form of trees supplemented, when necessary, by hedges and shrub-
beries. The selection and planting of suitable plants to meet these
requirements must, therefore, have the first consideration.
GARDEN KEEL
LAYIXG OUT A GARDEX
101
Walks and Paths. — These, it has been said, are a necessary
evil in a garden ; yet in the tropics, as ladies especially will admit,
they are very indispensable, owing to the presence of land-leeches,
ants, etc., which infest the grass at different seasons. Though essen-
tially for convenience, paths may, however, be made to contribute
to the general effective appearance of a garden. But they should
not be made for appearance alone, and only where actually required.
Their width should depend upon the importance of their position,
a breadth of 4 to 5 ft. being a good average size for a small garden.
The main walks should be wide enough to allow of at least two or
three persons walking comfortably abreast, and in the more exten-
sive gardens or parks they may well be from 10 to 15 ft. in width.
The Long Walk at Windsor
Castle in England is about 50 feet
wide and two miles long. In large
or public gardens in the tropics,
where walking is often an exer-
tion, the principal walks should be
about 12 feet wide, as in Pera-
deniya Gardens, and be open to
carriages and motor cirs. It is
an invariable custom with the
garden cooly in Ceylon to make the
paths absurdly narrow and nu-
merous, his object usually being to
make a garden of paths, rather than
of flower-beds, borders and lawn.
In making paths, a good foundation
and drainage are essential.
Having removed the surface soil,
place a layer of drainage material
(stones, broken bricks, etc.) in the
bottom ; cover this with coarse
binding gravel, and roll or stamp thoroughly, watering well mean-
time ; finish off with a layer of finer gravel firmly beaten down. It
is often advisable in the tropics, owing to the heavy plumps of rain
so frequently experienced, to make-a small parallel side-drain on
either side of the path, below the level-'of the latter, leaving a strip of
turf not less than 12 inches wide between the drain and the path ;
small sloping channels should at intervals lead into the side-drains,
so as to facilitate the escape of surface water during heavy rainfalls.
Paths should not be of too steep a gradient, or thev will be liable
A SERVICEABLE GARDEN ROLLER.
102
LAYING OUT A GARDEN
to get washed away by heavy rains. This can be obviated on steep
slopes by introducing graceful curves or flights of easy steps ; these
will also render the path pleasanter to walk upon. To maintain
the paths in a clean and even condition, free from weeds and
hollows, is a matter of the first importance. The grass verges
should always be cut evenly and straight, not notched at the edges,
and this can best be done by edging shears. Weedy paths, with
.ANOTHER VIEW IN FLOWER-GARDEN, PKRADKNIYA.
crooked margins, give an unfavourable impression of their surround-
ings, however well-kept these may be.
Drains and Culverts. — Provision for the escape of waste or ex-
cessive rain water must have early attention, for even the most absorb-
ent and best drained soils are liable to be flooded, or, if on a slope,
to serious slips or wash-away by the heavy showers character-
istic of a tropical climate. Paths, roads, terraces, e+c., must
FLOWER GAKDEX
103
therefore have ample surface drain-
age~; good culverts, with a cemented and
sloping foundation, should be made wher-
ever the water is liable to accumulate. It
is advisable to build at the higher end of
each culvert a silt-pit ; this will not only
collect the washed-away gravel, which
may again be used on the paths or roads,
but also prevent leaves and rubbish from
entering and choking the culvert. Small
surface channels, as inconspicuous as
possible, should be made wherever a
surface-wash is liable to occur, whether
in the flower or vegetable-garden, or
elsewhere.
FLOWER GARDEN
Background. — Though a special
background is not always necessary, its
presence as a rule does much to enhance
the beauty of the flower-beds or lawn in
the foreground. Thus a bank of mixed
tall foliage and flowering shrubs serves
EDGING SHEARS the purpose to advantage, the taller kinds
of plants being placed at the back, and
gradually smaller ones towards the front. In this way all the
plants, when they have grown up to form a sloping bank, will be
seen at once from the front.
In the case of borders which
are to be seen from both sides,
the taller plants should of
course, be planted towards
the centre.
SHEEP SHEARS. GENERALLY PREFKKKK1>
BY COOLIES FOR Ct'TTIXO GRASS EIJGES.
Bedding, Grouping, etc, — As a general rule, either flowering
or foliage plants look most effective when massed separately in large
beds or groups, or in rows, circles, or irregular patches as compo-
nent parts of these. Frequently, however, the effect is more
pleasing by mixed planting according to a definite colour arrange-
ment, the beauty of many species being thus enhanced both by
contrast and harmony with surrounding flowers or foliage. The
beds or borders used should be of simple designs, like the
lOf
FLOWER GARDEX
square, oval, circle, and rectangle. A large circular bed, formed of
a sloping mass of harmonious colours, from centre to margin, is
always a pleasing sight. Beds of elaborate designs, with many
points and angles, should be avoided ; they involve much more
labour than simpler forms, and it is impossible to rind plants which
can be adapted to very small nooks and corners. An exception
to this rule may, perhaps, be made in favour of the star-shaped
bed, which, when space permits and suitable plants are available,
can be made very effective. It should be remembered that the
beauty of a garden does not consist in fantastic designs and serpen-
tine wriggles. In order that the beds and borders may be
maintained in a proper condition and be admired, they should not
ANOTHER VIKNV
FLO \VKR-C; A KDKX, PKUADKXIYA.
be placed too closely together ; sufficient space must be left to
enable the coolies to work them, and for spectators to walk com-
fortably between them. The ground-work should, as far as possible
be of lawn, which if well-kept will always afford the most beautiful
setting. Plants of even mediocre quality will present an effective
appearance when set in a well-kept green sward. If the grounds
be large enough to admit of it, the grouping of the larger plants, as
palms, shrubs, etc., in what is called the "natural style" has much to
recommend it. In this the object is to group the plants harmoniously,
according to their habit, colour of Mowers or leaves, forming
FLOWER GARI)E\
105
them into isolated clumps- to suit the contour of the ground.
Keeping this idea in view, irregular clumps planted at the bends
and curves of walks or drives may be made to present a pleasing
effect. It should, of course, be remembered that violent contrasts
of colour are at all times objection-
able. In order to enhance the effect
of either beds or borders, it is well as a
rule to raise the soil well in the centre.
Massing and isolating Clumps.
As has already been said, many plants
which are comparatively inconspicuous
individually, may present a striking
effect when planted in masses, whether
they be "foliage" or "flowering" plants.
Thus, a very ornamental display may
be made by isolated clumps of a suitable
combination of foliage plants, such as
Palms, Heliconias, Cannas, variegated
grasses, Caladiums, variegated Pine-
apple, etc. These have also the recom-
mendation that, when once planted,
they do not require much attention or
frequent renewals.
Ribbon Borders. — Although plant-
ing in lines or rings is as a rule, to be
avoided, yet a ribbon border in which
a suitable blending of colours is obtain-
ed in this fashion, has a pleasing effect.
This is all the more striking when
carried out on a fairly long and broad
stretch of border or even large bed; but, as already stated, it
should be remembered that violent contrasts of colour, which are
here liable to occur, should be avoided.
Foliage plants for colour effect.— In a garden where a con-
tinuous rather than a periodical display is aimed at, free use must
be made of striking foliage plants. These may, in fact, be arranged
so as to present by their striking colours an effect similar to flower-
ing plants. It is to such foliage plants that much of the tine effect
of the floral section in Peradeniya Gardens, Ceylon, is due.
Flowering plants should, however, find a place when suitable kinds
are obtainable, and it is well to remember that these make the
most striking display when each kind is grown by itself, instead of
A rSEFl'L TRIO.
106
FLOWER GARDEN
mixed with others. Unfortunately, in the tropics the flowering
period of many of the most showy plants is of so short a duration
that they are not suited to situations where a continuous ornamental
display is desired. In gardens at the higher elevations, however,
a beautiful display of flowering annuals may be obtained through-
out the dry season, while various bulbous plants and others present
a showy appearance during the intervening period.
Ferneries. — See under Ferns.
AN EFFECTIVE GROUP OF FOLIAGE PLANTS. PKRADKNIYA GARDENS.
Banks or Double-cuttings, which usually occur in a garden,
may be so treated as to render them interesting in themselves, and
to greatly enhance the beauty of their surroundings. Where suffi-
ciently shaded, they may be occupied by a pleasing variety of ferns,
small foliage and flower plants, which should be planted in pockets
filled with rich humous soil. If the ground be much exposed, it
may be either covered with smooth turf, or planted with showy
forms of sun-loving creepers. An excellent example of a charming
bank of the former type may be seen skirting the entrance drive to
Hakgala Gardens, under the shade of Cupressus trees.
FLOWER GARDEX
107
Ornamental Water — Water in almost any form adds greatly
to the attractiveness of a garden, park or pleasure ground. It should
he introduced, if practicable, when not already present, and
advantage should be taken of the opportunity it affords of lending
distinctive charms to the vicinity. As a rule an expanse of water
is most suitable in a hollow, in imitation of nature, and should not
A HANDSOME GROl I> OK FOLIAGE PLANTS. PERADENIYA GARDENS. COMPRISING
Chrysalidocarpus palm. Hcliconia insignia. Arntido tioini.v
(VARIEGATED GRASS) AND PFRPLE-LEAVED CAXNXS.
be too close to the dwelling house. An island with an irregular
outline and planted with suitable trees, shrubs, and perennials has
a pleasing effect, so long as it does not look too artificial. The
water margins should not be too thickly planted with trees or shrubs,
and, in order to provide a mirror for the reflection of the banks, at
least two-thirds of the water surface should be kept clear of foliage
108
LAWXS: MAK1XG AXD UPKEEP
or other vegetative growth. Rippling streams
or cascades in a garden have a charm all
their own, and should be introduced when-
ever possible.
LAWNS: THEIR MAKING
AND UPKEEP
It has been wrell said that a lawn is to a
garden what a background is to a picture.
An expanse of smooth and green sward has
a special and distinctive charm ; it enhances
the beauty of surrounding objects, whether
they be trees, shrubs, or flower-beds, and
forms a most pleasing adornment to a bun-
galow or dwelling house. In making a lawn,
it is essential that the ground be first properly
prepared, the surface being thoroughly dug
or trenched and uniformly levelled, all stones,
roots and similar obstacles being raked off.
If the nature of the ground requires it, pro-
vision must be made for drainage and for
the escape of excessive rain-water, but if the
ground be undulated, or the sub-soil of a
gravelly nature, artificial drainage may not
be necessary. If the soil be very poor, the turf is liable to become
patchy in dry weather ; therefore a layer of good soil or compost
should be laid on the surface. In order to ensure a uniform or
level surface, pegs should be driven into the soil at the extreme
points, and intermediate pegs at regular distances between these ;
the desired level or gradient from peg to peg can best be obtained
by means of a spirit-level and a long piece of wood having a
straight edge.
Turfing. — Laying turf by hand is the quickest and, for the
low-country the most satisfactory method of forming a lawn,
sowing seed being generally somewhat precarious. The turves
should be obtained from close-grazed pasture land, and cut as
nearly as possible of uniform thickness. This is best clone by a
spade, or better still by the implement turf -cutter,* though for
ordinary purposes a mammoty will answer the purpose, and this is
the easiest tool for coolies to handle. The turf should be used
IRON.
* In England a horse-drawn turf-cutting machine is sometimes used, which, it is said, is capable of
cutting at the rate of $ an acre of turf a day.
LAirXS: MAKIXG AXD UPKEEP
109
fresh, and the soil worked in between them to fill up all
interstices, finally sprinkling some fine soil on the surface and
brushing it in. The turves being beaten down into position with
a flat heavy piece of wood, the whole surface should be thoroughly
rolled over and watered.
Turf grafting. — In the case of a large area, or when turf or
labour is scarce, economy of both may be effected by laying the
turves, or portions of these, a foot or more apart, sinking them
THE LAKE, PERADEXIYA GARDENS
level with the surface. The intervening space may be sown with
seed, or grass roots may be dibbled in, the whole surface being
then watered and rolled.
Other Methods. — Another economical and successful method
of forming a lawn is, having brought the soil to a fine tilth and uni-
form level, to obtain the best grass roots from a close-grazed
pasture land (choosing wet weather for the purpose), and dibble
these in the ground a few inches apart, afterwards rolling and water-
ing the surface. A method which is said to be successfully adopted
in Northern India is described thus : " Pull up a quantity of grass by
the roots, chop it tolerably fine, mix it well in a compost of mud oJ
LAU\\S: MAKIXG AXD UPKEEP
111
about the consistency of mortar, and spread this out thinly over the
ground where the lawn is required." This, however, would not be
suited to wet climates, where a single heavy shower might wash
the preparation away.
Lawns by Seed-Sowing. — Although lawn-making by sowing
seed is not usually satisfactory in the low-country, at higher ele-
vations, where certain English lawn-grasses will thrive, it is often
MOWING LAWNS. PERADENIYA GARDENS.
very successful, as may be seen in some gardens and greens
at Nuwara Eliya, Ceylon. In the low-country, however, a uniform
green sward can seldom be obtained by sowing seed, owing
partly to the rapid growth of weeds, prevalence of bird and
insect pests, and the liability of the seeds to being washed away
by heavy rain, or exposed to severe drought. Whichever method
is adopted, the margins of walks and flower beds should always be
laid with a continuous belt of turf, even if it be but a foot in width.
LAU'XS: MAKIXG AXD UPKEEP 113
Up-keep of Lawns. — The success of a lawn depends upon its
proper up-keep ; it should as far as practicable be kept free of
weeds, mowed at brief intervals with a mowing machine, and never
allowed to produce seed-stalks or wear a neglected appearance. A
heavy roller should be used frequently, but not when the ground is
either very wet or unusually dry. A mower should not be employed
until a firm green sward has been formed, the grass at first being
cut by a scythe or sickle, so as to encourage the roots to spread.
When lawns* become-impoverished, a top-dressing of a rich com-
post, consisting of fine loamy soil and well-rotted manure should be
A COG-WHEEL I;KAK MO\\I-;K
given, this being raked well in, and the surface afterwards rolled
and watered. The dressing should not be sufficient to completely
hide the grass from view. An application of artificial manure may
be given when needed, nitrate of soda (at the rate of about one Ib.
per 40 square yard) being considered very good for the purpose.
Other suitable stimulants are a mixture of 3 Ib. basic slag and 2 Ib.
kainit per 40 square yard, or } Ib. sulphate of ammonia for the
same area.
Enemies of Lawns. — Xot the least formidable of these is
the pernicious termite or white-ant, whose k' nests" should be
looked for and destroyed at the earliest signs, either by digging
them out, or pouring poison, or pumping poisonous fumes, down
their crevices. The "ant-exterminator" (see under Insect Pests) is one
of the best means yet discovered for destroying them. Certain
LAWNS: MAKING AND UPKEEP 115
weeds are particularly partial to lawns, one of the worst being the
"Elephant's foot" (Elephautopiis scaber). These should be dug up
by a spud or "daisy fork ; " or the plants may be killed by dropping
poison into their centre. Worm-casts in lawns are particularly
objectionable. Yet their presence might be regarded as beneficial
rather than otherwise, for worms are the means by which nature
manures the grass and drains the surface ; moreover, their presence
is a sign of good soil, as their food consists of decayed vegetable
matter, which after being digested is ejected in the form well known
as worm-castings. Watering the soil with Vaporite, or with a weak
solution of ammonia or lime water, will cause the worms to come
to the surface, when they should be collected and destroyed.
Suitable grasses for lawns. — As to what constitutes the best
grasses for lawns, much depends on climate and load conditions.
CHAIX-GEAR I.AWX MOWER.
The " Doob-grass" (Cy notion clactylon) is a favourite for dry regions,
as on the plains of India, while the Love-grass or "Tutteri"
(Chrysopogon aciculatns) forms excellent turf in the moist low-
country, in spite of the objection to it when allowed to flower and
seed, owing to its sharp hooked awns which adhere to and pene-
trate one's clothes. The ordinary self-formed turf on the lawns in
Peradeniya Gardens has been found to consist chiefly of the
following : — Chrysopogon aciculatns ( " Love-grass " or " Tutteri " ),
Ischaemum ciliare ("Rat-tana"), Seiaria glauca ("Kawulu"),
Pnniaim sntigiiinale, Sporobuliis tiitiinier. and the clover-like
Desmodiiim iriflorum (" Hin-undu-piyali"). Under the shade
of trees the principal turf-grasses are Paspalum conjugatutn,
Panicum trigonuni, Oplisnienus contposiius and Apluda aristata. The
grass known locally as the "Barbadoes Sour grass," and in the
Philippines as "Bitter grass" (Paspalum conjugate m), is an
116 HEDGES AND BOUNDARIES
introduced species from the West Indies ; it has become completely
naturalised in Ceylon, being specially adapted to shady situations,
and when kept closely cut forms very fair turf. Certain English
grasses will thrive at the higher elevations in well-prepared ground,
and grass seed mixtures adapted for particular purposes may be
obtained from seed-merchants in Europe or Australia.
HEDGES AND BOUNDARIES
For several reasons a garden in the tropics should be enc-losed
by a hedge or fence, that is if exclusion of cattle and other vermin,
shelter from wind, and privacy be considered essential. Well-
kept hedges are ornamental as well as useful ; they form protective
LAWX-SPKIXKLKR
boundaries, shut off private quarters, divide portions when necess-
ary (as the Kitchen-garden from the Flower-garden), or conceal
unsightly parts. A large number of plants are adapted for forming
hedges, and the suitability of each kind depends upon the purpose
and locality for which it is required. For an effective hedge of
coloured foliage, such plants as Acalypha, Croton, Panax, Pisonia,
Cordyline, etc., either mixed or singly will supply all that can be
desired ; whilst for a hedge of flowering plants, different varieties
of Hibiscus, Ixora, Poinsettia, Thunbergia erecta, etc., make a
striking display. In many cases a hedge may be formed by simply
planting cuttings where they are required to grow. It is always
advisable to give a hedge a good foundation, i.e., a trench dug deep
and rilled in with good soil ; otherwise gaps or unevenness of
growth are likely to occur. WThen a hedge has to answer the pur-
pose of a barrier, a good plan is to run a few strands of barbed wire
HEDGES AXD BOUNDARIES 117
along the centre ; or, if the .wire-fence is already in position, the
hedge may he planted (or sown) by its side ; otherwise the fence
may be beautified or concealed by growing some ornamental
climbers over it. An excellent barrier hedge may be formed by
means of some formidable prickly plant, as Yucca, Agave, etc.
HEDGE-SHEARS
Certain plants, as the "Madras-thorn," form the best hedge
when started from seed sown in situ. In trimming a hedge, it
should always be remembered to keep it narrower at the top than
at the bottom, otherwise it becomes bare and leafless near the
ground.
118
HEDGES AMD BOUNDARIES
SELECTED HEDGE-PLANTS FOR THE LOW-COUNTRY.
Name
How
propa-
gated
Remarks, approximate height, etc.
Acacia sphacrocephala "Bull's
horn Acacia." S
Acalypha, different varieties. C
Agave americana variegata.
" American Aloe." S & Su.
Ara Ha filicifolia. C
A.—Giiilfoylci. C
Banibusa naiia. " Dwarf Bamboo" Uiv.
Brunfelsia, see Franciscea.
Casna rinn eqnisitofolia .
"She Oak" S
Clerodendron acnlcatiitu.
" Wild Coffee " S
Croton(Codicenm), different
varieties. ' C
Duranta Plum/en. Duranta. C & S
Ehretia b it xi folia. " Ceylon
Boxwood" Do
Eranthenuini iiiacnlatnin,
and other varieties. C
Euphorbia A ntiqiiornm.
" Daluk " S. C
E.—Tirucalli. " Milk-hedge. "
" Nawahandi-" S. C
Flaconrtin Raiuontcliii.
" Uguressa." S
Hcema toxyloti ca mpcchia uti in.
Logwood. S
Hibiscus rosa-sincnsis, varieties.
" Shoe-flowers." C
Jatropha Curcas. Physic-nut;
" Rata-endaru " S. \ C
Justicia gendanissa. C
Malpighia glabra.
" barbadoes Cherry." C & S
Murraya exotica. (Limonia.) S
Panax fruticosum, C
Pithecolobium dulcc.
" Madras thorn " S
Pedilanthits tithymaloidcs, C
Phylla n th us in yrtifolins.
" Ceylon Myrtle." S & C
Punica granatum. Pomegranate. Do.
Tnphasia auraniiola.
"Sweet Lime." S
Slow-growing, 4-6 ft.
Quick -growing. 10-15 ft., coloured
foliage.
Slow-growing, 5-6 ft., ornamental
and barrier.
Quick-growing, 6-8 ft., handsome
fern-like foliage.
Quick-growing, erect, variegated,
serrated foliage.
Slow-growing, 6-8 ft.
Moderate grower ; height as
desired.
Rather slow grower, 5-8 feet.
Do. do. do.
Moderate grower, 8-15 feet.
Slow-growing, 3-4 ft. or dwarf,
suitable for edgings.
Quick-growing, 6-8 ft., variegated
and coloured foliage.
Quick-growing, 8-15 ft.; barrier,
juice poisonous.
Quick-growing, 6-8 ft.; used as^
boundaries for paddy fields.
Slow -growing, 6-8 ft., thorny, good
barrier.
Slow -growing, good barrier.
Quick-growing, fine-flowering ;
8-10 ft.
Quick-growing, 5-6 ft.
Fairly quick grower, 3-4 ft., bushy
Slow grower, 3-4 ft., or dwarf,
suitable for edgings.
Slow grower, 6-8 ft.
Quick grower, 6-8 ft., handsome
foliage.
Moderately quick grower ; good-
barrier, thorny ; 6-15 ft.
Moderate grower, 3-4 ft.
Slow grower, 5-6 ft., dense foliage
Quick grower, 6-8 ft ,
Slow grower, 4-5 ft., good barrier
S=seed : C.— cuttings Su~.suckers : Div.=di vision.
HEDGES AND BOUNDARIES
FOR UP-COUXTRY.
119
How
propa- Remarks, approximate height, etc.
rfated I
Aculyplnt ntai'fiiiiata
" Copper-leaf."
is Fortnnci. Chinese
Berberis.
Caesalpinia scpiaria.
Centrum fascicnlatnin.
Colic fiti crnciata.
Cryptonicria japonica.
Japanese Cedar.
Cnpirssns Lau'soniana. Cypress.
Duranta Plniiiicri. Duranta.
Fraud sea bicolor (Brniifclsia
it ni flora).
Frcncla rhomboidca. Conifer.
Fnrcnva gigantea.
Mauritius Hemp.
Hab t'olliaii' nits elcgatis.
Libonia flonbnnda.
•Spinva pcrnviana.
Tccoina capcnsis.
ric.v enropca. Gorse : fur/e.
C Quick grower. 5-6 ft., large orna-
mental leaves.
S Slow grower, 3-4 ft..
S Quick grower, 5-6 ft.
S or C Fairly quick grower. 6 to 8 ft.,
fine-flowering.
S I Slow-growing, very thorny
S Slow grower. 6-10 ft.
S Moderately quick grower. 6-12 ft.
S or C Do. do. do.
Do Slow grower, 4-6 ft.
S Do. 6-8 ft.
S or Su. Fairly quick grower. 6-8 ft.
suited for boundary.
S or C ; See Ccstnnn.
C Slo\v grower, 2-4 ft., ornamental.
S or C Rather slow grower. 4-6 ft., fine-
flowering.
Do Do. do. do.
S \ Slow grower, good barrier : orna-
mental, 5-6 ft.
FOR THE DRY REGION.
How
Name
propa-
Remarks, approximate height, etc
gated
Agave american.
Carissa Car and as. " Maha-
'karamba," S. " Perunkila " T.
JDichrostachvs cincrca. " Andara "
S. " Vidattal " T.
Duranta Plnmicri. Duranta.
Euphorbia A titiqnontiu.
"Daluk"S.
:E.—TirucalH. " Milk-hedge."
Jaliopha Curcas. Physic-nut.
Pandanns Zcyla nicns.
" Akeyiya." S.
Parkinsonia acnlcata.
"Jerusalem Thorn."
J'ithecolohiiini ,{nlcc.
" Madras Thorn."
Su. or S
S
S or C
C
SorSu.
S
See above.
Shrub or small tree, thorny.
Slow grower, 5-6 ft., thorny.
See above.
Quick-growing, 8-15 ft.; barrier,
juice poisonous.
Do.
Do.
Slender stems, 6-7 ft., boundaries
of paddy fields.
Quick grower, 5-6 ft., thorny, good
barrier.
See above.
; C=cuttin«s : Su=suckers : Div.=division.
120 HEDGES AXD BOUNDARIES
PLANTS SUITABLE AS EDGINGS FOR PATHS,
BORDERS, ETC.
FOR THE LOW-COUNTRY.
How
Name
propa-
Remarks,
approximate
height
etc.
gated
A Item anther a , several varieties.
A inaryllis (Hippeastrnin),
several varieties.
A n tli eric n in HI last nun
varicgatuni.
Caladium Humboldtii
(C. argyi'cii).
C. — bicolor. Several other
varieties.
Carallnnia canipaniilata.
Casnarina cqnisiti folia.
Malpighia coccinea.
Ophiopogon in termed ins.
Ph alar is arnndinacea.
S tape! ia grandi flora.
Zcphyrctnthcs carinata.
" Rose Amaryllis."
Z. — tiibispntha.
C 2 -1ft. Foliage bronze or greenish
yellow ; quick-growing.
Bulbs Large showy flowers ; 12 to 16 in.
high.
Div. 2-lft ; long, narrow, variegated
leaves.
Tu. 10 in. Small leaves, prettily varie-
gated.
Tu. 1 ft. Leaves pink and green.
C ! Dwarf, leafless plant, with square
stems.
S i A tree, but can be kept low by
pruning young.
C or S Shrub, adapted for keeping low
like boxwood.
Div. Grass-like ; suited to shady places ;
1 ft.
Div. Variegated grass, 6 in., likes
shade.
C | Small succulent plant.
Tu. 8 to 10 in.; Fl's large, bright rose.
Tu. Do.; flowers white.
FOR UP-COUXTRY.
Altertianthera, several varieties.
Amaryllis (Hippeastnini).
A nthericnm liliastnim
Boxwood (Bnxns seinperrirens).
Carallnnia cantpannlata.
Cyrta n th us Mackenii.
"African Bride."
£c//£2/m'<f metalica.
li Oyster Plant."
Golden-fca ther (Pyre thru m
aurenin).
S antolina chain a eeypa risiis.
"Cotton Lavendar."
How
propa-
gated
C
Bulbs
Div.
C
C
Tu.
Div.
S or C
Remarks, approximate height, etc.
See above.
See above.
See above.
Slow-growing shrub with small
oval leaves.
See above
1 ft. Fl's Creamy white
3 in. Small succulent rosette-like
plants.
6-8 in. Handsome yellow foliage.
1 ft. Foliage light grey, strongly
scented.
COXSERl'ATORIES. PLAXT-SHEDS, ETC. 121
CONSERVATORIES, PLANT-SHEDS AND
GREEN-HOUSES
The object of a plant-house in the tropics is not, except in
the hills, to protect plants from the cold, but from the tierce sun's
rays and strong winds, while also maintaining a uniform, cool and
moist atmosphere. Though combining the purposes of shelter and
shade, however, plant-houses must be constructed so as to also
allow of a free circulation of air and admit sufficient light for the
growth and health of the plants. Such structures when suitably
built and tastefully tilled with well-grown and choice plants, form
a most delightful and cool retreat during the heat of the day, and
afford the essential conditions for the successful cultivation of a
vast number of showy tropical shade-loving plants.
A modest structure of bamboos, covered with palm leaves, may
for a time answer the purpose of a plant-house, and last for about
a couple of years. But a more substantial and lasting building
affords greater satisfaction, and may have its framework composed
of teak or other hard wood, or better still of iron. The iron
Octagon Conservatory in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya,
Ceylon, might be taken as a model of an economically built and
eminently satisfactory type of a tropical plant-house. The up-
right supports consist of old rails, 12 ft. long, 3 ft. of each rail being
buried in concrete. The top is flat for a distance of 12 ft. from
the circumference, and rests on horizontal rails with iron bars
placed transversely at distances of a few feet. In the centre rises
an octagon "dome," the upright rails forming the pillars of which,
being 21 ft. long, with 4 ft. buried in concrete. The circum-
ference of the house is outlined by a half-brick wall 3 ft. high, the
outer edge of which is flush with the iron posts. The whole
structure is covered over with a 3 in. mesh wire-netting. Over
the flat tops are placed split-bamboo, strung together like tats and
tarred. The handsome evergreen climber Passiflora lanrifolia is
planted around the house and trained on the wire-netting of the
upright portions, forming a useful and effective screen. The
interior is occupied with graduated plant-stages on one side, and
a broad sloping border on the other ; here numerous shade-
loving species thrive to perfection ; all the paths and stages are
concreted.
In building a conservatory, it is important th:it the site should
be somewhat higher than the surrounding level, so as to admit of
proper drainage being secured. Shade or screen for plant-houses
CULTIVATION OF POT-PLANTS 123
may be effectively provided by means of suitable evergreen climbers
with small leaves. These should not, however, be permitted to
grow over the roof, as they would thus interfere with the light and
ventilation, rendering the interior unsuitable for the growth of
plants. In India, a layer of grass placed on the roof is often used
for shade, while in Ceylon coir-netting is generally employed for
the purpose. In the hill districts, the growing of tender tropical
plants am usually be carried on only by means of a greenhouse
or at least a well-protected or glazed verandah. A green-house may
be easily heated by a flue passing from a lire and stoke-hold out-
side to within, and then under the plant-staging. An excellent
green-house, built on this principle, may be seen in Hakgala
Gardens, Ceylon.
Propagating frames. — Glazed frames are most useful adjuncts
to up-country gardens. The frames may be varied in size
according to requirements, and should always be movable, i.e.,
not fixtures. Bottom-heat may be provided for a propagating
frame by means of a hot-bed made of fermenting horse-dung, the
latter being heaped in a deep pit, covered over with a layer of fine
soil, and the glazed frame placed over it.
CULTIVATION OF POT-PLANTS
The successful cultivation of the choicer kinds of ornamental
plants in pots is a branch of horticulture which demands special
care and a certain amount of skill. A knowledge of the require-
ments of each class, gained by observation of their growth and
general progress, is the most valuable guidance in the matter. An
important condition, both for the health and appearance of the
plants, is cleanliness ; therefore the foliage should be frequently
syringed, or sponged with soapy water if necessary, and the pots
scrubbed to prevent the growth of moss or lichen upon them.
Potting plants. — The essential requirements for this opera-
tion are clean earthenware pots, a suitable compost of soil, and
broken pieces of potsherds or porous tiles, etc. Commencing with
the drainage of the pot, a crock (piece of potsherd) is placed, con-
cave side down, over the hole in the bottom ; around and over this
are placed more crocks, finishing with smaller ones, the drainage
being then about an inch deep; over this should be laid some moss
or coir fibre to prevent the soil clogging the drainage. A layer of
the potting compost being then filled in, the plant is placed in the
centre, the soil being filled in around it and pressed firmly. A space
of about i-inch from the rim should be left for the purpose of
124 CULTIVATION OF POT-PLANTS
holding water when the plants are watered. It is usual at Pera-
deniya Gardens to cover the surface of the soil in the pots with a
layer of small pieces of brick or sandstone, which has the effect
of preventing the soil from being washed out in the course of
frequent waterings, while also checking the evaporation of moisture.
After the plants are potted, a copious watering is given, and the
plants are kept for a few days in a dark room or under heavy
shade. A very common error on the part of native gardeners is to
use pots many sizes too large ; these are not only ungainly, but also
less suited to the health of the plants growing in them. Plants
look and thrive best in pots which are in proportion to their
size.
The proper time for potting. — This should be determined by
the progress of the plants and the condition of the soil, rather than
by any fixed seasons. Generally speaking, the best time for the pur-
pose is when the plants are commencing their more active periods
of growth, which usually occur at the commencement of the mon-
soon rains. The necessity for re-potting a plant may be ascertained
by turning it out of the pot and observing the state of the roots,
soil, or drainage. "It is a standing rule," said SIR JOSEPH PAXTOX,
"with experienced horticulturists that no plant should be allowed
a larger pot till the one in which it is growing is rilled with fibrous
roots." Frequently, however, before the pot is tilled with roots
the soil becomes sodden or impoverished, with the roots in an un-
healthy state, and the plant unable to make normal growth. This
condition is especially liable to be induced by the frequent watering
necessary in the tropics, and when it occurs the soil requires to be
entirely removed, and replaced with a suitable potting mixture.
(See below).
Drainage of Pot-plants. — There is no point of greater im-
portance than the drainage. In the great majority of cases when
plants are sickly, the cause is to be found in imperfect drainage, in
consequence of which the soil becomes sodden and sour. When-
ever this condition is suspected, the plant should be gently turned
out, and the drainage repaired as at first done, renewing the soil
also if necessary.
Soil of Potting plants. — The ideal soils for potting most plants
should consist of rich loam, leaf-mould and silver-sand, made up in
various proportions to suit the plants in hand. A peaty soil is con-
sidered specially suitable for ferns and plants of the Rhododendron
and Azalea family (though these may also thrive in loamy soils), while
I'KRAXDAH GARDEXING 125
palms and most foliage plants prefer a rich loamy soil. A
good potting soil for general purposes is obtained from the turf of
pasture land ; when used it should he in a well-decayed and friable
condition. The turf should be procured long before it is required,
and stacked (with the grass-side down), incorporating with it layers
of cattle manure and leaf-mould. Where it is difficult to obtain
turf or loamy soil, a good substitute may be made by a mixture of
well-decomposed coir dust, leaf-mould, and well-rotted cattle
manure. In Colombo, for instance, this is practically the only kind
of soil procurable for potting plants.
Worms, eelworms, centipedes, etc. in pots. — Vaporite is an
excellent remedy for disposing of these, and should be in the
possession of everybody who grows plants in pots. It is a simple
but effectual preparation, and may be applied in a solution with
water (say a table-spoonful to a gallon of water), or merely sprinkled
dry on the surface of the soil before watering. Where vaporite is not
at hand, lime-water or soot-water may to some extent answer the
purpose. In obstinate cases it is recommended to stop the hole of
the pot with clay for a few hours, so that the whole of the soil may
become saturated with the solution.
VERANDAH GARDENING
An essential feature of horticulture in the tropics is what may
be called verandah-gardening, which in many cases covers the
entire gardening operations of a householder. Nothing brightens
the appearance of a bungalow so much as a verandah furnished
with well-grown and choice plants, and these may be considered as
indispensable to a verandah as the latter is to a bungalow. As
window-gardening is now a prominent feature in many European
towns, being publicly supported and supervised by tasteful women,
the attention of municipal authorities in the tropics might well be
directed to the advisability of encouraging verandah gardening in
towns. The successful growth of plants in a verandah will, of
course, depend very largely on aspect and situation. Many
beautiful foliage plants which become stunted or scorched by the
sun on the south side of a bungalow, will thrive luxuriantly in a
shucly north verandah. Ferns generally are best suited to a shady
northern aspect. It is often advisable, however, to change the plants,
as may be gauged by their indifferent or unevenly developed growth,
from north to south, or vice versa. All plants growing in a verandah
should be turned round frequently in their position, so as to equal-
ise the effects of the light, otherwise their growth will be one-sided.
126 VERANDAH GARDENING
Overcrowding of the plants should always be avoided, for space as
well as cleanliness is essential for their well-being. The foliage
should be syringed frequently, and all dead, sickly, or superfluous
growth removed. The pots or tubs should not be ungainly in size,
or of grotesque appearance, and should always be raised off the
ground and placed on neatly arranged or concealed bricks.
Drawing-room plants. — Everybody experiences at one time
or another the difficulty of keeping plants in good condition in a
room, for, however carefully tended, these sometimes sicken or
become discoloured. This may be due to insufficient sun-light,
which may be obviated to a large extent by placing the plants out
of doors at night and early parj: of the day, as well as on all occasions
when not required ; frequently, however, excessive watering is the
cause of failure (See Watering pot-plants, below). Whenever prac-
ticable, the plants should be placed out of doors in the rain, in a
shady corner, in order to keep their foliage clean and fresh.
Selection of plants for Verandahs. — Certain plants are more
adapted for growing under cover than others. Thus in a selection
for the low-country, foliage plants such as Ferns, Begonias,
Palms, etc., should predominate ; while for the higher elevations
flowering annuals or perennials, hardy ferns, etc., are best adapted.
The following indicate the kinds chiefly suited in either case.
For the Low-country : — Feathery palms, such as Chrysalidocarpus,
Caryota ("Kitul"), Ptychosperma, Martinczia, Phoenix (Date kind),
and Cocos (Coconut kind) ; Fan-palms as Livistona australis,
L. rotundifolia, L. Chineifisis, Thrinax, Latania, and Sabal; also
Anthuriums, Alocasias, Begonias, Mar ant as, Ferns, Caladiuws,
Ophiopogon, etc. For Up-country : — Pelargoniums, Geraniums,
Petunias, Begonias, Primulas, Gloxinias, Cinerarias, Chrysanthemums,
Fuchias, Cyclamens, Gesnerias, Streptocarpus, Bouvardias, Adianium
and other ferns, etc. (See Selections for Up-country).
WATERING OF POT-PLANTS
Watering is one of the most important operations connected
with the cultivation of plants in pots, for a deficient or excessive
supply of water is a most frequent cause of languid growth or death
of such plants. To know just the proper amount of water that
is most beneficial to a plant requires judgment, and can only be
learnt by observation of the requirements of each species. In
watering plants, especially young or delicate kinds, a watering-can
with a good rose should always be used ; but it must not be for-
gotten that this affords a dishonest gardener a greater opportunity
WATERING OF POT-PLANTS 127
for scamping the work than watering through the plain spout
would. The best roses are those made of brass with fine regular
holes. The finest roses only should be used for watering seeds in
pans or beds. One of the first and most important lessons to teach
a garden cooly is that it is the roots, and not the leaves and flowers,
that require water, and that a mere wetting of the surface is in-
sufficient. All watering should, if possible, be done late in the
afternoon or in the early morning. Always use rain or pond water,
if procurable, in preference to well-water. Water mixed with a weak
solution of liquid-manure us of great benefit to plants, whether in
pots or beds, but it should not be applied when they are suffering
from drought, nor until they have their root system well-estab-
lished after potting.
To test whether a pot-plant is dry at the roots, give the pot a
sharp tap ; if it gives a sound like that of an empty pot, the plant
is in need of water. If a plant has become very dry at the roots,
it should be left for a time in a bucket of water to become
thoroughly soaked. When the leaves droop, it is generally a sign
that the plant needs water. No water should be allowed to remain
in the saucer or vases in which flower-pots are standing, for this
will cause a stagnant condition of the soil, injure the young root-
lets, besides affording a breeding-ground for mosquitoes.
Plants vary in their capacity for drawing moisture from the
soil, i.e., some have more rapid transpiration than others. Some
have a thin epidermis and take up a large amount of water ; while
others of a succulent nature, as Cactus, Agaves and Aloes, have a
thick cuticle and relatively take up very little water, being there-
fore able to thrive in dry arid regions. Vigorous-growing plants
require more water than slow-growing species ; while deciduous
plants, when they have shed their leaves, should be watered but
sparingly, as owing to their transpiration surface being then
reduced to a minimum, excessive moisture at this stage may prove
fatal to them. During wet weather there is less evaporation of
water from the leaves, therefore plants then take up less water by
their roots, while in dry weather the conditions are reversed. Plants
give off moisture more rapidly when exposed to wind or sunshine
than when growing in the shade, and therefore require more water.
When the roots are confined in a small area naturally there is a
great demand on the supply of water available, so that plants in
this condition require frequent and copious supplies of water.
Syringing. — The operation of syringing is very essential to
the health of plants growing under cover, where the natural rain
128 FRENCH OR INTENSIVE GARDENING
does not reach them. Syringing creates a moist atmosphere,
cleanses the leaves and thus assists in promoting their functions as
well as in their presenting a cleaner and finer appearance. In dry
weather the syringing of plants, which should only be done with
perfectly clear water and through a fine rose, may with advantage
be carried out twice or three times a day. During wet and dull
weather, however, it should be done sparingly, if at all.
FRENCH OR INTENSIVE GARDENING
It is well known that in France is practised a system of closer
or more intensive cultivation of the soil than obtains in England or
neighbouring countries. The term is a broad one, but the general
principle is the same, viz., that of getting the most out of the soil
in the shortest time possible, to procure crops at the most profitable
seasons, and to waste absolutely no more space or produce than is
avoidable. Thus, in economising space, the paths are generally
not more than 9 or 12 inches wide, and the distance of planting or
sowing are regulated by measured boards, or by a definite scale.
Quick-growing crops are sown or interplanted with those of slower
growth, so that the former may be reaped before the latter have
attained maturity and without interfering with the growth of either.
By means of hot beds and cloches, many articles of vegetable and
salad are produced throughout the Winter and Spring, when, being
"out of season," command very remunerative prices. The system
has in recent years been introduced into England, \vhere, however,
owing to the more expensive labour and transport charges, and the
comparatively smaller consumption of salads and vegetables than
in France, the conditions for success are naturally less than in the
latter country.
SECTION 2.
CHAPTER X.
FRUIT CULTIVATION
It is hardly necessary to explain that by the term "fruit"
here is meant dessert fruits, as distinguished from fruits which are
cooked and used as vegetables, as Bread-fruit, Jak-fruit, Cho-cho,
Bandak-kai, Gourds, etc. Many of these latter may, however,
be eaten either raw as " fruit," or as a "vegetable" when cooked,
e.g., Jak-fruit, Granadilla, Tomato, and Papaw. Botanically speak-
ing, any portion of a plant which produces a seed is a fruit. As
compared with most European fruits, the great majority of edible
tropical fruits have undergone but little improvement by the process
of cultivation and selection. Many of them are nevertheless
capable of being greatly improved in quality by a system of careful
selection and hybridising, and by bud or graft propagation.
Following on these lines, the cultivator should aim at producing
or selecting fruits which approach a seedless state, as has already
been attained in the case of the Banana, Pine-apple, Orange and
others.
Fruit-culture for Market. — In recent years fruit-growing for
export has considerably advanced in the West Indies, South
Africa and Australia, forming an important industry in these
countries. The export of tinned pine-apples has developed into a
considerable source of revenue in Singapore, Cuba, Hawaii etc.,
while the inhabitants of the Canary Islands are chieHy dependent
on the cultivation of tropical or sub-tropical fruits, which go to
supply the London and other European markets. Many of the more
purely tropical fruits, however, are as yet practically unknown outside
the countries of their production. Hitherto fruit-growing in Ceylon
has been carried on in an haphazard manner, either as an auxiliary
means of livelihood or for private consumption, and it is asserted that
there is not sufficient inducement to make it a business venture.
Yet the requirements of the Colony in the way of fruit, either
FRUIT CULTIVATION
131
KEY TO BLOCK ON OPPOSITE PAGE.
1 . Citrus Decumana, oar.
[Pomelo or Grape-fruil]
18. Anona Cherimolia.
[Cherimoyer]. I
2. Durio zibethinus. [Durian], i 19. Canarium commune.
1. Artocarpus integrifolia. [Java almond].
[Jak-fruit].
-4. Artocarpus incisa.
[Bread-fruit].
5. Citrus nobilis.
[Mandarin Orange].
•6. Monstera deliciosa.
[Mexican Giant Creeper].
7. Nephelium lappaceum.
[Rambutan].
8. Persea gratixsima
[Avocado Pear].
9. Vangucria edulis.
[Voa-vanga].
JO. Pangium edulc.
[Kapayang, or Pangi .
•1 I . Passiflora quadrangularii.
[Granadilla].
.1 2. Carica candamarcensis.
[Mountain Papaw].
1 3 Musa paradisiaca.
[Plantain or Banana]
,1 4 .Carica Papaya.
[Papaw or Tree-melon].
15. Anona squamosa.
[Custard Apple].
16. Anona reticulata.
[Bullock's Heart].
.) / . Anona muricata.
, Sour sop .
20. Psidium Cattleyanum.
[China Guava]. .
2 1 . Citrus medico.
[Citron].
22. Garcinia Xanthochymus.
[Cochin Goraka].
23. Mammea americana.
[Mammee Apple]
24. Eugenia malaccensis.
[Rose Apple].
25. Macadamia ternifolia.
[Queensland-nut].
26. Chrysobalanus Icaco.
[Coco Plum]
27. Feronia elephantum.
[Wood-apple].
28. Punica granatum.
[Pomegranate j.
29. Mangifera indica, car.
[Mangoj.
30. Passiflora edulis.
[Passion-fruit, or Sweet-cup]. !
3 1 . Sandoricum indicum.
[Santol].
32. Diospuros discolor.
[Velvet-apple].
33. Diospyros Kaki.
[Persimmon].
34. Photinia Japonica.
[Loquat].
35. Psidium Guyava. [Guava].
36. Sarcocephalus esculentus.
[Negro Peach].
37. Cynometra cauliflora.
[Nam-nam].
38. AoerrJioa-Carambola.
[Kamarang.].
39. Flacourtia inermis.
[Lovi-lovi].
40. Achras Sapola. ISapodilla
Plum.orNaseberry].
41. Aberia Gardneri.
[Ceylon Gooseberry, or
Ketembilla].
42. Citrus Aurantium.
[Sweet Orange]
43. Garcinia Mangostana.
[Mangosteen].
44. Cyphomandra Betacea.
[Tree-tomato]
45. Ananas satious, oar.
[Pineapple]
46. Aegle Marmelos.
[Bael-fruit]
47. Arachis hypogaea.
[Ground-nut, or Monkey-nut]
48. Citrus Limetta. [Lime-fruit].
49. Anacardium occidentale.
[Cashew-nut i.
50. Phytalis edulis.
[Cape Gooseberry].
51 Terminalia Calappa.
[Country Almond].
132 FRUIT CULTIVATION
fresh, preserved, or in jams, are considerable, and it is probable that
were a central factory established in Colombo or Kandy for canning,
drying, sterilising, or pulping fruits, as well as for making jams and
preserves, it would probably not only prove a profitable under-
taking, but also afford the requisite incentive to systematic fruit-
growing.
It is a remarkable fact that in Ceylon, if not in the tropics
generally, fruits are sold by number rather than weight or quantity ;
therefore while the public are willing to purchase on these terms the
grower has no particular object in improving the size and quality of
his fruits. In Jamaica, however, the law now prescribes a measure for
the sale of Citrus fruit, viz., a box 2 ft. in length, 1 ft. in breadth and
1 ft. in depth. This is known as the Florida standard orange box.
Climate in Relation to Fruit-culture. — Certain fruits are more
adaptable to a wider range of climate than others. Thus,
Oranges will thrive in Ceylon from sea-level up to about 6,000 feet
elevation, while Mangoes, Plantains, and Pine-apples may be grown
up to at least 4,000 feet in specially sheltered localities ; yet the
requirements of others, as the Mangosteen, Durian and Sapodilla,
are more or less strictly confined to the hot and moist low- country
below 2,000 feet. A dry rather than wet climate is usually the
most suited for fruit cultivation, and the most luscious fruits are
generally produced in districts with a comparatively limited rain-
fall, or where the crops are subjected to intermittent irrigation.
Dry weather favours the formation of sugar in fruit, whilst a pro-
longed wet period is against the proper development of flavour and
colour, and also of keeping qualities. It is remarkable that fruits
which are produced in an equable, hot and moist climate are often
green in colour, even when fully ripe.
Exception may be taken to the inclusion of some of the following
species as edible fruits, but since the list would not be complete
without these it is deemed advisable, in a work of reference, not
to omit them ; some may, at any rate, prove of interest or value
to the plant breeder.
TROPICAL FRUITS SUITABLE FOR LOW OR
MEDIUM ELEVATION
WITH A RAINFALL OF 70 INCHES OR MORE.
NATURAL ORDER ix BRACKETS. S=SIXHALESK ; 7'=TAMiL.
Alberia Gardneri. (Bixaceae). Ceylon Gooseberry; " Ket-
embilla," S. and T. — A small shrubby tree endemic in Ceylon*
bearing large purple, velvety berries, of the size, form, and
'IROPICAL FRUITS FOR LOW ELEVATIONS
133
consistency of gooseberries ; these have a pleasant acid taste, and
make excellent jam or a preserve. The fruit is in season during
August and September. It is well worth cultivation, being capable
of improvement by systematic selection and propagation. It is culti-
vated as a fruit-tree in Peradeniya Gardens, where plants are raised
CEYLON GOOSEBERRY. — Alberia Gardner i.
for distribution. The tree thrives in rich humous soil, and likes good
drainage. In propagating from seeds, the latter, being small,
should be sown in pots under cover. (See illustration).
Achras sapota (Sapotaceae, Gutta family). Sapodilla-plum ;
Zapote ; Bully-tree ; Naseberry ; Chiku; "Rata-mi," S; "Shimai-
eluppai," T. — A small symmetrical tree, 25 to 30 ft. high, with
leathery dark-green shining leaves, native of Tropical America and
the West Indies; introduced to Ceylon about 1802, but as yet
134 FRUIT CULTIVATION
only occasionally cultivated, chiefly in the Kalutara and Galle
districts. The round or oblong fruit is not unlike a smooth brown-
skinned potato in appearance. Unless perfectly ripe it is unfit for
eating, owing to the gum and tannin it contains ; but after
keeping for a few days it becomes delicious. The skin is extremely
thin, and the interior consists of a pale brown juicy and most
luscious pulp, in which the large black shining seeds are embedded.
FIRMINGER said : "A more luscious, cool and agreeable fruit is not
to be met with perhaps in any country in the world." The tree is.
somewhat commonly cultivated in Lower Bengal, and thrives up
to 3,000 ft. elevation in Southern India ; but in Ceylon it is seldom
productive above 1,500 ft., and succeeds best at the coast. It is a
slow grower, and may be propagated by seed, but preferably by
grafting ; usually bears two crops a year, one during August and
September, and the other in February and March. In India the fruit
is sometimes erroneously called " mangosteen," See Chickle Gmn.
Aegle Marmelos (Rutaceae, Orange family). Bengal-quince ;
Bael-fruit ; "Baeli" S. ; "Vilvam" T. — A small spiny tree, origin-
ally a native of India, now commonly grown in the low-country of
Ceylon and other tropical countries for its fruit. The latter is
globular, with a hard, woody, green shell, and varies in size from
that of a cricket ball to a large melon ; it encloses a mass of doughy
aromatic pulp, intermingled with which is a limpid glutinous
substance, which some people relish for its flavour, but more
particularly for its medicinal value. This is a well-known specific
for dysentery, and is much used in native medicine. The principal
season for the fruit is during the months of February to May. The
tree is propagated by seed, and thrives in ordinarily good soil.
Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae, Mango family).
Cashew-nut; " Caju-gaha " 5. ; "Mundiri-maram" T. — A spreading
tree, about 30 to 40 ft. high, with large leathery leaves, considered
to be a native of the West Indies, but thoroughly naturalised in
Africa, Ceylon, India, etc. Its well-known fruit consists of two
distinct parts, viz. (1) the large swollen pear-shaped stalk (cashew-
apple), 2 to 4 inches long, which is juicy, astringently acid, and
used in preserves ; (2) the small kidney-shaped, grey or brown nut
(about 1 inch long) at the extremity. The latter has an edible
kernel (seed), which when roasted is of a very agreeable nutty
taste, and is much relished for dessert, being considered by some
superior to all other nuts; it is in demand in Europe, to
which it is exported, for confectionery and flavouring purposes.
TROPICAL FRUITS, FOR LOU' ELEl'ATIOXS 135
The crusted shell of the nut is acrid and poisonous. All parts of
the fruit are of various uses in medicine. An intoxicating beverage
("Kaju"), largely consumed by the Natives in parts of Eastern
Tropical Africa, is made from the fleshy receptacle. The tree
yields a gum which is obnoxious to insects and is recommended
for book-binding. The juice obtained from incisions in the bark
forms an indelible ink. The tree thrives best in the low-country
up to 1,500 ft. Adapted for moderately dry districts, especially
near the sea. Propagated from seeds or by layering.
Ananas sativus (Bromeliaceae). Pine-apple; "Anasi" S. —
A perennial stemless plant, with long narrow fibrous and usually
PLANTATION OF "KK\V" PIXE-APPLKS.
spiny leaves, native of Tropical America, introduced into all warm
countries, and extensively cultivated in South America, West Indies,
Cuba, Hawaiian Islands, Queensland, etc. The fruit is borne by a
rigid stout stalk issuing from the centre of the plant ; the latter
dies after maturing the fruit, being reproduced by suckers thrown
out from the base. In a state of nature the pine-apple is generally
an epiphyte or "air-feeder," i.e., living in the forks of trees or on
rocks ; but in cultivation partial shade and a sheltered situation are
necessary in order to produce the best crops. In Florida, where
pines are cultivated extensively as an industry, the plants are grown
chiefly under the shade of lightly constructed sheds. Pine-apples
136
FRUIT CULTIVATION
thrive in Ceylon from sea-level to about 2,000 ft., or higher in
sheltered situations. The plants are naturally suited to a rather
dry climate, but flourish also in moist and hot districts, provided the
land is well-drained.
They thrive best in
rich humous or loamy
soil, specially if it
contains a proportion
of lime. Fallow or
jungle soil, under the
shade of trees, yield
the largest and most
luscious fruits. After
the first crop has been
obtained, the plants
should be taken up, the
ground deeply dug and
enriched with well rot-
ted manure. The rows
should be planted in
the inter-spaces of the
previous crop, if any.
A change of site should
be given after every
second or third crop, as
otherwise the quality
and size of the fruit will
be adversely affected.
Manuring is essential ; animal manure is the best and should be
applied in a well-decomposed state. Of mineral manures, a
mixture of basic slag and nitrate of soda, in the proportion of
5 cwt. and 1 cwt. of each respectively for an acre, is recom-
mended by experienced growers. A potash manure is also very
beneficial. The ground should be well-tilled and kept free of
weeds. When planting, the strongest suckers should be
used, as these produce the earliest fruits. Trim off the lower
leaves, and plant in rows, about 4 feet apart each way, say
2,800 plants to the acre. The fruit should commence to ripen about
15 months from the time of planting the suckers, the weaker suckers
taking longer to bear fruit. A return of about 5,000 fruits per acre
is considered a good yield. When suckers are scarce, the " crowns ''
of the fruit may be planted in a bed of leaf-mould and sand, for
HEX A\I) CHICKEN" PIXE-APPLK.
TROPICAL FRUITS, FOR LOW ELEVATIOXS 137
planting out when large enough. Plants may also be propagated
from the leaves, these being laid in a bed of light sandy soil and
kept moist and shaded. (See illustrations).
VARIETIES. — A large number of varieties occur in cultivation, and differ-
ent names are given in different countries to the same varieties. One of the most
distinct and best variety is the "Smooth Cayenne," known in Ceylon as the
"AVtt- Pint'." This bears large, luscious and juicy fruits, often weighing from
10 to 15 Ib. ; sometimes 20 Ib. or more. This variety has the additional merit of
having spineless leaves. It is said to be the chief variety cultivated in Hawaii,
Florida, and Azores, and commands the highest price in the London market.
In the West Indies the " Red Spanish " is perhaps the most popular kind, the
" Riplcy Queen " or " Black Antigua" being also highly spoken of. "Mauritius"
C* Ri'Plcy Ouccn") is the variety most commonly grown for market in Ceylon ;
it is of a hardy nature, thriving in comparatively poor soil. " Gal-anassi" is a
variety naturalised in Ceylon, distinguished by small yellow, rather insipid
fruits. The following are amongst the best varieties cultivated in the West
Indies: — "Ahbaka" "Black Antigua," "Sugar-loaf" Monstcrat" "Egyptian
Queen" " Pcrnambnco" "Porto Rico," " Bracomorensis."
Anona muricata (Anonaceae). Sour-sop; "Katu-anodo" S. ;
"Seetha" T. — A small, quick-growing shrubby tree, 15 to 20 ft. high,
with fragrant laurel-like leaves, native of the West Indies and com-
monly grown in the Eastern Tropics for its fruit as well as for
ornament. The large green fruit, usually weighing from 4 to 6 Ib.
(sometimes 10 Ib. or more), varies in form from kidney-shaped to
oval or ovate, and is covered with soft green prickles. The white,
rather wooly pulp, amongst which the large black seeds are scattered,
is juicy and sweet, suggesting the flavour of Pine-apple, and is
sometimes used for flavouring ices and in the preparation of a
pleasant cooling drink. The fruit, though of an agreeable flavour,
is not generally popular. There is, however, much difference in
the produce of different trees, and the fruit of some has been de-
scribed as "lusciously sweet and of a delightful acidity." Propagated
from seed or cuttings. Thrives up to 2,000 ft. (Sec illustration).
A.- reticulata. "Bullock's Heart; "Anoda" S. ; "Ramsita"
T. — A small bushy tree of Tropical America and the West Indies,
commonly met with in native gardens in the low-country of
Ceylon. The fruit is usually heart-shaped, sometimes round, 3 to
4 inches across, and varying in colour from brownish-red to yellow.
It contains several large dark-brown seeds interspersed among the
sweet custard-like granular pulp. Some Natives in the low-
country are, I am informed, prejudiced against this fruit, owing to
a supposition that it causes leprosy. Propagated from seed, which
may be sown in nursery beds. Will thrive up to 3,000 ft. or higher.
(See illustration)
138 FRUIT CULTIVATION
A. — squamosa. Custard-apple ; Sugar-apple ; Sweet-sop. —
A small tree, considered to be a native of Asia and Tropical
America. It is commonly cultivated throughout the tropics for its
fruit, which is of the size of a fairly large apple, and has a peculiar
rind which appears to be formed of scales ; when ripe, these latter
break awav separately, exposing and partly adhering to the white
SOUK SOP. — Anona innncntn.
granular, sweet custard-like pulp. The fruit should be wrapped in
muslin bags before they attain maturity, so as to prevent their
being eaten by squirrels and birds. Custard-apples are chiefly in
season during the drier months, when they are commonly sold in the
markets and native bazaars. The tree is propagated from seed,,
and thrives in ordinary, well-drained soil up to about 2,500 ft. In
TROPICAL FRLrITS. FOR LO\r ELEVATIONS
139
India the fruit is said to be grown to perfection in the neighbour-
hood of Cawnpore, "thriving in the most barren and sterile places.""
Artocarpus incisa. (Urticaceas, Fig family). Bread-fruit ;
"Rata-del," S. " Erapillakai," 7*. — One of the most handsome of
tropical trees, native of the Pacific Islands, Java, etc. ; introduced
to Ceylon before 1796. It is a quick grower, attaining a height of
BULLOCK'S HEART. — Anon-n rettculata.
40 to 60 ft. and bearing very large, shining, deeply* cuHeaves. The
fruit is roundish or oval, 4 to 6 inches long by 3 to 5 inches in
diameter, pea-green in colour, and produced in twos or threes at
the ends of the branches. It seldom contains seed * (except in the
case of inferior varieties), the interior consisting of a solid mass of
white fleshy pulp, which when sliced and roasted is not unlike the
''Some varieties contain numerous large Heshy seeds, like those of Jak. these being
eaten, while the comparatively scanty pulp is not.
140
FRUIT CULTIVATION
crumb of a new loaf. As a vegetable for curries, it is much
•esteemed by all who enjoy these. It is also rousted, ground into
flour, and prepared and used in various other ways. Bread-fruit is
said to form the principal article of diet of the Natives of the South
BKhAD-FKUiT.— A rtociirpits incisn.
Sea Islands. FIRMIXGER, after partaking of the fruit in Ceylon
when sliced and fried, considered it to be "hardly distinguishable
from an excellent batter pudding." The tree thrives up to 1,500ft.
in the moist hot districts of Ceylon, <:nd is especially adapted to
TROPICAL FRUITS, FOR LOU' ELEl'ATIOXS
141
the sea-coast. Propagated by suckers from the roots, by Bootee or
layering. (S^'c illustmlion).
A.-integrifolia. Jak-fruit ; " Kos " S. " Pilla-kai " T.— A
very large tree, native of South India and Malaya, introduced and
cultivated in Ceylon, where it has become semi-naturalised. The
enormous fruits, one of which may weigh up to 100 Ib. or more, are
borne on the trunk and older branches, sometimes at the base of the
JAK-FRUIT.— A rtocarpns iutcgrifolia.
trunk or even under-ground. It is usually oblong and irregular in
shape (sometimes almost round), being always green, with the rind
consisting of somewhat hexagonal knobs. This fruit forms a very
important article of food with the Natives of the Eastern Tropics,
while some Europeans also relish it, especially the seeds when
cooked and served in curries. When ripe, the fruit has an over-
powering odour, and the stronger the latter is, the better apparently
the quality of the fruit. With the exception of the rind and core,
the whole of the fruit is eaten, the white or cream-coloured
142
FRL'IT CULTIVATION
soft, flakey pulp being eaten either raw, boiled, or fried, and used as
a vegetable for curries, etc. The large albuminous, date-like reeds
are roasted and esteemed in curries. The timber is excellent
for cabinet work, building, etc., and is much used in Ceylon ;
L
\VILD BRKAD-KRrrr. A rlccavpits ii jbilis.
lemon-yellow at first, it turns with age to a very dark tint like
mahogany, to which it is but little inferior. The tree is propagated
by seed and is suited to moist or semi-dry districts, up to 2,000 ft.
{See illustration).
TROPICAL FRCITS. FOR LOW ELEVATIONS 143
VARIETIES. -Jak-fruit occurs in several varieties, the two most distinct
in Ceylon being : — (1) " Waraka." distinguished hya firm fruit, which the Natives
recognise by the sound when flicked with the fingers ; (2) "Vela," characterised
by its softer rind, through which the finger may be thrust when approaching
ripeness, the pulp being less sweet than that of the former variety. Of these
there are several sub-varieties as " Kuru-waraka " (with small and almost round
fruit), and " Peni-waraka " (=honey-jak), which has a sweetish pulp. A variety
called " Johore Jak," with hairy leaves and a small oblong fruit with a most over-
powering odour, is greatly esteemed by those who eat the fruit.
A. nobilis. Wild Brend-fruit ; "Wai-del" S. ; " Asini-
pillakai T. — A noble tree, usually 40 to 50 ft. high (but sometimes
attaining an enormous size), with large leathery, crimpled or wavy,
undivided leaves, peculiar to the moist low-country of Ceylon.
The fruit is cone-like, 5 to 8 inches in length by lj to 2 inches in
diameter ; it is similar in texture, though inferior, to the Bread-fruit
proper, and is eaten by the poorer classes, being cooked and used
us a vegetable with curries. It contains several round white seeds, of
the form of large peas, which are roasted and eaten. The tree
thrives in a wild state up to 2,000 ft. in the moist low-country of
Ceylon, where it is endemic. Propagated by seed.
Averrhoa Bilimbi (Geraniaceai). Cucumber-Tree; "Blim-
bing;" "Biling" S. ; "Bilimbi-kai" T. — A small fine-foliaged tree,
native of the Moluccas, and commonly cultivated in the Eastern
Tropics for its fruit. The latter is about 3 inches long, resembling
a small green cucumber, and produced in clusters on the trunk
and oldest branches ; it is esteemed in pickles and preserves, and
is sometimes used for making jam and cooling drinks. As an
ingredient in curries, the fruit is also much relished. The tree
thrives up to medium elevations, and is propagated from seeds or by
layering. The seed, being small, should be sown in pots under
cover.
A. Carambola. Karambola ; "Kamaranga" S. ; "Tamarta"
T. — A small tree, similar to the preceding species, but more orna-
mental in habit. It is a native of the Moluccas, and has long been
in cultivation in the East. The curious oval-shaped, winged fruit,
borne in great profusion, gives the tree a striking effect. When
ripe the fruit is semi-transparent, of a fine rich amber colour, very
juicy, and of a sweet acid taste. Its principal culinary use is for
making jelly, for which it is esteemed. The juice removes stains
from linen, and is also commonly used for burnishing brass. The
degree of acidity of the fruit varies in different varieties. I have
tasted some at Shows which were agreeably sweet and well worth
144
FRUIT CULTIVATION
growing for the table. The best varieties should be propagated by
gootee or budding, though the tree is usually propagated from seed ;
the latter being small, should be sown in pots under cover.
HK AXIL-NUT. — Bci'thollctia cxccha.
Bertholletia excelsa. (Myrtaceae). Brazil-nut, or Para-nut.—
A tall handsome tree, with oblong wavy leaves, which are 14 to
16 inches long and about 3 inches broad, native of Guiana,
Venezuela and Brazil. In its native home, specially on the banks
of the Amazon and Orinoco, the tree attains a height of over 100ft.
TROPICAL FRUITS, FOR LOW ELEVATIOXS 145
The tree has been introduced at Peradeniya in 1880, and,
notwithstanding' the indifferent ground chosen for it when first
planted out, appears to find here a congenial home. It is now
about 60 ft. high, and produces at the top each year, in the dry
season, large erect racemes of white Mowers, followed a few months
later by a number of large brown round fruits, which hang on the
tree for some months after ripening. RIDLEY records similar
success with the tree at Singapore, where it was introduced in 1881.
Each fruit is from 4 to 6 inches in diameter, with a hard, brown
woody shell, which has to be sawn or broken with an axe in order
to obtain the nuts (seeds). In the interior, closely packed, are
from 10 to 12 large angular seeds with a brown horny testa ; these
are the "Brazil-nuts" of commerce, which form an important
article of export from their native country, being largely used for
dessert in Europe, America, etc. The tree may be propagated by
seed or gootee (layering), and thrives best on a rich alluvial soil, in
a hot and moist climate (See illustration).
Blighia sapida, Cupania edulis (Sapindaceae). " Akee."-
A fairly large spreading tree, native of West Tropical Africa, intro-
duced and cultivated to some extent in the West Indies for the
sake of its edible fruit. The latter is of the size and form of a
small lemon or pear, about 3 inches in length, and bright red when
ripe. The seeds, of which two or three are in a fruit, are jet-black
and of the size of small marbles. The edible portion is the firm,
cream-coloured fat-like substance (tirit), developed in a succulent
socket around the base of the seed. This is generally cooked, but
may also be eaten raw, and is considered delicious when par-boiled
with salt, and stewed or fried with butter. The fruit when ripe
splits open, and must then be picked, as on long exposure to the
air the aril becomes discoloured and unfit for food. Between the
two lobes of aril there is a pink integument ; this must be removed
when preparing the aril for eating, as it is considered highly
poisonous. The tree is suited to the moist or semi -dry low-
country up to about 2,000 ft. There is a tree in the garden at
"Temple Trees," Colombo, which bears fruit freely twice a year,
chiefly in April and September. The tree may also be found in
some Indian Gardens, but so far as I know the fruit is never eaten
in Ceylon or India. Propagated from seed or by gootee, or some-
times by suckers.
Buchanania latifolia (Anacardiacea;). " Cheronjee." — A
moderate-sized tree, attaining about 30 ft. in height, and bearing
146 FRUIT CULTIVATION
i,
simple, leathery leaves, native of the mountainous parts of Coro-
mandel, Malabar, Mysore, etc. The kernels of the fruit are of the
size of small pears, and are said to be passed as a general substitute
for almonds, being considered superior and more agreeable to the
taste than either the Cashew-nut, Country-almond, or Ground-nuts.
They are sometimes sold in the bazaars in India at 4 to 6 annas,
per Ib. The tree is not known in Ceylon, but might be found
suited to medium elevations in the Uva Province. Propagated by
seed.
Canarium commune (Combretaceas). Java Almond ; Pili-
nuts ; "Ratakekuna" S. — A large handsome Malayan tree, charac-
terised by a remarkable buttressed trunk and latterly compressed
aerial basal roots ; the latter develop enormous erect flanges of uni-
form thickness, so that solid circular pieces may occasionally be cut
out from them to form ready-made cart wheels. The tree is much
cultivated for shade or ornament in Java. It bears in great abun-
dance large pendant clusters of dark-purple fruits, which are of the
size of small plums; these are produced all the year round, but
chiefly in June. The kernel of the fruit is edible, being similar in
flavour to Sweet Almonds ; it yields by expression an oil used for
burning in lamps and for cooking purposes. A considerable quan-
tity of the " nuts," collected from wild trees, is said to be exported
from the Philippines. A desirable tree for planting in avenues,' etc.
It thrives in hot and moist districts up to about 1,500 ft. elevation,
and prefers deep, well-drained soil. Propagated by seed, which
may be sown in nursery beds and kept moist and shaded until
germinated.
Carica Papaya ( Passifloraceae). Papaw; Tree-melon;
"Pepol" S. ; "Pappali" T. — A fast growing, small, herbaceous,
branchless and dioecious tree, attaining a height of about 15 to
20ft., indigenous to Central America and the West Indies. It bears
a crown of very large palmate leaves, at the base of which the
large green fruits are produced. The latter vary from round to
oval or oblong in shape, but are usually 8 to 14 inches long by 4 to
6 inches in diameter, not unlike green melons or gourds, each weigh-
ing from 5 to 8 Ib. or more. The fruit has a central cavity, to the
walls of which the olive- coloured seeds are attached, usually in
great abundance, but are sometimes entirely absent. The succulent
flesh, which varies in colour from a slight pinkish to an orange tint,
is very refreshing and agreeable to the taste, especially on first
acquaintance with it. It is commonly used for dessert, and is.
TROPICAL FR17ITS, FOR LOW ELEVATIONS
147
-considered an aid to digestion. Some people prefer to eat it with a
little sugar and fresh lemon or lime juice. It may also be made
into jam or sauce, and lin the unripe state may he pickled, or
PAPAW, OR PAPAYA.— Ca rica Papaya.
boiled and used as a vegetable. The seeds have a flavour like that
of water-cress, and are relished by some as a substitute for it. The
milky juice (papaine), obtained from incisions made in the unripe
fruit (bv a bone or ivory knife), curdles milk, like rennet, and is
148
FRUIT CULTIVATION
sometimes used as a substitute for pepsin in medicine. It is col-
lected in porcelain or glass dishes, dried in the form of small balls
or powder, and exported (chiefly from Jamaica) to Europe, America,
etc. An average of J Ib. papaine may be obtained per tree. Fair
quality papaine may fetch from 5s. to 8s. a Ib., but the demand
is limited and irregular." The property of the leaves in rendering
meat tender is well known, and is commonly made use of by cooks
PLANTATION OF PAPAXV, OK PAPAYA. (Ciirica
in Ceylon and elsewhere, who either wrap the leaves round the
fresh meat, or place a piece of the green fruit in the water in which
the meat is boiled. The tree bears fruit continuously from the time
it is about ten to twelve months old, but deteriorates at the age of
five to six years, after which its fruitful life is practically over.
The flowers being usually unisexual, the tree is dependent on
"The export of papaine from Ceylon in 1911 was 6,610 Ib. valued at £2.281, and in 1912,
12,920 Ib. valued at £ 3.37«. About i of this was in each case destined for the United States, Germany
being the next largest consumer.
TROPICA L FRUITS, FOR LOW ELEVA 77O.Y.S 149
cross-fertilisation for its reproduction by seed. Therefore the
varieties become much mixed, the fruit varying from globose to
long and narrow, with many, few, or no seeds. Occasionally,
however, bisexual flowers are produced by either male or female-
trees which are normally unisex mil ; thus "male" trees sometimes
bear fruit, which only differs from that of "female" trees by
being smaller and perhaps less palatable. Propagated from seed,
which germinate readily. These are of the size of small peas ;
about 250 when fresh go to an ounce, or 1,260 when dry. Sow
thinly in nursery beds. Suited to the moist low-country, and thrives
best in rich well-drained soil. (See Mountain Papaw).
Carissa Carandas (Apocynaceae). "Maha-karamba" S. ;
"Perunkila" T. — A small tree or large shrub, with sharp, rigid,
forked thorns and oval le.ives, native of the dry region of Ceylon,
also of India and Malaya. It blossoms chiefly in February to
March, and ripens its fruits in August and September. The fruit
when ripe much resembles a damson, both in size and colour ; but
in the interior are a number of small seeds. In India it is made
into a pickle just before it is ripe, and is also used in tarts and pud-
dings, being considered to resemble gooseberries in flavour. For
these purposes it is said to be "superior to any other Indian
fruit.'' When ripe it makes a very good jelly. The plant is
commonly employed for barrier hedges, for which purpose it is
well suited. Propagated from seed. Suited to dry districts at low
elevations.
Caryocar nuciferum (Ternstroemiaceae). Butter-nut ;
Souari-nut. — A handsome lofty tree, attaining a height of over
100 ft., with large lanceolate, trifoliate leaves, native of Brazil and
British Guiana. It bears a large roundish, woody fruit, about the
size of a child's head, containing when ripe four large kidney-
shaped seeds, which have a very hard woody, warty, and reddish
shell. The latter is so hard that it needs an axe to break it open.
The kernels have a pleasant nutty taste, and are esteemed in
England for confectionery and fruitarian dishes. They yield by
pressure a valuable oil. Souari-nuts are imported into England, and
may usually be seen in Covent Garden, or sometimes retailed in
London at about 3d. or 4d. each. The tree flourishes in the moist
low-country of Ceylon, and prefers rich deep or alluvial soil. The
two trees in the Peradeniya collection, introduced in 1891, grow
luxuriantly and have flowered freely since 1910, but not yet fruited.
Propagated by seed (Sec illustration).
150
FRUIT CULTIVATION
Chrysobalanus Icaco (Rosaceae). Icaco ; Coco-plum;
Spanish-nectarine. — A small spreading shrubby tree, native of
Tropical America. It bears fruit of the size and shape of a plum,
varying from round to egg-shape, with a purplish tender rind ; the
scanty white pulp, adhering to the kernel, is of a somewhat agree-
able acid taste. The fruit is said to be largely made into conserves
BUTTERNUT TREE. — Ciiiyoctir micifei'iini.
in Cuba, being in this form an article of export ; but in Ceylon it is
a very poor fruit, hardly worth growing. The tree succeeds in the
moist low-country up to 2,000 ft., and is propagated from seeds.
Chrysophyllum Cainito (Sapotaceai). Star-apple; "Rata-
lawulu" S. ; " Seemaipala- Pallam " T. — A fairly large and
TROPICAL FRUITS, FOR LOU' ELEVATIONS 151
handsome West Indian tree, with striking dark green leaves, which
are copper-coloured underneath. The purplish, smooth, round fruit
is four-seeded, the seeds being brown and i inch long. In an un-
ripe state the fruit contains a sticky white latex, but when fully
matured the white, transparent, jelly-like substance surrounding
the seed is sweet and agreeable. The fruit when cut across
presents a stellate form, the cells with their white edible contents
radiating from the central axis; hence the name "star-apple."
The tree is well worth cultivating for ornament or shade for road-
sides, etc. It thrives at Peradeniya, where it was first introduced
in 1802. Propagated by seed, and thrives best in deep, rich and
well-drained soil.
C. — monopyrenum. Date-plum; " Ko s-eta-la wulu" S. ;
*' Seemaipala-pallam " T. — An ornamental West Indian tree, of more
slender and upright habit than the preceding species, but resem-
bling it in the foliage; introduced at Peradeniya in 1814. As
the vernacular names signify, the fruit is similar in size and
form to a date-fruit or a Jak seed, and suggests a damson in
form and colour ; it has a thin shining, purplish-black outer skin*
and contains but one seed ; the milky reddish pulp is edible, but
rather insipid. The principal fruiting season for both this and the
preceding species is from February to April. Propagation by seed.
Citrullus vulgaris (Cucurbitaceae). Water Melon. " Komadu"
or " Peni-komadu" S. — A smooth, oval-shaped fruit, usually about
8 to 10 inches long, produced by a quick-growing creeping gourd,
commonly cultivated in the dry region of Ceylon and in the
tropics generally. The fruit is of a dark-green colour, with a
reddish juicy flesh, which is cool and refreshing in the hot season,
though rather insipid. In India it is described as in some cases
growing to an enormous size, "sometimes 3 to 4 ft. in length and
from 18 inches to 2 ft. in diameter," but the smaller-sized varieties
are the best. It is occasionally spherical in shape. The plants
will thrive on ordinary soil, provided sufficient moisture is afforded
at the root, and are best suited to dry districts. In India they are
commonly grown on the banks of rivers, where the Natives often
bury the fruit with sand, under which it grows and ripens slowly.
Easily propagated by seed.
Citrus aurantium (Rutaceae). Sweet orange; " Peni-dhodan"
S. ; " Naran-kai" T.— A small tree or shrub, 8 to 12 ft. high, supposed
to be a native originally of Northern India. The Orange has long
been cultivated in all warm climates, and is especially adapted
152 FRUIT CULTIVATION
to regions where the trees are subject to wintering, or at least a
short period of rest. It luxuriates in the torrid zone, and is
more or less naturalised in the moist low-country of Ceylon ; but
the fruits here produced are often coarse and thick-skinned, being
usually green in colour when ripe. These defects, however, may
be largely due to the want of a proper system of cultivation and
selection, as well as to the effects of the tropical climate. At the
higher elevations in Ceylon, imported grafted plants flourish for a
few years and produce attractive yellow fruits of good quality, but
the excessive rains and strong winds often prove detrimental to
both the fruit crop and the health of the tree.
The nearest approach to the proper conditions for successful
orange culture in Ceylon would appear to be found in the drier
parts of the Uva Province, between 1,000 and 3,000 ft. elevation.
A gentle slope with free natural drainage, a light rich soil with a
marly or limestone sub-soil, a rather dry climate and shelter from
strong winds, — these are the conditions which are especially suited
to the requirements of the tree. A " resting period " is imitated
annually in India, usually with good results, by stopping the water
supply, and opening up the soil around the tree, the fibrous,
roots nearest the stem being cut off in the process ; this,
naturally, has the effect of making the trees drop the greater part
of their leaves. When the roots have been thus exposed for a
month or two, the soil is again filled in, and manure added. The
sea-breeze is considered to be injurious to Orange culture, yet the
Cotta oranges, grown on the sea-board, are noted in Ceylon for
their excellence. In the dry region of Ceylon, oranges would pro-
bably do well under irrigation, as their cultivation is successfully
carried on under similar conditions in parts of India, etc. The
Orange tree has no serious pest in Ceylon (See Insect and Fungus
Pests).
Propagation of the Orange is best by budding or grafting
(especially the former) upon the hardy and vigorous growing kinds
of Citrus, as the Sour-orange and the Pumelo. Only budded,
grafted, or layered trees can be relied upon for producing fruits of
a uniform type and quality. The flowers being naturally subject
to cross-fertilisation, plants raised from seed are obviously liable to
produce fruits of a variable character. Seedling trees are, however,
usually the healthiest and longest-lived. In raising seedlings, care
should be taken to choose the best fruits, selecting from these only
full and plump pips or seeds. Sow the latter in well-prepared
TROPICAL FRUITS. FOR LOW ELEVATIONS 153
soil, covering them with about \ inch of finely sifted earth. The
seeds will germinate in about fourteen days ; when the seedlings
are 2 or 3 inches high, transplant them into small plant-baskets or
bamboo pots. These should be ready for budding or grafting in
the course of 8 or 10 months, and the budded or grafted plants
should be lit for planting out when about 2 years old.
Planting and Yield. The distance for planting apart should
not be less than 15 by 15 ft., allowing, say, 193 trees to the acre.
The trees should commence to bear when about four or five
years old, and are considered to be in their prime at the age of
fifteen years. When in full bearing each tree should yield from
300 to 700 fruits a year.
Manuring and Mulching. Although any well-decomposed
organic manure may be applied with advantage, the chief require-
ments of the Orange tree are considered to be lime and potash.
A successful grower in Australia applies 5 Ib. bone-dust and
phosphate of lime to each tree once a year, while in Florida burnt-
shell lime is applied at the rate of i ton to the acre. The ground
around the tree should be frequently stirred, and never allowed
to harden. A light mulch of litter or leaves is of great benefit in
hot dry weather.
Pruning Oranges. Good orange trees require little or no
pruning, except as regards the removal of superfluous, dead, or
broken branches. The plants should be topped at a height of
about 2i ft., so as to induce a spreading and evenly balanced
form. The fruits, it should be remembered, are borne on one
year old wood. Excessive woodiness may sometimes have to be
checked by cutting the tap-root below 15 inches from the
surface.
Bi- Products of the Orange. — Various by-products are obtained
from oranges, as candied peel (from the rind) ; citric, lactic, and
acetic acid (from the fruit-juice) ; essential oil (from the peel) ; the
perfume bergamot (from the flowers as well as rind) ; also orange
wine, etc., from the pulp. Marmalade, the making of which is a
large important industry, is made chiefly from the sour varieties,
especially the " Seville orange."
VARIETIES. The following are well-known :—
Jaffa. A large oval fruit of first rate quality ; pulp rich and jui cy, seeds
few or none.
Jamma-naran. See Mandarin.
Maltese Blood-orange. Fruit medium si/e ; flesh stained with deep crimson
seeds few ; tree spineless.
154 TROPICAL FRUITS
Mandarin ; " Jamma-naran " S. Loose and thin-skinned, large fruit of deep
colour, usually compressed at ends.
Mediterranean Sweet. Thornless tree ; fruit medium to large, seeds few.
Nagpur Snntra. An Indian variety, famous for its sweetness.
Navel Orange. Fruit large, with a navel-like mark, very juicy and
melting pulp ; almost seedless ; tree slightly thorny, bears fruit early.
Satsunia. Produces fruits in large bunches, " upward of 50 fruits in each
bunch," in Florida.
Seville Orange. A bitter fruit, bright orange colour ; the tree thrives and
bears freely at Hakgala Gardens, in Ceylon. The finest marmalade is
made from this orange.
St. Michael. Large, thin-skinned fruit, of fine flavour.
Tangerine. A variety of Citrus nobilis ; fruit medium-si/ed, fine flavoured.
C. — Decumana. Shaddock; Pumelo ; "Forbidden Fruit;"
uJambola"S. ; "Jamblica," or "Bambaiinas" T. — A small tree, 25 to
30 ft. high, native of Tropical Asia, and commonly cultivated
throughout the tropics for its large round or oval fruits. Numerous
varieties occur in different countries, varying in the shape and size
of the fruit, as well as in the colour and flavour of the pulp ; in
some varieties the latter is green and acid, in others it is reddish or
crimson, juicy and sweet. Some varieties have few or no seed.
The fruit is valued for making jams, the best sorts being sometimes
used for dessert (see below}. In Ceylon, the Pumelo grows
luxuriantly in the moist low-country, producing large globular
fruits which measure from 6 to 9 inches in diameter ; it thrives up
to about 2,000 ft. elevation, either in moist or semi-dry districts,
and is easily propagated by seed. Seedlings of Pumelo are recom-
mended for stocks upon which to graft Oranges.
C. — Decumana, var. "Grape-fruit," so-called because the
fruits grow in a cluster like a bunch of grapes. These resemble
large oranges, being usually globular in form, but sometimes pear-
shaped, with a smooth skin of medium thickness. The pulp is
pale yellow or greenish white, sometimes pink or crimson, and is
distinguished from that of the orange by being sweeter and com-
posed of larger and distinct " sacks ; " it is very juicy, but somewhat
bitter in flavour. In the United States, Cuba, Jamaica, etc., the
Grape-fruit is very popular, being usually eaten in the early
morning or as a dessert. It is imported into England, where it is
usually esteemed by those who know it, and finds a ready sale at
Covent Garden Market at 4d. to &/. each. According to the
British Medical Journal, it has a "wholesome, clean, slightly bitter
taste, blending with the acidity of the orange, and has the physio-
logical action of stimulating the appetite and promoting salivary
FRUIT CULTIVATION 155
and gastric digestion." This fruit has not yet become well-known
in the East, though it is sometimes met with in gardens.
A seedless variety has recently been discovered which promises to
be valuable. Propagated by grafting, budding, or from seed.
There are several varieties.
Citrus acida. Lime; "Dehi"S. "Dhaisi-kai" T. — A small spiny
tree, cultivated in all tropical countries for its acid juicy fruit.
The latter varies in size, degree of acidity, and juiciness, also in
shape from almost round to egg-shape. The lime-fruit is used by
all races for flavouring and other culinary purposes ; it is largely
employed for the manufacture of cooling drinks, especially lime-
juice cordial, whilst it is also of much importance in native
medicine. Applied externally, it is valued as a cure for snake-
bites. Limes are grown as a commercial product in some West
Indian Islands, and the export of concentrated lime-juice and
citrate of lime (in casks) forms the chief industry of Dominica.* In
Ceylon, limes are in season practically all the year round, and are
at all times sold in the boutiques and m irkets. The tree thrives
up to 2.000 ft. elevation, preferring a light marly soil with good
drainage. It is propagated by seed (pips), or preferably by bud-
ding or grafting on stocks of a vigorous growing kind ; plants thus
raised should come into bearing at three years old.
VARIETIES. — Among the principal varieties recognised in India are : —
" Patee " (a small round fruit, much esteemed). "Kaghuzee" (of the size
of a hen's egg, in most general cultivation). " Gora " (a small oval fruit
much cultivated), " Kamuralee" (a large handsome fruit, of pale lemon
colour, about the sixe of a small coconut), " Rungpore" {a round smooth-
skinned fruit), and "Taba" (a large globose, spongy fruit). The
" Kaffir Lime " in Ceylon is almost the si/e of a lemon, with a warty,
coarse skin.
Spineless Lime. A sport of the ordinary Lime, said to have originated in
Dominica in 1891. the stems and branches being without the usual for-
midable spines.
Seedless Lime. In recent years several varieties of limes have been raised
whose fruits are almost, if not quite, free from seed. The " Persian
Seedless" or "Tahiti Lime" is reported as being the chief variety
in Cuba; this is said to be a prolific bearer, the fruit containing a high
percentage of citric acid.
C.— Limetta. Sweet-lime. — This is a distinct species or variety,
the fruit of which is of the form of a moderate-sized orange, with
smooth pale-green rind. It has a sweetish, instead of an acid, taste
and is considered very refreshing and agreeable. The tree is used
largely in parts of India for budding the Orange upon.
c The trees are planted at average distances of about 12 by 15 ft., and a yield of about 120
barrels fruit per acre is considered a good average.
156 TROPICAL FRUITS
C. — Limonum. Lemon (See under Sub-tropical fruits).
C. — medica. (See under Sub-tropical fruits).
Clausena Wampi,=Cookia punctata (Rutaceae). Wanipee
"Rata-karapincha" S. — A small ornamental and aromatic tree, native
of China. Its pale yellow berries have a strong aromatic acid taste
and are sometimes made into preserves, being also used, as well as
the fragrant leaves, for flavouring meat curries, etc. ; but they cannot
be considered a fruit for dessert. The tree is suited to humid
districts at medium elevations, and is propagated by seeds.
Cucumis Melo (Cucurbitacece). Musk Melon ; li Pitti-kekiri,"
S. — A round or oval fruit, about 4 to 6 inches in diameter, or 7 to
8 in. long by 3 in. in diameter, produced by a creeping annual
gourd with large angular leaves. In its natural state the fruit has a
strong musk-deer odour, the interior being of a somewhat flowery
consistency. The best varieties, as grown in hot-houses in temper-
ate countries, are very highly prized on account of their luscious
flavour. The plant is suited to a hot dry atmosphere and rich
porous soil. It requires moisture at the root, but the vines are sus-
ceptible to a damp atmosphere, and in cultivation the precaution
has usually to be taken of forming a collar of earth round the base
of the stem, so as to prevent any water lodging there. Musk Melon
is never seen grown in the moist low-country of Ceylon, and but
seldom in the dry region. FIRMINGER referred to a fine variety in
India, called the " Surdah," the fruit of which is " sometimes
brought from Cabul to Punjab for the wealthy Natives, who are
said to pay as high as Rs. 6/- each for them." The seeds of this
variety are distinguished by their very large size. There are many
varieties in cultivation, these being divided into u netted " and
"smooth-skinned" classes. The flesh in either group may be red,
green or white. Propagated by seed, like other gourds.
Cynometra cauliflora (Leguminosae). Nam-nam. — A shrubby
much-branched tree with small binate leaves, native of India and
Malaya. The fruit is a one-seeded, much wrinkled, thick fleshy
pod, rather semi-circular in shape, and produced in large numbers
on the trunk near the ground (sometimes on the lowermost portions
of the branches), chiefly in May and June. The succulent green, or
greenish yellow, shell is about ^ an inch thick, and is of a pleasant,
sweet sub-acid taste, not unlike an apple. Whilst, however, the
fruit of some trees is very palatable, that of others may be sour and
unpleasant, much depending on the variety and degree of culti-
vation afforded. The fruit is best for stewing, but is also used for
pickling, and the large flat seed yields a medicinal oil. The tree
TROPICAL FRCITS 157
thrives in the moist low-country of Ceylon up to 2,000 ft., and
prefers deep rich soil. Though indigenous to parts of India, it
does not seem to be commonly cultivated there, for neither
FIRMIXGKR nor CAMERON mentions it. Easily propagated by seed,
but the best varieties should be increased by gootee or grafting.
Davidsonia pruriens (Saxifrageae). — A medium-sized tree,
with handsome serrate leaves, native of Queensland. The fruits
are of the size of plums, bright pink when ripe, with a reddish
Hesh. In its native country the fruit is made into jam and preserves.
The tree has been introduced to Peradeniya, where, however, it
has not yet flowered or produced fruit (1913).
Dialium ovoideum (Leguminosae). Velvet Tamarind; " Gal-
si yambala " S. " Kallupullium " T, " Kanji " (Malay). — A tall tree
with pinnate leaves, indigenous to the semi-dry region of Ceylon.
From near the ends of the branches the dark brown velvety fruits
are produced in clusters, each fruit being about the size of a small
filbert and slightly compressed. The thin brittle shell encloses a
seed surrounded by farinaceous pulp, which has an agreeable acid
taste and is considered a delicacy by the Natives, who use it in the
preparation of a fine chutney. When in season (chiefly October
to December) the fruits are collected from the forests, and sold in
the markets and bazaars in considerable quantities. The tree affords
a handsome dark red timber ; thrives at Peradeniya. Propagated
by seeds.
D. — Guineense. West African Velvet-tamarind. — A tree
similar to the preceding species, but easily distinguished by its
larger leaves. The genus is characterised by the flowers having
only two stamens, most leguminous plants having ten.
Dillenia indica (Dilleniaceae). " Hondapara " S. — A medium-
sized tree with large leaves, native of Ceylon and tropical Asia
generally. It produces a profusion of large round green fruits, each
about 3 inches in diameter, being juicy and very acid. The fruit
is formed by the much enlarged, closely imbricate fleshy sepals ;
it is used for making jelly and a cooling drink, also sometimes as a
vegetable in curries. The tree is often cultivated both for orna-
ment and for its fruit. Propagated by seed, which, being small,
should be sown in a pot under cover.
Diospyros discolor (Ebenaceae). Velvet Apple. — A small
slow-growing tree of the Ebony and Persimmon family, native of
S. India and the Philippines. The beautiful bright pink, velvety-
looking fruit is of the size of an apple and is considered edible, but
158
TROPICAL FRUITS
the author does not think it worth classifying with edible fruits,
unless other varieties are superior to that grown in Peradeniya
Gardens.
Durio zibethinus (Malvaceae). Durian ; Civet-cat Fruit. —
A very large, handsome pyramid- shaped tree, native of the Malay
Archipelago, and commonly cultivated in the Straits, Burma, Java, etc.
for the sake of its celebrated fruit. The latter, produced on the
older branches, varies somewhat from round to oval in shape, and
usually weighs from 5 to 7 lb., though sometimes as much as
Dillenia indica. — " HONDAPAKA."
10 lb. It is armed with thickly set formidable prickles about ^ inch
long ; when ripe it becomes slightly yellow, and possesses an odour
which is intensely offensive to most people, especially on first
acquaintance with it. The cream-coloured pulp surrounding the
seed is the edible portion ; this is most highly prized by the Malays
and other Oriental races, and is also relished by Europeans who
acquire a taste for it. FIRMINGER described it as " resembling
blanc-mange, delicious as the finest cream," whilst MR. RUSSEL
WALLACE considered that "eating durians is a sensation worth a
voyage to the East." The large seeds may be roasted and eaten
FRUIT CULTURE
159
like chestnuts. Pounded into Hour, they are said to be sometimes
made into a substance like "vegetable-ivory." The Durian tree
thrives in the moist low-country of Ceylon up to 2,000 ft. elevation,
and luxuriates in deep alluvial or loamy soil. In Peradeniya
DURIAN-FRUIT. Durio zibcthiiins.
Gardens there are magnificent specimens well over 100 ft.
in height. They usually flower in March or April, and the fruit is
ripe in July or August, but sometimes the flowering and fruiting
period change with an abnormal season. Durian fruits are variable
160
TROPICAL FRUITS
in size, shape, flavour and quantity of pulp, according to variety.
The trees also vary in productiveness, some varieties being almost
barren. Selection and high cultivation should, therefore, be prac-
tised in order to obtain the best fruits. The tree is readily propa-
gated by seed if sown fresh. The large fleshy seed is of short
vitality, and germinates in seven to eight days (See illustration).
Elaeocarpus edulis (Tiliaceae). — A small ornamental tree,
native of New Guinea, producing bright red fruit, which is 3 to 5
DURIAN FKUIT. — Dltlio ZibcthillUS.
sharp-angled, oval in shape, one-seeded, and nearly 2 inches long.
The outer scanty rind (pericarp) is of a sweetish-bitter taste, and may
be made into a savoury jelly or used for pickling. The tree is
worth growing for ornament on account of its graceful foliage and
handsome red fruits, but scarcely as a fruit tree. It thrives in
shady places with loose rich soil, up to about 2,000ft. Propagated
by seed, which take several weeks to germinate.
E-serratus. Ceylon Olive ; " Veralu" 5.; " Verali-palam," T~
A handsome medium-sized tree, indigenous to Ceylon, producing
FRUIT CULTURE 161
smooth oval green fruits, of the size of olives, which they
closely resemble. The fleshy portion surrounding the stone (seed)
is sub-acid and palatable. In an unripe state it is excellent for
pickling, like olives. The principal season for the fruit is April and
May. The tree thrives in the moist low-country up to about
2,000 ft., and is propagated by seed.
Eugenia Jambos (Myrtaceae). Rose-apple ; " Veli Jambo "
S.\ " Seeni Jambo " T. — A medium-sized handsome tree, native of
India and Malaya, and introduced into Ceylon probably in the time
of the Portuguese. Its fragrant pinkish-white or rose-coloured fruit,
about the size of a hen's egg, is of a sweetish-acid taste, and is said
to be sometimes used in preserves. As a fruit, however, it is usually
of a very indifferent quality, being in some cases wooly and almost
tasteless; but it varies somewhat with different trees and conditions
of cultivation. The tree thrives best in moist districts, at medium
elevations up to 3,000 ft., preferring a deep rich soil. Propagated
by seed.
Eugenia javanica. Wax Jambo ; " Peni-Jambo " S. — A small
01 namental Malayan tree, producing clusters of very pretty, shining,
rose-pink, or pinkish-white, waxy-looking fruits. Each fruit is
about the size of a large strawberry, with the base laterally com-
pressed ; the pulp is edible, but is usually too fragrant and pithy to
be agreeable. The tree is propagated by seed, and thrives best at
elevations of 1,000 to 3,000 ft. in moist districts.
E. — malaccensis. Malay-apple; Jambo S.; "Peria Jambo" T. —
A handsome tree 30 to 50 ft. high, with large leathery oval leaves,
indigenous to Malaya. It produces a great profusion of beautiful
crimson flowers, which for several days during January and February
make a bright carpet under the tree as they drop. The pear-shaped
white or bright red fruit are produced chiefly in May and June,
these too making the tree an attractive object. The snowy white,
but rather pithy, pulp surrounding the seed is edible, but not of
much account. Propagated by seed. Thrives in the moist low-
country up to 2,000 ft.
E.— Micheli. Brazil or Surinam Cherry; " Goraka- Jambo "
S. — A small shrubby tree of Brazil, bearing small round and ribbed
fruit, about 1 inch in diameter, rather flattened at the ends, and of
a bright red waxy appearance. These suggest small tomatoes at a
distance ; the pulp is edible, but to most people is too acid and
perfumed to be agreeable. It is said to make good jelly, being
also used in preserves. The tree thrives best at medium elevationsv
1 .000 to 3,000 ft. Propagated by seed.
162
TROPICAL FRUITS
Feronia elephantum (Rutaccce). Wood-apple or Elephant-
apple ; "Diwol"S. ; "Vila" or "Vilatti" T.— A good-sized tree,
40 to 50 ft. high, native of India and Ceylon It bears round fruit,
about the size of a large cricket ball, similar to the Bael-fruit but
LOVI-LOVI. — Flacoiirtia i tier mis.
distinguished from it by having a whitish warty surface. The hard
woody shell encloses a mass of soft brownish mealy substance, which
has a strong aromatic odour. The fruit is generally relished in
Ceylon by the poorer classes, and is also used in native medicine.
FRUIT CULTURE 163
Elephants, too, are fond of it. The tree is common throughout the
dry' region, being often cultivated there as well as in the moist
low-country.
Flacourtia cataphracta. (Bixaceae). "Rata Uguressa" S —
A small thorny tree, native of India and Malaya, producing
round berries of the size of large cherries, purplish or deep-red in
colour, and of a rather tart flavour. FIRMIXGKR thought it
" GORAKA." — Garcinia Cambogia.
"suggestive of something better than a sloe, but worse than an in-
different plum." There are, however, several varieties in cultivation,
and some if properly cultivated merit a better description than
the above. The fruit can be made into a very agreeable jam or
preserve. Plants may be raised from seed, but a good variety
should be budded or grafted.
164 TROPICAL FRUITS
Flacourtia inermis. Lovi-lovi, Tomi-tomi ; u Louvi " S. — A
Malayan, ornamental thornless tree, growing to about 30 ft. high,,
bearing in great profusion bright red, cherry-like berries, which are
produced in two seasons, March to April, and August to September.
The attractive looking fruits are deceptive, being exceedingly sour
in taste ; but they make excellent jelly and may also be used in
preserves. The tree is propagated by seed, and thrives in any
moderately good soil in the low-country. Sow the small seed in
pots or boxes, under cover ; prick out the seedlings into baskets or
bamboo pots when large enough. The plants take about eighteen
months to be ready for planting out (See illustration).
Garcinia Cambogia (Guttiferae). "Goraka" S; "Korakkai-
pulli" T. — A moderate-sized handsome tree, with a round head
and drooping branches, native of the moist low-country of Ceylon
and Western India. The large roundish fruit is of the size of an
orange, with several (usually eight) deep vertical grooves, forming
blunt lobes ; it is smooth on the surface, red or orange-yellow in
colour, and sweetish-acid in taste. When ripe (from June to July)
it is commonly collected by the Natives in the low- country of
Ceylon, the thick succulent shell being cut in sections, dried in the
sun and preserved for use as required. It is largely employed for
preserving rish, being made into a brine with salt ; also used as a
substitute for limes in curries. The tree thrives up to 2,000 ft.
Propagated by seed.
G. Mangostana. Mangosteen ; "Mangus" S. " Mangus-kai "
T. — A moderate-sized conical tree, with large leathery leaves, indi-
genous to Malaya. Its globular purplish brown fruit, about the size
of an apple, is famed as one of the most delicious fruits of the
tropics, some writers describing it as "perhaps the most luscious
fruit in the world, partaking of the flavour of the strawberry and
the grape." The delicate white juicy pulp surrounding and adher-
ing to the seed is the part eaten. In striking contrast to it is the
dense, thick, reddish rind, containing tannic acid and a dye. The
fruit is in season in the low-country of Ceylon from April to June,
and at higher elevations from June to August or September. Here
it is usually sold in the markets, or hawked about, at 75 cts. to
Re. 1 per dozen ; it is always charged for on hotel menus as an
extra. The tree is of very slow growth, and does not usually come
into bearing till about nine or ten years old. The essential con-
ditions for it are a hot, moist climate, and deep, rich well-drained
soil. It thrives up to 1,500 feet elevation in the moist region, but
FRL'IT Cl'LTCRE
165
may also be grown in moderately dry districts with irrigation.
Propagation is usually by seed, but may also be effected by "gootee"
BBBBBfl
MAXI.OSTEKX i-Rt'iT. — Gii rci a in Mangpstaua.
or layering. Sow seeds in pots under cover. The plants are of
very slow growth, taking about two years to become large enough
for planting out, being then only about 12 inches high.
166 TROPICAL FRUITS
Garcinia Xanthochymus. "Cochin-goraka," or "Rata-goraka"
S; "Seemai-goraka" T. — A symmetrical, cone-shaped bushy tree,
growing to 25 or 30 ft. high, native of South India and Malaya.
It bears large leathery leaves, 12 to 16 in. long and 2\ to 3| in.
RATA, OR COCHIN-GORAKA. — Garciiu'a Xantliochymtis.
in width. The handsome yellow fruit, produced in great abun-
dance in December and January, is of the form and size of a
small orange, usually with a pointed projection at the end, the
tender thin skin being smooth and polished. The yellow juicy
pulp is of an acid, but refreshing taste. The tree is propagated by
the large seeds, and thrives up to about 3,000 ft. or more.
FRUIT CULTURE 167
Grias cauliflora (Myrtaceu;). Anchovy Pear. — A small
slender, unbninched West Indian tree, with a crown of very large
drooping leaves, the latter measuring up to 3 ft. in length by
about 6 to 8 inches across. The brown oval fruit, produced on
the stem, are of the size of a hen's egg, and in the West Indies are
considered to resemble the mango in taste, being said to be used
for dessert and pickling. The quality of the fruit produced by
the trees at Peradeniya does not, however, warrant such a high
opinion, and are seldom eaten. MR. HARRISON, of Jamaica, also
concurs in this view. Propagated by seed.
Hibiscus Sabdariffa (Malvaceae). Jamaica or Red Sorrel ;
"Rozelle;" "Rata-bilincha" S; " Pulincha-kira" 7~. — An annual
shrub, 4 to 5 ft. high, with reddish stems, leaves and fruit, native
of the West Indies. It is cultivated in most warm countries (some-
times as an intercrop with other products) for the sake of its large
fleshy sepals, which remain after the flowers fall away (persistent],
and become enlarged and succulent (accrescent), enclosing the
fruit-capsule ; these make excellent jam, and a jelly is also m ide
from them which is considered to be almost equal to red-currant
jelly. In an unripe state the fruit is adapted for pickles, and a
refreshing beverage called "Sorrel-drink" is also prepared from it.
The young tender acid leaves are esteemed by the Natives of
Ceylon as a vegetable in curries, and the stems afford a quantity of
strong fibre. The plant thrives at elevations up to 2,500 ft. with
moderate rainfall. Seeds may be sown at the commencement of
the monsoon rains, and the seedlings, when ready, planted out in
rows about 6 ft. apart, with about 4 ft. between the plants in the
row. The sepals should be fit for picking in 3 to 4 months from
the time of planting, and the plants will continue to produce these
for about two months. The plant occurs in two varieties, viz.,
"White Sorrel" with greenish-white, and "Red Sorrel" with red-
dish sepals, the latter variety being considered to be the more
acid, and generally preferred.
Inocarpus edulis (Leguminosae). Tahiti-chestnut. A moderate-
sized tree with large shining leaves, indigenous to the Pacific Isles.
The large fleshy seeds, of which one or two are contained in a
stout pod, are edible, and said to form an important article of food
to the Natives in the tree's indigenous home. When boiled and
roasted, the seeds are considered palatable, though "not suited to
weak stomachs." The tree thrives and produces flowers and fruit
at Peradeniya, where it has been introduced in 1861, but the fruit
is not eaten here. Propagated by seed.
168 TROPICAL FRUITS
Lansium domesticum (Meliaceaj). "Langsat," or "Lanseh,'
"Duku," (Malayan names). — A moderate-sized ornamental tree, native
of Malaya. It bears long pendant clusters of closely packed berries,
which have a thin tough skin, are pale yellow when ripe, enclosing
opaque aromatic juicy pulp. This fruit is said to be much relished
in its native country, being " eaten fresh or variously prepared,"
and DR. WARD described it as one of the finest fruits of the Malayan
Peninsula. Judging, however, by the product of a tree growing in
Peradeniya Gardens, it by no means justifies so meritorious a de-
scription, and I can only suppose that this must be an extremely
poor variety. The tree does not seem to be much known in India.
Propagated by seed. Will thrive up to 2,000 ft. in moist districts.
Introduced at Peradeniya in 1869.
Lecythis oleracea (Myrtaceae). Sapucaia-nuts. — A large forest
tree of Brazil and Guiana, closely allied to the Brazil-nut.
The long wrinkled nuts (seeds), which are contained in a large
brown woody shell, are regarded as superior to the latter
in delicacy and flavour. Contrary to the Brazil-nuts, the fruit is
furnished with a distinct lid, which when ripe becomes detached
and lets the seeds fall out. Owing, therefore, to the difficulty
of collecting these, they command a higher price than the
Brazil nuts.
Lucuma mammosa (Sapotaceai). Mammee Sapota ; Mar-
malade-fruit ; Sapote, or Grosse-Sapote. — A tree 30 to 40 ft. high,
with fulvous or grey branches, and long obovate pointed leaves,
native of Central America, and cultivated in the West Indies for
its fruit. The cream-coloured, silky flowers are borne in clusters
on the stem. The fruit is about 6 inches long, with reddish pulp,
containing one or more polished seeds. The pulp is sweet, and
resembles in taste a luscious pear. It is made into a marmalade,
which is said to be not unlike good apple preserve. The common
names of this tree are often confused with those of the tree
Mamtnea americana, which see over.
Macadamia ternifolia (Proteaceae). Queensland-nut. — A mod-
erate-sized tree, about 40 ft. high, with dense dark-green
foliage, native of North Eastern Australia. It bears very hard
nuts, of the size of marbles, on spikes 5 to 8 inches long ; the nuts
are edible and of an agreeable flavour, being much relished in
Australia, and sometimes retailed in Sydney at from 8d. to Is. per Ib.
The extremely hard shell, which requires a considerable pressure
to break, is, however, a drawback to these. The tree is propagated
FRUIT CULTURE 169
by seed; thrives and hears fruit at Peradeniya, where it has been
introduced in 1868. Suited to medium elevations.
Mammea americana. (Guttiferae. Mangosteen family).
Mammee-apple ; St. Domingo-apricot. — A moderate-sized tree,
40 to 50 ft. high, with large, rigid, leathery, shining leaves, and
white, scented flowers, native of tropical America and the West
Indies. The fruit is nearly spherical, 3 to 5 inches in diameter,
with thick brown bark-like skin, containing one (sometimes more)
large seed. Towards the apex of the fruit is usually developed a
distinct pointed nipple. The seed is covered with a layer of fibre,
which is surrounded by dense, orange-coloured, sweetish and
slightly aromatic pulp. The latter may be eaten raw or stewed, or
preserved with sugar. The small Mowers are cream-coloured
and scented, and a distillation of these is used in flavouring the
spirituous liquor known as Ran de Creole. DR. LIXDLEY referred to
this fruit as the "Wild Apricot of South America, said to rival the
Mangosteen ;" while MACFADYKX described it as "of a sweetish
aromatic taste, bearing a resemblance to that of carrots." The
tree has been established at Peradeniya since about 1810, and
bears a crop of fruit annually, but here the fruit is sought after
more as a curiosity than on account of its flavour. Propagated by
seed.
Magnifera indica. (Anacardiaceae). Mango; "Amba" S;
"Manga" 7\ — A medium or large-sized tree, of a spreading and
quick-growing habit, indigenous to tropical Asia. It bears large
p inicles of greenish-white, scented flowers, usually in January,
February, or March, followed three or four months later by the
fruit. The latter is generally oval in form, somewhat flattened, often
with a more or less pronounced beak at the apex. It may weigh
from 6 oz. to 2 or 3 lb., has a tough thin skin, and, when ripe, is
yellow, reddish, or green. The flesh is usually of a reddish tint,
with a more or less sweet, turpentine flavour, sometimes resinous
and fibrous. In the centre is the large fibrous seed. The Mango
is the fruit par excellence of India, where it has been cultivated
from time immemorial. Here it may be considered an article of
food as well as dessert, while it also enters largely in the prepa-
ration of chutneys and other preserves. The tree grows from sea-
level to about 4,000 ft. or more, but is scarcely fruitful at ele-
vations over 2,000 ft. in Ceylon. A hot and rather dry climate
and a rich, well-drained soil suit it best. The trees should be
irrigated during prolonged drought, and receive a good mulching
once a year. Pruning is confined to thinning out superfluous or
170
TROPICAL FRUITS
sickly branches ; while root-pruning is sometimes applied with
advantage to trees which are unfruitful (owing to their running too
much into wood and leaf), this being performed by cutting a deep
trench round the tree at a few feet from the stem, cutting clean
all roots met with. Shade is not necessary, except when the plants,
are young. Propagation is best by inarching or layering, the gootee
method being commonly adopted in India. Propagation of the
mango by budding may also be successfully effected (see under
"JAFFNA," OK ALPHONSO MAXGO.
Propagation}. Plants are easily raised from seeds, and if care be
exercised in selecting the best fruits from choice varieties, these may
become good fruitful trees. Some varieties are said to come more
true to seed than others. Frequently, however, seedling trees are
liable to be disappointing in the quality of their fruit, and they take
much longer to come into bearing than layered or grafted plants,
the latter commencing to bear fruit in their fourth or fifth year.
Before planting out, large holes, not less than 3 by 3 ft., should be
dug, mixing a good proportion of well-rotted manure with the
FRLIT CULTURE
171
soil for tilling in. The distance for planting the trees apart
should be not less than 25 ft. each way.
VARIETIES. — There are numerous varieties of the mango in
cultivation, the fruit varying in point of flavour, juiciness and
succulency, size and shape of seed, etc. Varieties are occasionally
PRINCIPAL TYPES OF MANGOES GROWN IN CEYLON.
1 — Rupee mango (not full size)
2 — Jaffna mango
3 — " Betti." or " Bombay " mango
4 — Parrot mango
5 — Mi-amba (Honey mango)
6 — Et-amba (seed mango)
7— Smaller variety of Et-amba
met with which are nearly seedless, that is, the majority of the
seeds are in an imperfectly developed state. Different names are
sometimes given to the same varieties in different countries. In
Ceylon there commonly occur the following five distinct types, but
172 TROPICAL FRMTS
of these there are numerous sub-varieties : —
Rupee. — Very large and somewhat round, pulp luscious and free from
fibre, similar to " Cowasje Patel," or "Inerma" of India.
Jaffna. — Large oval fruit of excellent quality when well-grown ; probably
equal to "Alphonso" of India.
Parrot, "Gira-n niba" S. — Medium-si/ed oblong fruit, with a distinct
beak, piquant and pleasant flavour.
Bombay or " Betti-amba" S.— Round and rather flat, very juicy,
yellow when ripe.
Dainpara. — Fruit rather small and flat, very sweet; must be eaten
quite ripe.
Honey, or "Mi-nniba" S. — A small roundish fruit of a sweet flavour.
Seed~niango or "Et-nmba" S. — A small oval fruit, with scanty juicy
pulp, of a distinct piquant flavour.
" Maha-mudaliyar" or "Pulin-ambci " S. — A very small seedless fruit,
with sweet juicy pulp. See seedless nwugo below.
The following are a few, out of a great number, of the princi-
pal Indian Mangoes : —
Afouza. — Greenish yellow with dark specks, about 18 oz., very sweet.
Alphonso. — About 12 o/., 4 in. by 31 in., pulp of the finest piquant and
delicate flavour. Generally considered the best of all mangoes.
Banchore of Dlnu'rey. — Yellow, 3 in. by 2£ in., very sweet.
Borslui. — Oblong, bright green with yellow spots when ripe ; up to
10 o/., delicious flavour.
Cnstodio. — Very large, yellowish-green, free from fibre.
Mnlgoba. — Fairly large, yellow and green blotched, no fibre, flavour
piquant and sweet.
Pitkria. — Medium-si/ed, rich crimson, pulp deep yellow.
Ryotya. — Bright crimson, weight about J lb., extra fine flavour, no
fibre.
Siilgtidii/n. — Medium-si/ed, rich crimson, pulp deep yellow.
L'nraboa is about the best mango in the Philippines, the Pico ranking
next to it in quality ; both are bright yellow when ripe.
Paliittan, — also a highly-flavoured mango of the Philippines ; recom-
mended as a stock for grafting on, owing to the great vigour and
si/e of the tree.
S under sha. — Large clear yellow, with a distinct beak, juicy and tender,
free from fibre.
Totapari. — Medium-si/ed, slightly fibrous, of excellent flavour.
A seedless mango of a very pleasant flavour, which is
reported as occurring in Hawaii, would appear to be similar to the
Pnhu-atnba or " Maha-Muddliyar" mango of Ceylon.
Melicocca bijuga. (Sapindaceae). " Honey Berry," Spanish
Lime, Ginep, Mamoncillo (Cuba). — A large handsome tree of
South America with pinnate leaves, introduced and cultivated in
several West Indian Islands. It produces numerous green small oval
FRl'IT CULTURE
173
fruits about an inch in length, possessing an aromatic sweet taste.
Usually too small to be worth eating, though said to be appreci-
ated and much consumed in some localities, especially in Cuba.
Introduced to Peradeniya in 1907.
Mimusops Bojeri (Sapotaceas). — A slow-growing tree with
small ovate or obovate leathery leaves, shiny above and satiny grey
beneath. The fruits, produced in November and December, are
of the size of small plums, borne in clusters at the ends of
the branches; each fruit contains from 2 to 4 large oblong
brown seeds ; the
pulp, surrounded by
a thin skin, has a
sweet taste, not un-
like the Sa pod ilia
plum. The tree con-
tains a white gummy
latex, thrives in
Ceylon up to 1,500ft.
elevation, and is pro-
pagated from seeds.
Monstera deli-
ciosa. ( A r o i d e ae ,
A r u m f a m i 1 y ) . —
A noble epiphytic
creeper with large,
scolloped and perfor-
ated leaves, native of
Mexico. It producer
in the axils of the
uppermost leaves a
cone-like fruit (spa-
i//.r). 6 to 8 inches
long, which is edible
and has a pleasant
odour when ripe. The fruit has an agreeable flavour suggesting
a pine-apple, but is rather juiceless. Its chief drawback, however,
is the presence of minute black spines attached to the inside
portion, which cause a disagreeable itching in the throat. The
plant is a creeper, and requires stout tree trunks to grow upon. It
may be readily propagated by placing cuttings in a mixture of old
bark, leaf mould and coir-refuse at the has- of the tree on which
Monstcni
FRUIT KDIHLK.
174
TROPICAL FRUITS
it is to grow. After getting a firm hold of the tree it requires no
further attention.
Musa sapientum (Scitamineae, Ginger family). Plantain or
Banana; "Kehel" S. "Vala" T. — A small quick-growing tree
1 0 to 20 ft. high, with a herbaceous stem composed of the succulent
"SUWANDALE PLANTAIN OR BANANA.
leaf stalks. As regards utility combined with magnificence, this
must be considered one of the most remarkable of tropical
products. When the plant is about eighteen months old the enor-
mous flower-stalk issues from the centre of the crown of leaves, and
curves over with its own weight. The flowers are in clusters, and
alternate with large reddish succulent scales ; the latter drop off
as the fruit stalk develops, and the ovaries of the flowers rapidly
FRUIT CULTURE 175
grow into large linger-like fruits, which are borne in combs or
clusters. The banana fruit, or plantain, as it is generally called in
the Eastern Tropics, may be said to be to the inhabitants of the
torrid zone what bread and potatoes are to those of the North
temperate zone. It is a highly nutritious and easily digested food,
containing practically all the elements necessary to the human
body ; according to The Lancet, the starch of the banana is much
more digestible than are the cereal starches. The tree will grow
in any ordinarily good soil, provided it is sufficiently moist and
well-drained ; it is essentially suited to a hot and moist climate,
but will also thrive in a dry climate under irrigation, and up to
5,000 ft. in sheltered valleys. A windy situation and a sandy
calcareous soil are both unsuited to it. Propagation is effected
by offshoots or suckers, and these may be planted out direct at a
distance of 12 ft. by 12 ft. apart, good large holes, tilled with well-
manured soil, being first prepared for them. Fertile seed is rarely
produced by cultivated varieties. The plant will throw out
several suckers, forming a clump, \vhich should not be allowed to
exceed live or six stems. The clumps should from time to time be
moulded up with surface soil and any mulch of leaves, etc., avail-
able. The first bunches of fruit may be obtained about a year from
the time of planting, while the subsidiary suckers produce fruit when
from twelve to sixteen months old. Each stem as it fruits dies, and
others take its place, the clump thus continuing productive for
several years. Under good tillage, an acre is considered to pro-
duce 300 to 400 or more bunches annually. The plants will
respond well to manuring and deep tillage. An application of a
mixed fertiliser composed of (for an acre) 200 Ib. sulphate of
potash, 250 Ib. sulphate of ammonia and 450 Ib. superphosphate,
is recommended by growers in the West Indies. All leaves and
trash should be returned to the soil.
VARIETIES. — A great number of varieties occur in cultivation. Of
those grown in Ceylon the two best are doubtless Snwandel and
Koliknttn. Less superior kinds are, however, the most cultivated
(because the most prolific and easiest of cultivation), such as Einbnl-
hoiutarawala, Anamaln. and Rath-kchd, or forms of these.
The following are the principal varieties met with in Ceylon :—
Anamaln (fingers stout, rather angular, sub-acid, large bunches) ; Bin-
kehcl or Dwarf plantain (similar to Anamaln, fingers thickly set,
smooth yellow skin) ; Embnl-hondarawala (most common kind
met with in markets and bazaars, fingers straight, fragrant, sub-
icid) ; Koli-knttn (fingers large and stout, loose-skinned, sweet.
176 TROPICAL 1-RUITS
mealy, produced in large hunches ; Pnwaln (fingers thin and
rather angular, somewhat acid) ; Rand or Red Plantain (large red
fingers, home in huge clusters; coarse, thick-skinned, mealy;
chiefly grown in the North of Ceylon) ; Rata-lwndarawala (thickly
set combs ; angular stout fingers, sweet) ; Rath-kehel (short,
smooth, round fingers, rather acid but pleasant) ; Snivandel {thin-
skinned, tender and sweet, considered the best in Ceylon ; not
commonly grown for market).
While almost all the above may be cooked in an unripe state and used
as a vegetable, the following are used chiefly for that purpose only,
although some are also eaten raw when ripe, viz., Aln-kehel or Asli
Plantain (slender stems ; fingers stout and angular, covered with
a greyish bloom) ; Martlianialn (short, stout, thick fingers, resem-
bling Anamalu in taste), Xawari or Wandarn-anamaln (long, thin
greenish-yellow fingers ; dark slender stems) ; Pnspakadali (short
stout fingers, thin-skinned ; suited for dessert) ; Snramondan
(large green angular fruit, borne in huge clusters). Gros Michel,
also known as the "Jamaica" or " Martinique" banana, is said to
be the principal variety grown in Jamaica (and apparently also in
Hawaii, Cuba, etc.) for export.
Musa Cavendishii; "Dwarf" or " Chinese banana," native of
South China, is the one so largely cultivated in the Canary Islands
and exported to England, etc. It is also said to be the one now
chiefly grown in Barbados.
While in the Eastern Tropics all bananas are known as plan-
tains, in the West Indies the name "plantain" is applied only to
cooking varieties.
Nephelium lappaceum. (Sapinclacea^). " Rambutan ; "Rum-
turn" S. — A large handsome spreading tree, native of Malaya,
yielding a profusion of bright red or orange-yellow fruits, the
latter being produced in large clusters suspended from the ends of
the branches, presenting a very ornamental effect. Each fruit is
of the size of a large gooseberry, covered with long soft coloured
spines, the interior being occupied by a large seed, surrounded by
a layer of white opaque pulp (aril), which is of an acidulous agree-
able taste. Birds and bats are particularly partial to it. It is
curious that this fruit, which is so common in the low-country of
Ceylon and in the Straits, appears to be scarcely known in India,
Mauritius, Madagascar, etc. The tree is readily propagated from
seed, but the best varieties should be raised by grafts or gootees.
Thrives up to 2,000 ft. elevation.
Nephelium chryseum (or N. mutabile) ; Pulassan. — A Malayan
tree, similar to therambutan in appearance, but differing in the fruit
and in the leaves being grey beneath. The fruit is larger than the
FRUIT CULTURE
177
rambutan, of a deep purple brown, with short blunt processes, and,
according to RIDLEY, the flavour is decidedly superior to that of
the latter fruit.
N.— Litchi. "Litchi," or "Litchee." — A small bushy tree, with
handsome dense foliage, native of China. It blossoms in the dry
season (about February), producing sprays of pale-green flowers,
and ripens its fruit about June. The fruit, produced in clusters, is
of the size and form of a large plum, with a rough, thin warty rind,
which becomes of a beautiful red tinge, gradually turning to a dull
brown colour before it is quite ripe. The jelly-like pulp or aril
RAMBUTAX. — Xephelhiw lappaccnm.
which covers the seed is of a translucent whiteness and of an
agreeable refreshing flavour. This fruit, represented by different
varieties of varying quality, is grown to great perfection about
Calcutta and elsewhere in India, and is commonly sold in the
bazaars when in season. CAMERON says it thrives up to 3,500 ft.
in South India, giving at Bangalore two crops of fruit a year
(in May and December). It is grown successfully in Mauritius,
but, curiously, is rarely met with in Ceylon, though introduced here as
early as 1802. The tree flourishes and produces fruit at Peradeniya,
but the variety grown here is obviously an indifferent one. There
are several varieties in cultivation, distinguished by size and shape
178
TROPICAL FRUITS
of fruit, quality of pulp, and size of seed. Litchi fruits are dried
and preserved in China and Cochin China, from whence they are
exported to Europe and America. Dried litchis are of a sweetish
LITCHI FRUIT. — Ncplieliinii Litchi.
acid taste, and when deprived of the brittle shell rather resemble
raisins. The tree may be multiplied by sowing seed, but budding;
or grafting should be adopted to propagate the best varieties.
Passiflora laurifolia (Passi Horaces, Passion-fruit family).
Water-lemon; "Jamaica Honey-suckle," "Pomme d'Or," or
FRUIT CULTURE
179
44 Bell-apple." — A handsome West Indian climber with laurel-like
foliage, said to be cultivated in its native home for its fruit, which
are much esteemed for dessert. The plant appears to have been
introduced at Peradeniya before 1824, but although it grows and
Mowers freelv here, it has not vet set fruit, neither does it seem to
GRAXAUILLA. — Passiflora quatlningnlaris.
be fruitful elsewhere in the East. The fruit is of the size and
shape of a hen's egg, with a smooth yellow rind when ripe, con-
taining sweet watery pulp. The plant is readily propagated by-
cuttings, and is especially adapted for growing as a screen on the
sides of plant-houses. Light humous, well drained soil suits it best.
P.— edulis. Passion -fruit. (See Sub-tropical Fruits.)
180 TROPICAL FRUITS
Passiflora quadrangularis. Granadilla ; "Garandilla" or
Ratapuhul, S. ; " Seemai-sorakai " T. — A strong quick-growing
climber, with large oval leaves and square stems, native of tropical
America. Its large oblong greenish -yellow fruit is not unlike a short
and thick vegetable-marrow, and contains in its hollow centre a mass
of purple, sweet-acid pulp mixed with the flat seeds. In the unripe
state the succulent portion of the fruit may be boiled and used as
a vegetable. The root is usually swollen and fleshy, and is some-
times eaten like a vam. The flowers are generally fertilised by
insects, but these should be aided by artificial fertilisation by hand,
so as to ensure a larger crop oi fruit. When the fruit is over, the
shoots should be well cut back, retaining little but the stem. The
plant is propagated by either seed or cuttings, and thrives up to
about 3,000 ft. in Ceylon. It should be trained over a fence
or trellis-work, or allowed to climb trees with low spreading
branches.
Persea gratissima. (Lauraceae). Avocado Pear ; Alligator-
Pear ; Soldier's Butter; "Et-pera" S. "Anakoya-pallam" T.— A
small tree, 25 to 30 ft. high, native of tropical America. The
fruit is a salad rather than dessert ; it is ordinarily green, but
acquires a yellowish or pinkish tint when ripe. It is of the form of
a large pear, with a very thin tender skin, and contains in its hollow
centre a large round fleshy seed. Between this and the rind is a
thick layer ol greenish-yellow pulp, of the consistency of firm
butter, and somewhat resembling walnut in flavour ; this may
be scooped out with a spoon and eaten either plain or flavoured
with salt, pepper and vinegar; it is much esteemed by many
people and considered wholesome. The fruit should be picked
before it is quite ripe, and kept for a few days to become slightly
soft. The tree is now commonly grown in the Eastern tropics, as
well as in Florida, Queensland, Madeira, Natal, etc. The fruit is
very popular in the United States, and is also imported into
London, to a small extent, from the Canary Islands. It is very
susceptible to injury by bruising, and therefore rather difficult of
transport, the least bruise causing a black mark. The tree thrives
best, in Ceylon, at medium elevations, where it bears fruit abun-
dantly, chiefly from July to August. There are several distinct
varieties in cultivation, the fruit of these varying in shape, size,
thickness, colour of the skin, etc. While in some it is smooth and
green, in others it is warty and crimson. A good tree will bear
from 600 to 800 or more fruits a year, and each fruit may weigh
FRUIT CULTURE 181
from 1 Ib. to as much as 2 Ib. Propagated by grafting or seed,
which should be selected and. sown as fresh as possible.
Phoenix dactylifera (Palmae). Date Palm. — A sub-tropical,
dioecious palm, attaining a height of 60 to 80 ft. or more, with
stiff feathery leaves, extensively cultivated for its fruit (the dates
of commerce) in Northern Africa, North- Western Asia, and the
Mediterranean region. All parts of the palm are used for different
domestic purposes, as in the case of the coconut-palm in the torrid
AVOCADO PEAR. — Pcrscn gratissiina.
zone. Dates are a standard article of food with the inhabitants
of the countries above named, being also used as food for animals.
Here the cultivation of the fruit forms a large and important
industry, it being dried or preserved and largely exported. The
chief requirements of the Date-palm are : great heat for a certain
period of the year, a dry atmosphere, and a sandy soil. In the
region where it is indigenous or cultivated, the temperature in
summer sometimes reaches 100° Fah., whilst in winter it goes
182 TROPICAL FRUITS
down to freezing point. An annual rainfall of 5 to 10 inches is
sufficient, but no rain should fall during the fruiting period, viz.,
June to October. The palm requires, however, a constant supply
of water at the roots, and the water may be brackish, but not stag-
nant. The trees are planted about 25 ft. apart each way, or 70
trees to the acre. Before planting, deep and sunken pits for the
plants should be prepared ; these are at first only partially filled,
preferably by light rich soil. The plants should be shaded and
protected after planting, and the soil kept moist by watering until
they have become established, and put on fresh leaves. The best
time for planting is at the commencement of the rainy season.
The Date-palm has of late been largely planted in the Southern
United States and Queensland. Its cultivation in Northern India
is reported to be only partially successful, whilst in Ceylon and
the Straits it has so far proved a failure. A Date-palm in the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, has grown to a height of
about seventy feet, being now some 65 years old, but has never
flowered. Propagation may be effected by seeds or off-shoots, the
latter means being usually adopted, as seedlings cannot be relied
upon for the quality of fruit produced, nor can the male be distin-
guished from the female plants until they have flowered. Only female
trees are productive, and their flowers must be fertilised by those
of the male tree. The trees bear off-shoots as a rule only between
the ages of six and sixteen years. Off-shoots are not removed
from their parents until three to five years old. When planting
these out, one male off-shoot is planted to every 50 or 100 ''females,"
this proportion being considered sufficient to secure the fertili-
sation of the flowers of the latter. The latter process is some-
times assisted by hanging the male inflorescence above the
flowers of the female tree for a few days ; the dates are ripe and
ready to gather about four months after pollination of the flowers.
The palms come into bearing in 5 to 7 years, but are not in their
prime until 20 years old. A good tree will produce from 150 to 200
Ib. of fruit per annum, and may continue productive until it has
reached the age of 80 or 100 years. After attaining this age the
palms are used only for extracting toddy (fermented juice), \vhich
is obtained by means of incisions made in the crown of the tree.
The toddy, being fermented and distilled, yields an intoxicating
beverage or arrack. There is a large number of varieties of dates
in cultivation, amongst the best being Dcglel Noor, Khadramee,
Hallawee, Sayer, Zahdee, and Dcrec.
FRUIT CULTURE 183
Photinia (Eriobotrya) japonica. (Rosaceze, Apple family).
Loquat ; Japanese- medlar. — A tree of medium size and symmetrical
habit, with large handsome leaves, which are wooly- white under-
neath, native of China and Japan. It is cultivated in most warm
countries for its small oval yellow fruits, which are of the size of
crab apples and have a sweetish acid flavour, and are especially
suited for stewing. There are different varieties of Loquat, but
the merits of each depend largely on cultivation. The dingy white
Howers are delightfully fragrant. The tree thrives from about
2,000 to 5,000 ft. elevation in the tropics, and likes light rich soil,
with good drainage. Plants are raised readily from seeds, but
superior varieties should be propagated by budding and grafting.
Phyllanthus distichus. (Euphorbiaceae). Otaheite Goose-
berry; Star-gooseberry; " Kata-nelli," or " Siri-nelli " S. — A shrub
or small tree, with long graceful feathery leaves, native of India
and Malaya, and often cultivated in low-country gardens in Ceylon
It bears a pale green, round, ribbed and acid fruit, with a hard
seed in the centre. The fruit is commonly used by the Natives
for pickling ; cooked with sugar it makes a delicious preserve. A
crop is produced twice a year, in April and August. Propagated
by seed. Suited only to the moist low-country.
P.-Emblica. " Nelli " S.— (See under Sub-tropical Fruits).
Psidium Guyava (Myrtaceae). Guava ; " Pera " S. ; " Koiya-
pallam " T. — A spreading shrub or small tree, ten to fifteen feet
high, native originally of tropical America, but now thoroughly
naturalised in Ceylon, India, Malaya, etc. In Ceylon, a wild form
of Guava frequently comes up as a weed in waste ground and in
the poorest soil, bearing small round berries, chiefly from November
to January ; these are pale yellow when ripe, and are sold in the
boutiques or hawked about under the name of " Embul pera " (at
about 3 to 5 cts. per hundred); they are used for stewing and for
making tarts and jelly. The best cultivated varieties have a large
juicy fruit, round or oval in shape, becoming a lemon-yellow colour
when ripe. The tender skin encloses a reddish or yellowish pulp
(which has a sharp tart flavour), towards the centre of which the
numerous small seeds are embedded. The chief use of the fruit is
for making the noted guava jelly. Propagation of the tree is easily
effected by seed or suckers, but budding or grafting should be
resorted to for the best varieties. The Guava thrives at all
elevations up to 4,000 ft. or higher, and flourishes in ordinarily
good soil. The variety Pear Guara bears a large oval succulent
184 TROPICAL FRUITS
fruit, of the form of a lemon, with a smooth yellow rind and pale-
green, scented pulp. Kaffree or Kaffir Guava is distinguished by a
large warted and furrowed fruit, not unlike a Citron in appearance.
Apple or Red guava (P. pomifenun) is similar to the Pear Guava,
but differs in having a round fruit with reddish pulp.
Psidium Guineense. Guinea Guava. — A shrub, eight to twelve
feet high, native of Guinea. The fruit is described as "a fulvous berry,
red inside, about the size of a nutmeg, and of an exquisite taste.''
P. — Cattleyanum. — (See under Sub-tropical Fruits).
Prosopis dulcis (Leguminosae). Algarobo-,Cashaw-, or
Mesquit Bean. — A deciduous thorny shrub or tree, 30 to 40 ft.
high, with small bi-pinnate leaves, native of Central and South
America. The sweetish succulent pods, which are similar to
" Carob beans," are edible, but are chiefly used for feeding cattle.
Probably suited for the dry zone. Propagated by seed. The tree
has apparently not yet been established in Ceylon.
P.— julifera. Similar to the foregoing species.
P.— pubescens. Tornilla or Screw-bean. — A small tree of
Texas, Mexico, etc., similar to the foregoing species in general
characters.
P. — spicigera. A small tree, resembling P. dulcis, native
of Northern India, where its sweetish farinaceous pods form
a valuable article of food in times of scarcity. They are eaten
green or dry, raw or boiled, with salt and onions, etc., and are also
used a* fodder for cattle. Suited for the dry zone only ; not yet
established in Ceylon. See under Fodder Plants.
Punica granatum. (Lythraceae). Pomegranate ; " Delun " S.
Madalankai " T. — A small ornamental tree, with large beautiful
scarlet flowers, native of Northern Africa and South Europe. It is
commonly met with in gardens throughout the East, thriving
especially near the sea, but also to some extent up to about 4,000 ft.
elevation. The fruit is of the size of a large apple, with a
tough rind, of a yellowish colour, tinged with red when ripe,
( sometimes bright red or orange-yellow) and crowned with the
persistent calyx lobes. The succulent, juicy coating of the
numerous seeds is sometimes of a sweet acid taste, but often very
bitter and astringent. In the tropk^, the fruit is usually inferior to
that grown in its native country, and in some cases seems to
contain nothing but a quantity of closely packed seed writh a little
astringent juice. Superior varieties, however, occur in cultivation,
some being described as u almost seedless, very sweet, deliciously
FRUIT CULTURE 185
perfumed, and as large as an infant's head." The best fruits I have
seen in Ceylon were grown on the dry sea-coast of Puttalam. Pro-
pigation is best by budding or grafting, though plants are easily
raised from seed.
Sandoricum indicum (Sapindaceae). Santol. — A handsome
lofty tree of Malaya, producing in June and July large clusters of
yellow globular fruits, not unlike small oranges at a distance. Like
the Rambutan, the soft white aril covering the seeds (five) is of a
somewhat agreeable acid and refreshing taste ; fermented and
mixed with rice, an intoxicating drink is prepared from it in its
native country. The tree thrives in hot and moist districts up to
about 2,000 ft. or more, and is worth growing for its ornamental
effect. Propagated by seed.
Sarcocephalus esculentus (Rubiaceae). Negro-peach;
" Rata-bakmi " S. — A robust semi -climbing or spreading shrub,
native ot West Tropical Africa, and introduced at Peradeniya in
1883. Its soft brownish warty fruit, produced chiefly in July and
October, is about the size of an apple ; the soft reddish watery
pulp is edible, but insipid, and the fruit is hardly worth considering
amongst edible kinds. Propagated by seed or cuttings ; thrives up
to 2,000 ft. elevation.
Spondias dulcis (Anacardiaceae). Otaheite-apple ; "Amba-
rella" S. — A small tree with handsome foliage, native of the Society
Islands, etc. The oval-shaped fruit is of the size of a large hen's
egg and of an amber colour when ripe ; it has a large stone (seed) in
the centre, which is covered with coarse fibre and a scanty, very acid
pulp, "with a flavour like that of an exceedingly bad mango."
Notwithstanding, however, a high reputation given the fruit by
some writers, it seems hardly worth a place in a fruit collection,
unless for stewing, or for use in making jam or preserves. Propa-
gated by seed, and suited to the moist low-country.
Sorindeia madagascariensis (Anacardiaceae). " Manguiera
a grappes." — A large tree of the mango family, with pinnate leaves,
native of Madagascar, Zanzibar, and East Tropical Africa. It is said
to be sometimes cultivated for the sake of the fruit, which is oval
in shape, about one inch long, and of a sweet taste with a turpentine
flavour. Introduced at Peradeniya in 1911, through MR. REGNARD,
Mauritius.
Tamarindus indica (Leguminosae). Tamarind ; ''Siyambala/'
S.; 4l Pullimn^_2>^A large handsome upright tree, with fine
(""Feathery toBagernative Of tropical Asia and Africa. It is commonly
186 TROPICAL FRUITS
cultivated throughout the warmer parts of India, Ceylon, and
Malaya both for its shade and excellent timber, as well as for its
fruit. The latter consists of a brownish pod, 3 to 4 inches long,
containing a mass of sweetish acid brown pulp. These pods form
the "Tamarinds" of commerce, which are used in European as well
as in Native medicine. The pulp is pressed and preserved in large
masses, being commonly sold in the kaddies or bazaars by weight.
It is esteemed for flavouring various dishes, while tamarind-wine
and other cooling beverages are prepared from it. In the north-
ern part of Ceylon, it is made into a brine for preserving fish. The
principal season for the fruit is from January to February. The
tree thrives in moist as well as dry districts up to about 2,000 ft.
elevation, and in the dry northern part of Ceylon is commonly
planted as a shade-tree for road-sides. Several varieties are recog-
nised in India. The tree is readily propagated by seed.
Telfairea pedata (Cucurbitaceae). Telf aria-nuts ; " Mkwe-
me." — A climber with a slender woody stem, reaching a height of
50 to 80 ft., native of Zanzibar and East Tropical Africa. The
fruit attains a size of one to two feet or more in length, and eight
or ten inches in thickness, containing a large number of flat nearly
circular seeds, each about lj inches across. These latter are also
eaten, either fresh or dried in the sun and roasted ; they are said
to be very palatable, and to contain about 36 % of oil with a value
equal to that of olive oil. Propagated by seed, which germinate
within a week.
Terminalia Catappa ( Combretaceae). Indian-almond;
44 Kotamba" S.; 44 Kottai " T. — A spreading tree, thirty to fifty feet
high, with large leathery leaves, native of Malaya. The fruit is of
the size of a plum, compressed on two sides, and contains a
kernel which is much relished and used for dessert in India.
FIRMINGER considered it to be " beyond comparison the most deli-
cious nut of any kind the country affords." The tree is deciduous
twice a year, and bears two crops of fruit annually before dropping
its leaves, i.e., in June and November. It thrives up to about 2,000 ft.
in moist as well as rather dry districts. Propagated by seed.
Trapa bicornis (Onagraceae). Water Chestnut ; u Ikiliya "
S. — An aquatic plant, common in the tanks of the dry region of
Ceylon, also in Bengal, Malaya, and Tropical Africa, FIRMINGER
stated : " Much cultivated in many parts of India for its nuts."
It does not seem, however, to be in any way cultivated in Ceylon,
though the " nuts " are commonly collected and eaten by the
FRUIT CULTURE
187
Natives. The " nut " consists of the hard two-horned fruit,
resembling a miniature bull's head, and is of a dark brown or some-
times black colour. The interior is said to be agreeable to eat
when fried.
Triphasia aurantiola (Rutaceae). Chinese Lime. — A small
spiny shrub, native of South China, but said to be naturalised
in India. It is recommended in the West Indies as a stock for
YOA-VAXGA. — Vangneria edtilis.
budding oranges and limes upon. The small red, berry-like fruit
can hardly be considered edible, though in China it is made into a
preserve, the whole berry being used. It is also prepared in Manila
in a similar manner and exported as *4 Lime-berries." Thrives
at medium elevations, probably not grown in Ceylon outside
Peradeniya Gardens. Propagated by seed.
Vangueria edulis (Rubiaceze). Voa-vanga. — A small shrub-
by, deciduous tree, native of Madagascar, producing a large number
188 TROPICAL FRUITS
of smooth, round, green fruit, of the size of a small apple. This
when ripe acquires a yellowish green tint, the sweetish acid juicy
pulp suggesting the flavour of the " Velvet Tamarind " (Dialnun}^
The tree thrives and fruits at Peradeniya, and would appear to
give promise of improvement by cultivation and selection. The
coolies here display a keen partiality for the fruit when
approaching ripeness. The large, shining, light-green leaves are
said to be used in medicine in Madagascar. Suited to the moist
low-country up to 2,000 ft. Propagated by seed or cuttings (See-
illustration).
Vitis vinifera (Ampelidae). Grapes, or Grape-vine. The
Grape-vine is extensively cultivated in Southern Europe (its native
home), Australia, South Africa, and Southern United States ; also
in England and elsewhere in glass-houses (vineries), the finest
dessert grapes being produced under the latter conditions. Tn the
dry provinces of India, grapes of very fair quality are grown, both
from exotic and indigenous sorts, while in the dry northern part
of Ceylon certain varieties of grape have long been cultivated with
some degree of success. Here the want of a winter's rest, which is
so essential to the plant, is partially supplied by periodically baring
the roots and exposing them to the sun. This operation is resort-
ed to once a year, about the time of the principal pruning, in July.
A practical experiment which was made a few years ago at Colombo,
under the supervision of an expert viticulturist, proved conclu-
sively the unsuitability of the uniformly steamy and hot climate
here to the grape vine. Exhaustive efforts have also been made
by MR. W. NOCK at Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon (elevation about
5,000 ft.) in growing vines in a glass-house, which, however, ended
in failure as regards the production of fruit. The essential con-
ditions for the grape-vine are : a dry warm temperature when the
fruit is setting and ripening, and a cold period for resting or
44 wintering." A wet climate is unsuitable, but moisture at the
roots is essential, and this is best supplied by irrigation, which may
be continued until the branches are commencing to ripen, when it
should cease. In vineyards, the vines are usually planted in rows
and grown on the bush system, being pruned back each year to a
height of about four feet. In glass-houses and in the tropics they
are, however, best grown as climbers, being provided with supports
by means of horizontal wires or trellises, pillars, etc. In Jaffna,,
the vines are usually trained over a pandal or trellis.
FRUIT CULTURE 189
Propagation. The Grape-vine is readily piopagated by cuttings, which
should he inserted slanting-wise in the soil, with only about two
buds above the surface, and the earth well pressed upon them.
Pinning ami Thinning. 'The usual pruning is carried out after the
crop is over, all lateral shoots being pruned back once a year to
within two or three buds of the main stem, and any unnecessary
growth removed. In order to obtain fruit of the best quality, the
berries should be thinned out by means of a pair of fine scissors
and the bunches also reduced in number.
Mil it it ring. The plant requires liberal treatment. A mixture of loamy
soil and decomposed cattle manure suits it well. In Jafina, fish
manure is considered the best fertiliser, though the Natives have
also a strong belief in the value of salt as a manure for vines. As
stimulants, artificial manures give excellent results.
]'tirictics. All the numerous varieties of the Grape-vine cultivated are
considered to belong to Vitis vinifera. There are, however, nu-
merous species of Vitis, many of them indigenous to Ceylon ; but
none of the latter can be considered to produce edible fruit, except
perhaps V. indica. The Black Hainbro, with dark purplish fruit
and Muscat of Alexandria, with pale-green berries, are grown in
the northern part of Ceylon. In addition to these the following
varieties are said to give good results in Jamaica, viz ; Bar-
barossa, Muscat Hamburg, and Gross Colinau.
Yield. In Jaffna. Ceylon, two crops a year are obtained, the principal
one in March, and the second in September. The fruit takes three
to four months to ripen, from the time of flowering, the vines
(which grow to a large size) each producing an annual crop of
from 100 to 300 Ib. or more; this is sold at prices varying from
30 to 50 cents (=6d. to Sd.) per Ib.
Zizyphus jujuba ( Rhamnaceae). Jujube; "Masan" S. ;
44 Ilantai " T. — A small, thorny, spreading tree, native of
Ceylon, India, and Malaya. The fruit, which is borne in great
profusion and is in season about October, is of the size of a large
cherry, smooth and shiny, yellowish in colour, with a kernel
in the centre ; it is rather acid in flavour, and in India is said to
" afford a very nice dish when cooked with sugar." In Ceylon,
however, the fruit is usually eaten only by children. The tree
thrives up to about 3,000 ft., and is propagated by seed.
Z.— vulgaris.— A small thorny tree, native of Syria and Levant,
said to be 4i commonly grown about Calcutta and in most parts of
India." The round fruit has a thin, pale-green smooth rind ; the
fleshy substance between the kernel and the rind is of a pleasant
flavour, crisp and refreshing, not unlike a juicy apple, but it has
little to recommend it as a fruit. Propagated by seed. Suited to
low elevations onlv.
CHAPTER XL
SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS
SUITED TO HIGH OR INTERMEDIATE ELEVATIONS, WITH RAINFALL
FROM 60 TO 80 INCHES OR MORE
[S=SlXHALESE : 7=TAMIL]
Aberia caffra (Bixaceae). Kei Apple. — A small thorny tree
or tall shrub, native of the Cape and Natal. The fruit is of the
form of a small apple and, when ripe, is made into a preserve ; in
an unripe state it is used as a pickle. The tree has been established
at Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, since about 1880, but has only been
known to fruit once.
Anona Cherimolia (Anonaceae). Cherimoyer. — A small tree,
native of S. America and the West Indies, introduced into Ceylon
about 1880. The large, green, round or heart-shaped fruit is 3 to
5 inches in diameter, weighing from 2 to 4 lb., and has a pitted
rind ; it somewhat resembles the Custard-apple, and is known in
Covent Garden Market, London, under that name. The Cherimoyer
has been described as one of the three finest fruits in the world,
the other two rivals being the Mangosteen and Pine-apple.
DR. LINDLEY, however, considered that " one good European Pear
is worth all the Cherimoyers of Peru." The tree is now cultivated
in many up-country gardens in Ceylon, especially in the
Udapussellawa district, where it ripens fruit chiefly between October
and December. In Madeira, the tree is systematically cultivated,
being propagated by grafting. It may also be raised from seed,
but the best varieties have almost seedless fruits. Cherimoyers are
regularly imported from the Canary Islands into London, where
they are often retailed at Is. to 2s. 6d. each. The white and
somewhat granular pulp is similar to that of the Custard-apple,
but much pleasanter to the taste than the latter. The tree is best
suited to the hill districts, preferring a rather dry climate ; it is
considered to thrive best on deep, rich soil in which lime is present.
SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS
191
Carica candamarcensis (Passifloraceae). Mountain Papavv. —
A small semi-herbaceous tree with a crown of large coarse palmate
leaves, native of Colombia and Eucador, similar to the Papaw of
the low-country, but with fruit only a fraction the size of the
latter. The tree has been introduced at Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon,
in 1880, and is now commonly grown in hill gardens for the sake
of its fruit, being often found in a semi-naturalised state about
up-country bungalows. The ovoid -green fruit is characterized by
longitudinal ridges, and is in season all the year round ; though
CHERIMOYER, OK CHERIMOLIA. Anoiia Cticrinwlia.
too acid to be used for dessert, it is very agreeable when stewed,
and can also be made into jam and preserves. When ripe the fruit
has a pleasant apple-like odour. Propagated by seed.
Carya oliviformis (Juglandaceae). Pecan-, or Pican-nut. — A
handsome tree with a straight trunk, reaching a height of about 70
feet, native of Texas, etc. The nuts are considered to be the most
delicious of the Walnut kind, and form an important article of
commerce in the Southern United States. The export of these
nuts from Texas is said to value about £12,000 annually. There
are several varieties in cultivation. The tree has not as yet been
192
FRUIT CULTURE
established at Hakgala Gardens, nor apparently in Indian hill
gardens, with the exception possibly of " one or two varieties
under trail " at Saharanpur Botanic Gardens. It requires rather a
dry and temperate or sub-tropical climate.
Cassimoroa edulis (Aurantiaceae, Orange family). Mexican
Apple, White Zapote, or Zapote Blanco. — A medium-sized tree of
Mexico, characterized by large palmate leaves (divided into
5 leaflets), and greenish flowers borne in racemes. The fruit of the
best varieties is edible, being of the size of a medium apple, and
MOUNTAIN PAPAW. Carica Candamarcensis
is considered by some to have an agreeable flavour. The seeds,
which are comparatively large, are considered poisonous ; these as
well as the bark and leaves are used medicinally in Mexico. The
tree has been introduced to Peradeniya in 1899, but has not yet
produced fruit here.
Castanea chincnsis (Cupiliferae). Chinese Chestnut. — This
tree, a native of China, yields a superior nut, but has not been
found suited to the hill districts of Ceylon, and is reported to
have similarly failed in India. The most likely conditions for it
SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS 193
in Ceylon are found in the drier climate of Uva, at 3,000 to 4,000
feet elevation. Plants could be obtained through the Yokohama
Nursery Coy., Yokohama, Japan.
C.— vesca. Spanish Chestnut. — A very handsome tree, lately
introduced at Hakgala and certain other hill gardens in Ceylon.
It is commonly grown on the hills of Northern India, where it
produces in March and April its panicles of lavender-coloured
blossom, the fruit following in May and June. I am not aware
whether it has yet fruited in Ceylon.
Cerasus vulgaris (Rosaceae). Cherry. — The Cherry tree
grows freely at Nuwara Eliya, and flowers abundantly in January
and February, but so far as I am aware has never produced fruit
in Ceylon. CAMERON says (see FIRMIXGER'S Manual of Gardening
in India) : " Every attempt to cultivate it in the Plains of India has
hitherto proved an utter failure. It is, however, grown to
perfection on the hills with a little care." There are some species
of Cherry indigenous to Northern India which yields fruits
suitable for making tarts. Propagated by budding, cuttings, or
layers.
Ceratonia siliqua (Leguminosae). Carobs, or Carob-bean ;
Locust-bea-i ; St. John's Bread. — A small shrubby tree, native of
South Europe, and extensively cultivated in the Mediterranean
region for its sweet, sugary, flat pods ; the latter are about 6 inches
long, nearly 1 inch wide, dark brown in colour, and form a
considerable article of export in the countries named ; they are
a valuable fattening and nutritious food for cattle, and are also
eaten and relished by human beings. The tree is a slow grower,
but is of great longevity, being considered to remain productive for
over a hundred years, and may live for several years more. When
in its prime, between 18 and 40 years old, it produces several
hundredweight of pods in a season. Efforts have been made
to establish the tree in Ceylon ; but, although specimens have for
several years been growing at Anuradhapura, Hakgala Gardens,
Albion Estate, etc., none have as yet borne fruit worth speaking
of. The Carob-bean tree is frequently unisexual, so that trees
raised from seed are often unproductive. The usual method of
propagation is by cuttings.
Citrus Aurantium (Rutaceae). Orange. — (See under Tropical
Fruits).
G. — Limonum. Lemon ; " Natran " S. ; " Kidanar-attankai "
T. — This small-sized tree, native of Northern India, is extensively
194 FRUIT CULTURE
cultivated in Southern Europe and elsewhere for its well-known
fruit, which is usually oval in shape, and pale-yellow when ripe.
The tree grows freely at medium and high elevations in Ceylon,
but the fruit produced here is invaribly coarse and pithy, with a
thick warty rind, and can seldom compare with the lemons of
temperate countries. The variety " Lisbon Lemon," imported as
grafted plants from Australia, has for a time grown and fruited
well in some up-country gardens ; but after a few years, it becomes
unproductive. Lemon fruits are very largely used for flavouring
in confectionery, etc. The rind yields a valuable essential oil and
citric acid ; for making candied lemon peel, it is also largely used.
The Lemon and Orange require similar conditions of climate and
soil. (See Oranges under Tropical Fruits). Propagation of the
Lemon should be by budding, but plants are easily raised from
seed (pips), or by layering.
C.— medica Citron ; " Cidran " vS. — A small tree, much
cultivated in Southern Europe and the Mediterranean region for
its fruit. The latter grows to a large size, sometimes 10 to 12 (but
usually only about 4 to 6) inches in diameter, being round or oval
in shape. The thick rind is the part used, this being prepared in
brine, preserved in sugar, and largely employed in confectionery,
preserves, marmalade, etc. The fruit varies in size and shape
according to varieties. The " Fingered Citron " resembles a man's
hand, with the fingers bent up as with cramp. Citrons are not
commonly cultivated in Ceylon, though good fruits may occasionally
be met with in hill gardens. The leaves of Citron are distinguished
from those of other species of Citrus by not having the petiole
winged. Propagated by seed, budding, or layering.
Cyphomandra betacea (Solanaceae). Tree Tomato ; "Vege-
table Mercury" " Gas-Takkali " S. — An ever-green, semi-woody
shrub, native of Peru and introduced into Ceylon through Hakgala
Gardens, in 1882. It has become thoroughly established in many
hill gardens, and is commonly grown about Nuwara Eliya for
market. The egg-shaped and smooth-skinned fruit, produced
in great abundance and in hanging clusters at the ends of the
branches, is in season almost throughout the year, but chiefly from
March to May. At first greenish purple, it changes in ripening to
reddish yellow. Some varieties are of a deep purple colour when
ripe. The sub-acid succulent fruits are refreshing and agreeable
when eaten raw, but their chief use is for stewing ; they may also be
made into jam or preserve. The tree is a quick grower, and
SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS
195
commences to bear fruit when about t\vo years old, remaining
productive for several years. Thrives best on deep soil, and is
propagated by seed (See illustration).
Diospyros Kaki (Ebenaceae). Persimmon ; Date-plum. — A
medium-sized, slow-growing tree with large handsome, ovate or
TREE TOMATO. Cyplioiiiaiuini bctacca
cordate leaves, native of China and Japan. The attractive, shining
smooth fruit is usually of a bright orange-yellow when ripe, some-
times pink or dark-purple. It is globular or pear-shaped, usually
about 3 inches in diameter, though sometimes more. Each fruit
196 FRUIT CULTURE
usually contains two almond-like seeds in the centre, but some
varieties are seedless. When perfectly ripe, or even in a bletted
condition, it has an agreeable flavour, being compared to an apricot
with a suspicion of the medlar, or to an over-ripe apple. In a
less ripened state it is, in its native country, made into a well-
known preserve. Dried Kaki fruit is said to be equal to dried
tigs. The tree thrives in the Riviera, whence excellent fruit are
imported into London, and sold in Covent Garden market at fancy
prices. It is also said to thrive and bear abundantly at Calcutta,
Saharanpur, etc., but has not as yet become well-known in Ceylon.
It was introduced at Hakgala Gardens in 1888, and occasionally
produces fruit there. The Persimmon is usually dioecious, so that
it is necessary to have a male tree in the neighbourhood of a
pistillate tree to ensure the fertilisation of the flowers of the latter.
FEIJOA, OR "PIXE-APPLE GUAVA." Fcijoa Sellowiaiia
Feijoa Sellowiana (Myrtaceae). Feijoa-fruit, or "Pine-apple
Guava." — A small bushy tree, 6 to 8 ft. high, native of South
America, and recently introduced into cultivation. It is closely
allied to the common Guava, and much resembles that plant in the
character of its fruit. In California, it is considered a valuable
addition to the fruits of that country, the flavour being described
as " delicious, and not unlike that of the strawberry." The fruit
is oval in shape, 2 to 3 inches in length, highly perfumed, and is
in season in November. " It can be used either raw, stewed,
crystallized, or made into jam or jelly." The seeds, by which the
tree may be propagated, are very small.
SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS 197
Ficus Carica (I'rticaceae) : Fig. — A small spreading, deci-
duous tree or large shrub, native of Turkey and the Mediterranean
region, where it is extensively grown for its fruit. Fig trees grow
moderately well and set fruit freely in hill gardens in Ceylon, but
owing to the South-west monsoon rains setting in when the trees
are in bearing, the fruit seldom ripens well ; in fine weather a few
fruits occasionally ripen, but these are wanting in flavour.
FIRMIXGER said : " In most parts of India, Fig trees are to be met
with thriving vigorously and bearing fruit abundantly," but pre-
sumably this refers to the plains, for CAMEROX says he has " not
seen the Fig tree under cultivation in the hills in India." The Fig
thrives in dry, arid places, requiring no shade and but little
moisture, the essential conditions being good drainage, a rich
porous soil, and a dry hot season for ripening the fruit. Thus in
the drier parts of Uva, in Ceylon, Fig trees have been found to
ripen fairly good crops. The trees should be sheltered from
strong winds, and usually thrive best in an enclosed yard, with
their roots confined to a limited space. In Greece, the average
yield of a Fig orchard is said to be about 1,600 Ib. of fruit per acre.
The " Smyrna Fig " is the best kind, but there are numerous other
varieties in cultivation, as Golden- Fig, Purple-fig, White Adriatic,
Black Ischia, etc. The two last named have been found the most
approaching to success at Nuwara Eliya, according to Mr. COTTON.
The Fig is easily propagated by cuttings, which travel well by post.
The fertilisation of the minute flowers, which are enclosed in the
hollow of the fruit, is dependent on an insect, the process being
known as caprification.
Fragaria vesca (Rosaceae). Strawberry. — A low herbaceous
creeping perennial, producing "runners," by which the plant is
readily increased. A species of Wild Strawberry (F. nilgerrensis)
is indigenous to the hills of South India. Wild Strawberries are
to be found occasionally in patches up-country, especially about
Hakgala and Nuwara Eliya ; DR. TRIMEX considered that these
were escapes from cultivation. Improved cultivated varieties have
been introduced into Ceylon from time to time, which, in the dry
season in up-country gardens, produce and ripen fruit of very fair
quality, though somewhat lacking in flavour. The plants should
be planted in rows about 18 inches apart, with 12 inches between
the plants in the rows. The soil must be well-drained, rich and
porous. Of the varieties tried at Hakgala Gardens, u Crescent
Seedling " has so far afforded about the best results.
198 FRUIT CULTURE
Juglans regia (Juglandaceae). Walnut. — The Walnut tree is
commonly cultivated on the hills of Northern India, where it
produces abundant crops. It is not, however, a success on the
plains, nor on the hills of Southern India. It has been tried at
Nuwara Eliya and Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, but so far with-
out success.
Morus indica (Urticaceae). Indian Mulberry. — A small
quick-growing tree, native of Northern India, where it is commonly
cultivated. The fruit resembles a small pepper-corn, cylindrical
in shape, rather deficient in flavour, and quite inferior to the
European mulberry. There are two sorts, the "white" and the
" black," both being similar in taste. FIRMIXGER said : " the fruit,
such as it is, ripens in February in Bengal, but it is fit for little but
to be left to the birds." The Indian mulberry is now commonly
grown in Ceylon at low and medium elevations, especially at
School gardens, where its cultivation has been encouraged for the
purpose of affording food by means of its leaves to the mulberry
silk-worm. Easily propagated by cuttings.
M. nigra. European mulberry. — This is a native of Persia,
and has been introduced and established at Hakgala and some
other up-country gardens. I am informed that it bears plentifully
in the Haputale district (about 5,000 ft. alt.) in Ceylon, where the
fruits are used for making tarts.
Olea Europea (Oleaceas). Olive. — A small tree, native of
North-western Asia, and naturalised in the Mediterranean region.
It is extensively cultivated in Northern Africa, Southern Europe,
California, etc., both for its fruit, which is so largely used in
preserves and pickles, as well as for the extraction of the valuable
olive oil. Plants have been introduced into Ceylon, and grown
for many years without producing fruit worth speaking of, though
an odd fruit may be produced occasionally without being noticed.
MR. JAMES RYAN, of Talawakelle, picked a fruit from an olive tree
in his garden in 1908. Olives have not been found suited to the
hills in S. India, and even in the dry climate of Bangalore, trees
30 years old have remained unproductive. Olive cultivation has
of late been introduced into Australia and South Africa, with
prospects of success. In California, where it is now successfully
established, the crop is said to yield an average of 600 gallons
of olive oil per acre, the maximum return being as high as 2,000
gallons per acre. The tree is susceptible to either a very hot
or very cold climate, and thrives best in light soil of a limestone
SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS 199
formation. There are numerous varieties in cultivation, differing
in the lateness or earliness of the crop, and in the shape and
size of the fruit ; the latter varies from round to ovate or oval,
and from I to 1 inch in diameter. Propagated from seed, cuttings,
layers, or suckers.
PASSION FRUIT. Pass/flora ciiitlis. As Grown at Xuwara-Eliya, Ceylon.
Passiflora edulis (Passifloraceae). Passion-fruit, *or Sweet-
cup. — A perennial climber, native of Southern Brazil, introduced
into Ceylon and commonly cultivated up-country for its fruit.
As an escape from cultivation it may now often be met with
200
FRUIT CULTURE
in a wild state at elevations of 3,000 to 5,000 feet. It bears
in great abundance a perfectly smooth oval fruit, of the size
of a hen's egg, purple when ripe. Two crops a year are some-
times produced, the principal season being from May to July.
The fruit contains in its hollow centre a quantity of fragrant
sweet juicy pulp, inseparable from which are the small seeds ;
this when emptied out of the shell, and beaten up in a glass
with a pinch of bicarbonate of soda and sugar, forms a delicious
drink. The fruit is sold locally at about Re. 1 (Is. 4J.) per
CAPE GOOSEBERRY. PkySaltS
hundred. Consignments of the fruit are occasionally exported
from Australia and elsewhere to London, and these usually
secure fancy prices, but the shrivelled appearance which the
fruit assumes on ripening is against it for market purposes. The
Passion-fruit may be cultivated successfully from 2,000 ft. upwards,
and may either be allowed to grow over a fence or trellis-work,
or climb over trees, etc. Rich humous soil and a moist shaded
situation suit it best. Propagated by seed. (See illustration}.
Persica vulgaris. Peach. (See under Prunus).
Phyllanthus Emblica (Euphorbiaceas). " Nelli " S.— A small
tree or shrub, with graceful feathery foliage, native of Ceylon,
SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS 201
India, Malaya, China, etc. It is commonly found wild in open
patna land in Ceylon, up to 4,000 ft., bein;4 also sometimes
grown in gardens for ornament. The round green fruits, of
the size of marbles, with a comparatively large kernel, are
made into a much-esteemed preserve (See under Useful Recipes).
The fruit is collected from plants in the wild state when in season,
chieHy from November to February, and sold at from 3 to
6 cts. per hundred. Propagated from seed. Suited to inter-
mediate elevations.
Phy sails Peruviana (Solanaceae). Cape Gooseberry ; Peruvian
Cherry. — A low, straggling or creeping herbaceous perennial,
native of Peru, naturalised at the Cape and to some extent in
the hill districts of Ceylon. The fruit is of the size and form
of a small cherry, and is concealed in the dry, leafy, persistent
c ilyx. When quite ripe it is yellow and of an agreeable and
refreshing flavour, being used for dessert or for making jam or
preserves. In South Africa it is largely made into jam, which
forms an article of export there. The plant is easily raised
from seed, and will thrive in any ordinarily good soil, but is
most productive on rich sandy soil. Sow in sheltered beds,
and plant out seedlings about 18 inches from each other in
rows 3 feet apart. Suited to elevations of 3,500 to 5,000 feet
or higher. (See illustration).
Pistacia vera (Anacardiaceap). Pistachio-nut. — A small tree,
reaching about 30 feet in height, considered to be indigenous
to Syria. It is extensively cultivated in Northern India,
Florida, etc., for its delicious nut, which is eaten as a dessert or
prepared and used in various ways. During the cold weather
in India these nuts, being brought from Cabul by Afghan
traders, are said to be obtainable in great abundance in the
bazaars, so that "travellers often take them to be a product
of the country." In the Ceylon boutiques, however, the nuts
appear to be a V unknown commodity. The tree might thrive
to some extent at moderate elevations in the drier parts of the
Uva Province of Ceylon.
Prunus Armeniaca (Rosaceae). Apricot. — The cultivation of
this delicious fruit in Ceylon has so far been nowhere successful,
nor does it seem to have been attended with much better results
in India. In the latter country, however, the tree is said to
^row with vigour on the hills, where it is sometimes propagated
by budding or grafting, which is done in April or May.
202 FRUIT CULTURE
P.— domestica. Plum. — A small deciduous tree, whose native
country is uncertain. In Ceylon, as in other parts of the Torrid
Zone, the plum has not so far proved quite amenable to
cultivation. Certain varieties have been found to produce fairly
heavy crops about Nuwara Eliya, but the fruit seldom ripens,
as the monsoon rains usually commence when it is approaching
maturity. In India, however, on the hills and in the Northern
Provinces, plums are said to be grown with a greater measure
of success, the methods of cultivation there being much the
same as those adopted for the Peach. The fruits produced, how-
ever, are " hardly palatable, except when cooked or preserved;"
for the latter purpose they are said to be excellent. CAMERON
says: "Of many kinds tried at Bangalore, 'Kirk's Blue,'
'Greengage/ and 'Golden Drop' were the best." At Nuwara
Eliya, MR. COTTON found "Red-heart" (a cooking variety), "Alucha,"
and "Greengage" to give the best results, while MR. KELLOW
also considers the " Hedge-plum " a fairly satisfactory variety.
P.— Bokharensis. Bokhara Plum. — A species of Plum indi-
genous to Northern India. According to FIRMINGER, " quantities
of the fruit in a dried state are annually brought down from
Cabul. The tree grows vigorously in the Upper Provinces,
and is very common in Gardens in the Punjab, where it bears
abundantly." CAMERON adds that it is also successfully cultivated
on the hills in India, the fruit being made into a good preserve,
or stewed.
P. Persica (= Persica vulgaris). Peach. — A small slender
tree, supposed to be a native of China. At its best the Peach
in the tropics is very different to the luscious, melting fruit
it is in Europe and other temperate countries. Acclimatised
varieties are, however, grown writh appreciable success in certain
localities at elevations of 4,000 to 5,000 feet. In a rather dry
climate, as in the district of Wilson Bungalow in Ceylon,
moderately good fruits, at any rate for stewing and making jam,
are obtained. Here peaches are regularly grown for market,
the fruit being retailed at about Re. 1 per hundred. No systematic
cultivation, however, is followed, the trees being propagated
by cuttings, with but little regard for selection, manuring, etc.
Peaches will not thrive at low elevations in Ceylon. At Bangalore,
in South India, MR. CAMERON mentions an excellent variety
called " Indore." The same authority also states: "It is a great
point in the cultivation of the Peach tree to keep the roots
SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS 203
as little below the surface of the soil as possible. This is.
sometimes effected by placing tiles underneath where the trees^
are planted." The tree may be propagated by sowing the stones
(kernels) of the fruit, but preferably by cuttings, budding, or
grafting. Seedling plants take three or four years to come into
bearing. A good plan is to sow the seed, and bud or graft
the best sorts on the seedlings when about a year old.
Psidium Cattleyanum (Myrtacea;). China-guava ; Purple -
guava ; Calcutta-guava. — A small shrubby ornamental tree, 20 to
25 feet high, with smooth, grey bark and small leathery, shining,
obovate leaves, native of Tropical America. The date of its
introduction into Ceylon is not recorded, but that of its first discovery
is given as 1818. It has been grown at Peradeniya and Hakgala
Gardens for upwards of thirty or forty years, and is now
sometimes met with in up-country gardens. CAMEROX does not
mention it for South India, which is remarkable considering
its excellent qualities as a fruit-tree. The fruit is undoubtedly
the most palatable of all Guavas, and deserves to be more widely
known. It is of the size of a large Greengage, deep claret-coloured
when ripe, with soft juicy, purplish red pulp, which has an
agreeable flavour and has some resemblance to that of a
strawberry. It is excellent for making tarts, jam and jelly, and
may also be eaten as dessert. The tree thrives and bears fruit
freely at elevations of 2,000 to 4,000 feet, producing two
crops a year. With good cultivation, the size and quality of
the fruit is considerably improved. Usually propagated by
seed, but the best trees should be increased by layering or
budding.
Pyrus communis (Rosaceae). Pear. — Certain varieties of
Pear grow and bear well in many parts of the tropics, at moderate
elevations and on the hills, but the fruit produced is usually
very hard and unlit to be eaten uncooked. In some hill gardens
in Ceylon, a variety of cooking Pear has become well established,
thriving with but scanty attention, and producing fairly heavy
crops of large, coarse fruits, which can only be eaten when
stewed. CAMERON states that : "In Simla and other hill
stations in India, the Pear can be brought to great perfection
under cultivation," and advises pruning the trees in February,
just before they burst into leaf. In Ceylon, the trees are
practically ever-green. Easily propagated by cuttings, layering,
or grafting.
204 FRUIT CULTURE
P — Malus. Apple. — The cultivation of the Apple in Ceylon,
even at the highest elevations, has not so far met with success.
On the hills in India, however, according to CAMERON, "apples
can be cultivated to perfection." At Bangalore a number of
varieties are generally grown, including such as Ribston Pippin,
Worcester Per main, Peasgood's Nonsuch, Kentish Fill basket, Cox's
Orange Pippin, etc. Of the varieties tried at Hakgala Gardens
and Nuwara Eliya, Kentish Fillbaskct was found the most
approaching to success. The climate, however, seems entirely
unsuited to the tree. In India, apple trees are propagated by
cuttings, layering, or grafting, and a rich sandy soil is considered
to suit them best. They flower in February and March, and
the fruit ripens in April and May. In January the roots are
laid bare, and, after an interval of a fortnight, are again covered
up with a mixture of cow-manure and good soil. Copious
watering is given when the fruit is swelling.
Rhodomyrtus tomentosus (Myrtaceae). "Hill-gooseberry;"
*' Hill-guava." — A handsome shrub with small thick oval leaves,
indigenous to the mountain region of Ceylon, South India, and
Malaya. It produces a profusion of pale pink flowers, followed
by small round berries of pale yellow colour ; from these a jelly
is made, which in flavour somewhat resembles apple- jelly.
Propagated from seed. Not suited to low elevations, but an
acclimatised variety thrives at Peradeniya (1,500 ft.), where as
an ornamental shrub it is much admired ; this does not, however,
bear fruit here.
Ribes grossularia (Saxifrageae). Gooseberry. —Plants of
this have been imported both from England and Australia, and
planted under the most favourable conditions in the Experiment
Garden at Nuwara Eliya, as well as at Hakgala Gardens. They
.grew for a time, but failed in each case to become properly
established. The climate in India has apparently been found
equally unsuitable for the plant.
R. — nigrum. Black Currant. — The same remarks as above,
under Gooseberry, may be applied.
Rubus lasiocarpa (Rocaceae). Ceylon, or Wild-Raspberry. —
A large, straggling bramble, remarkable for the white down
with which the stems are entirely covered, indigenous to the
hills of Ceylon, India and Java. The fruit much resembles
the English Blackberry, and is, when well-grown, equal to it
in flavour : its hoary wooly appearance is, however, against it.
SUB-TROPICAL OR TEMPERATE FRUITS 205
In India it is frequently collected and made into delicious
tarts, being also in great demand at Simla and other hill stations
for making jam. In cultivation, the plant responds well to
similar treatment as that usually given to the Raspberry and
Bramble. A good rich soil should be afforded, and the old
and barren shoots cut out. Propagated by suckers dug out
during the rains.
R.— rosaefolius. " Mauritius Raspberry." — A shrub con-
sidered to have been introduced from Mauritius, and said to be
commonly grown in gardens about Calcutta. The fruit, produced
in February, is similar in appearance to the English Raspberry,
but tilled with hard seeds, and, according to FIRMIXGER, having
no better flavour than a bad blackberry. SIR JOSEPH HOOKER
gives this as an indigenous species in India.
R. — Idaeus. English Raspberry. — This has been tried at
Hakgala and Nuwara Eliya Experiment Gardens, but found
quite unsuited to the climate. The same remarks as under
Gooseberry may be applied.
R.— trivialis. American Dewberry. — I am not aware that
this has been tried in Ceylon ; it has been reported to grow
vigorously and bear fruit well at Saharanpur in India.
Sechium edule. Cho-cho. — See under Sub-tropical Vegetables.
Vaccinium meridionale (Vacciniaceae, Cranberry order). —
The fruit is of the size of a Black-currant and is used in Jamaica
for making tarts, jam and jelly, according to MR. W. HARRIS.
Other species yield edible fruits, as the " Cowberry " (V. Vitis-idaea),
and Whortleberry (V. myrtillus}. The Cranberry is produced by
Oxycoccus palnstris and 0. niacrocarpus, the latter being a Canadian
species.
Vitis Vinifera. Grape Vine. See Tropical Fruits.
CHAPTER XII.
TROPICAL VEGETABLES AND FOOD PRODUCTS
SUITABLE FOR THE LOW-COUNTRY, FROM SEA-LEVEL TO ABOUT
3,000 FT., WITH ANNUAL RAINFALL NOT LESS THAN 35 INCHES
[S=Sl.\HALKSE; 7^=
Vegetables of one kind or another can, with some trouble, be
.grown in all parts of the tropics where any other cultivation is
possible. While certain European vegetables, as Beet-root, Celery,
Parsnips, Cabbages, Globe-artichokes, etc., thrive to perfection in
the cool moist climate at the higher elevations, many of these may
also be grown at lower altitudes or even at sea-level, with some
degree of success, if sown at suitable seasons and supplied with
the proper amount of moisture and shade. Tropical vegetables
are, of course, suited chiefly to low or intermediate elevations, and
many of these are well worth cultivating.
A deep alluvial soil, such as is found near river banks, is the
best for vegetables generally. Where this does not exist, a con-
dition approaching it may usually be obtained by the application
of sand, humus and organic manure. A loose sandy soil is essen-
tial for deep-rooting vegetables, as carrots, parsnips, etc. Frequent
stirring of the soil, weeding, watering when necessary, and earthing
up of crops are indispensable to the successful cultivation of
vegetables generally. In the low-country, light shade, especially for
European kinds, is usually beneficial if not indispensable. An
application of suitable fertilisers (see Manures) usually amply pays
for itself by resulting in larger yields, as well as in better quality
of crop.
Owing to the multiplicity of vernacular names, and in order
to facilitate reference, the chapter devoted to Tropical or Low-
-country Vegetables is divided into four sections, thus:—
(1) Leguminosae (Beans, Grams, and Pulses).
(2) Cucurbitaceae (Gourds, Pumpkins, Squashes, and Melons).
(3) Root or tuberous Vegetables and Food crops.
(4) Miscellaneous Vegetables and Food crops.
VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS 207
SECTION 1 :—LEGUMlNOS.E
INCLUDING BEANS, GRAMS AND PULSES
Cajanus indicus. Pigeon Pea ; Congo Bean ; Dhal or Dhol ;
" Rata-tora" S.; "Thovaroy" or "Paripu" T. — A shrub 5 to 6 feet
high, characterized by thin straight branches and small trifoliate
leaves, native of India. It is commonly cultivated in most tropical
countries, but more especially in India, where the dark grey seeds,
oi the size of small peas, are almost a universal article of food.
The dried split peas are largely imported into Ceylon, and much
used in curries, vegetable soups, etc., being everywhere sold in the
bazaars as ''Paripu." The plant resists drought well, and is
recommended as a restorative crop in rotations. In India, it is
grown either mixed with other crops, or planted alone in rows
4 to 5 feet apart. About 8 Ib. of seed is required to plant an acre, and
the crop is ready for harvesting in six months from the time of
sowing. Grown alone, the yield may be as high as 2,000 Ib. per
acre, 500 Ib. per acre being an ordinary return. Xot commonly
cultivated in Ceylon.
Canavalia gladiata. Sword Bean ; "Awara" S.; "Awara-
kai" T. — A robust woody perennial, climbing bean, bearing large.
Hat, sword-shaped pods, fully 9 inches long and about l| in. wide.
These when young and tender are sliced and boiled as a vegetable,
being also used in pickles. According to FIRMINGER, k' it is con-
sidered by some Europeans the nicest of native vegetables in
India." *The plant requires strong and durable supports, such as
a fence or a low spreading tree. Propagated by seeds.
Cicer arietinum. Chick Pea; Bengal-gram; "Konda-kadala"
S. — An annual, about 1 ft. high, much cultivated in India as a food
crop. The small pea-like angular seeds are largely imported into
Ceylon and sold in the bazaars, being used either fried, or boiled
in curries, and are considered very nutritious. Roasted and ground,
the}' are sometimes used as a substitute for coffee. Sow in drills
about 2 feet apart.
Cyamopsis psoralioides. Guar, or Cluster Bean; "Kota-
ranga" S. or T. — A small bushy plant, recently introduced from
India into Ceylon, and now becoming commonly cultivated in the
low-country here chiefly through the medium of the School
Gardens. The small, straight, hairy pods (about 3 inches long, and
produced in clusters), are very popular as a vegetable in curries
and other preparations, both the tender pods and ripe seed being
208 VEGETABLES AND FOOD PRODUCTS
used. The plant is cultivated in India for fodder, as well as for
green-manuring, and occurs in several varieties, these being dis-
tinguished by white, black, and grey seeds.
Dolichos bracteata. "El-dhambala" S. — A climbing bean,
bearing purplish flowers and narrow, well-filled pods, about 3 inches
long. The tender pods are boiled and eaten.
Dolichos Lablab, var. " Ho-dhambala," or "Irivija" S. — A
strong-growing climbing bean with purple flowers, and flat broad
pods with warted margins ; the pods are 3 to 4 inches long, and
when young and tender are boiled and eaten ; the matured seeds
are not considered edible. The plant is often seen cultivated at
cooly lines in the low-country of Ceylon. There are several
varieties of this bean, the following being given by DR. ROXBURGH
for India : —
a. "albiflorum": Flowers white, rather small ; seeds not eaten.
b. "rubiflorum": Flowers red.
c. "purpurescens": Flowers large, purplish; seeds white.
d. "purpureum": Stems and the large flowers purple; pods deep
purple.
"Sudu-dhambala" of Ceylon, with white flowers -and short, broad, 2-3
seeded pods, is probably the same as var. a. This is grown chiefly about
cooly lines and Natives' houses, and the seeds as well as the pods are eaten.
Dolichos biflorus. Madras gram; Horse gram; "Kollu"
S and T. — A semi-erect annual, 2 to 3 ft. high, with small trifoliate
leaves, bearing small curved pods 2 to 3 in. long. It is grown some-
what extensively in India, both as a fodder and food crop, and
also as a green manure crop for ploughing into the soil. It is
specially suited to dry regions, and is said to have produced from
2,000 to 3,000 Ib. of green plant per acre in about 12 weeks,
during which the rain did not amount to 1 in. The plant is also
commonly grown in Ceylon in the dry low-country districts.
Glycine hispida. Soya Bean. — An erect annual, varying in
height according to variety and soil, usually from about 1^ to 2 ft.,
though sometimes reaching 3 or 4 feet or more. It is a native of
China and Japan, where it has been cultivated for food from time
immemorial. The short hairy pods contain 2 to 4 seeds each ; the
latter are a nutritious food and a standard diet with the Chinese
and Japanese. The pea-like smooth seeds (generally referred to as
beans) vary from white to yellow and black. They are cooked
and prepared for food in numerous ways, being either boiled,
roasted, or ground into flour. They contain little or no starch, and
are consequently used as a diet for diabetic patients. In America
VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS 209
and on the Continent, they are sometimes used as a substitute for,
or adulterating, coffee. In India they are eaten in the form of
"dhal." The famous Soya-sauce, said to be the basis of many
popular sauces made in Europe, is made from these seeds. A
useful domestic oil is also obtained from them, and the residual
cake resulting from the expression of the oil forms a nutritious
cattle-food. Recently a considerable demand has arisen, chiefly
in England, for the seed for the purpose of supplying oil for soap
making, etc. The present quotation for the seed in England is about
£8 to 9 per ton in London. According to SIR GEORGE WATT, the
Soya Bean is extensively cultivated in Eastern Bengal, Khasia
Hills, Burma, etc. Yet I can rind no mention of it in either
FIRMIXGER'S or WOODROW'S works on gardening in India. Culti-
vation is very simple. A loose rich soil is preferable. Seeds may be
sown thinly in rows about l| to 2 ft. apart, about 2 bushels of
seed being required to sow an acre. The seed should germinate
in four to five days, and the crop may be ready for picking in about
six weeks to 2 months from the time of sowing. The yield of seed
varies, according to soil, etc. 15 to 20 bushels* per acre is con-
sidered a good average, while the amount of green fodder
produced per acre may be about 6 to 10 tons. The plant has
been successfully grown at Peradeniya, and might thrive at eleva-
tions up to about 3,000 feet ; but it does not appear to be suited
to tropical conditions, and seems especially adapted to the cotton
and corn belt, thriving best on fertile loam or clay. It is a valuable
soil renovator, and would seem to be adapted for green-manuring
on loose sandy soils. There are several varieties, these varying in
the colour of the seed ; the yellow-seeded variety is probably the
best suited for the tropics.
Ground Nuts. See under Miscellaneous Vegetables.
Lens esculenta (= Ervum lens.) — Lentil; "Misurupur" T.—
This valuable pulse has been cultivated and used as food from
time immemorial, and Lentils are to this day an important article
of food to the inhabitants of Egypt, Palestine, and the Mediter-
ranean region. As a winter crop, the plant is grown all over India,
especially in the Central Provinces and Madras. The land having
been ploughed, the seed is sown broadcast, one maund (about 80
Ib.) of seed on an average being sown per acre. If sown in drills,
half that quantity will suffice. The seed is eaten as "dhal," and
considered the most nutritious of pulses. The dry leaves and
* Say 1,600 Ib. to 2,000 Ib.
210 VEGETABLES AND FOOD PRODUCTS
fodder are esteemed as a food for cattle, and the plants are a
valuable green-manure. Lentils thrive on clay soils, but with
irrigation may also be grown on light sandy ground.
Mucuna nivea. (=Sticolobium pachylobium); u Wanduru-me,"
S. " Lyon Bean" of Philippines — A strong-growing perennial
climbing bean, with stout pods about 3 inches long, and black oval
seeds. It is suited to low and medium elevations, but is seldom
cultivated in Ceylon. Here the seeds only appear to be eaten,
but in India the fleshy tender pods, after the removal of the outer
skin, are also eaten; these when dressed are, according to the late
DR. ROXBURGH, "a most excellent vegetable for the table, the full
grown beans being scarely inferior to the large garden-beans of
Europe." Sow seeds thinly an}* time after the commencement of
the rains. The plants require strong supports to climb upon.
"Velvet Bean" is a name given to a variety of Mucuna nivea.
distinguished from the above by having smaller and more numerous
black, velvety pods, containing round mottled seeds. This came
recently into prominence in the Southern United States as a forage
and green-manure plant, the seeds also being eaten to some extent.
Suited to low and medium elevations.
Pachyrrhizus tuberosus. Yam Bean. — A strong-growing
climbing bean, native of the West Indies, producing a large edible
tuberous root, introduced at Peradeniya in 1887. The tuber is
cooked and eaten as a yam ; the pods, which are about 8 inches
long, are also edible when in a tender state. The plant is said to
be commonly cultivated in its native country, but is as yet scarcely
known in Ceylon. Cultivation same as for yams. Sow seeds
thinly in rows 3 to 4 feet apart, and support the vines with stout
sticks; otherwise plant against trees or a fence. There are two
varieties of this plant, one bearing blue flowers, the other white ;
the former is considered the better variety to cultivate.
Phaseolus lunatus. Lima Bean ; Tonga Bean ; " Pothu-
dhambala" S. " Pithanga " T. —The Lima-bean is held in high
•estimation in America, its original home, but is not much appre-
ciated in Ceylon, nor apparently in India. It is best suited to
high elevations, and is sometimes seen in up-country native
gardens here. The pods are short, flattish, and rather curved ;
these are not generally considered edible, but the large flat seeds,
which are mottled or white, when boiled are "exceedingly agree-
able, having a mealy roast-chestnut-like flavour." The plants are
of a robust habit and are distinguished by racemes of small white
flowers and rather dense foliage. There are several varieties, some
VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS 211
with white and others with pink flowers ; the seeds also vary in
colour from white to cream, pink, and purple. Sow in rows 3 to
4 feet apart, with about 6 inches between the seeds in the rows.
Place sticks along both sides of the row for supporting the vines.
Phaseolus Mungo (=P. Max); Green Gram ; Mung ; Mun-eta,
5; Pasi-pyru, T. — A small erect annual, about 16 in. high, with
narrow, cylindrical, straight radiating pods, 2\ to 3 in. long (in
clusters) and trifoliate leaves, the whole plant being hairy. It is a
native of India, and has been cultivated there as a food crop from
time immemorial, being still grown extensively in certain provinces
and to some extent in the dry zone of Ceylon, either as a single
product or as an inter-crop. The green pods are sometimes eaten
as a vegetable, but it is the ripe pulse that is valued, this being
cooked and used in various forms like dhal. The grain has a
pleasant taste, and is regarded as a wholesome and nutritious food.
The straw as well as the pulse is valued as a food for cattle and
horses. The plant is suited to dry districts and thrives in the
plains of India and up to 6,000 ft. elevation. When grown alone,
under average conditions, a yield of 5 maunds (400 Ib.) of grain
per acre may be obtained.
Phaseolus Mungo, var. radiatus; Kalai. This variety, known
in India as " Urd," differs from the above (Green gram) in having
a longer stem and more trailing habit, also in the plant being more
hairy, the seeds fewer, larger and usually dark brown in colour.
The ripe pulse, according to SIR GEORGE WATT, is the most highly
esteemed of all pulses in India and fetches the highest price. It
is eaten in the form of dhal bread, boiled whole, or as spiced
balls, and is the chief constituent of the wafer biscuits known in
Bombay as " papad." The average amount of seed required to
sow an acre is said to be 6 Ib., and the average return, when
grown as a sole crop, is about 5 maunds or 400 Ib.
Phaseolus vulgaris, var. — Climbing, or Runner Beans; Bonchi,
S." Bonchi-kai " T. — This slender climbing bean is perhaps the most
useful of all beans for the low-country and medium elevations.
Though less proliric than the dwarf erect kinds, it remains longer
productive than the latter, which is of importance when grown
only for one's own table. With a few successional sowings it can
be had in fruit almost throughout the year. The young tender
pods are the parts used, these being usually cut up into thin strips,
boiled, and served in different ways. Sow the seeds thinly in
rows, in well-tilled and manured soil. The seedlings will be up in
212 VEGETABLES AND FOOD PRODUCTS
from 4 to 6 days, and when a few inches high they should have
the earth drawn up to them. Stakes should then be fixed in the
ground along both sides of the rows for support to the vines.
Both this and the following bean are among the best vegetables
found in the tropics, and may be grown in a variety of climates.
Phaseolus vulgaris, var. — Dwarf. French, or Kidney Bean.
— See under Temperate or Sub-tropical Vegetables.
Psophocarpus tetragonolobus. Winged Bean, Goa Bean,.
Manila Bean, Princess Bean, " Dara-dhambala " S. — A strong-
growing climbing bean, native of Malaya, with large pale blue
flowers, bearing peculiar four-cornered pods. The latter are 6 to
8 inches long, and have a leafy fringe running along the length of
each of their four corners. They are cooked when green, and
usually much relished. In Burma the plant is largely cultivated
for its fleshy tuberous roots, of which the yield is said to be from
1 J to 2 tons per acre. When grown for the roots, seeds are not
allowed to ripen. Propagated by seeds, which may be sown in
drills or where the plants are to remain. There are several
varieties in cultivation, these being distinguished by length of pod,
breadth of wings, and colour of seeds.
Vigna sinensis. — Cow Pea ; Yard-long Bean; " Me-karal,"
" Diya-mekaral" or " Polon-me " S. — An annual climbing bean,
bearing long narrow pliant, cordlike pods, which reach from
lg to about 3 feet in length. These are used like French Beans,
and the ripe seeds also are eaten. The plant is suited to low and
medium elevations, and thrives in rather poor as well as rich soil.
In Australia it is said to bear plentifully in seasons of drought.
Vigna Calling, V. unguiculata, and V. sesquipedalis are considered
to be only varieties of V. sinensis.
SECTION 2 i—CUCURBITACE^E.
GOURDS, PUMPKINS, SQUASHES AND MELONS.
These comprise a group of climbing plants which yield
excellent vegetables and sometimes dessert fruits. The plants are
characterised by having unisexual flowers (the sexes in separate
flowers), being in some cases dia'ceous (the sexes on separate plants).
They are of rapid growth, and therefore require rich soil and
abundant water at the root. As a rule, they yield larger and
better fruits in a rather dry climate, under irrigation. Propagation
is usually by seed, but in many cases it may be effected also by
cuttings.
VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS 213
Benincasa cerifera. — Ash Pumpkin, or White Gourd ; " Alu-
puhul"S; Puchini " or "Pusanikai" T. — A large handsome oval-
shaped gourd, grown throughout the Eastern tropics, China, Japan,
etc. The fruit is covered with a whitish waxen bloom (hence its
popular names), and is used as a vegetable in curries, etc., also
candied as a sweetmeat. The plant is an annual, with large
angular leaves, and may often be seen growing over the roofs of
Natives' houses. In India the fruit is said not to be so liable to
be stolen as those of other gourds, owing to certain religious
superstitions connected with it. Seed may be sown in the rainy
season, and the vegetable should be lit for use about three months
later. The plant will thrive in sheltered valleys up to about 3,000
or 4.000 feet.
Citrullus vulgaris. Water-melon ; "Komadu" S. (See under
Tropical Fruits.)
Cucumis Melo. Melon; " Rata-komadu " or "Kekiri" S.
(See under Tropical Fruits.)
Cucumis sativus, var. Native Cucumber; "Pipingha" S.;
" Pipingkai " T. — A thick cylindrical, smooth fruit, 10 to 15 inches
long and about 3 to 4 inches in transverse diameter, usually with a
brownish yellow thin skin when full-grown. The flowers are yellow,
about 2 inches across. The fruit is either cooked and used as a
vegetable or, peeled and sliced, in salads, being an excellent
substitute for the English Cucumber, of which it is considered to be
but a form. It is cultivated chiefly in the semi-dry districts for
supplying the local markets and boutiques. Sow seed in ridges or
mounds of rich soil. The vines may either be supported on
trellis-work, or allowed to trail over the ground.
Cucumis sativus, var. " Tee-ambara " S. — A variety similar
to Pipingha, but with smaller fruits, these -varying in length from
6 to 8 inches, with a transverse diameter of about 2 inches.
Flowers yellow, about 1 inch across. The fruit of this variety,
being of a tougher texture than the preceding one, is only used
in curries, not in salads.
Cucurbita maxima. Pumpkin ; "Wataka" or "Rata-labu" S.—
A large globular, bluntly-ribbed, brownish gourd, very commonly
cultivated by the Natives in the low-country of Ceylon, especially
in the rather dry districts of Kurunegala, Dumbara, etc. It
is everywhere sold in the markets and boutiques, either whole
or in sections, and though rather insipid is one of the best of
" native " vegetables. During the detention of the Boer prisoners
214 VEGETABLES AND FOOD PRODUCTS
of war in Ceylon a great demand for Pumpkins sprang up, and the
cultivation of the vegetable proved very profitable for the time
being. Seeds may be sown at any time during the rains. The
plant is an annual, and may be allowed to run over the ground
without supports. The fruits sometimes grow to an enormous
size, instances being recorded of specimens having attained a
weight of 300 to 400 Ib. The hardened shells are sometimes
made into vessels and ornaments. There are several varieties,
which vary more or less in form and colour of the fruit.
Cucurbita Melo-pepo. Squash. — The name squash is given
in America to numerous varieties of gourd which bear variously-
shaped fruits, the latter ranging from oval to almost fiat or
shell-like. Squashes are extensively grown in sub-tropical America,
where they are much relished, but are not suited to a wet
tropical climate- At Peradeniya, the plants have been found to
grow well, but the fruits, such as did set, usually damped off early.
In a drier district, however, they might succeed better. It is
advisable to sow seeds in pots or pans, and transplant the
seedlings, when large enough to handle, into mounds of well-
prepared earth. The plants may be left to trail over the ground
like Vegetable Marrow, but during wet weather a piece of flat
stone or tile should be placed under each fruit to prevent it from
rotting. Squashes are boiled green, like Vegetable Marrow, or
mashed like Turnips, and served with milk, pepper and salt. When
ripe, they are made into pies. In France they are sometimes
gathered when of the size of an egg, boiled in salt and water,
laid upon toast, and eaten as Asparagus.
Cucurbita moschata. — " Polong-wrataka " S. — An oval or round
gourd, with netted markings of pale green. Cultivation, etc., the
same as for Pumpkin.
Cucurbita Pepo. — Vegetable Marrow (See under Sub -tropical
Vegetables}.
Lagenaria vulgaris. Bottle Gourd ; " Diya-labu" S.; "Sorakai"
T. — One of the most popular of native vegetables, largely cultivated
in the semi-dry districts of Kurunegala, Dumbara, etc., \vhence the
local markets are chiefly supplied. The fruit is from 16 to 24 inches
long, variously shaped, some forms resembling a decanter or water
bottle. The unripe fruits, when boiled, are a palatable but insipid
vegetable. When ripe and seasoned the shell becomes very hard
and durable, and in this state is commonly made into vessels
used for carrying water, or for collecting palm toddy, etc. The
I'EGETAHLES AX I) FOOD PRODUCTS 215
plant is an annual, with white flowers (about 2i inches across),
and may be grown on the ground or supported on trellises, etc.
Luffa acutangula. "Veta-kolu" or " Dara-vetakolu " S.;
" Pekankai " or " Pey-pichukku " T. — A climbing gourd, bearing
fruit 10 to 12 inches long, with several longitudinal angular ridges.
DR. ROXBURGH said of this vegetable-fruit : " Peeled, boiled, and
dressed with butter, pepper and salt, it is little inferior to green-
peas." Too much reliance must not, however, be placed upon
this statement. The plant is an annual and is grown somewhat
largely in Cotta and Dumbara for supplying the markets of
Colombo and Kandy respectively, the fruit being much used by
the Natives, both in curries and as a vegetable. The plant is
easily raised from seed, and does best on supports.
Luffa aegyptiaca. Loofah; " Xiyan-vetakolu " S.\ "Pikku"
or " Pichukku " T. — A large annual herbaceous climber with
angular stems, indigenous to the low-country and commonly grown
in native gardens. The fruit, which is cylindrical and from 8 to
12 inches long, is used when tender as a vegetable*. Propagated
by seed or cuttings.
Momordica Charantia. Carilla Fruit ; "Karawila" S.\ "Pakal"
or " Pavakai " T. — A rather slender vine, bearing an oval warty
fruit, 6 to 8 inches long, orange-yellow when ripe. The latter in
a tender state is much relished by the natives as a curry vegetable ;
it is also frequently pickled, being one of the most common
ingredients in Indian pickles. There is a variety with white fruits,
which render the plant very ornamental. Propagated by seed,
which should be sown at the commencement of the rains. The
plant may be allowed to trail on the ground, but is best on sup-
ports, especially during the wet season.
Momordica dioica. " Tamba-karawila " S. "Tumpai" or
" Palupakkal" 7. — A small oblong, green, warty-looking gourd,
about 2 to 3 inches long, commonly used and much esteemed by
the Natives as a curry vegetable, and is often sold in the boutiques
or bazaars. The tender shoots and leaves are also edible. The
plant is indigenous to Ceylon, being common in the dry districts.
It is not suited to elevations much above 2.000 feet. Propagated
by cuttings or seeds during the rains.
Sicania odorifera. Melocoton, or Casabanana. — A Mexican
gourd bearing stout Cucumber-like fruits, from 10 to 15 inches
long and about 3 inches in diameter. In the green and unripe
state these afford an excellent vegetable, and in a ripe state are
216 VEGETABLES AND FOOD PRODUCTS
suitable for preserves. When approaching maturity the fruit
assumes a brownish or reddish tint, and possesses a pleasant
fragrance. The plant is a rapid grower, and attains a height of
about 50 feet. It thrives best and is most productive when grown
in rich soil, fully exposed to the sun and allowed to ramble over
an arbour or trellis. It is suited to a rather dry climate, though it
has flourished and fruited in Peradeniya Gardens, where it was
introduced a few years ago.
Trichosanthes anguina. Snake-gourd; Club-gourd; "Patola,",
S- "Podivilangu" or "Podalangai" T. — A quick-growing climb-
ing gourd, bearing long cylindrical, green (sometimes greenish-
white) fruits, which not unfrequently reach the length of five to
six feet. In an unripe state these pod-like fruits are sliced and
cooked in the manner of French beans, being also largely used as
a curry vegetable in the low-country. Seeds are sown in the
monsoons, either in rows in the open ground, or against low branch-
ing trees or shrubs. It is customary to suspend a small stone to
the end of each fruit whilst growing, so as to weight it down and
induce it to grow straighter, and perhaps longer, than it would
otherwise do (See illustration).
Vegetable Marrow. See under Temperate and Snb-tropical
Vegetables.
SECTION 3: ROOT OR TUBEROUS VEGETABLES
AND FOOD CROPS.
Calathea allouya. (Scitaminae). "Topee Tamboo," or
4'Tokee Tambo;" "Lleren" (S. American names). — A perennial
about 2 feet high, with large oval Canna-like leaves, native of
tropical South America. The plant has been grown at Peradeniya
since 1893, when it was introduced. It produces regularly a
quantity of tubers which resemble small potatoes, but these as yet
give no promise of becoming here the popular vegetable they are
said to be in the plant's native country and in the West Indies,
where it is recorded to have been cultivated for a long period,
though not extensively. The tubers though edible are of a some-
what gritty nature, and seem to require endless boiling to render
them tender. To a novice they seem to have no flavour, but
people who have acquired a taste for them pronounce them
delicious. In the report of the Porto Rico Experiment Station
for 1903, it is stated that this peculiar plant is highly prized by the
Natives of the interior, being "sold in the streets of some of the
large towns, the crisp nut-like tubers ranking with ground-nuts in
218
VEGETABLES A\JD FOOD PRODUCTS
popularity." A loose rich soil suits the plants best. They may
be planted at distances of about 2 feet, in rows 3 to 4 feet apart,
and cultivated like any other vegetable. Propagation is effected
by division of the plants or crowns; the root-tubers do not usually
" LLEREN," OR "TOPEE-TAMBOO."
Calathea allouya.
months from the
grow. A crop may be harvested in about ten
time of planting (See illustration).
Colocasia. — See Xanthosoma.
Canna edulis. (Scitaminae). Queensland Arrowroot; Indian-
shot; "Tous-les-mois;" "But-sarana" S; " Valay-sembu" T. —
A herbaceous perennial, with large bronzy leaves, 3 to 5 ft. in
VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS
219
height, considered to have been originally introduced from the
West Indies. It is commonly grown in native gardens, more es-
pecially about Tamil ccoly lines, and the starchy purplish tuberous
yrKKN'SLANI) AKRO\VKOOT. (_'</////<! Ctlllll's.
roots, 6 to 10 of which are usually produced by a plant, are either
cooked and eaten as a vegetable, or made into flour. The plant is
cultivated somewhat extensively in Queensland, where it furnishes
220 VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS
the " Queensland arrowroot" of commerce. Though not generally
so productive as the West Indian arrowroot, it is considered to be
one of the best starchy foods for invalids and infants, owing to the
larger size of the starch grains and their greater solubility in boil-
ing water. The starch is also largely used for laundry purposes.
The market price for this product in London ranges from about
4d. to 6d. per Ib. The yield is said to vary from 15 to 20 cwt. of
the prepared article per acre. According to the Porto Rico
Experiment Station Report for 1903, Canna edulis will yield a crop
of 15 tons of fresh tubers per acre under favourable conditions.
The plant is propagated and cultivated in the same way as the
ordinary Arrowroot. In Queensland the rhizomes (tubers) are
planted out in rows 3 to 4 feet apart, with a distance of 2 feet
between the plants in the row. The crop takes from six to eight
months to come to maturity. According to the Queensland Agri-
cultural Journal, 9 tons of tubers will yield 1 ton of prepared
arrowroot, and a good crop should give about li tons of the latter
per acre. (See illustration).
Cyperus esculentus. (Cyperaceae). "Chufa," Ground-almond,
Tiger-nuts. — A small perennial grass-like sage, indigenous to South
Europe, Western Asia and various parts of Africa. Its small
underground tubers are edible and may be cooked and used as a
vegetable, having a nutty flavour. Roasted and ground, they are
sometimes used for adulterating coffee. They also yield an ex-
cellent oil for culinary purposes. When dry, they look like large
wrinkled peas. MR. TUDHOPE, Director of Agriculture for the
Gold Coast, informs me that the plant is cultivated by the Natives
of that country, chiefly in localities adjoining the sea-board, and
that the tubers which "are not at all unpleasant to eat," are sold
in the local markets. The plant thrives in almost any arid sandy
soil, yielding a crop in 4 to 6 months and producing 100 to 150
tubers each. This species does not spread or become a trouble-
some weed like Cyperus rolundm, the " Kalanduru" of the Sinhalese.
Dioscorea. (Dioscoraceae). Yams; "Vel-ala" S.; " Kodi-
kilengu" T. — Different species and varieties of the genus Dioscorea
constitute the true Yams, which are climbing plants with large,
edible, underground tubers. In Ceylon, however, almost any
tuberous plant is called a "yam," as Alocasia (" Habarala"), Manihot
("Manyokka"), etc. The Dioscorea yams are largely cultivated in
the West Indies and tropical South America, where they form a
.standard article of diet with all classes, the best varieties being
VEGETABLES A\7D FOOD PRODUCTS 221
even preferred to good potatoes. In Ceylon and the Eastern
Tropics, however, they have not as yet gained such popularity,
either with the Natives or Europeans, and though often met with in
native gardens, as well as in markets and boutiques, they are not
a common commodity. Yams are easily cultivated, and thrive best
in loose deep soil, up to an elevation of 2,500 to 3,000 ft. They
may be planted against fences, trees, etc., or made to serve as
screens for covering unsightly objects. The best season for
planting is February and March. The ground being dug to a
depth of 1 i to 2 feet and raised in drills or mounds, 4 feet apart,
pieces of the crown or "yam head" are planted in these at distan-
ces of 2 feet apart. Poles or stout bamboo tops are fixed in the
ground along the rows for support to the vines. The crop is ready
for harvesting in from 7 to 9 months, the leaves then becoming
spotted brown, and the stems dying down to the ground. The
tubers may be lifted and stored in a cool shed, under dry earth or
sand; or they may be left in the ground and used as required, pro-
vided they can be protected from vermin and other enemies. Yams
can be cooked and prepared for food in various ways, being either
roasted, baked, or boiled and steamed, etc.
VARIETIES. There are numerous species and varieties of yams, some
half-dozen species being indigenous to the moist low-country jungle of
Ceylon. Most of the cultivated forms are somewhat variable in their
vegetative characters, colour and shape of tuber, and a great number
of these probably belong to the species D. alata. The local vernacular
names are numerous and confusing ; those here given include the
principal names known in Ceylon. Among the choicest varieties
are : — Kiri-kondol, Hingurala, Japana-ala, Java-ala, and Kukul-ala.
Yampee or Cush-cush is a favourite yam in the West Indies.
The following yams are grown in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya :
Stem 3 to 5 winged or angled, tuberiferous, without prickles; leaves
opposite, entire. — Dioscorea alata, var : —
"Angili-ala" S. (= "Verralvalli-kelengu" J), "Bindhar" or "Binnar-
ala" S, "Hingur" or "Ingur-ala" S, "Japana" or " Rathu-ala" S.
(="Sayuyalli-kelengu"70. "Kaharata-ala" S (== Karavalli-kelengu" T.),
"Kiri-kondol" S (= "Arthuvalli-kelengu" T) or White yam, "Kirivel-
ala" S (= " Vaithilay-valli-kelengu" T), "Xiame-Chino" and "Niame
Pellu" (Cuban names), "Raja-ala" S, " Rata-kondol" S, "Ratavel-
ala" S, "Vel-ala" S (= "Kodivalli-kelengu" T), and Yellow-yam
(= D. Caycnnemis).
Leaves 3 to 5 lobed, stem winged: — Yampee or Cush-cush yam (=D. trifida].
Stem round, tuberiferous, without prickles, leaves alternate : — "Udella"
or "Uda-ala" S (= " Kodikarrana-kelengu " T)= D. bnlbifera.
Stem round or slightly grooved, tuberiferous, with prickles, leaves alternate
VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS
or opposite, entire :— " Hiri-tala " S (= "Sheenivalli-kelengu" 7")
= D. obcuncata. "Java-ala" S, "Xatt-ala" or "Maha-kukul-ala" S,
(= "Shoravalli-kelengu" T), "Katukukul-ala" S, and "Kukul-ala" S
(= "Shirruvalli-kelengu" 7") = D. fasciculata. " Jambur-ala " S,
( = " Podhalivalli-kelengu " 7), " Kaha Japana-ala" S (= Guinea
Yam)=D. aciilcata*
Leaves three to five digitate :— " Katu-ala" S (= " Mulluvalli-kelengu " T)
=D. pentaphylla.
Stem round, not prickly, without aerial tubers, leaves opposite : — " Gon-
ala" S (= " Kombuvalli-kelengu " 7>=D. spicata.
Inedible Ceylon yams: — "Uyala" S (= D. tomcntosa), " Panu-kondol "
S (=D. sativd), and D. intermedia.
Helianthus tuberosus. Jerusalem Artichoke ; " H a r t h a-
wariya" S. (See under Sub-tropical or Temperate Vegetables),
Ipomoea Batatas. (Convolvulaceae). Sweet Potato; "Batala,"
S; "Velkelengu" T. — A creeping or trailing perennial, bearing
succulent tuberous roots, which are a tasty and nutritious article
of food, being sometimes preferred by Europeans to the common
or Irish Potato. The Sweet-potato is considered to have its native
habitat distributed over the tropics generally. It is cultivated in
all warm countries, and may be grown successfully in sheltered
valleys up to about 4,000 feet in Ceylon, but does not usually thrive
in the hills. Any moderately good soil will suit the plant, provided
it is of a light sandy nature. The ground should be well dug,
manured, and formed into ridges at distances of about 2 ft. ; along
the centre of the ridges cuttings about 12 inches long are planted
a fewr inches apart, and these readily strike root. During dry
weather, the plants should be watered, or, when possible, the
ground irrigated once a \veek. The crop is ready for harvesting
about 3 to 4 months from the time of planting, the leaves turning
yellow when the tubers are mature. A yield of about 4 or 5 tons
of tubers per acre may be expected under favourable conditions.
VARIETIES. The following are among the best varieties grown at
Peradeniya : — "Boniato," "Sierra morena," "Boniato Amarillo,"
"Virginia," and " Nancimund." There are numerous varieties re-
cognised in the West Indies and America, such as "Blue Belle," " Red
Burbon," "White Gilkes," "Annie Vine," "Prince Henry," etc.
Manihot utilissima (Euphorbiaceae). Tapioca ; " Cassava;"
"Manyokka" S. — A shrubby perennial, 6 to 8 feet high, native
originally of tropical South America, where its cultivation dates far
back. It is supposed to have been first introduced into India and
Ceylon by the Portuguese. There are two distinct kinds in cultiva-
tion, known as the "Bitter" and "Sweet" Cassava (Manihot utilissima
1). cayt'Hih'iisis (Burkhill).
224 VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS
and M. Aifii respectively), and of these there are many
varieties. All are characterised by the presence of prussic
acid, some possessing it to a greater extent than others,
and this not infrequently results fatally to persons eating the
cassava carelessly prepared. The " Bitter " variety contains a
greater percentage of the poison than the " Sweet," and as
it exists chiefly in the outer portion of the root of the latter
it is easily eliminated J The Cassava is cultivated in all tropical
countries, either as food for man and stock, or for the manufacture
of starch. It is extensively grown in Tropical America, the
West Indies, and the Straits Settlements, and has been the
chief article of diet of the aboriginal races of the former countries
from time immemorial. In India and Ceylon its cultivation is
rather limited and generally confined to native gardens, being
grown chiefly for home consumption. The large tuberous roots
are cooked and used as a vegetable, or made into cassava
meal and bread. The tapioca of commerce is obtained by
a process of grating and sifting of the tubers, the poisonous
juice being removed by pressure, washing, and fire heat.
Tapioca is largely exported from Brazil, and in recent years
from the Straits Settlements, where the Chinese have advanced
its cultivation. When the tubers are used as a vegetable, it
is especially important that they be fresh. If kept for more
than a few days after being taken from the ground they become
dangerous to eat, and it is probable that many of the fatal
cases from eating cassava are due to neglect of this precaution.
It is said that the Natives of Guiana take red chillies steeped
in rum as an antidote to cassava poisoning. Cassareep, a
powerful antiseptic, capable of preserving meat, etc., is a by-product
obtained by boiling down the poisonous juice of the u Bitter
Cassava " ; it is used in the making of many celebrated sauces,
and in the well-known " Pepper-pot " of the West Indies.
**~~~
Cassava is an exhausting crop, and cannot usually be grown
profitably for more than three successive years in the same
ground. In the Straits, it has in many cases been grown as
a catch crop in young rubber plantations. The plant resists
drought well, thrives at all elevations up to about 2,000 feett
and prefers an open sandy soil. It is propagated by cuttings
of the stem, which are planted at a distance of about 16 inches
in rows about 4 ft. apart. The tubers are ready for harvesting
in 8 to 10 months from date of planting, some varieties taking
15 months or more to mature a crop ; a good crop is considered
VEGETABLES AXI) FOOD PRODUCTS 225
to yield from 10 to 12 tons or more tubers per acre, a single
plant often producing from 30 to 50 Ib. The yield of prepared
tapioca varies from 1,600 to 2,600 Ib. per acre. Cassava is largely
cultivated in the Philippines and Java for the production of starch,
the yield of which is about 34%. There are numerous varieties
of Cassava in cultivation, some 6 or 7 occurring in Ceylon, none of
which appear to be distinguished by vernacular names.
Maranta arundinacea, (Scitaminae). West Indian, or Ber-
muda Arrowroot; "Araluk" or " Hulankiriya" S. — A small stem-
less herbaceous plant, with large leaves, native of Tropical America.
The name "arrow-root " is derived from the fact that the rhizomes
were used by the Indians as an application to wounds inflicted by
poisoned arrows. The plant is cultivated in most tropical countries
for the sake of its white starchy underground tubers (rhizomes), which
are either used as a vegetable, or (by a process of washing, grating
and sifting) made into arrowroot. The arrowroot of commerce is
obtained chiefly from the West Indies, notably Bermuda and St.
Vincent, where the plant is systematically cultivated. Propagation
is effected either by means of the tubers or by division of the crown,
these being planted 5 or 6 in. deep in rows or furrows 3 ft. apart,
with about 14 in. between the plants in the row. The commence-
ment of the rainy season should be selected for planting. A light,
loamy, well-drained soil is best, wet or clayey soil being unsuitable.
The crop is an exhausting one, and the richer the soil the better.
The plant will thrive from sea-level to about 3,000 feet in Ceylon.
Shade is not essential, though in light and exposed soils it is bene-
ficial. The flowers should be removed from the plants as they
appear. The tubers are usually ready for harvesting in from 8 to
10 months from the time of planting, their mature condition
being indicated by the leaves flagging and dying down. It is
estimated that an acre will produce on an average about 5 tons
of fresh tubers, which contain about 15 to 20 per cent, of dry
starch, yielding a return of about 16 to 20 cwt. of prepared arrow-
root per acre. Arrowroot fetches at present about 3</. to 4ci. per
Ib. wholesale.
Oxalis crenata (Oxalidaceae). "Oka." — A small Peruvian plant,
allied to the common Oxalis weed (0. violacea, so troublesome at
the higher elevations in Ceylon), producing numerous small tubers,
which are edible and grow to the size of small plums. The plant
is cultivated as a vegetable in Peru, where the tubers are boiled
for about 20 minutes, and eaten with pepper and salt. etc. The
226 VEGETABLES AND FOOD PRODUCTS
acid succulent leaf-stalks are used as a salad. The plant is said
to thrive in almost any free soil, and is readily propagated by the
tubers.
Plectranthus tuberosus (Labiatae, Coleus family). Country
Potato; "Innala" S. — A small herbaceous plant with succulent
aromatic leaves, commonly grown in low-country native gardens
for the sake of its small watery, but edible, underground tubers.
The latter are often retailed in the markets and boutiques, being
used as a vegetable in curries ; they appear to have little to re-
commend them as an article of food ; but their quality might
possibly be improved by cultivation and selection. In 'Africa,
Madagascar, Cochin China, etc., this and other species of
Plectranthus are said to be grown and relished by the Natives.
The plants are easily propagated by cuttings or tubers, and may be
grown like Sweet-potatoes, being planted about 8 in. apart in a bed
of light rich soil.
Tacca pinnatif ida (Taccaceae). " Garandi-kidaran ' ' 5. —
A stemless tuberous plant, with leaves 1 to 3 ft. long and parted
into three segments, native of the dry region of Ceylon (Bintenne,
Bitticaloa, and Jaffna), being found in open grassy places. It is
also indigenous to India, Burma and Malaya, and is commonly
cultivated in parts of India, Tropical Africa, Pacific Islands, etc.
The plant has a large round tuberous root, which yields a con-
siderable quantity of white nutritious fecula. This is considered
to be equal to the best arrowroot, which it somewhat resembles,
and is .said to form an important article of local trade in
Travancore, Fiji, Hawaii, and elsewhere*. The tubers, dug up after
the leaves have died down, are rasped and macerated for 4 or 5 days
in cold water, when the fecula separates, being then prepared in
the same manner as sago. In the crude state it is intensely bitter
and acrid, but these qualities are removed by the process of soak-
ing and washing. The plant is suited to a rich porous soil, and
may be planted in rows about 3 ft. apart. Propagated by division
of the root-stock.
Xanthosoma. (Aroideae). "Tannias" or "Tanniers;"
"Cocoes ;" "Eddoes;" "Yautias;" "Taroes"— These are some of
the numerous vernacular names applied in the Pacific Isles,
S. America and the West Indies to different species or varieties of
Xanthosoma and Colocasia. In Ceylon, as elsewhere, much con-
fusion exists in regard to the names of these plants, which here are
all generally referred to under the vernacular names of " Habarala,"
"Gahala," etc. MR. BAKRETT, of the Porto Rico Experiment
VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS 227
Station, considers that the name "Taro" rightly belongs only to
varieties of Colocasia esculent tint* a native of the Old World ; whilst
the rest of the names given above should be exclusively applied to
species or varieties of Xanthosoma, all cultivated forms of which
may be considered as having been derived from the three species
A". sagiUaefoIium, X. atrovirens, and X. violaceum. Thus the Taro
(Colocasia) and its varieties are distinct by having the leaf peltate,
i. e., with the petiole (leaf-stalk) attached to the margin; whilst with
the Xanthosoma (" Tannias," " Yautias," "Cocoes," etc.) the leaf is
never peltate, but has the leaf-stalk attached to the margin of the
blade, and the latter is usually prolonged into two lobes at the base.
This group of handsome tropical plants are among the oldest
cultivated crops of the world, and are found everywhere in a more
or less cultivated state throughout the tropics. They furnish edible
under-ground tubers (rhizomes), not unlike artichokes, and the
young tender leaves are boiled and eaten as spinach. Though a
stand-bye vegetable in native gardens, it does not find much favour
with Europeans. In Hawaii and parts of South America, Yautias
are grown somewhat extensively, either for food or for the com-
mercial starch obtained from the tubers. The plants do best in a
rich humous moist soil, and may be planted all the year round ;
they will thrive in Ceylon up to 3,000 feet or higher, and to some
extent in the drier districts if irrigated. Propagation is effected by
means of the tubers or division of the crowns. In the West Indies,
Tannias are recommended for planting out as shade for young
plantations of Cocoa, etc.
VARIETIES : — There are numerous varieties in cultivation, the following
being the principal ones occurring in Ceylon.
Colocasia: Leaves peltate, leaf-stalks and tubers eaten :--"Kiri-ala" (very
pale green leaves), "Kandala," "Thadala," "Kalu-ala" (leaf-stalks
purple), "Kalu-khandala" (leaf-stalks purple), "Yakutala." "Garendi-
kandala," "Gahala." "Ala-kola" or "Gahala-kola," "Thumas-ala." The
last named is considered one of the best, producing a crop of tubers
in three or four months, as the name indicates.
Xanthosoma . leaves hastate or sagittate : tubers edible, leaf-stalks occasion-
ally eaten.— "Rata" or "Daesi-ala," "Habarala" (leaves very large),
" Kalu-habarala " (leaf-stalks purple).
Alocasia cucnllata : — " Panu-habarala. "Leaves heart-shaped ; used medi-
cinally only.
Alocasia macrorhiza variegata: — "Eli-habarala; large handsome variegated
leaves : used only in native medicine.
Alocasia sp. ' Mavil-habarala," also a medicinal species, distinct by a
spotted leaf-stalk, the vernacular name being derived from the supposed
resemblance of the latter to the "Mapila" snake.
228 VEGETABLES AND FOOD PRODUCTS
SECTION 4. MISCELLANEOUS VEGETABLES AND
FOOD CROPS.
Amaranthus oleraceus. (Amarantaceae) ; "Thampala" S. — An
annual herbaceous plant which, with several other species or varie-
ties of the same genus, is commonly grown by the Natives in the
low-country. The tender leaves and succulent portion of the stem
are boiled and used in curries and other ways. In India, the
succulent tops of the stems and branches are said to be sometimes
served up as a substitute for Asparagus. The Amaranthus is easily
cultivated, being readily raised from seed, and thrives in any ordi-
nary soil. Some varieties come up spontaneously in ground where
they were previously grown.
Basella alba. (Chenopodiaceae). Ceylon Spinach ; Malabar
Night-shade; "Niviti" S. "Pasali" T.— A slender climbing
perennial, with succulent stems and leaves, which may be used as
a potherb or spinach, for which they are a good substitute. It is
often cultivated in the low-country of Ceylon and is relished by
Natives and Europeans. Propagated by seed sown during the rains,
preferably in rows, sticks being provided for support to the vines.
Arachis hypogaea. (Leguminosae). Ground-nut ; Earth-nut ;
Monkey-nut; Pea-nut; "Rata-kaju" S; "Nella-kadala" T.— A small
annual trailing plant, native of Brazil and now cultivated in all
tropical countries. It is remarkable for its habit of burying its
seed-pods in the ground to ripen, hence the name "ground-nut."
The cultivation and export of ground-nuts is an important industry
in West Africa, Southern India, Burma, and elsewhere. Recently
in Ceylon, ground-nuts were strongly advocated as a suitable
inter-crop with stationary products, as Rubber, but have not proved
a commercial success. The plant is, however, often grown in
native gardens in the low-country. In Tropical America, the West
Indies and throughout Tropical Africa, Ground-nuts are commonly
cultivated both as an article of food and for the valuable oil obtain-
ed from the seed. The "nuts" (seeds) are prepared and used for
food in numerous ways. In the United States they are used largely
in confectionery, being also roasted and eaten as dessert.
Ground-nut oil is one of the best of salad oils, being considered
almost equal to olive oil, but its chief use is in the manufacture
of toilet soaps, pomades, cold cream, etc. After the expression of
the oil from the seed, the residue forms a valuable manure or
cattle-food.
VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS 229
A light friable, well-tilled soil is the most suitable for the
plant, the presence of lime being especially beneficial. The ground
should be well forked to a depth of 6 inches or more, and the seed,
after being shelled, may be sown about 3 in. deep in rows 1^ to
2 ft. or more apart. Just before the commencement of the rainy
season is the proper time to sow. From 70 to 80 Ib. seeds should
be sufficient to sow an acre. About 3 to 5 months, according to
the variety grown and nature of soil, are required to produce a
crop. When ripe, the plants are dug up and the nuts picked by
hand. The yield per acre may vary from 1,500 to 4,000 Ib. of
"nuts;" 3,000 Ib. is said to be a good average yield, though with
high cultivation as much as 6,000 Ib. per acre is stated to have
been obtained. Several varieties are known in cultivation, these
being distinguished by differences in productiveness and by a
spreading or erect habit of the plants. The "Mauritius" and
"Brazil" varieties have been found the best of those tried at the
Peradeniya Experiment Station.
Capsicum grossum. or C.— frutescens. (Solanaceas). Capsicum,
Chilli, Bell Pepper, "Malu-miris" S, "Karri-kochika" T. — There
are numerous varieties of Capsicum or Bell-pepper, which are
related and similar to the small pungent varieties of Pepper chillies
(see under Spices), but distinguished from them by the large pod-
like fruits. The latter are hollow, usually oblong, 3 to 5 inches
long or more, and vary in colour from orange, bright red, amber,
to dark-purple. These are edible and pungentless. being generally
relished in salads or as a vegetable. The plants are annuals, 2 to
3 ft. high, and thrive best in loose rich soil, under light shade.
Suited to elevations up to 4,000 ft., provided the rainfall is not
excessive. Seed of excellent varieties may be obtained from
nurserymen in Europe.
Edible Seaweed. Several species of Seaweed furnish an
article of food to the inhabitants of certain tropical regions. In
the Malay Archipelago, China, and Japan, certain seaweeds are
said to form a staple article of diet, the sorts used coming under
the heads of "blue-green," "brown," and "red." When soaked in
hot water these become highly gelatinous, and are eaten in various
forms, or used for thickening soups. The blue-green varieties are
said to contain the highest percentage of proteicls. Seaweed jelly
is sometimes used for adulterating fruit jellies.
Edible birds' nests. Though scarcely a vegetable product,
edible birds' nests rank as an important article of table delicacy
in China, where they are made into a celebrated soup. These
230 VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS
nests are formed by species of swifts (Collocalia) inhabiting caves,
and their nutritive value is derived from the dried salivary secre-
tion of the birds. Young, white nests are the most highly prized,
and these are sold at very fanciful prices, varying from about £35
per thousand, k'the best quality commanding their weight in silver."
The annual import to Canton alone is said to be about 9,000,000
nests. Edible birds' nests have until recently been exported from
Ceylon, being collected, under Government licence, from caves
chiefly in the Southern Province.
Hibiscus esculentus. (Malvaceae). Okra or Ochro ; Gobba,
or Gumbo; Lady's Fingers; "Bandakka" S; "Bandak-kai" T. — An
erect annual of the "Shoe-flower" family, 2 to 3 ft. high, bearing
large leaves and erect horn-like pods. The latter grow from 5 to
8 in. long, and when tender are an agreeable vegetable ; when
boiled, they are of a mucilaginous consistency and are used for
thickening soups, or in salads. This popular vegetable is grown
throughout the tropics, and occurs in numerous varieties. The
plant is not suited to high elevations in Ceylon, except in sheltered
valleys. Sow seed at the commencement ot the rains, thinly in
rows about 3 ft. apart, subsequently thinning out the plants to
distances of 12 or 14 inches ; or sow in a bed, and afterwards
transplant the seedlings into rows in well-prepared soil, allowing
the dwarf kinds to be about 15 in. apart, and the larger kinds
18 to 20 inches. The plant does best in rich or heavily manured
soil. The pods are best for use while they are soft and tender,
before the seeds are half -grown.
Ipomoea aquatica. (Convolvulaceae). "Kan-kun" S. — A small
semi-aquatic creeper, with tender arrow-shaped leaves, often culti-
vated in native gardens. The leaves and young stems are common-
ly used for vegetable curries. Thrives best in a shallow trench
where moisture can be retained. Propagated easily by cuttings.
Ipomoea Bona-nox. (Convolvulaceae). Moon Flower ; "Alan-
ga" 5. "Alangai" T. — A perennial climber, the fleshy calyces of
which are often used as a vegetable for curries, soups, etc. It is
sometimes cultivated, chiefly by Tamils, in small native gardens.
Easily propagated by cuttings or seed. Will thrive up to 3,000
feet.
Moringa pterygosperma. (Moringie). Horse-radish Tree;
Drumsticks; "Murunga" S; uMurunga-kai" T, — A short slender
tree with small tri-pinnate leaves, found cultivated in gardens
throughout Ceylon, India, etc. The roots are used as a substitute
VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS
231
for horse-radish, the leaves for vegetable curries as well as for
seasoning and in pickles. The long unripe pods ("drumsticks")
are very commonly used as a curry vegetable, being boiled and
cut up like beans. The flowers and bark are used in native medi-
cine, and a valuable oil known as "oil of Ben" is obtained in India
from the seeds. Propagated by seed or cuttings.
Passiflora quadrangularis. (Passifloraceae). Granadilla;
"Garandilla" S. — A large perennial climber, whose gourd-like green
fruit in an unripe state may be boiled and served as a vegetable
(See under Tropical Fruits).
Sesbania (Agati) grandiflora. (Leguminosae). "Katuru-murun-
ga" S; " Agatti-keerai " T. — A small, quick-growing, soft-wooded
tree, about 15 to 20 ft. high, bearing large pendulous flowers, the
fleshy petals of which are much esteemed for use in curries and
soups; both the
flowers and tender
leaves are very pala-
table when fried.
The long pendulous
pods do not appear
to be eaten. The
bark, leaves and
flowers are medicinal.
Propagated by seed.
(See illustration.)
Solanum Melon-
gena. (Solanaceae).
Brinjal ; Egg-plant ;
'Wambotu"S;"Katri-
kai" T. — A low bushy
perennial (an annual
in cultivation), com-
monly grown in
native gardens for its
smooth polished fruit,
which is cooked and
served in various
ways, and forms a
favourite vegetable.
There are n u m e r -
ous varieties, differ-
ing chiefly in the
232 VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS
shape, size and colour of the fruit. The latter is round in some
varieties, egg-shaped or cucumber-shaped in others, whilst the
colour varies from white to dark-purple, the latter colour being
usually characteristic of the best varieties. Brinjals thrive best in
a rather dry climate, and require alight, rich well-tilled soil. They
are grown most successfully in the Negombo and Dumbara districts
of Ceylon, and are suited to fairly high elevations, provided the
climate is not too wet. Sow seed in a well prepared bed, and
transplant the seedlings when about three inches high into rows
18 inches apart, with 15 inches between the plants in the row. The
plants should begin to bear in from 3 to 4 months, and continue to
yield a crop for about 3 months.
Sorghum vulgare. (Gramineae). Guinea Corn; Great Millet;
Turkish Millet; "Cholam" T. — A tall annual plant of the grass
family, 6 to 9 ft. high, cultivated from remote ages as a cereal
food-crop. It requires the same conditions of climate and soil
as Maize, and is largely cultivated in India, Burma, Africa, etc.,
but is seldom grown in Ceylon. It is not considered well suited
to rice-growing regions. The small hard grain is very nutritious,
and is made into flour, while the straw affords good fodder. In
India the plant is often grown mixed with a pulse crop, as Cajanus
indicns, the seeds of both being mixed and sown in drills 14 to 18
inches apart. About 7 or 8 Ib. of Sorghum seed mixed with about
3 Ib. pulse seed is considered sufficient to sow an acre. A crop is
obtained in about five months from the time of sowing, the yield
obtained varying from 500 .to 900 Ib. or more per acre, according
to variety and soil. Several varieties occur in cultivation, these
being distinguished by white, cream, red, or black seeds.
Voandzeia subterranea. (Leguminosae). Vandzon; Madagas-
car-, or Bambarra-ground-nut. — A creeping annual with upright long-
stalked leaves, the latter composed of three leaflets. Like the
common ground-nut, the flower-stalks after flowering bend down
to the earth, in which they develop and ripen their pods; on the
other hand, the plant does not produce trailing branches and fruits
are set close to the stem. The seeds or "nuts" are a common
article of food with the Natives of Madagascar and different parts
of Tropical Africa, where the plant is cultivated. In Zanzibar,
there is a small trade in the product. The plant has been carried
by the Negro slaves to certain parts of Tropical South America,
where it is said to have become naturalised. It is known in
Surinam as "Gobbe," in Natal as "Igiuhluba," and in Madagascar
VEGETABLES AXD FOOD PRODUCTS 233
as "Pistache Malgache." In yield and requisite conditions for
cultivation the plant resembles the common ground-nut or
Arachis.
Kerstingiella geocarpa. A kind of ground-nut similar to the
preceding species in habit, etc., found and cultivated in Togoland,
where it is known as "Kandela." It is a prostrate leguminous
herb, rooting at the nodes, bearing white, red or black seeds.
Zea Mays. (Gramineae). Indian-corn; Maize; (Mealies of
S. Africa); "Bada-iringu" S-; "Cholum" T. — An annual monoecious
grass, 8 to 10 ft. high, native of Mexico. The unripe tender heads
or cobs are, when properly cooked and served, considered by
most persons a delicious vegetable. They are cooked and pre-
pared in numerous ways, as boiled in milk, roasted, and then
served with butter, pepper and salt. The ripe grains are made
into Hour by the Sinhalese, buns made from this being known as
"Iringu-roti." The plant is grown to greatest extent and perfec-
tion in the warmer parts of America, where it is an important
article of diet, especially the " Sweet" or " Sugar " varieties. It
has also been long cultivated in the Eastern Tropics, where
however the best varieties soon degenerate; good seed should
therefore be imported frequently from America. Among the best
and most distinct varieties as recognised in America and Australia
are; — "Pride of the North," "Jowa Silver-mine," '4 Longfellow
Dent," "Hickory King," "Golden Flint," "Mastadon," and
"Waterloo." Indian-corn is naturally subject to cross fertilisation,
so that it runs into numerous varieties if left to itself. It is suited
to a rather dry climate, like that of Dumbara in Ceylon, and may
be grown at all elevations up to 5,000 feet or more. Sow the seeds
at the commencement of the monsoons, in drills about 3 to 4 ft.
apart, with about 6 inches between the grains in the row, the drills
being about 3 inches deep. When the plants are well up, they
should be thinned out to distances of about 12 inches apart. In
indifferent soil, seeds may be sown 3 or 4 together in holes 12 in.
apart, with 2\ ft. between the rows, say 8,700 holes to the acre. A
return of from 80 to 100 bushels of grain per acre is considered a
good average yield. Each plant should produce from 2 to 5 cobs;
the cobs are from 8 to 12 in. long.
CHAPTER XIII
TEMPERATE OR SUB-TROPICAL VEGETABLES
AND FOOD CROPS
[S=SlNHALESE ; 2— TAMIL].
Suited to elevations of 3,000 feet upwards, with an annual
rainfall of about 60 to 100 inches. Many may be grown with
moderate success in the cool seasons at lower elevations, some
even at sea-level.
[For convenience of reference it is considered preferable in this case to
give precedence to the common or English name over the botanical,
the former being better known. The botanical name and Natural
Order are enclosed in brackets].
Aracacha, or Peruvian Parsnip ( Arr acacia esciilenla. N. O.
Umbelliferae). — This uncommon vegetable is a native of the Andes
in South America, \vhere it is cultivated between 5,000 and 7,000
feet altitude. It is a low, Parsnip-like plant, producing large
edible, starchy, carrot-shaped roots, the flavour of which has
been compared to a combination of parsnips and potatoes.
MR. W. NOCK, late of Hakgala Gardens, introduced it as seed from
Jamaica in 1884. DR. TRIMEN stated that "its peculiar flavour
and cheesy consistence did not seem to be relished by Europeans,
though much enjoyed by all Natives who had tasted it." It is
propagated either by seed or by division of the small heads (leaf-
stalks), which spread out from the crown, the sets being planted
about 6 in. deep in rows about 3 ft. apart. The plant requires
from 10 to 12 months to reach maturity, but the tubers may be
gathered for use 2 months earlier than this if required. In the
native country of the plant, it is customary to gather the leaves
together and twist them moderately, a process said to prevent the
plants from running to head, while also favouring the development
of the root. The plant will thrive in any good soil, and is adapted
only to the higher elevations, say from 4,500 to 6,000 feet. It is
commonly cultivated as a vegetable at Bogota, in Colombia, up to
8,000 feet elevation.
VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS 235
Artichoke, Chinese. (Stachys tubenfera. X. O. Labiatae). — A
dwarf herbaceous plant, bearing underground white spiral-like
tubers, 2 to 2\ inches in length and about \ an inch in thickness.
They are eaten either cooked as a vegetable, or raw like radishes,
being said to somewhat resemble the latter in flavour with a sug-
gestion of the Jerusalem Artichoke. The plant has been found to
succeed at Hakgala Gardens, where MR. W. NOCK reported in
1889 thus: "The ground is literally full of the small edible roots."
This vegetable is not much grown in England, but is popular in
France.
Artichoke, Globe (Cynara Scolymus. X. O. Composite). — The
tender part of the globular unexpanded flower-head, after being
boiled and eaten, is much relished as a vegetable. The plant
thrives to perfection at Nuwara Eliya, growing sometimes in a
semi-naturalised state, but is unsuited to elevations below 4,000
feet. Propagated by seed or suckers, preferably the former. Seed
should be sown early in the year in boxes or pots under cover,
but exposed as much as possible to the light, otherwise the seed-
lings are apt to damp off. The seed should germinate in 10 or 12
days after sowing. Prick out the seedlings when strong enough
into a well-prepared and sheltered bed, and when these are about
4 in. high, plant them out 3 ft. by 4 ft. apart in rows. Good heads
should be produced in about 8 months from the time of planting.
The plants thrive best in a rich moist soil, as by the side of water
channels or streams.
VARIETIES .— " Green Globe " and " Purple Globe " are both
good.
Artichoke, Jerusalem ( Hclia nthus tuberosus. X. O. Compos-
itae). — This much-relished esculent is one of the most successfully
cultivated of European vegetables at low or intermediate elevations
(2,000 to 4,000 ft.) in Ceylon where, curiously enough, it thrives
better than at higher elevations. The plants like a rich free moist
soil and, under congenial conditions, grow 5 to 6 ft. in height. In
the tropics, however, they only reach a height of 2 to 3 ft. and the
stems are inclined to a trailing habit. Plant the tubers in May at
intervals of 16 inches, in lines about 2i ft. apart. Pick off any flowers
that may appear on the plants. A crop of tubers may usually be
obtained in 5 to 6 months from the time of planting, and when
these are taken up they should be covered with earth. In the
tropics the tubers deteriorate to some extent after each crop, so
that new sets should be imported every year if possible.
236
VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS
Asparagus. (Asparagus officinalis, N. O. Liliaceae). "Hartha-
wariya," S. — The cultivation of this delicious vegetable is seldom
successful in the tropics. The plant is, however, occasionally
grown with some measure of success in Ceylon at elevations of
4,000 to 5,000 ft. The young tender culms or shoots are the parts
used. The plant requires a rich, friable and well-drained soil, which
ASPAKAUUS, SHOWING A FIXE CHOP OF EDIBLE SHOOTS
should be heavily manured ; being a native of the sea-coast,
it is considered to derive much benefit from a sprinkling of salt
applied to the surface soil once a year. Propagated by seed,
which should be sown in boxes under shelter. When the seed-
lings are a few inches high, they should be planted out in large
and deep holes, when care must be taken not to injure the delicate
VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS 237
roots. In Europe the seed is generally sown where the plants are
to remain. A bed of Asparagus is considered to be in its prime at
five years old, and lasts for a number of years. None of the
shoots or branches should be cut during the first 2 years after
sowing, so as to encourage the plant to make vigorous crowns or
root-stocks.
Beans, Broad ( Vie/a Faba. N. O. Legnminosae). — Broad-
bean£ are grown successfully in only very few gardens at the
higher elevations in Ceylon ; the plants set fruit but sparsely, even
in the cool dry months, and when pods are produced they are
usually small and lacking in flavour. By pinching back the tops, of
the plants when in blossom, and artificially pollinating the flowers,
the production of pods may, however, be considerably increased.
The best time to sow seed is in October or November. Seeds should
be soaked in hot water for some hours, and then sown 4 inches
apart in drills, with 1 8 inches between the latter ; cover the seeds
with 3 inches of soil. There are two distinct kinds, the " Long
Pod" and " Broad Windsor ;" the former is considered the better
suited to cultivation in the tropics.
Beans, Kidney or French. (Pliascolus rulgiin's. N. O. Legu-
minosae). " Bonchi," S. — This excellent vegetable can be grown
in the moist and cool season at all elevations from sea-level, but to
most perfection at 5,000 to 6,000 feet, being commonly cultivated
in market gardens about Nuwara Eliya. The varieties come under
two distinct classes, viz. — (a) " Dwarf " sorts, which attain a height
of 12 to 16 inches and do not need stakes for supports ; (b) the
tall or " Runner-Beans," which are climbers and grow 6 or 8 ft. in
length, requiring supports as Peas. The conditions of culture for
the tall and dwarf sorts are the same. The latter come into
bearing sooner and are more prolific than the Runner-beans, which,
however, remain productive for a longer period. The seeds should
be sown in rows, in well-manured soil, with a distance of li to 2 ft.
between the rows. Frequent sowings should be made so as to
keep up a succession of crops ; sowings made towards the end of
the monsoon rains should give the best returns. The seeds germi-
nate quickly, and the plants usually come into bearing in about six
weeks from the time of sowing. Among the best of the Dwarf
sorts are: — ''Canadian Wonder," "Butter Beans," ("Mont d' Or"),
" Sutton's Perfection," and "Yeitch's Hybrid." Runner Beans : —
"Chelsea Giant White," "Epicure," "Excelsior," "White Long
Pod," etc.
238 VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS
Bean, Scarlet Runner. (Phaseohis innltiflorus. N. O. Legumi-
nosas).— A herbaceous perennial climber with scarlet flowers, native
of South America. The tender pods are used like those of French -
beans, etc. The plant is seldom cultivated in Ceylon, as it has
been found unsuited to the climate at any elevation, though it
has been grown with fair success at Peradeniya, where it has
blossomed freely but seldom produced fruit.
Beet, or Beetroot. (Beta viilgaris. N. O. Chenopodiaceae). This
grows extremely well in up-country gardens, and at low elevations
also it yields very fair roots, which are the parts used. The
plant generally thrives best in a rather heavy moist soil and, being
naturally a native of the sea-coast, is supposed to be benefited by an
application of salt to the soil. A suitable chemical manure mixture
is : Kainit ( 3 parts), superphosphate (5 parts), sulphate of ammonia
(2 parts), using 3 to 4 oz. per square yard. The ground should be
dug deeply, burying the manure \vell under. Secure an even and
fine surface by means of an iron rake, and draw small drills about
li in. deep, and 10 inches apart ; into these sow the seed thinly
and evenly, and cover with fine soil, afterwards pressing down the
surface. The seed germinate in a few days. The seedlings must
be thinned out when well above the surface, and these may be
transplanted if desired.
VARIETIES.— "Electric," "Dell's Crimson," "Middleton Park"
and "Turnip-rooted" are excellent sorts. On the plains in India,
acclimatised seed is considered to give the best results.
Leaf-beet. (Beta cicla. N. O. Chenopodiaceae). This variety of
Beet is grown for its leaves which are used in soups, etc., for
flavouring. Cultural requirements similar to those given for the
common Beet.
Borecole, Kale, or Curly Greens- (Brasslca oleracea acephala.
N. O. Cruciferae). — A variety of cabbage characterized by very
crumpled or curly leaves, which spread out in plume-like fashion,
and do not form a compact head. These are not considered fit
for use in England until they have had some frost. Owing to
their ornamental appearance, they are frequently employed for
garnishing as well as for cooking purposes. The plants can be
grown successfully at medium and high elevations. Not commonly
grown in market gardens in Ceylon. Cultural directions the same
as for Cabbage.
Broccoli. (Brassica oleracea Botrytis. N. O. Cruciferae). — This
is practically a kind of Cauliflower in which the flowers do not
VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS 239
form a compact head ; it is best suited to a winter climate in cool
countries, and is unsuitable for cultivation in the tropics.
Brussels Sprouts. (Brassica oleracca gennnifera. N. O. Cru-
ciferae ). — This favourite vegetable is a variety of Cabbage which,
instead of forming one single head, produces numerous small
heads or " sprouts " crowded along the ste'm towards the top. It
is a winter vegetable in Europe, but also thrives at high elevations
in the tropics, and is commonly grown in up-country gardens in
Ceylon. Cultural requirements are similar to those of Cabbage.
"Sutton's Matchless," "The Aigburth," and "Dwarf Gem" are
all good varieties.
Cabbage; "Goa" S. ( Brassica oleracea. N. O. Cruciferae). —
This useful vegetable is now grown abundantly at high elevations
in Ceylon, both in private and market gardens. At low or interme-
diate elevations also it thrives sufficiently well to yield at least a
crop of green leaves, which are so much prized by the Natives for
soups and vegetable curries. A rich, well-drained and manured
soil is essential. The seed may be sown thinly on a sheltered
border with finely worked, loose soil ; when the plants are 4 or
5 in. high they should be planted out about 15 in. apart in rows,
the distance between the latter being about 18 or 20 inches. The
young plants will require to be protected from the sun and wind
until strong enough to take care of themselves. In the low-country,
Cabbages are often propagated by cuttings or small shoots which
appear on the stem ; but here the plants do not form heads, and
only the lower leaves are picked for use as required. The club-
root disease to which all the Cabbage family (Cruciferae) are liable,
is the greatest drawback to Cabbage cultivation in the hill districts
of Ceylon. (See Fungus Diseases), The spores readily infest the
soil after the first crop of Cabbages is grown, and a change of soil
for each successive crop is advisable if not essential. The only
preventive that can be employed is fresh unslaked lime, applied at
the rate of about 75 bushels per acre, or 15 Ib. to 100 sq. feet.
All diseased plants should be burnt. Wire- worms are also a very
troublesome pest of Cabbages, and seem to be attracted by the
club-root disease.
VARIETIES.— u Button's Earliest," " Sutton's Maincrop," and
" Early Battersea," are among the best.
Cabbage, Red. ( Brassica oleracea capitata r libra. N. O.
Cruciferae).— This will thrive well at 4,000 to 6,000 ft., but is not
much grown in Ceylon. It is used chiefly for pickling. Cultural
240 VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS
requirements are similar to those of the Cabbage. The principal
varieties are ''Red Drumhead," "Red Dutch," and "Dwarf Red."
Cabbage, Savoy. A dwarf variety of Cabbage with crimpled
leaves. Thrives well at high elevations, but is not much grown in
Ceylon nor apparently in India.
Cabbage, Shantung. (Brassica chinensis. N. O. Cruciferae ),
also known as " Choucle Chine " and " Pe-tsai." — A species of
Cabbage, shaped like a Cos-lettuce, and weighing, it is said, when
well-grown 5 to 6 Ib. This has long been in high repute in China
as a vegetable. MR. HUGHES, late Commissioner of Customs at
Chefoo, stated : "When boiled it is nearly as good as Sea-kale ;
eaten raw, in a salad, it is of so delicate a flavour that I know of no
vegetable in England to approach it." A sample of this Cabbage
grown at Kew Gardens was pronounced to be excellent. MR. W.
NOCK reported the plant to grow remarkably well at Hakgala
Gardens, stating : "In appearance and habit of growth it resem-
bles a gigantic Cos-lettuce ; it is bright pea-green in colour, and
when cooked possesses a very agreeable and delicate flavour. It
has also the advantages of standing the rains well, and growing
quickly to a size ready for use. The succulent stalks of the leaves
can be eaten like Sea-kale. Taken altogether, it may be considered
a valuable addition to the list of vegetables suited for up-country."
The Shantung Cabbage thrives best in moist rich soil. It is grown
from seed, and the seedlings are planted in rows about 18 in. apart,
with the same distance between the plants in the rows. When
nearly full grown, the heads should be tied round so as to give
them a good white heart.
Capsicum. — See Tropical Vegetables.
Cardoon. (Cynara Cardunculus. N. O. Composite. ). — A
perennial plant, much relished on the continent of Europe for the
sake of the fleshy mid-ribs, but not much appreciated in England.
I have nowhere seen this grown in Ceylon, and its cultivation in
India also seems to be uncommon. Seedlings may be raised
under cover, and planted out in trenches about 3 to 4 ft. apart,
with a distance of 18 in. between the plants in the rows. Later
on, the earth is drawn up to the plants, as in Celery cultivation,
for the purpose of blanching the leaves.
Carrots. (Daucus carota. N. O. Umbelliferae). — This popu-
lar vegetable can be grown very successfully at elevations of 4,000
to 6,000 ft. or higher in Ceylon, and also with some success at
lower elevations. In up-country market gardens, which supply
VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS 241
at all seasons the low-country markets and the shipping at Colombo,
carrots are among the best grown vegetables. A loose, rich, sandy
soil, which has been manured well for the preceding crop ( no
fresh manure should be applied), is the most suitable for the crop.
The seeds should be sown thinly in drills about 8 in. apart, the
young plants being afterwards thinned out to a distance of 2 or 3 in.
apart. Further thinning out may be continued by drawing for use
the largest or most crowded plants. The best way of storing
carrots is to cover them in a heap of sand in an open shed.
VARIETIES. — These are divided into two distinct classes, viz.,
the Long-rooted type, which comprises the " Altringham," "James'
Intermediate," "White Belgian," etc.; and the Short-rooted or
Horn kind, including "Scarlet Dutch Horn," "Early Short
Horn," etc.
Cauliflower; " Mal-goa " S. (Brassica oleracea Botrytis.
N. O. Crucifene). — This delicious vegetable is a variety of Cabbage,
the dense white Hower-heads being the part used. The Cauliflower
thrives well at elevations of 5,000 to 6,000 ft., and a rich heavily-
manured soil suits it best. Plants from acclimatised seed are said
to do best in Bengal, such seed being produced chieHy in Northern
India. Cultural directions the same as for Cabbage.
VARIETIES.— Among the best are " Veitch's Autumn-Giant,"
41 Walchereen," " Dean's Early Snowball," and " Large Asiatic."
Celeriac; Turnip-rooted, or Knob-celery. (Apinm graveolens
rapaccuin. N. O. Umbelliferae). — A variety of Celery, the stem of
which forms an irregular knob, which is used in salads, while the
leaves are used for flavouring purposes. It can be grown from
2,000 ft. upwards, but there is little to recommend its cultivation
where Celery can be successfully grown.
Celery; " Selclry " S. (Apium gravcolens. N. O. Umbelli-
ferae).— This can be grown with great success in up-country
gardens in Ceylon. In the low-country also, very fair stalks can
be produced, and the plant is well worth growing even for the
sake of the leaves for flavouring purposes. The essential con-
ditions for Celery culture are moisture and rich, well-manured soil.
The small seed should be sown in a pan or box under cover, the
seedlings being afterwards pricked out into beds or boxes ; when
about 4 in. high, plant these out about 6 to 8 in. apart in a deep
trench, having filled the bottom of which to a depth of 10 in. with
manure well-mixed with the soil. The most suitable fertilisers for
Celery are considered to be superphosphate and sulphate of potash.
242
VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS
Blanching of the stems or leaf-stalks is encouraged by growing them
in darkness. The usual method of effecting this is to draw up the
soil to the plants at intervals
as they grow, the leaves
being meantime loosely tied
or 'held together by means
of boards placed tempor-
arily against them. A good
method of earthing up
Celery for blanching is to
take a piece of large bamboo
18 in. long, and slit it in
two ; having pointed the
ends, drive these into the
earth, one close on either
side of the plant ; the
latter thus encompassed by
the bamboo is earthed up,
the bamboo being after-
wards removed. Celery
takes about 4 to 5 months,
from the time of sowing to
be ready for use.
F,4tf/£77£S.-Amongst
the best are "Wright's Giant
Grove," "Cole's Solid Red,'"
"Golden Yellow," and
11 Mammoth White."
CELERY. Apium gravcolens.
Cho-cho ; Cayote, or Chayote. (Sechium edule. N. O. Cucur-
bitaceae). — A perennial robust creeper, with leaves like those of the
Cucumber, native of the West Indies, whence it was introduced to
Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, in 1884. It is said to be much grown
at the higher elevations in the West Indies, South America, and
also in the Mediterranean region, being known in the latter
country by the name " Chayote." The plant has become thoroughly
established in Ceylon, especially in the hill districts, and thrives
from 1,500 ft. upwrards. It is propagated by the fruit which is.
one-seeded, and this must be planted in situ, in mounds of \vell-
manured soil. It requires natural or artificial supports for the vines to
grow over, and thrives up-country without shade, but is benefited by
light shade at lower elevations. The pear-shaped, pale-green
VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS 243
fruits are used like vegetable-marrow, and are in season almost
throughout the year, the plants commencing to bear in 3 months
after planting. Well grown fruits weigh from 2\ Ib. to 3i Ib.
each, and these are sold in the local markets and boutiques
at 1 \ to 3 cts. each. The plant produces under-ground a large
yam ( tuber ) which is much relished by the Natives as a vegetable.
In Mexico, this is boiled and candied, the larger yams being sliced
and fried for table use. There is also a white-fruited variety,
which seems better adapted for the low-country than the ordinary
green form. Superstitious belief exists amongst the Natives in
certain low-country districts that eating the Cho-cho causes rheu-
matism, and this no doubt acts as a check on the cultivation of
this useful vegetable.
Cress, Garden. (Lepidiitm sativum. X. O. Cruciferae). — A
small annual, commonly cultivated in temperate countries for the
sake of the young leaves, which are used in salads. It is a very
quick-growing and short-lived plant, being ready to cut for use
within a few days after sowing. Seed may be sown broadcast in
boxes or beds, which should be shaded from the sun. Frequent
sowings are necessary in order to keep up a succession of crops.
Cress, Indian. (Tropceolnm spp. N. O. Geraniaceae). — The
flowers as well as the young leaves of several varieties of the
annual Tropaeolum are by some people much relished in salads.
The plants are readily grown from seed and thrive at 3,000 to
6,000 ft. elevation ; they are also very ornamental, especially the
climbing varieties, which are excellent for covering trellis-work,
fences, etc.
Cress, Water. " Kakkutu-pala," or '* Wataressa " S. (Xastur-
tium offincinale. N. O. Cruciferae). — A low perennial herb, native
of Europe, etc., and naturalised in Ceylon, being commonly met
with in swampy situations and in the neighbourhood of rice fields
at medium elevations. The young leaves form a favourite salad,
but do not appear to be much relished by the Natives. Water-
cress may be readily propagated from seed, or by cuttings or divi-
sion of the old plants, and is easily grown in a patch of soil through
which water is made to flow ; stagnant pools are unsuitable for it.
In New Zealand, where the plant has been introduced, it has be-
come practically a scourge, having established itself in almost
every water course and spring.
Cucumber. " Rata-kekiri " S. ( Cucumis sativus, N. O. Cucum-
bitaceae). — The superior varieties of cucumber, cultivated to such
244 VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS
perfection in temperate countries, can only be grown with success
in the tropics where a green-house or a good heating frame is
available. Such protection is necessary in order to enable equable
conditions of temperature and moisture being maintained. The
hardier " Ridge" cucumbers may, however, be grown in the open,
in the same way as Pumpkins or Vegetable-marrow. MR. W. NOCK
has grown very fair cucumbers in frames at Hakgala Gardens, but
market gardeners around Nuwara Eliya seldom attempt the culti-
vation of these. Seeds should be sown in pots or boxes under
cover, and the seedlings planted out, when large enough, where
they are to grow. A grateful substitute for the "English" Cucumber
is found in the native u Pipingha " (see under Tropical Vegetables).
KOHL-RABI. "SUTTON'S EAKLIKST WHITE."
Endive. ( Cichorhim endivia. N. O. ComposiUe). — An annual
of Northern China, cultivated for its stocky head of curly leaves,
which when tender are used as a salad and in other preparations.
The plant is of easy culture, and may be seen occasionally in
up-country gardens in Ceylon. Propagated from seed.
Knol-Kohl, or Kohl-rabi. ( Brassica caulo-rapa. N. O. Cruci-
fene). — This useful vegetable holds a place intermediate between
VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS 245
the Cabbage and the Turnip, and is supposed to combine the
flavour of both. The stem above ground widens into a turnip-like
head and is the part used. The plant is often erroneously referred to
as the turnip-rooted Cabbage, which is a different plant, the
tuberous root of which is used. Knol-Kohl thrives remarkably
well in the low-country, being able to resist heat and drought
better than any other vegetable of the Cabbage fa'nily. Seed
should be sown iu drills about a foot apart, the plants being
LEEKS. A II in in porrnni.
afterwards thinned out to a distance of 8 or 9 in. in the row ; or
seedlings may be raised in boxes or sheltered beds, and transplanted
as Cabbage. The best time for sowing is at the commencement
of the monsoon rains. There are several green and purple varieties,
the green sorts being by some people considered the best.
Leek. ( A Ilium Porrnni. X. O. Liliaceas). — This thrives to
perfection at the higher elevations, but its cultivation is not worth
attempting below 2,000 feet. Sow seeds on sheltered beds or in
246
VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS
boxes, before the commencement of either of the monsoons ; prick
out the seedlings when large enough to handle, and transplant
these at intervals of 6 inches into well-manured, deep trenches.
As the plants increase in height, the trench should be rilled in
gradually with earth so as to encourage the production of a thick
succulent and well blanched stem, which is the part used. Leeks
require rich loose soil and constant moisture. The " London
Flag " and " Musselburgh " are old favourite varieties, which are
still perhaps unsurpassed for quality.
Lettuce. "Salada" S. ( Lactuca saliva. N. O. Compositae). —
This takes first place as a salad plant, and fortunately can be
grown at almost all elevations in the tropics, but to greatest per-
fection in the hills. The plant is an annual, prefers a rich mellow,
humous soil, and responds well to manuring. Sowings should be
made at intervals of three weeks or a month, so as to keep up a
succession of crops. It is best to sow the seed in shallow drills on
a well-prepared bed, afterwards thinning out the plants to about
6 or 8 inches apart ; or the seed may be sown in seed-pans or
boxes, and the seed-
lings transplanted out
when they have ob-
tained their second
pair of leaves, though
it is well to remember
that Lettuce does not
always take well to
transplanting. In the
tropics, the plants
soon run into seed.
I am informed that
a method adopted in
Madagascar to pre-
vent them from seed-
ing is to cut the
tap-root below the
surface of the soil,
this also being con-
sidered to have the
effect of causing the
plants to form a good
heart.
COS LETTUCE.
VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS
247
I'ARIETIES. — These are divided into two classes, vix. "Cabbage-lettuce
(so-called from the round
cabbage-like heads with
broad leaves), and "Cos-
lettuce," the latter being
distinguished by erect
conical heads and narrow
pointed leaves. The
former is considered the
better kind for wet cli-
mates. Of both these
there are numerous sub-
varieties, as "White
Dutch." "Golden Queen,"
" Little Gem," "White
Silesion." "Green Paris.1'
i*tt*
CABBAGE LETTUCE.
Maize.— See under Tropical Vegetables.
Mushrooms. ( Agaricus ca mpestris. Agarici). — In Ceylon the
vernacular names " Bim-mal " ( Sinhalese) and " Kalang " (Tamil )
are applied to all fungi. While many of the Ceylon fungi, whether
growing naturally on the soil or on decayed tree trunks, etc., are
edible, others are undoubtedly very poisonous. It is not always
easy, especially for inexperienced persons, to distinguish the
former from the latter class, though some people consider that
they can always do so. The best forms of fungi are those which,
when young, are like round white buttons ; when a day or two old
they open out like an umbrella, and the gills (underside) are found
to be of a delicate pink colour. Poisonous kinds, though some-
what resembling these characters, are said to turn to a bright yel-
low colour when cooked. Fungi which have a slimy skin, or which
when broken or bruised show an intense blue colour, should be
avoided. MR. FETCH, the Government Mycologist for Ceylon,
prefers not to lay down any hard and fast rule by which a novice
may attempt to identify an edible from a poisonous fungus, and
considers that " actual experience is the only test." Nor does
MR. FETCH attach much importance to the nutritive value of edible
fungi generally, an opinion shared by many other botanists.
English mushrooms are, however, a popular article of diet with
many people, and are commonly imported in hermetically sealed
tins for consumption.
For persons who wish to grow their own mushrooms, the
following hints may be useful Any room or cellar in an unused
248 VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS
building or out-house, which admits but little light, will answer
the purpose of a mushroom house. Excessively wet or dry atmos-
phere must be avoided, and a high temperature is unsuitable.
Horse-dung, being freed from grass or straw, should be collected
daily and kept under cover until a sufficient quantity has been
secured. It should be spread evenly over the floor to prevent pre-
mature fermentation. A bed should be made about 3 feet deep,
consisting of alternate layers of the prepared horse dung and good
friable soil, finishing with a layer of the latter on top. The whole
being beaten down firmly, the bed should be allowed to settle and fer-
ment for about a week. Small cubes, about an inch square, of the
mushroom spawn are then planted on the surface, about 6 in. apart
and an inch deep. Water the whole thoroughly and, if the
weather be dry, sprinkle the surface of the bed every morning and
evening with water. A crop of mushrooms may be expected in
five weeks to two months from date of spawning, and the beds
should remain productive for at least 2 months. Mushroom spawn
in brick form may be imported from nurserymen. In the tropics
it should be stored away in an air-tight tin until requited for plant-
ing. Imported spawn in this form is usually prepared from the
mycelium of Agaricus cainpestris, the common field mushroom of
England, which is not indigenous to Ceylon, and can only be cul-
tivated successfully in the hill districts.
Oca-quina, Melluco, or Ulluco. ( Ullucus tuber osus. N. O.
Basellaceae). — This plant is a native of Peru, where it is cultivated
for its tubers, which are said to be largely consumed like potatoes.
It was introduced as small tubers at Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, in
1885, when the late Superintendent reported that it grew rapidly,
the tops dying down in November. The tubers produced were
reported to be from 2 to 3i inches long, and shaped like a kidney
potato. Usually, however, they are of the size of Hazel-nuts.
The plants trail over the surface of the ground, rooting and produ-
cing small tubers at each node. If planted in good soil they will
mature a crop in about five months from date of planting. The
plant is suited to up-country only, and MR. W. NOCK stated it was
best to plant the tubers in April, in rows about 18 inches apart.
Thus treated, he found that " one plant produced as many as
636 tubers, weighing in all 6 Ib."
Onion; " Lunu " S. ( Allium cepa. N. O. Liliacere). — Onions
thrive moderately well in up-country gardens in Ceylon, and with
careful cultivation occasionally attain fair success at intermediate
VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS 249
elevations. A dry rather than wet climate suits them, and the
best crops are produced in moderately-dry districts, as at Wilson
Bungalow. The Onion requires a light soil, which should be en-
riched with well-decomposed manure. The seed may be sown
broad-cast on raised beds, or in shallow drills about 8 inches
apart ; after sowing, cover the seed lightly with a sprinkling of
finely-sifted soil, and beat the surface of the soil gently with the
back of a spade or a Hat piece of board. Or the seed may be
sown in pans or boxes, and the seedlings transplanted out when
strong enough into well-prepared beds. The plants should not be
closer than 5 to 6 inches each way, while they should be as near
the surface as possible so as to encourage the bulbs to increase
in size.
VARIETIES.— "Ailsa Craig," "Blood-red," " Button's Al," "Tripoli."
and " Veitch's Main Crop" are leading sorts. In India, acclimatised
varieties such as "Silver-skin " or " Patna-onion," and the large "Red
Onion " are recommended for the plains.
Onion, Egyptian.— This produces on the flower-stalks bulbils
of the size of marbles, which are excellent for pickling. Offset
bulbs are also formed underground, and propagation is effected
by both forms of bulbils. Not cultivated in Ceylon.
Onion, Potato.— This is propagated by offsets produced under-
ground, which are comparatively small in size and irregular in
shape. The bulbs are planted singly, and around these new ones
are formed. This variety is not propagated by seed.
Onion, Welsh. (Alliuin fistnlosnm}. — This affords the popular
" Spring onions " of temperate countries. The plant is quite dis-
tinct from the common onion ; no bulb is formed, the young
tender stem being the part used.
Onions, " Small."-See Shallots.
Oxalis crenata.— See Tropical Vegetables and Food Products.
Parsley. See under Condiments, Seasoning and Pot-herbs.
Parsnips. (Pastinaca saliva. X. O. Umbelliferae). — This ex-
cellent vegetable can be grown most successfully in up-country
gardens, especially in sheltered and moist situations with loose,
deep and rich soil. It does not thrive at elevations below 4,000 ft.
Its cultural requirements are similar to those of Carrots, but the
plant needs greater space than the latter. Seed is best sown in
drills about 15 or 18 in. apart, the plants being thinned out when
a few inches high to distances of 10 or 12 inches in the row.
Medium-sized roots are preferred to very large ones, which are
liable to be bad at the core.
250 VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS
Peas. " Bola-kadala " S. (Pisiun sativum. N. O. Legumi-
nosae). — Peas of very fair quality can be grown in the hill districts,
and at lower elevations also appreciable crops may be obtained if
seed be sown at the proper season and in well- manured soil. In
India, acclimatised seed is often preferred to imported seed for
sowing on the plains. A variety of Peas imported from India as a
food-stuff, which may be obtained from boutiques in Ceylon, will,
if sown, often give a better crop in the low-country than English
Peas. It grows to a height of about 3 feet, and bears small but
well-rilled pods, with small round grey seeds. For up-country,
hoxvever, none but imported seed from temperate countries should
be sown. A wet season is unsuited to the crop and, in order to
avoid this, the best time for sowing the seed is before the end of
the monsoon rains, i.e., approximately (for Ceylon) July to August,
and November to December. The ground should be well-manured,
and the seed sown evenly (about 2 in. apart) in uniform drills,
being covered with about an inch of soil. If the weather be dry,
water the ground after sowing the seed. As the plants grow, nil
in the earth occasionally along both sides of the row, and when
they are about 4 or 5 inches high place twigs and branches along
either side for support to the plants. An application of 1 Ib. of
nitrate of soda per 40 square yards when the plants are wrell above
ground will give them a good start. The distance between the
rows may be about 2 ft. for dwarf varieties, and 4 ft. for larger
kinds. Where ground has to be economised the rows may be
several feet apart, and the intervening space cultivated with
smaller crops.
VARIETIES. — The number of these is legion, many of which differ but
little, if any, from each other. The following are distinct and of first-
rate quality: "Sutton's Excelsior" (about 18 in. high), " Sutton's
Green Gem" (15 in ), " Veitch's Acme ' (3ft). "Sutton's Ideal" (3ft),
" Yorkshire Hero " (2 ft.), and " Captain Cuttle " (4 ft.). The dwarf er
varieties are the most suitable for dry districts.
Potato. "Arthapel" S. (Solatium tiibcrosnm. N. O. Solan-
aceae). — Although very fair crops of certain varieties of potatoes
can be grown in the neighbourhood of Nuwara Eliya, especially in
the drier districts of Uda-pussellawa and Wilson Bungalow, the
quality of the tuber is seldom comparable to the best potato
growrn in temperate countries. Yet many people prefer the new-
grown potato to the usually dried-up imported article obtainable
at the local stores or markets. The best soil for potatoes is a light
friable loam, preferably on a slope, as good drainage is essential.
VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS
251
The ground must be manured, but not too heavily, as that, it is
considered, may conduce to disease. The following manure mix-
ture is recommended : 5 Ib. superphosphate, 2 Ib. sulphate of
ammonia, 3 Ib. kainit ; apply 3 oz. of the mixture per yard of each
row. The best time for planting varies according to district, but
usually from September to November, and March to May will be
found the most satisfactory periods for planting in Ceylon. It is,
of course, needless to attempt growing potatoes successfully under
4,000 ft. elevation. New potatoes may be expected to be fit for
consumption in about 3 months from the time of planting.
A FINE POTATO FIELD. ALBION ESTATE, CEYLON.
Propagation is effected by means of " sets" (tubers), these being
planted 3 or 4 in. below the surface at distances of about 9 in.
in rows, the latter being about 18 in. apart. Needless perhaps to
say, a crop should not be grown for successive seasons in the same
ground. The larvae of the potato-moth, which has been imported
into India with seed potatoes, have become a troublesome pest
there, and seed potatoes arriving here from India have conse-
quently to be treated in the fumigatorium at Colombo.
VARIETIES. — The following have been found among the most success-
ful in the neighbourhood of Xmvara Eliya : " Sutton's Abundance,"
"Satisfaction." "Ringleader," " Nonsuch." and "Ideal."
252 VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS
Radish. l'Rabu"S. (Raphanus sativus N. O. Cruciferae). —
Radishes can easily be grown at all elevations. The seed, if
sown broadcast on the smooth surface of a bed, will germinate
in two or three days, and the radishes are ready for use in
about three weeks to a month afterwards. Sowings should
therefore be made at frequent intervals to keep up a succession.
Radishes do best in a partially shaded situation which can be
kept moist. The young plants should at first be thinned out to
2 or 3 inches apart, further thinning being effected by taking up
the largest as these become lit for use. There are numerous
varieties, which differ mainly in the shape of the succulent
root, this varying between long, turnip-rooted, and oval-rooted.
" Cabbage-radish " is a name that may appropriately be given
to a large perennial variety which has been introduced from
India, and may occasionally be found cultivated in low-country
gardens in Ceylon. The root of this is not eaten, but the large
outer leaves are used as a vegetable by the Natives, being
picked as required.
Rhubarb. (Rheum rhaphonticnm. N. O. Polygonaceae). — This
delicious and wholesome vegetable can be grown with much
success in hill gardens, but is quite unsuited to low7 or even
intermediate elevations. The use of the succulent leaf-stalks,
for tarts, stewing, etc., is of comparatively modern date. Formerly
the leaves only were used as a pot-herb, like spinach. Rhubarb
thrives best in rich deep, but rather light soil, and prefers a
shady situation. It is usually propagated by division of the
roots or crowns, but may also be raised from seed.
Salsify. "Oyster Plant." (Tragopogon porrifolins N. O,
Compositae). — This vegetable is of easy cultivation up-country,
except during the heavy south-west monsoon rains, and is
commonly grown in the neighbourhood of Nuwara Eliya for
market purposes- The root, which is not unlike a thin parsnip,,
is the part eaten ; it is about the thickness of a man's fore-ringer,
9 inches long, and is tit for use in 3 to 4 months from the time
of sowing the seed. The plant thrives on a rich sandy soil.
Seed may be sown in drills, after the heavy rains are over, the
seedlings being afterwards thinned out to about 4 in. apart.
The flavour of the roots has a fancied resemblance to that of
an oyster. There are various ways of preparing the roots for
the table ; they may be parboiled, cut into large pieces and fried
in butter ; or they may be boiled, then grated and made into-
cakes to be fried with butter.
VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS 253
Scorzonera. "Viper's Grass." (Scorzonera kispanica. X. O.
Compositae). — A herbaceous perennial, native of Europe, similar
to Salsify, but differing from it in having broader leaves and
black-skinned roots. The latter are the part used, and these
are considered by some to be superior to Salsify. The same
cultural conditions as recommended for the latter plant will
suit Scorzonera ; but the roots take longer than those of Salsify
to become ready for use. The plant is seldom grown in Ceylon.
Scorzonera deliciosa.— A species characterized by a sweeter
flavour than the preceding one, extensively cultivated as a
vegetable in Sicily, etc.
Sea Kale. (Crambe maritiinn. X. O. Cruciferae). — This
vegetable, the young blanched and crisp shoots of which are
used, is not grown in Ceylon, where the climatic conditions
even at the higher elevations are not suited to it. Neither
does it appear to be grown on the hills in India.
Shallots. (Allium ascalonicum. X. O. Liliaceae), — A small
bulbous perennial, grown for its bulbs, which are used for
flavouring purposes, much in the same way as garlic ; the bulbs
do not however possess so strong an odxir or flavour as the
latter. Shallots are imported into Ceylon from Bombay, and
sold in almost every bazaar or boutique, being commonly known
as "small onions " and largely used for curries, pickling, etc. They
may be grown successfully especially in a rather dry climate, at
medium elevations, in light rich soil, and respond to an application
of kainit, nitrate of soda, or superphosphate. They may be plant-
ed in drills about 8 in. apart, with a space of 6 in. separating the
bulbs in the drill. Plants may also be raised from seed.
Solanum Commersoni. (X. O. Solanaceae). — A new tuber
vegetable, allied to the common Potato, and recently introduced
from Uruguay. This has been experimented upon in England
at the instance of the Board of Agriculture, and the results
have been reported as promising, the plant being " likely
to become a useful edible tuber, yielding heavily and being
entirely resistant to disease." It is further stated that the
plant "appears very susceptible to cultivation, and rapidly
improves when grown in fertile soils." In 1902 a yield of
about 6? tons per acre is reported to have been obtained in
England on a fertile soil, but without any manuring or cultivation
beyond a single hoeing when the shoots first appeared. The
plant is considered best suited to wet soils. A violet-coloured
254 VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS
variety which has been introduced to Hakgala Gardens in 1909V
resembles externally the common Potato ; it is claimed for it
to be more prolific than the latter, but this has not been verified
by results in Ceylon.
Spinach, English. (Spinacea oleracea. N. O. Chenopodiaceae).
— A stemless annual, native of Northern Asia and cultivated
in cool countries for the sake of its soft edible leaves, which
when cooked and dressed are an agreeable vegetable. Spinach
is seldom seen in up-country gardens, where, however, it
should thrive well during the fine weather season. As it takes
up but little room and is soon ready for cutting, it is adapted for
growing between slower-growing crops. Seed may be sown in
November, in drills about a foot apart, the plants being afterwards
thinned out as may be necessary. Spinach loves a rich soil, a
shady situation, and liberal watering in dry weather.
Sorrel. (Rumex Acetosa. N. O. Polygonaceae). — A perennial,
native of Europe, sometimes grown for its acid leaves, which
are either used as an ingredient in salads, or boiled and used
as Spinach. Sorrel is not suited to low elevations, but will
thrive in hill gardens. It is propagated from seed, and prefers
a shady situation. Sow seed in drills one foot apart, and thin
out the plants afterwards as may be required.
Spinach, New Zealand. (Tetragonia expansa. N. O. Cheno-
podiaceas). — A tall annual, native of Newr Zealand, the leaves
of which are used in the same manner as English spinach.
It is coarser than the latter, and has rather hairy glaucous leaves ;
it is of easy culture, and grows luxuriantly in hill gardens in
Ceylon, where it has become semi-naturalised in places. Seed may
be sowrn in drills, about, 18 inches apart, the seedlings being
afterwrards thinned out as required.
Tomato ; " Takkali " 5 ; u Takkali-kai " T. (Solanum lyco-
pcrsicum, N. O. Solanaceae). — An annual, native of South America,
commonly grown in most countries for its fruit, which are
esteemed in salads, and for making sauces, flavouring soups,
etc. The fruits of superior varieties, when well-grown, are
also used for dessert. Tomatoes can be grown with much
success in the tropics, especially in rather dry districts, at medium
elevations. They do best in rich and well-drained soil, and
should not be grown for more than one season consecutively
in the same ground. The seed should be sown in pots or boxes,
the seedlings being afterwards planted out when strong enough
VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS 255
into pots, tubs, or on a sheltered border. Supports for the plants
are essential, and this may be provided in the form of firm stakes,
a fence, or low trellises. If the fruits fail to ripen on the plants
in wet weather, they may be picked green and kept in a dry
sunny place for a few days, as this will considerably advance
their ripening. The plants should be regularly pruned, superfluous
growth being cut out, shoots pinched back or removed, and
the leaves reduced so as to admit light to the fruit. In Ceylon,
tomatoes are grown for market chiefly in the rather dry district
of Dumbara, and the plants are generally raised from seed
grown locally ; but the fruits do not usually bear comparison
in size or flavour with the best seen in temperate countries.
Occasionally, however, very fair fruits may be obtained up-country
during the dry season. Seedlings should be raised under cover,
and planted out about 4 ft. apart in mounds or ridges. A well-
drained, rich porous soil is essential. Superphosphate is especially
suitable as a fertiliser, being productive of fruitfulness. After
the setting of the fruit nitrogenous manures may be applied.
VARIETIES.— The "Conqueror," "Button's Peach Bloom." " Sutton's
Perfection," and " Hathway's Excelsior" are all good. The "Cherry" and
" Red Currant " varieties bear numerous small fruits in clusters, and are very
ornamental.
Turnip. (Brassica rapa N. O. Cruciferae). — Turnips of very
good quality can be grown at the higher elevations in the tropics.
In the hill districts they are regularly grown for home consumption
or for market purposes, the best crops being obtained in the
drier season. At medium elevations of 2,000 to 4,000 ft. very
fair roots may be obtained in the cool season. Turnips thrive
best on soils of a light sandy nature, which must be enriched
with well decomposed manure ; stiff retentive soils are ill-adapted
for them. Seed may be sown broadcast on well prepared beds,
or in shallow drills about 14 to 16 in. apart, the seedlings being
thinned out when 2 or 3 in. high, leaving a space of about 5 in.
between them ; further thinning can be effected by picking
the largest turnips for use as required. The best time for sowing
is before the end of each monsoon.
VARIETIES— Amongst the best are "Early Snowball," "Early White
Dutch," "Veitch's Red Globe," and " Scarlet Perfection." On the plains of
India, acclimatised varieties are said to give the best results.
Udo or Oudo. (Aralia cor Jala. N. O. Araliaceas). — A shrubby
perennial with large compound leaves, attaining a height of
5 to 6 ft. The young and blanched stalks, which are from
256 VEGETABLES OR FOOD CROPS
10 to 16 in. long, are eaten as a salad vegetable in Japan, where
the plant is said to be extensively cultivated for the purpose
of supplying these. It is stated that the cultivation of this
plant forms an important feature of market-gardening in Japan.
Vegetable Marrow. (Clicurbilo pepo. N. O. Cucurbitaceae). —
This agreeable vegetable is commonly grown, and with much
success, in the hill districts, but is unsuited to elevations below
4,000 ft. The plant grows rapidly and trails over the surface
of the ground, producing its large gourd-like oblong fruits, which
are most palatable if cooked before they have attained full
size. The seed may be sown singly in a pot, the stronger
seedlings being afterwards retained and, when a few inches
high, transplanted to well-prepared mounds or small hillocks
not less than 6 feet apart each way. These mounds should have
good drainage, and consist of well manured soil. The plant
is monoecious, i.e., the sexes are in separate flowers on the same
plant ; the female flowers must therefore be fertilised either
by insects or by hand, with the pollen of the male flowers,
otherwise fruit will not set. The female flowers can at once
be distinguished by their large and round base (the ovary),
and also by their having no pollen.
CHAPTER XIV.
SPICES, CONDIMENTS, AND SEASONING HERBS.
SPICES OF THE TROPICS:
[S=SIXHALESE; 7=TAMIt].
From remote ages the spices of the tropics have attracted
traders from distant lands and formed a lure for adventurous
explorers. More especially can this be said of the spices of south-
ern Asia, as the cinnamon of Ceylon, nutmegs and cloves of the
Moluccas, cardamoms, ginger and pepper of southern India. Some
of the ancient cities of Europe are said to have been indebted for
a large share of their wealth to the trade in tropical spices during
the time of the Romans. Cinnamon, which has long been associated
with the "spicy breezes" of Ceylon, was from the earliest times
perhaps the most coveted of all spices. It is mentioned in the
Songs of Solomon and in the Book of Proverbs ; the Arabians
supplied it to the Greeks and Romans, but jealously shrouded in
mystery the sources of its origin and the manner of obtaining it.
It is supposed that the spice, being first brought from Ceylon to
the western coast of India, was carried thence to Arabia and Egypt
by African and Arabian traders, finally reaching Europe after a
journey of very many months. Cinnamon was for a long period a
State monopoly in Ceylon, and its cultivation was not declared free
until 1833. At one time, it is said, cinnamon was sold in London
for £8 per lb., pepper at 10s. a lb., while other spices commanded
similar fabulous prices. As recently as 1880, cardamoms were sold
for over 9s. a lb. In 1826 the English import duty alone on pepper
was 2s. 6d. a pound, on cinnamon about 3s. a pound, on nutmegs
and mace 3s. 6d. a pound each, on cloves 5s. 7^J., while vanilla was
taxed to the extent of nearly 17s. per lb.
DISTRIBUTION OF SPICES
For a long period the uncultivated or wild trees of the forests
furnished the world's supply of spices, which consequently was
confined to the natural habitat of spice-yielding plants. The spread
258 SPICES OF THE TROPICS
and cultivation of these was for a long time retarded by the system
of State monopoly established by the Dutch in the principal spice-
producing countries. So severe, for instance, was the Dutch law
in regard to cinnamon in Ceylon that the offence of cultivating a
cinnamon tree on private land or destroying one belonging to
Government was punishable by death. Cloves and nutmegs in the
Moluccas were similarly guarded by the Dutch, the plants being
either deliberately destroyed, or their cultivation enforced to suit
the circumstances. An amusing story told in this connection is to
the effect that the Home Dutch Government, being ignorant of the
fact that both nutmegs and mace were produced by the same tree,
once despatched orders to their Colonial Governor requesting him
to reduce the number of Nutmeg trees, but to increase the cultivation
of Mace trees. But even nowadays it is not generally known that
both spices are the product of one tree. It is common knowledge
that the Dutch deliberately exterminated the clove and nutmeg
trees in certain islands of the Moluccas, in their endeavour to secure
the monopoly of the spices, while confining the cultivation of these
to Banda and Amboyna. Notwithstanding the severe restrictions
of the Dutch, however, the escape of the precious spice plants to
other countries was gradually effected, both by smuggling and by
the agency of migrating birds. Thus, it is recorded, a species of
wild pigeon extracted the nutmeg from its pulpy covering, digested
the mace, and voided the seed uninjured. The French succeeded
in 1770 in introducing the Clove tree into Mauritius and Reunion,
from whence it soon reached Zanzibar, etc. A striking result of
this is that the world's greatest supply of cloves now comes from
the latter island, and not from the native home of the tree, the
Moluccas. Similarly Jamaica obtained the Ginger plant from India,
and has long practically commanded the supply of that spice ; while
the same may be said of Reunion and Seychelles in regard to the
production of vanilla, whose native home is South America.
IMPORTANCE OF SPICES
Spices form one of the most important classes of vegetable
products. They possess valuable medicinal properties, and their
presence renders agreeable articles of food which are otherwise
unpalatable. When used judiciously in cooking, spices aid the
digestion by their effect in increasing the secretion of the gastric
fluids ; to the confectioner they are particularly essential, and are
used largely for his purpose, more especially on the Continent of
Europe ; while in the preparation of superior beverages they are
SPICES OF THE TROPICS 259
also important. In pharmacy certain spices, especially ginger,
cardamoms and cloves, hold a very important place, both on
account of their medicinal properties and their effect in disguising
nauseous decoctions. The antiseptic properties of spices, more
especially cloves, due to their volatile oils, is well known, and for
preservative purposes, both in domestic and scientific uses, they
are invaluable. The appropriateness of spices to sacred uses, as
for burning in incense, has long been recognised, and in certain
social and religious customs of oriental countries spices are to this
day very commonly employed. It is recorded that spices were
used in the funeral piles of the Egyptian Kings and that Nero burnt
at the obsequies of his wife "a quantity of cinnamon and cassia
exceeding in amount the whole importation into Rome for one
year ! " Finally, not the least virtue of certain spices is their effect
in sweetening the breath of persons who are addicted to masticat-
ing habits, popularly known in the East as " betel-chewing." For
this purpose cardamoms especially are esteemed in India and
Ceylon, and star-anise in China and Japan. It is claimed that
spice trees also have a beneficial effect on climate, their volatile
oils acting as a preventive against mosquitoes and other germ-
carrying insects.
The following are the principal spices of the tropics in alpha-
betical order, with a brief description and notes on their cultivation
and uses, etc. The botanical name and Natural Order are within
brackets.
Allspice; "Whole-spice;" Pimento; "Jamaica Pepper"
(Pimenta officinalis. Myrtaceae). A small tree with smooth greyish
bark, 25 to 35 feet high, native of the West Indies and Central
America. The dried unripe berries, which are of the size of small
peas and of a glossy black colour when ripe, are the allspice
or pimento of commerce. The name " all-spice " is due to a sup-
posed resemblance of the spice to a combination of the odour and
flavour of cinnamon, nutmegs and cloves. The trees had been
introduced into Ceylon early in the last century, and established
at Peradeniya, where it flowers in the dry weather and usually
produces a small crop of fruit, but outside the Botanic Gardens it
is rarely met with in this country. It is considered to yield best
in a hot and rather dry climate, preferring a loose loamy or
alluvial, well-drained soil. The berries are picked while green,
but just ripe, and are then dried in the sun, the latter process
taking six to ten days. The fruits are known to be sufficiently dry
260
SPICES OF THE TROPICS
when they become black in colour and when, on shaking, the seed
rattles inside. The process of gathering is effected by a long
stick with a crook at the end, the fruit-bearing clusters being
ALLSPICE TREE. — Pitllt'llUl officillillis.
broken off and thrown down, and the berries then picked off the
stalks by women and children. An allspice tree under favourable
circumstances begins to bear when 7 or 8 years old, but it is not
usually in full bearing until about 18 or 20 years old, when a single
SPICES OF THE TROPICS 261
tree may yield as much ;is 1 c\vt. of the dried spice. Jamaica is
the only country at present that exports this spice, and its annual
export varies from 9 to 10 million pounds or more ; the average
price realised in the Island is about 15s. per 100 lb., though some-
times it is as much as 30 to 40 shillings for the same quantity.
The market price in England is about 2\d, to 3J. per lb.
Pimento oil, which is obtained by distillation from Allspice
leaves, is imported into London and sold for about 2s. 9d. to 3s. 6</.
per lb. Added to rum, it forms what is known as bay-rum.
Allspice, Lemon-scented. (Phiicnta citrifolia. Myrtaceae). —
This distinct spice-tree was introduced from Dominica to Pera-
deniya in 1888, and has become perfectly established here, being
now about 40 feet high and of an erect slender habit ; but it has
not yet fruited. The leaves upon being bruised emit a delightful
lemon-scented odour.
Allspice, Carolina. (Calycanthus tloridiis. Calycanthaceae).—
A hardy shrub of North America, the wood and roots of which are
of a spicy nature, and smell strongly of camphor.
Allspice, Japan. (Chimonanthus fragraus. Calycanthaceae). —
A shrub with small pale yellow Mowers. Suited for high elevations
only.
Bay Tree, or "Wild cloves." (Pimenta acris. Myrtaceae). —
A small erect West Indian tree, the aromatic leaves of which yield
by distillation an oil which is used in the preparation of bay-rum.
A return may be obtained in about three years from planting, and
on an average 100 lb. of leaves will yield about 16 oz. of oil. It is
estimated that the return per acre may be at least 53 lb. of oil,
which at 5s. per lb. is worth £13. The tree has been established
at Peradeniya, and may be seen in the Spice collection there. The
dried leaves, obtained mostly from trees growing naturally in the
forests, are exported from Dominica and other West Indian Islands
to America, etc.
Cardamoms; " Ensal " S. (Elettaria CarJaiiioiniini. Scita-
mineaeX — A perennial with large leafy shoots, 8 to 15 inches long, and
strong creeping root-stock (rhizome), native of the moist forests
of Ceylon and Southern India up to 3,000 feet. In cultivation
it thrives best at 3,000 to 4.000 feet, and in partial shade.
When starting a plantation, sufficient forest trees should be left to
provide shade, as well as to afford protection from strong winds.
The spice consists of the fruit, or rather the numerous small seeds
enclosed in the green ovoid capsule. The fruits are gathered
262 SPICES OF THE TROPICS
before being fully ripe, washed free from sand, etc., and then placed
in large, light trays supported on trestles, in which they are dried
and bleached in the sun. The use of these trays facilitates their
removal indoors at night, or their being covered when a shower
threatens. In the further bleaching of the capsules, which is
usually necessary, the trays with their contents are placed over
MYSORE CARDAMOM. Elt'ttiiriu Cardu nioniuni.
A. — FLOWER AND FRUIT RACEMES. B. — DRIED FRUITS OR CARDAMOMS.
sulphur fumes in a hermetically closed case. 1 Ib. of sulphur is thus
sufficient for 100 Ib. cardamoms, and the latter are left in the sulphur
enclosure for an hour, being afterwards exposed to the sun for a
few hours. When read}' for export, the best capsules are creamy
white, smooth and silky. The capsules vary in size and shape,
from i to I inch long, and from oblong to oval or almost
round ; they are graded accordingly, the grades being known as
SPICES OF THE TROPICS
263
"longs, " "mediums," "shorts," etc. Cardamoms are a powerful
aromatic and are used chiefly in confectionery, as an ingredient in
curry powder, and also in medicine. The seeds are much esteemed
by the Natives for use with masticatories, or for sweetening the
breath, and sugar-coated cardnmoms are much used at Hindoo festi-
vals and ceremonials. The plants are increased by division of the
CEYLON WILD CARDAMOM.— Elcttaria Cardiimomnw, i'ar. nutjns.
*' bulbs " (rhizomes), or by sowing seed in well-prepared nursery beds.
In planting out, two to four " bulbs " or plants are placed in each
hole or clump, these being 7 or 8 feet apart each way, say 850 stools
to the acre. A small crop may be expected in three years from
the time of planting, and from the sixth year a return of 150 to
350 Ib. per acre may be obtained, according to cultivation, nature of
SPICES OF THE TROPICS
265
the soil, etc. Though the plants are in bearing all the year round,
the crop being gathered once every fortnight or three weeks, the
largest yield is
obtained in dry
weather and the
principal season
is during Feb-
ruary and March
in Ceylon. The
fruits should be
cut by scissors,
not pulled by
hand, and they
should be gath-
ered when | ripe ;
if left to ripen,
DRYING CARDAMOMS.
they split 'open
and disperse the seeds. Cardamoms fetch at present from 4s. to
CARDAMOM PLUCKING SCISSORS.
5s. 6d. per Ib. in London. Twenty years ago they were sold for as
high as 9s. a pound. The total export from Ceylon in 1909 was
82 1,1 84 Ih. valued
at Rs. 797,818,
the highest price
realised being
about 2s. Id. per
Ib. The export
fell to 542,650 Ib.
in 1912, valued
at Rs. 820,150,
the average price
advancing to
about 3s. 6d. or
4s. per Ib.
CLIPPING CARDAMOMS BY MACHINE.
266
SPICES OF THE TROPICS
VARIETIES. — " Malabar Cardamom" is distinguished by the leaves being
softly pubescent on the under side, and the flower racemes having a tendency
to trail near the ground. "Mysore Cardamom" has the leaves glabrous on
both sides, and the flower ra-
cemes are of a more erect habit.
The latter variety is therefore pre-
ferred for cultivation, as the fruits,
being further from the ground,
are not so liable to get damaged
as those of the trailing racemes.
"Nepal," "Bengal," "Java,"
" wild or bastard " (of Siam) are
forms of cardamoms derived
from various species of Amoninm,
which are only of importance
in the East. The "Ceylon wild
cardamom" bears the largest
capsules, sometimes attaining li
inches in length.
Cassia Bark. Cassia
Lignea, or Chinese Cassia
( C i n n a ;;/ o m u in Cassia ,
Lauraceae). — A small tree
30 to 40 feet high, with long
lanceolate brittle leaves,
allied to the Cinnamon.
The tree is a native of Southern China, and has been introduced in
1882 into Peradeniya, where it is now well established, bearing seed
each year in July and August. Cassia has been known from the
earliest times as a spice. It is mentioned frequently in the Bible and
by early Greek authors, also in Chinese herbals as early as 2700
B. C. The whole tree is pleasantly aromatic and its bark is used
as a substitute for the true cinnamon. In its native country it is
cultivated for its fruit " buds " or bark, the former being
picked by hand, and the bark peeled off and "quilled" much
in the same way as cinnamon, and made up in bundles for export.
The tree is not grown in stools, so that the bark is obtained,
unlike cinnamon, from the branches, which are cut down when
the trees are about six years old. The yield per acre is said to be
about eleven piculs, (1 picul=133^ lb.), which is sold by the
producers for about l| dollars per picul. In addition to this,
however, an important revenue is obtained from the sale and
export of the dried unripe fruits, known commercially as "Cassia
Buds, " which are worth about 80s. per cwt. in London. Cassia
SULPHURING CARDAMOMS.
SPICES OF THE TROPICS 267
••oil, which is obtained from the leaves as well as bark, is usually
quoted at 3s. to 3s. 9d. per Ib. The tree is propagated from seed,
and requires similar conditions of soil and climate as Cinnamon.
Chillies, Red pepper, or Capsicums ; " Miris " or " Gasmiris "
S\ " Kochika " T. (Capsicums spp. Solanacea^). — Small annual or
biennial, herbaceous, shrubby plants, cultivated throughout the
tropics for the sake of their pungent fruits, which are usually an
indispensable spice in the food of people in tropical countries,
more especially that of the Natives. The fruits are also used in
pickles and sauces, in the manufacture of "Cayenne pepper," and
in medicine. The three principal species, of which there are
many varieties, are Capsicum minimum (Bird pepper, or Guinea-
pepper), C. fnilcscens (Goat-, or Spur-pepper), C, grossttw (Bell-
capsicum, or Bull-nose pepper). The last named form is entirely
free from the acrid and burning pungency peculiar to the others,
and mav be eaten cooked as a vegetable or in salads. (See
Tropical vegetables). Chillies thrive best in loose humous soil,
which must be well-tilled, and will grow up to 3,000 feet or more
above sea-level. Seeds may be sown in beds or boxes, the seed-
lings being planted out in well prepared ground when three to
four inches high, at distances about two feet apart, or at the rate
of 10,800 plants to the acre. A crop is obtained in about eight
months from the time of planting, and the yield may be from
1,000lb. to 1,400 Ib. of dried chillies per acre. Chillies sell in
London at from 30s. to 45s. per cwt., the " Nepaul chillies"
usually fetching the highest price, these being sometimes sold for
£-4 per cwt. The product is largely exported from Zanzibar, India,
Natal, West Indies, etc.
Cinnamon; "Kurundu"S. ; " Kuruva " T. (Cinnamoiunm
zeylanicum. Lauraceae;. — A moderate or large-sized tree, 40 to 60
feet high, with 3-5 nerved alternate leaves, native of the moist
low-country of Ceylon and South India. In cultivation, the tree
is grown as a bush so as to produce numerous long straight clean
shoots, which are cut periodically close to the ground in order to
obtain the bark. The bark is first rung by the peelers at dis-
tances of about \\ feet apart, then slit longitudinally and detached ;
it is piled into heaps to undergo a slight fermentation, a process
which facilitates the next operation of removing the cuticle,
which is done by scraping with a curved knife. The bark then
dries and contracts into quills, the smaller of which are placed
inside the larger, forming smooth "canes" about 3 feet long
268
SPICES OF THE TROPICS
which, when dry, are of a light yellowish brown colour. These
are made up into bales of about 60 to 65 Ib. for export. Cutting
takes place during the rainy seasons, chiefly during May and June
and again in November and December ; the shoots selected for
cutting are mostly of two years' growth. A return of about 50 to
60 Ib. per acre may be expected from the rirst crop, in the third
or fourth year from planting, the yield increasing each year until
the eighth or tenth year, when 100 to 150 Ib. per acre may be
CINNAMON7 PLANTATION.
obtained. About 6i million pounds (including quills and chips)
were exported from Ceylon in 1909, valued at Rs. 2,729,637,
while in 1912 the figures dropped to 5,945,600 Ib., but valued at
about Rs. 2.835,000. Cinnamon is now largely used in medicine
as well as for flavouring purposes. The price per pound realised
at present in London varies from about Is. 6d. for fine quills, and
2d. to 4d. for chips. The tree may be propagated from seed,
cuttings or layers. The method usually adopted is to sow about
25 seeds in a clump, in situ or in a nursery, the clumps from the
SPICES OF THE TROPICS 269
latter being afterwards planted out entire. The stools are planted
out at distances of about 10 it. apart each way, say 435 to the
acre. The best flavoured bark is produced on white sandy soil,
below which there is a stratum of mould, provided the rainfall
(85 to 100 inches) and temperature (averaging about 80°) are
adequate. In Ceylon the tree thrives up to about 2,000 feet. alt.
in the moist zone. Cinnamon Chips are the small waste pieces
resulting from the cutting and peeling operations, and are exported
CLOVE BRANCH
A. — FLOWER BUDS OR GREEN CLOVES. B. — DRIED CLOVES.
chiefly for the distillation of cinnamon oil. This latter is also
manufactured in Ceylon to some extent, and exported. Cinnamon
was the first article of importance exported from Ceylon, and at
onetime was sold in Europe for fabulous prices. It is exported to
some extent from Java, and now from Seychelles, but Ceylon is
still by far the most important source.
VARIETIES:— There are several varieties of Cinnamon, the principal
ones known in Ceylon being " Penni " or " Kasa-kurundu," "Tittha-kurundu,"
and " Kahata-kurundu," all Sinhalese names.
270
SPICES OF THE TROPICS
Clove; 4'Karabu"S. (Eugenia caryophyllala. Myrtaceae). — A
small conical tree, 30 to 40 feet high, native of the Moluccas,,
introduced and established in Ceylon before the arrival of the
British. The cloves are the dried unexpanded flower-buds.
These are picked green, usually during January and February in
Ceylon, and being spread in the sun for a few days to dry they
become dark brown. The tree likes a rich sandy soil on sloping
land, and thrives up to 1,500 feet. It is propagated by seed,
which takes five or six weeks to germinate. The seedlings, which
MADAGASCAR CLOVE. Ravciisara aromatica.
are of very slow growth, may be planted out when 12 or 15 inches-
high, at distances of about 15 or 20 feet apart. The first crop'
may be obtained when the trees are 7 to 8 years old,, the yield
increasing until they are about fifteen or twenty years old,, when
an average yield of 8 to 10 Ib. of dried cloves per tree may be
procured. Zanzibar and Pemba furnish at present by far the
greater part of the world's supply of cloves, Penang and Amboyna
coming next in importance as sources of supply. The present
price of cloves in London varies from 8d. to Is. 2d. per LbM according;
SPICES OF THE TROPICS 271
to quality and demand. The Ceylon Customs gi\e the export
of cloves (with which is included mace) from Ceylon in 1912, as
111 cwt. valued at Rs. 7,125. Zanzibar exported 9,055 tons of
cloves in 1912, valued at £330,410.
Madagascar Clove, or Clove-nutmeg. (Ravensara aromalica.
Lauraceae). — A medium-sized tree, 30 to 40 feet high, with small
leathery leaves, native of Madagascar, introduced at Peradeniya
in 1847. The whole tree is strongly aromatic. The round fruits,
of the size of marbles, have a large hard kernel, which seems to.
combine the odour of nutmeg and clove, and is said to be used
and esteemed as a spice in its native country, being also exported
in small quantities to Europe. The tree is propagated by seed,
and is suited to the moist low-country under 1,500 feet altitude.
Brazil Clove. (Dicypellium caryophyllatnm. Lauraceae). — A
Brazilian tree, the "cloves" of which are said to be remarkable
for their fine aroma, being largely employed in their native
country for flavouring as well as for medicinal purposes. The
bark furnishes what is known as u Clove Cassia."
Ginger; "Inguru" S. " Inji " T. (Zingiber offidnale. Scitami-
neae). — A herbaceous perennial, with leafy shoots which grow to
a height of about 18 inches, native of Tropical Asia, but intro-
duced and cultivated in all tropical countries. The underground
tuberous stems (rhizomes), resembling thickened roots, are the
ginger of commerce. These are called " hands " or " races," from
their palmate shape, and are exported in two forms, peeled and
impeded (or uncoated and coated) ginger. The former is prepared
by scalding the tubers in boiling water, the epidermis being then
removed by a narrow-bladed knife. Unpeeled or coated ginger
(i.e., not deprived of the epidermis) is merely washed, and then
dried in the sun. The rhizomes are exported in bags or barrels,
and sold in London at prices varying from 40s. to 80s. or more per
cwt., according to quality. Japanese and West African ginger fetch
only about 24s. per cwt. as a rule. About 1840, ginger fetched
as much as 180s. per cwt. in London. Jamaica ginger invariably
commands the highest price, Calicut or Cochin sorts usually com-
ing second. The plant requires an equable hot and moist climate,
a shaded situation, a rich well-tilled, humous or loamy soil, and
thrives up to 3,000 feet in Ceylon. It is propagated by division
of the tubers or rhizomes, which are planted in rows 2 feet apart,
with about 14 inches between the plants in the rows. A harvest
is yielded in about ten months from the time of planting, when
272
SPICES OF THE TROPICS
the leaves begin to wither. Under very favourable-circumstances
an acre will yield, it is said, from 2,000 to 2,500 Ib. or more
cured ginger, but the average return appears to be about 1,200 Ib.
Ginger has long being highly valued for medicinal purposes, more
especially in England ; it is also esteemed in preserves and
GINGER. Ziiigibcr officinalc.
confectionery. Preserved ginger is prepared very largely in China,
where the plant is extensively cultivated for this purpose.
Grains of Paradise; Guinea Grains, or Melegueta Pepper
(Aiuonnun Melegueta. Scitamineae). — A herbaceous bushy perennial
5 to 6 feet high, with arching branches, allied to the Ginger
and Cardamom plants, and native of West Tropical Africa. The
SPICES OF THE TROPICS 273
flowers and fruit are produced on long trailing cord-like runners,
which issue from the base of the plant. The small dark aromatic
seeds are imported from the Gold Coast into Europe, where they
are used chiefly in cattle medicine, for flavouring cordials, and
sometimes for imparting an artificial strength to spirits, wine and
beer. At one time they were somewhat largely imported, being
used as a substitute for pepper or for adulterating it. In Africa they
are largely used by the Natives for seasoning their food, and are
considered very wholesome. It is said that about 1,000 cwt. of
this spice is imported annually into England, where it fetches at
present about 60s. to 65s. per cwt. In 1912 the export from the
Gold Coast alone was over 887 cwt., valued at £2,099.
Mace; " Wasa-vasi " S., " Poolie " T.— This consists of the
net-like wrapper (aril) surrounding the nutmeg, inside the husk
(see Nutmeg). At first scarlet, it becomes yellowish brown with
drying and exposure. Mace is a much-esteemed spice in Europe
and America, being used in confectionery and for culinary pur-
poses. In yield, the proportion of mace should be about one-fifth
in weight of that of the nutmegs, and one hundred of the latter
should produce about 3i oz. dried mace. Good pale to fine red
mace fetches at present, according to demand, from 2s. to 2s. Sd.
per Ib. in London.
Massoia. or " Meswi bark," is an aromatic bark obtained
from a large tree in New Guinea, closely allied to Cinnamon, and
named Massoia sp. The tree is not cultivated, and very little is
known of it,
Nutmeg; " Sadhika " S. (Myristica fragrans. Myristicaceae).—
A medium-sized tree, usually 30 to 50 feet high (sometimes 60 to
70 feet), native of the Moluccas, introduced into Ceylon about
1804, and now often met with cultivated in the low-country. The
" nutmeg " of shops is the hard brown oval kernel of the fruit.
It is enclosed by a thin brittle shell, and immediately surrounding
this is the scarlet aril or mace in the form of a net, next to
which is the thick fleshy juicy husk. The pale-amber fruit
resembles a peach or an apricot in form and appearance. When
ripe, i.e., about seven months from flowering, the husk splits open and
discloses the glossy dark brown nut (seed), covered with the mace,
as already stated. They are then picked, or the nuts are allowed to
drop to the ground, when they are collected and separated from
the mace ; both are then dried separately in the sun or in heated
274
SPICES OF THE TROPICS
sheds. The nuts, being deprived of the shell, are graded for export ;
60 to about 120, according to size, go to a pound, these fetching in
London about Sd. to Is. 4^. for the larger and about 6d. per Ib.
for the smaller sizes. (See also Mace above). The tree thrives best
in deep loamy and well-drained soil, in a hot and moist climate,
up to 1,500 feet elevation. During at least the first five years of its
life it is benefited by partial shade from thinly planted shade trees.
CALABASH NUTMEG.— -Moiwdora Myristica.
Being usually dioecious — i.e., the male and female flowers are borne
on separate trees — it is impossible to tell which sex a tree belongs
to until it flowers. The proportion of one male to ten or twelve
female trees (or ten males to an acre) should be enough for ensur-
ing fertilisation of the flowers of the latter. The trees become
productive at the age of seven or eight years, and increase in yield
till they reach about thirty years, when the crop may be 3,000 to
5,000 or more nuts per tree. They produce two crops a year, and
SPICES OF THE TROPICS 275
continue productive for very many years. Trees over seventy
years old in Peradeniya Gardens bear heavy crops annually,
and appear to be still in their prime. Propagation is usually from
seed, which take about three months to germinate. Sow in
pots or boxes under cover, or in a well- prepared bed in a shady
corner ; cover with an inch of fine soil, and water daily in dry
weather. When the seedlings are old enough to handle, transfer
them to baskets or bamboo-pots, and plant out in permanent places
when 8 or 10 inches high, at distances of about 26 feet apart.
Owing to the uncertainty of the proportion of male to female
plants when raised from seed, propagation by budding or inarch-
ing has been advocated, but its success on commercial lines seems
as yet doubtful. The export of nutmegs from Ceylon during 1912
was 131 cwt. valued at Rs. 3,697, say £300.
Calabash Nutmeg, also called " Jamaica Nutmeg." (Monodora
Myrislica. Anonacea^). — A small tree of Western tropical Africa,
with large oval leaves and sweet-scented flowers, introduced to
Peradeniya, Ceylon, in 1897. The large globular fruits contain a
number of aromatic seeds, whose odour and flavour are considered
to resemble those of the nutmeg proper. The tree is suited to the
moist low-country, and thrives in moderately good soil. It has not
as yet fruited at Peradeniya.
There are other so called nutmegs, which are of little or no
importance as spices, such as the " Brazil Nutmeg" (Cryptocarya
moschata, Lauraceae) ; "Clove Nutmeg" (See "Madagascar Clove,")
the Papua Nutmeg (Myristica argentea}, and the "Wild Nutmeg"
of India and Ceylon (Myristica lauri folia).
Pepper ; " G a m m i r i s " S ; " Molavu" T. ( Piper iiigruni.
Piperaceae). — A creeping perennial vine, indigenous to the moist
low-country forests of Ceylon and South India. Both " black" and
"white" peppers are obtained from the same plant. The berries
<pepper-corns) when of a reddish colour are picked and spread in
the sun, when they become black and shrivelled. These, when
ground with the outer covering left on, form "black pepper;"
deprived of the black covering (first by soaking in water for 7 or
-8 days, then rubbed or macerated with the feet or otherwise), "white
pepper" is obtained. A decorticating machine has been invented
by which the dried black corns can be converted into white
pepper. The pepper vine requires a moist heat with shade, and
thrives up to 1,500 feet above sea level. Artificial or natural
supports, in the form of posts or trees, are necessary, the latter
276 SPICES OF THE TROPICS
being preferable and more durable. Erythrina, Mango, Jak and
other quick-growing trees answer well for the purpose of sup-
ports, while they also provide a beneficial light shade. In Sumatra
and Malaya, posts of some hard and durable wood are generally
used for supports. Propagation is best by cuttings, which should
be selected from the ends of the best bearing vines, and mav
PEPPER. — Piper nigrnni.
either be started in a nursery bed, or planted out in situ where
they are to remain. A small crop may be expected in the third
year from planting, but the vines will not be in full bearing till
the sixth or seventh year. In India, Malaya, and Ceylon, the
main crop is produced usually from March to May, and a smaller
crop may sometimes be obtained in August or September.
SPICES OF THE TROPICS
277
It is considered that, with good cultivation, an annual
yield of about 2,000 Ib. or more per acre should be obtained,
allowing for the plants (stools) to be planted 7 ft. by 7 ft., say 880 to
the acre. The most economical method of Pepper cultivation is to
grow the vines on trees which are used as shade along roadsides
or for other crops, as " Dadaps" in Tea or Cocoa, the cultivation in
this case costing but little. Pepper plants will continue to yield
good crops for twenty-five to thirty years. The present market
price of " black pepper" in London ranges from 4ii. to 5j</. perlb.,
"white pepper" usually fetching 2</. to 3</. per Ib. more. The chief
PEPPER VINES OX KAPOK TREES (Eriotlcilllroil). CEVLOX.
sources of supply are Penang, Sumatra, and Malabar. Ceylon
exported over 350 tons of pepper in 1912, valued at £15,750.
Pepper, Cayenne. — This is made by drying and grinding the
smaller and most pungent kinds of chillies, the fruits of species of
Capsicum, especially C. annuitm and C. mini in urn. The Cayenne-
pepper of shops is said to be usually adulterated with Hour or
other powders.
Pepper, Long. — This consists of the unripe fruiting spike of
Piper longum, dried in the sun. The plant is a native of India
and Ceylon, and is cultivated in parts of India. " Long pepper" is
278 SPICES OF THE TROPICS
used chiefly in medicine, being less pungent than "black" or
44 white" pepper.
Pepper, Japan. (Xanlhoxylon piperituui. Xanthoxylaceae). —
A deciduous tree of Japan, the black aromatic pungent fruits of
which resemble pepper-corns, and are used as a spice in Japan.
Pepper, Ashantee. (Piper Clusii. Piperaceae). — A handsome
wild pepper vine of Western tropical Africa, the corns of which
are used in its native country as a spice, and were at one time
exported to Europe. It is not cultivated.
Pepper, Negro. Ethiopian, or West African pepper. (Xylopia
nromatica. Anonaceae). — A tall shrub, native of Western Africa,
producing clusters of pod-like fruits which are about 2 inches long.
These have aromatic and pungent properties, and when dried are
used in Western tropical Africa instead of pepper.
Star Anise. (Illicium venim. Magnoliaceae). — A shrub or
small tree, native of Southern China, where it is cultivated for the
sake of the fruits which when ripe burst open and spread out in
the form of a star. The whole fruit is agreeably fragrant and aro-
matic and, in China and Japan, is much used as a condiment in
cookery, also for chewing after meals to sweeten the breath, and
as a digestive. It forms an important article of commerce in the
Far East, and is imported into Europe and America to some extent
for flavouring liqueurs and spirits, being the chief flavouring
ingredient in the French "Anissette de Bordeaux." An aromatic
oil ("anise oil" ) is obtained from the fruit by distillation, which is
usually quoted at from 6s to 7s per Ib. in London. Seeds have
been imported on different occasions at Peradeniya and sown,
but these have never germinated. It is said that the Chinese
always boil the seed before it leaves the country, so as to maintain
the monopoly of the spice. The "Japanese Star Anise" is the fruit
of Illicium aiiisatiun, which has somewhat the odour of Bay-
leaves.
Turmeric; "Kaha" 5. (Curcuma longa. Scitamineae). — A
perennial herb, about 2 feet high, cultivated throughout tropical
Asia. The rhizome or tuberous roots are of a yellow or orange-
yellow colour and waxy resinous consistency; they are ground into
a fine orange-yellow powder, which has an aromatic taste, some-
what resembling ginger. This is commonly used as a condiment
in native cookery, and is a prominent constituent of curry powders,
being also employed in India for dyeing wool and silk. Turmeric
SPICES OF THE TROPICS 279
is cultivated in India, whence it is chiefly exported to Europe,
etc. Its price in London ranges from about 3d. to 6d. per Ib. or 18s.
to 24s. per c\vt. The plant is propagated by the rhizomes or by
division of the crown, and is suited to loose rich soil, under partial
shade; it thrives in a hot and moist climate up to 2,000 feet.
Under average circumstances an annual yield of about 2,000 Ib.
p~r acre may be obtained. Cultivation is much the same as for
Ginger. The tubers should be dug up as soon as the stems fade.
They are prepared for market by drying in the sun, being, as a rule,
previously scalded in hot water to check or destroy their vitality.
Vanilla. (Vanilla planifolia. Orchideae), A large creeping
orchid with long fleshy leaves, native of Mexico, introduced into
Ceylon in 1847. " Vanilla Beans" are the dried and cured pod-
like fruits, so much esteemed from early times for flavouring
and perfumery. Vanillin, the active principle of vanilla, has of late
been produced artificially, and this together with over-production
of the natural article has resulted in making the latter a less profit-
able cultivation. The vine thrives best in a hot and fairly humid
climate, from sea-level to about 1,500 feet. It requires support
in the form of light-foliaged trees, trellises of bamboo or other
material, or hedges, etc., and a mound of humous, porous soil or leaf-
mould should be placed around its roots at the base. Among the best
live supports for Vanilla are Physic-nut (Jatr&pha Curcas), Calabash
(Crescenlia Cnjetc), Dadap (Erythrinaj, and the Temple Tree
(Plnnieria}. Cuttings of the vine about 3 feet long should be planted
against the trees or other supports, and tied up to these until
established. At the end of eighteen months the plants should be
pruned back to induce accessible branches. Frequently, however,
they are allowed to run up the trees to a height of about 10 or
12 feet, after which the ends of the vines droop over.
A crop may be expected in three years from the time of
planting. The principal flowering season of the vine in Ceylon is
April to May, and the crop is gathered 8 to 9 months later. In
heavily shaded situations the fruits take longest to ripen. In the
plant's native home, the flowers are fertilised by bees and humming
birds; but in cultivation this seldom occurs, and it is necessary to
pollinate or " marry " the flowers by hand, as otherwise few if any
fruits will set.
The marrying process must be done in the morning or
forenoon, while the pollen masses and the receptive stigma are
fresh. The operation consists in lifting the adhesive pollen masses
280
SPICES OF THE TROPICS
on a pencil, and bringing these in contact with the viscid stigmatic
surface. An expert can pollinate from 600 to 700 flowers in half
a day. Not more than six flowers in a cluster should be fertilised,
and a vine should not be made to bear more than twenty-five to
thirty pods, half that number being sufficient for a weak plant.
The fruits should be ready for gathering in 8 to 9 months after
fertilisation of the flowers, the proper state for harvesting being
indicated by a slight yellowing at the end of the pods. The latter
when collected are dipped into almost boiling water for about
20 to 30 seconds, then placed in the sun to dry, after which they
VANILLA, SHOWING LEAVES AXD (A) PODS.
are "sweated," — i.e., rolled up in blankets every morning and
placed in a closed box to ferment, being taken out and spread in
the sun during the day. Excepting the dipping in hot water, this
process may be continued for about ten days or more, when the
pods will have become brown. In Seychelles, instead of placing
the pods in the sun each day, they are spread on trays in a heated
room (in a temperature of say 90° to 100° Fah.), between double
blankets. After this they are treated in a cooler temperature in
the shade, the beans being occasionally squeezed between the
fingers and drawn through, so as to render them pliable and
SPICES OF THE TROPICS
281
distribute the minute seed in the interior. This process takes a few
weeks longer. It is considered that the more slowly vanilla is dried
the better. When the curing is complete, vanillin accumulates
as crystals on the pods, giving these the appearance of being
covered with a tine bloom. Pods which are inclined to split
should be tied up at the end with a piece of thread. If for
VANILLA VINES OX GMKICIDIA TREES.
export, it is necessary to further dry and occasionally turn the
pods, under cover, for five or six weeks, when they may be graded
according to lengths, made up in pound-packets and packed in
soldered tins for export. On an average, 125 cured pods will
weigh a pound. The standard size of tin boxes used in Seychelles
for exporting vanilla is 13 inches long, 9 in. broad, and 6 in. deep.
A lining of parchment paper is placed in each, the pods are packed
fairly loosely, and the lid secured by solder. It is more particularly
as a secondary crop that vanilla is to be recommended for cultivation.
282 SPICES OF THE TROPICS
An acre of good healthy vines (say about 680 plants) is con-
sidered to give a return of about 200 Ib. of cured pods. The
yield per acre in Hawaii has been estimated to approximate 13,000
pods, amounting to about 120 Ib. of cured beans. The price of
vanilla fluctuates considerably. At present, London prices are
approximately: — Fair to good (7i to 8i inch) 16s. to 18s. per Ib.;
3 to 6^ inch, 13s. to 15s. 6d. ; Mouldy, 6s. 6d. to 13s., and inferior
qualities from 4s. per Ib. upwards. The export of vanilla from
Ceylon in 1912 is given as 23 cwt. valued at nearly Rs. 20,000, and
that from Reunion as 51 tons, against 70 tons in 1908.
Vanillon, or Vanilloes. — (Vanilla pomp on a). — A native also of
Mexico, yielding an inferior quality of vanilla known by the names
of "Vanillon" and "Vanilloes." This is claimed, however, to
have advantages over proper vanilla, its pods not having a
tendency to split as well as being easily cured, whilst the vines
are said to flower and fruit three or four times during the year.
Vanilloes fetch from Is. 6d. to 3s. per Ib. in London.
Vanilla Essence. — According to the Journal of the Jamaica
Agricultural Society, this product is prepared in Jamaica from
vanilla beans, and is sold at 20s. per gallon, which is said to be
equivalent to 10s. 6d. per Ib. of cured beans.
Synthetic Vanillin. Notwithstanding the introduction of this
article, there appears to be at present a fairly remunerative demand
for vanilla, the uses of which are numerous and increasing. The
vanilla crops of Reunion and Seychelles have been in a flourishing
condition during the last few years, in some seasons realising an
average price of 16s. per Ib. With the legislation in France and
the United States restricting artificial food substitutes, there has
been a continuance of remunerative prices for the past two or three
years for vanilla, and there is said to be now a reluctance on the
part of manufacturers to use the artificial vanillin.
Winter's Bark. (Drimys Winter i. Magnoliaceae). — A small
tree of temperate South America, the bark of which is aromatic,
and sometimes used as a spice in medicine. The tree is well
established at Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, being suited only for
up-country.
CONDIMENTS AND SEASONING HERBS
Aniseed. ( Pimpinella anisum. Umbelliferae ). — An annual,
cultivated in the South of Europe for its small seed- like fruits,
which are much used in confectionery and in the manufacture of a
CONDIMENTS AND SEASONING HERBS 283
well-known cordi.il. The leaves are also used for flavouring pur-
poses and garnishing. The plant requires a light rich soil, and
may he grown from seed sown in drills 8 inches apart. Suited to a
rather dry climate. It is said to be commonly grown on the plains
in India, but is not cultivated in Ceylon. Aniseed usually fetches
from 24s. 6</. to 26s. per cwt. in London.
Basil, Sweet; " Suwanda-Tala " S. (Ocitnum basilicum. Labi-
atie ). — An annual about a foot high, native of India and natural-
ised or commonly grown in the low-country of Ceylon. It is
cultivated in Europe and elsewhere for its highly fragrant and
aromatic leaves, which are used for flavouring soups, etc., but
their strong odour is disagreeable to many persons. The plant is
sacred to the Hindus, and is commonly cultivated near their
temples. Thrives best at low and medium elevations.
Borage. (Borago officinalis. Labiatae). — A small annual with
coarse hairy leaves and pretty, blue flowers, both of which are
sometimes used in Europe for garnishing, but more frequently as
an ingredient in claret-cup. It is not often grown in Ceylon, nor
in India, though it thrives at the higher elevations, especially in
the dry seasons.
Caraway. ( Carum Canii. Umbelliferae). — A biennial, native
of Eastern Europe, 1^ to 2 feet high, cultivated for its well-known
aromatic seeds which are much used in confectionery, also for
flavouring spirits and perfuming soap. It does not seem to be
anywhere grown in Ceylon, although it would probably succeed in
dry districts at moderate elevations, as in Uva. The seed should
be sown in drills one inch deep, with 12 inches between the drills,
the plants being afterwards thinned out as may be necessary.
Chervil. ( Anthriscus cerefolinm. Umbelliferae). — An annual,
native of Europe, the young leaves of which are sometimes used
as an ingredient in salads and for flavouring purposes. Suited to
the higher elevations. Sow seed broadcast on a bed of smooth
surface.
Chives. (Allinm schcenoprasum. Liliaceae). — A small per-
ennial, cultivated for its leaves, which are used in salads and soups
instead of young onions. It is propagated by seed or division of
the roots, and will grow in ordinarily good soil. The plant is
little known in India or Ceylon, and the same is probably true of
the rest of the tropics.
Clary. ( Sahia Sclareu. Labiatae ). — A small biennial, the
leaves of which are sometimes used for flavouring soups, etc. Seed
284 CONDIMENTS AND SEASONING HERBS
may be sown in drills about 16 inches apart, or in boxes, the seed-
lings being afterwards transplanted at a distance 9 or 10 inches
apart. Sometimes grown in Hill gardens.
Coriander. u Kothamallie " S. ( Coriandrum sativum. Um-
belliferae).— An annual, cultivated in Europe as a seasoning herb ;
also commonly grown in India, from which large quantities are
exported. The young leaves are used for flavouring soups and
salads, and the seed in confectionery, medicine, etc. Succeeds in
ordinary soils. Propagated from seed, which may be sown in
drills, the plants being afterwards thinned out to 1 foot apart. In
India the seed is usually sown broadcast.
Curry-Leaf. — See " Karapincha."
Cummin ; u Sudu-duru " S. ; " Shiragam " 7~. ( C u in i n n in
Cyiiiimun. Umbelliferae ). — An annual, 1-2 ft. high, with Fennel-
like feathery leaves, and seeds ( fruits ) like Caraway, but slightly
larger and lighter in colour than the latter. This appears to have
been cultivated in Palestine from very early times, as it is mention-
ed in the Old and New Testaments. Cummin has similar pro-
perties to Caraway and Dill, and at one time largely took the place
of these in confectionery and medicine. It is still employed in
Germany, Holland, etc., and very largely imported into tropical
South America generally, where, I am informed, it takes precedence
of all other condiments for seasoning purposes. It is also imported
into India, Ceylon, Straits, etc., and sold everywhere in the bazaars
or boutiques as a condiment for meat-curries and such like.
Apparently it is nowhere cultivated within the Torrid Zone.
The chief sources of production are Malta, Persia, Turkey and
Morocco, though it is said to be also somewhat extensively grown
in the Punjab and N. W. Provinces of India. "Ordinary" to
"good " Morocco cummin seed fetches in London from 20s. to 22s.
per cwt., and "common" to "fair" Malta 27s. to 29s.
11 Black Cumin," which is extensively cultivated in India, is
the seed of Nigel la saliva, a Ranunculaceous plant, native of
Southern Europe.
Dill. ( Pcucedanum graveolens. Umbelliferae). — A biennial of
Southern Europe, the aromatic leaves of which are used in soups,
sauces, etc. ; the seeds yield an oil of medicinal value and from
which the well-known " Dill-water " for infants is made. The
plant is of easy culture, and thrives in various parts of India. Seed
may be sown in drills, and the plants afterwards thinned out.
COXDIMEXTS AXD SEASOXIXG HERBS 285
Fennel; " Maha-duru " or " Bata-anduru " S. (Fceniculum
vul^arc. Umbelliferae ). — A herbaceous perennial, native of South
Europe, commonly grown in Ceylon as well as in India. In North-
Western India it is sometimes grown as a field crop for its fruit.
The tall, finely-divided aromatic leaves are used in fish -sauces and
for garnishing, the leaf-stalks are employed in salads, and the seeds
in confectionery and for flavouring liqueurs. Propagated from
seed, which may be sown in boxes, the plants being afterwards put
out 12 inches apart in rows. The plant thrives best in moist
situations, being suited to elevations of 2,000 feet upwards.
Garlic; "Sudu-lunu" S. (Allium sativum. Liliaceae). — A
bulbous-rooted perennial, native of Central Asia and naturalised in
Southern Europe. It is much cultivated in India and the East
generally for its small white, onion-like bulbs. These are some-
times used in Europe for flavouring soups, stews, etc. In India,
Ceylon and many other tropical countries, they are universally sold
in the bazaars or boutiques, being largely used in native cookery
and medicine. The plant will thrive almost anywhere on the
plains or hills, but succeeds best in light, rich and rather dry soil.
It is commonly cultivated by the Natives of Ceylon, but the market
supplies are imported principally from India. Propagated by the
bulbs.
Horehound. ( Marubiunt vulgare. Labiatae ). — A small per-
ennial, sometimes cultivated in England as a pot-herb. A decoction
of the leaves is a popular remedy for coughs, etc. Not commonly
grown in Ceylon or India. Propagated by seed.
Horse-radish. (Coclilearia Armoracia, Cruciferze). — This well-
known plant is commonly grown in Hill gardens throughout India,
Ceylon, etc., but is quite unsuited to the plains or low elevations
The bitter tuberous roots, which are scraped or grated, are used
in soups, sauces, etc. The plant is propagated by division of the
roots, with a portion of the crown attached, and thrives best in a
deep, rich and rather moist soil. Deep holes may be made about
1 5 inches apart, in rows, and filled in with well-manured soil. Four
or five months are required to mature a crop. By clearing away the
soil from the upper portion of the root, and removing the fibrous
side-roots, the main root becomes thicker and longer.
Horse-radish Tree; " Murunga " S. (Moringa pterygospenna.
Moringeae). — A small tree, the main thick root of which is
commonly used throughout India as a substitute for horse-radish,
to which, however, it is much inferior in flavour. The long
286 CONDIMENTS AND SEASONING HERBS
pods, produced chiefly in March and April, are very generally con-
sumed by the Natives, in an unripe state, as a curry vegetable.
Hyssop. (Hyssopus officinalis. Labiatae ). — An aromatic
dwarf shrub, cultivated in European gardens. The leaves are
sometimes used for flavouring, as well as in medicine. Propagated
by seed. Succeeds in light rich soil; not suited for low elevations,
but may be grown in the Hills.
" Karapincha " S. ; u Karivempu " T. ; Curry-leaf . ( Murraya
Koenigii. Rutaceae ). — A small tree of the Orange family, native
of Ceylon, and found chiefly in the dry region. It is familiar as
the Curry-leaf plant, the pungent aromatic leaves being a constant
ingredient in curries, mulligatawny, etc. It prefers light rich soil,
and with cultivation will thrive up to at least 2,000 feet in Ceylon.
Propagated from seed, which are in season in April.
Lavender. (Laveiidula vera. Labiatae). — A dwarf shrub,
native of South Europe, commonly grown for its pleasantly scen-
ted flowers, which are dried and put into wardrobes, etc. The
aromatic leaves are sometimes used as an ingredient in seasonings.
The plant is cultivated commercially for the highly-esteemed
perfume, Lavender-water, obtained by distillation of the flowers.
Lavender succeeds in the Hill gardens in India and Ceylon ; at
Nuwara-Eliya it flowers and seeds freely. Propagated from seeds
or cuttings
Lemon-grass; ". Sayra" S. (Andropogon ci trains.
Gramineae ). — The white fleshy heart of the leafy stalks of this well-
known fragrant grass ( cultivated for the Lemon-grass oil, obtained
from the leaves ) are very generally used by the Natives of Ceylon
for flavouring curries, being also sometimes used in pickles. The
stalks are commonly sold in the markets and bazaars at ^ cent each.
Marigold, Pot. (Calendula offidnalis. Composite). — An an-
nual of Southern Europe, commonly grown as an ornamental
flowering plant. Its flowers are edible, and on the Continent of
Europe are generally used for flavouring soups, etc. The plant is
commonly grown for its showy flowers, at medium and high ele-
vations.
Marjorum, Sweet. ( Origanum Marjoraua. Labiatae ). — A
biennial, native of Northern Africa, etc., cultivated in European
.gardens for its aromatic leaves, which are used both green and
dried for seasoning soups, etc. It is propagated by seed, and is-
adapted to cultivation in Hill gardens in the tropics.
COXDIMEXTS AXD SEASOXIXG HERBS 287
Marjorum, Pot. (Origanum Onitcs). — A perennial, native of
Sicily. Propagated by division of the roots.
Mint; '4 Meenchi " S. (Mentha viridis. Labiatae). — A small
herbaceous perennial with creeping rhizomes. It is one of the
most valuable of all seasoning herbs, and is universally cultivated
in temperate climates. The tops and young leaves are used for
flavouring in numerous ways, as in soups, salads, and sauces, or
boiled with peas, potatoes, etc. The plant grows freely in Ceylon
hill gardens, becoming acclimatised in places ; it also thrives
moderately well in damp and shady places in the low-country. It
is easily propagated by division of the roots and underground
stems, and is especially suited to a moist rich soil.
Mustard; "Aba"S. ; 44Kadugu"7\ (Stnapis nigra\ Brassica
jitncei. Cruciferae ). — A small annual, introduced into Ceylon and
now naturalised in waste places in the low- country. The small
seeds, when powdered, form the well-known condiment mustard ;
they are also used whole for flavouring pickles and numerous
preparations. In Europe the plants, when very young, are used
as salad, usually with cress. Propagation by seed ; sow broadcast
on a smooth surface of loose, friable soil.
Parsley. ( Petroselinnin sativum. Umbelliferae). — From early
times this has been cultivated as a medicinal plant. It is now uni-
versally grown for seasoning and garnishing purposes, and no
garden is complete without it. It grows luxuriantly in up-country
gardens and, with some shelter from the sun and heavy rains, will
also thrive tolerably well at medium and even low elevations.
Seed is best sown at the end of the heavy rains, or, on the plains,
before the cold weather sets in, either in drills in the open, or in
boxes under cover, afterwards transplanting the seedlings out with
a good ball of the earth in which they germinated. Parsley thrives
best in a rich soil; in the low-country, a damp shady situation suits
it best. There are many varieties, among those well-known being
44 Myatt's Garnishing," "Sutton's Imperial Curled," "Fine Doubled
Curled," etc.
Rosemary. (Rosmarinus officinalis. Labiatae). — A dwarf
shrub, native of South Europe, and commonly grown in European
gardens for its pleasantly fragrant leaves. These are occasionally
used for seasoning, and a decoction is made from them for reliev-
ing headaches and for hair-wash ; they are also used in the
manufacture of Eau-de-Cologne and other scents. Propagated
from seed. Suited for Hill gardens.
288 CONDIMENTS AND SEASONING HERBS
Rue; "Herb of Grace." (Ruta graveolens. Rutaceae). — A
small under-shrub with glaucous greyish leaves, commonly grown
in gardens in Europe. The leaves have an unpleasant smell and
a hot bitter taste ; they are sometimes used for garnishing, but
more frequently in medicine on account of their carminative pro-
perties. The plant grows well in shaded spots at medium eleva-
tions, but does best in the Hills. Propagated from seed or cuttings.
Sage. (Salvia offidnalis. Labiatae ). — This well-known
seasoning plant is successfully cultivated in Hill gardens in the
Tropics. It will also succeed fairly well at intermediate elevations
by sowing seed at the end of October or early in November.
Though usually propagated by seed, it may also be raised by
cuttings. The plant is a small evergreen shrub, native of South
Europe, and thrives best in light rich soil.
Samphire. (Crittinu n maritimum. Umbellifereae). — A small,
sea-coast perennial, native of Europe, sometimes cultivated for its
leaves, which are used in salads, also as a seasoning and for pick-
ling vinegar. The plant requires a light sandy soil and a moist
situation. Sprinkling it occasionally with salt water is said to
encourage its growth.
Savory, Summer. (Satureia hortensis. Labiatae). — An annual,
native of Italy, frequently cultivated in gardens in Europe as a
seasoning herb. The whole plant is aromatic, and the tops are
used for flavouring salads and soups ; they are also boiled along
with peas, beans, etc. Though well suited to Hill gardens in the
tropics, the plant is seldom grown in Ceylon. Propagated from
seed or by crown division.
Savory, Winter. (Satureia montana). — A small, evergreen
shrub, native of South Europe, often grown for seasoning purposes.
Cultivation the same as for Summer-savory. Propagated from
seed or by division of the crowns.
Shallots.— See under Temperate or Sub-tropical Vegetables.
Sweet Basil.— See Basil
Tarragon. (Artemisia Dracuuculciis. Composihe). — A small
perennial, native of Siberia, cultivated for its aromatic leaves ;
these and the young tops are used in salads and soups, being also
pickled with cucumbers; an infusion of them forms the much-
esteemed Tarragon-wine, also Tarragon vinegar. The plant re-
quires a light free soil, and is generally propagated by division of
the roots. It does not seem to be well-known in the Hill gardens
COXDIMEXTS AXD SEASOXIXG HERBS 289
of Ceylon or India, though there seems no reason why it should
not thrive there.
Thyme. ( Thymus vnlgaris. Labiatie). — This small under-
shrub is a favourite amongst seasoning herbs. The aromatic
leaves are generally relished as a seasoning in soups, stuffings, etc.
The plant thrives in Up-country gardens, prefers a light rich
and rather dry soil and a sheltered situation. It is propagated by-
seed, which may be sown broadcast on a bed with smooth surface,
or in shallow drills 8 inches apart. The seedlings should after-
wards be thinned out to distances of about 3 inches each way;
or seed may be sown in pots under cover, the seedlings being,
pricked out and transplanted when strong enough.
SECTION 3
CHAPTER XV.
BEAUTIFUL FLOWERING AND FOLIAGE TREES OF
THE TROPICS
SUITABLE FOR Low OR MEDIUM ELEVATIONS
FLOWERING TREP:S :—
[S=SIXHALESE ; 7'= TAMIL.]
Properly speaking, all trees are /lowering trees, that is, they
normally produce flowers, whether these be showy or inconspicuous;
but, for practical purposes, only such as may come under the
term commonly understood as "flowering trees" are here included.
For trees whose beauty consists chiefly in their form of foliage,
see Ornamental Foliage Trees. Many of the following species,
however, combine to a large extent both beauty of foliage and
flowers. Some flowering trees are deciduous and develop their
floral display when devoid of leaves (e.g., Red Cotton Tree, or
Bombax), while others are in their full glory of foliage and blossom
simultaneously, as the Amherstia, Spathcdea, etc. Flowering trees
in the tropics may be employed for useful as well as for ornamental
purposes, as (when suitable kinds are available) for planting for
shade in thoroughfares, parks, or pleasure grounds. It is asserted,
with sound reason, that the planting of bright flowering trees
around bungalows situated in lonely districts and surrounded by
monotonous plantations, would go far to relieve the depressing
effect often inseparable from such situations.
Flowering trees for street-planting, etc. — An important quality
of a flowering tree is its suitableness for planting in public thorough-
fares. For this purpose it should obviously be an ever-green, or
at least have the habit of developing young foliage soon after the
shedding of the old leaves. Peltophorum fernigincinn and Inga
Saman ("Rain Tree") for example, answer this purpose admirably.
If the name of the tree employed is such as to lend itself to use as
FLOU'ERIXG TREES
291
a street name, it might with advantage be so adopted ; for while
thus [tending to impress the charm of the tree, the name would
obviously be an improvement on some of the street names now in
use. For example, "Amherstia-avenue" would be preferable to
"Slave- Island Road," "Cassia-terrace" to "Jail road," "Spathodea-
grove" to " Paranawadiya-lane," and so on. The following are
\IK\V IN MAIN" CENTRAL DRIVE. PEKADEXIYA GARDENS.
sonic of the most beautiful flowering trees of the tropics, given in
alphabetical order. By coincidence, the first on the list is perhaps
the finest flowering tree in the world.
Amherstia nobilis. Legiiininosae. Named in honour of LADY
AM H ERST. — A medium-sized tree, native of Burma, and considered
the most beautiful of all flowering trees. Its immense candelabrum-
like sprays of red and yellow Mowers, drooping from every branch
among the handsome foliage, present an appearance of astonishing
292 FLOWERING TREES
elegance and loveliness. It is in flower during the greater part of
the year, but its chief flowering season in Ceylon is from January
to April, i.e., the dry season. The tree thrives in the moist low-
country up to 1,600 feet, and requires rich and well-drained soiL
It does not seem to flourish near the sea, and is rarely met with
about Colombo. It produces seed very scantily anywhere, a pod
or two occasionally being all that can be obtained, and even these
are often infertile. Propagation by layering has, therefore, to be
adopted. Introduced into Ceylon in 1860.
Bauhinia. Leguitiinosae. — Several species and varieties of this
genus afford us small but beautiful flowering trees, such as B. pur-
purea with very showy large flowers of a pink shade merging into
purple, B. triandra or "Mountain Ebony" (somewhat similar to the
latter), and B. tonieniosa or " Kahapetan " writh yellow flowers.
The genus takes its name from Bauhin, the twin brother botanists*
from the fact that the leaves are joined in twos at the base.
Brownea ariza. Leguininosae. — A small spreading tree with
pinnate, drooping foliage, native of Tropical America, in-
troduced into Ceylon in 1884. It bears from the ends of the
branches very large dense round clusters of blossom which practi-
cally weigh down the branches. The flowers are of a deep rose-
colour, of great beauty, and resemble in form large Rhododendron
flowrers.
B.— coccinea (Scarlet). — A short spreading tree, native of
South America and introduced into Ceylon in 1849. It is dis-
tinguished from the other Brown eas by the small but numerous
clusters of scarlet flowers, produced on the stem and older branches.
B.— grandiceps (Large-headed). — A larger and handsomer
tree than either of the former two species, native of Venezuela,
introduced into Ceylon in 1870. A very beautiful tree when in
blossom, the bright-red flowers being borne in very large dense
heads at the ends of the branches. The foliage, too, is very hand-
some, the young leaves being produced in long, drooping flaccid
bunches, similar to those of Amherstia.
B. — macrophylla (Large-leaved). — A strong-growing species,
introduced at Peradeniya in 1894. It is of a less free- flowering
habit than the three species above named, but the flower heads
are larger, and of a pleasing shade of rose-colour ; the very large
and bright- coloured stamens also distinguish the flowers from
those of the other species of Brownea.
FW1VERIXG TREES
293
Butea frondosa. Lcguminosae. Bengal " Kino Tree." " Gas-
kela," S. ; " Parasu," T. — An erect tree with trifoliate leaves, indi-
genous to the forests of the dry region of India, Ceylon, and
Burma ; reaches a height of about 40 feet, and bears in the dry
months a profusion of orange-scarlet flowers. The tree furnishes
a resin ("kino") and a useful fibre; a lac is produced on the
young twigs, and the flowers are used in India for producing a
yellow and orange-red dye.
THE RIVER DRIVE PERADENIYA (JARDEXS.
Cassia Fistula. Leguminosne. Indian Laburnum ; " Pudding-
pipe"; " Ehela " S. " Tirukkontotai " T. — A small upright tree,
common in the forests of the dry region of Ceylon and India. It
forms a beautiful object when in blossom, the Mowers being
bright-yellow, borne in numerous large pendulous racemes. The
flowers are used as temple offerings, and the astringent bark for
tanning and in native medicine. The black, cylindrical pods grow
to a length of from 20 to 30 inches ; the pulp of these is a well-
known purgative. Suited chiefly to the rather dry region, but with
good drainage will thrive in moist districts up to 2,000 feet
elevation.
294 FLOWERING TREES
Cassia grandis (Great). " Horse Cassia." A native of South
America, growing to a height of about 40 to 50 feet ; bears a pro-
fusion of pale pink inflorescence during the dry months of February
and March, when the tree is completely deciduous. It produces
in June an abundance of thick, coarse and slightly curved pods,
the pulp of which has an offensive odour.
C.— marginata=C — Javanica. (Marginated leaf). "Ratu-\va" S;
"Vakai" T. — A small, graceful tree with spreading, drooping
branches, common in the dry region of Ceylon and also in South
India ; very ornamental when bearing its racemes of rose-coloured
flowers, usually in July and August.
C.— multijuga (Many-pinnae). — A slender quick-growing tree
of Tropical America, introduced to Peradeniya, Ceylon, in 1851.
Remarkably beautiful when in full blossom, during August and
September, being practically smothered with very large racemes of
bright yellow flowers, suggesting a glorified Calceolaria. The tree
luxuriates in the moist climate of Peradeniya, but rarely produces
seed here. At Anuradhapura, however, in the drier region, it
bears fruit abundantly. It may be propagated by cuttings when
seeds are not procurable.
C.— nodosa (Knotted, referring to the knotted stems). — A
moderate-sized tree, native of Eastern Bengal and Malaya, very
beautiful when bearing its profusion of bright pink and rose-scented
flowers, during May and June. The flowers are followed by
cylindrical pods, 12 to 15 inches long. The tree is deciduous in
the dry weather.
Cochlospermum gossypium. Bixaceae. " Kinihiriya " or
"Ela-imbul" -S, "Kongu" T. — A rather small tree, native of
Central India. It has become semi-naturalised in some dry parts
of Ceylon, and is often found planted near Buddhist temples. A
beautiful tree when in blossom (during February and March), with
its large bright yellow flowers, which are esteemed as temple
offerings. The tree is deciduous in the dry weather ; thrives in
either dry or moderately wet districts below 2,000 feet.
Col villea racemosa. Leguininosae. Named in honour of SIR
CHARLES COLVILLE, when Governor of Mauritius. — A medium-
sized tree, 30 to 40 feet high, with handsome pinnate leaves, native
of Mauritius and Madagascar. It bears in September large, erect,
close racemes of bright scarlet flowers, presenting a very showy
appearance. Suited to the moist or moderately-dry low-countrv.
FLOirERIXG TREES
295
Couroupita guianensis. Myr tactile. Cannon-ball tree. — Though
not ordinarily a beautiful tree, it is very striking when bearing its
huge woody racemes (4 to 6 feet long) of very curious pink and
white fleshy flowers. These are followed by large brown globular
fruits, which attain the size of the human head and contain a mass
of very sour-smelling pulp. The tree is a native of tropical South
America; introduced at Perademya in 1881, and has flowered and
fruited regularly since 1898, when it flowered here for the first
•ft
MADRF.
Gliricidia inacnlata.
time. Suited to the moist low-country. Propagated by seed.
(See illustration >.
Gliricidia maculata. Lcgniniiiosae. "Madre " of South
America. — A small, quick-growing, elegant tree, introduced from
the West Indies about 1889. It bears long, arching, feathery and
leafy branches, which in the dry weather drop nearly all their
leaves and produce along the greater part of their length masses
of pinkish-purple flowers, making the tree a striking object for a
296
FLOWERING TREES
time. It thrives up to 2,500 feet, and may be seen .flourishing hi
the Victoria Park and elsewhere about Colombo. Its quick growth
and light feathery habit commend it as a shade tree for
JACARAXDA MIMOS^EFOLIA. SHOWING I.KAVFS AND KI.UWKRS.
crops and green-manuring. For the latter purpose it has also the
merit of belonging to the nitrogen-collecting tribe of Leguminosae.
The tree forms a good support for Vanilla vines. It is considered
FLOWERING TREES 297
to have been first introduced into Ceylon by MR. C. DRIEBERG,
when Superintendent of the former Agricultural School at Colombo.
Jacaranda mimosaefolia. Rignoninceae. — A very elegant tree,
both on account of its leaves and Mowers. It reaches a height of
40 to 50 feet, and bears at different seasons, but chiefly in the
drier months, a profusion of blue bell-shaped flowers on the young
shoots as well as on the older branches. The elegant bi-pinnate
Mimosa-like leaves make the seedlings well worth growing as
-small ornamental foliage plants in pots.
Kleinhovia hospita. Stercnliaceae. — A large handsome Ma-
layan tree, introduced into Ceylon about 1820. It bears large
terminal panicles of pink or rose-coloured flowers, which appear
-during July or August. Thrives in the moist low country.
Lagerstroemia flos-reginae. Lylhniceae. " Pride of India,"
" Murutu " S. — A tree of about 50 to 60 feet in height, native of
Ceylon, India, and Malaya. It is undoubtedly one of the most
•strikingly showy of flowering trees, and from April to July or later
bears from the ends of the branches huge panicles of large beauti-
ful mauve or pink flowers. The older trees are deciduous for a
short period during the dry weather. There are two or more
varieties; a vaiiety which is common in Ceylon has lovely bright-
pink flowers, and is exceedingly attractive.
L.— tomentosa. A moderate-sized handsome tree, native of
hot and moist parts of Burma, introduced at Peradeniya in 1891.
It blossoms twice a year, in April and October, bearing large erect
panicles of lovely bright flowers, produced from the end of every
branch. A very ornamental tree when in blossom.
Ligustrum Walkeri. Oleaceae. Ceylon Privet. — A small
shrubby tree, with fine foliage, producing after the rains large
clusters of creamy-white scented flowers. It is indigenous to the
lower montane zone of Ceylon (3,000 to 5,000 feet), and is pro-
pagated from seed.
Lysidice rhodostegia. Lcgiiminosuc. — A large handsome tree,
native of Southern China, introduced at Peradeniya in 1882. It
thrives here and bears from December to February masses of
pink or rose-coloured erect inflorescence, produced from the
extremities of the branches. The persistent coloured calyces
render the tree very showy for several weeks.
Mesua ferrea. Gultifcme- "Iron-wood;" " Na-gaha " S,
" Xaka " T — A moderate-sized, broad, conical, slow-growing tree,
native of the hot and moist regions of Ceylon, India and Malaya.
298
FLOWERING TREES
This handsome tree is much in favour for planting near Buddhist
temples. It blossoms profusely in the month of April or May, the
large white flowers, with their big bunch of yellow stamens, being
delicately scented. The young leaves, which appear twice a year,
are of an intense blood-red colour, passing through delicate shades
of pink into the dark-green of the adult growth.
Millingtonia hortensis. Bii>noniaceae. Indian Cork-Tree. —
An erect tree with dark-green finely divided leaves, reaching a
CEYLON IRON-WOOD. MCSIHI
height of 59 feet or more; bears in November and June a profusion
of long, pure-white fragrant flowers. The tree is a favourite in
Indian gardens; thrives up to 2,003 feet in Ceylon.
Oncoba spinosa. Bimceae. A small bushy tree of Arabia,
with light -gieen, small ovate leaves. It bears during April, from
the underside of the young branches, large, single, white flowers
with yellow stamens; these are delicately scented and suggest in
appearance large dog-roses. Introduced at Peracleniya in 1885,
but has not as vet set fruit here.
FLOWERING TREES
299
Peltophorum ferrugineum. Leguininosae. "lyavaki.'T. — Alarge,
quick-growing, symmetrical tree, with a spreading top and fine
graceful feathery foliage, indigenous to Ceylon and Malaya. The
young leaves and shoots are covered with a brown velvet tomentum,
from which the tree takes its specific name. The tree flowers
twice a year at irregular seasons, some specimens being in blossom
while others by its side are in ripe fruit. The flowers are
rusty-yellow, sweet-scented, and borne in large erect panicles.
TRIMEX, in his Floni of Ceylon, stated: " It is a magnificent sight
when in full blossom." It is specially suited to dry districts, but
also thrives to perfection in the moist region up to 1,800 feet.
OXCOBA SPINOSA.
Plumeria acutifolia. Apocyiuncae. — Temple Tree; Pagoda
Tree; sometimes called " Frangi-pani; " "Awariya, " S. — A low
spreading succulent tree or large shrub, originally introduced from
Tropical America and now naturalised in Ceylon, India, etc. It is
a familiar tree in the Eastern tropics, especially throughout the
low-country of Ceylon, being often planted near Buddhist temples.
The tree is almost or quite bare of leaves throughout the dry weather,
when it bears large corymbs of white (with yellow centre) and
highly-fragrant flowers.
P. rubra. — (Red). — A tree similar to the latter, but of a less
spreading habit, bearing bright crimson flowers. It is a native of
300 FLOWERING TREES
Central America, and was first introduced at Peradeniya in 1900.
Very showy, and remains in flowers for several months.
Poinciana regia. Legutninosae. — Flamboyante; Flame Tree;
Golden Mohur. A gorgeous tree when in full blossom, bearing
immense panicles of scarlet or orange and yellow flowers, native
of Madagascar, and introduced into Ceylon before 1841. It is a
very striking object in and about Colombo during the months of
March to May. The tree grows from 50 to 60 feet in height, and
has handsome, fine, feathery leaves. Suited to moist as wrell as dry
regions, especially near the sea.
Posoqueria longiflora. Rubiaccae. — A moderate-sized quick-
growing tree, with large deep-green leaves, native of Tropical
America. It produces long, tubular, white and sweet-scented
flowers, borne in pendulous clusters during May and September.
Suited to moist districts up to 2,000 feet.
Pterocarpus echinatus. Legutninosae. — A moderate-sized tree,
native of the Philippines, introduced at Peradeniya in 1882; bears
large racemes of pale-yellow flowers at the ends of the branches,
during April or May. Very ornamental when in blossom. Suited
to the low-country.
Saraca declinata. Leguniinosae. — A small tree, native of
Sumatra, introduced at Peradeniya in 1870. It forms a beautiful
sight when bearing its huge heads of bright orange-yellow flowers,
produced on the stems and older branches, during February and
March. Thrives best in partial shade in the moist low-country.
S. indica. (Indian); >k Diya-ratmal," or " Diya-ratambala,"
S. — A small, spreading tree, native of Ceylon and South India. On
the stems and branches are produced, chiefly in the dry weather,
large sessile clusters of sweet-scented flowers, which change from
yellow to orange and red. The young leaves are in long pendulous
clusters, as in Brownea and Amherstia. Thrives in shady situations,
especially near water, in the wet or semi-dry districts below 1,500
feet.
Schizolobium excelsiim. Leguininosae. — A very large, quick-
growing tree, with fine bi-pinnate, feathery leaves, native of Brazil.
Introduced in 1872 at Peradeniya, where it luxuriates, blossoming
and producing fruits regularly. The flowers are borne in very
large erect racemes, of a bright-yellow colour, during February or
March, when the tree is quite bare of leaves. The flowers are at
once followed by beautiful feathery young foliage. Thrives up to
1,500 feet in the moist region.
f LOWERING TREES 301
Solanum macranthum. Solanaccae. "Potato-Tree." — A
medium-sized, quick- growing and soft wooded tree of Brazil, reach-
ing a height of 40 to 50 feet, first introduced into Ceylon in 1844.
It is a handsome object when in full blossom, the large blue and
white Bowers, with conspicuous yellow anthers, being produced at
most seasons of the year, but more especially after the dry weather.
The large prickly leaves also render the tree very ornamental.
Thrives best in partially shaded situations, at elevations below
3,000 feet. This is the only species of the Potato order that grows
into a tree form.
Spathodea campanulata. Bignoniaccae. — A tall, erect tree
from Western Tropical Africa, introduced into Ceylon in 1873,
and now fairly commonly planted about Kandy and elsewhere as
an ornamental shade-tree. Its large, bright orange-red, erect
flowers, produced at the tips of the branches throughout the wet
season, render it strikingly handsome and conspicuous at a dis-
tance. The unexpanded flowers contain a quantity of water,
hence it has been called the " Fountain-Tree." It thrives up to
1,500 feet.
Stenocarpus sinuatus. Proteaceae. " Fire Tree," or "Tulip
Tree" of Queensland. — See Flowering Trees for Up-country.
Sterculia colorata. Sterculiaceae. " Malaiparutti," T. — A
moderate-sized tree, reaching a height of 40 to 50 feet, indigenous
to the dry region of Ceylon, but thrives also in moist districts.
The brilliant orange-scarlet flowers, appearing in great profusion
when the tree is leafless (February to March at Peradeniya), render
the tree a conspicuous and handsome object. The Veddas (ab-
originals of Ceylon) call the tree " Kenawila," and sing odes to it.
Stereospermum xylocarpum. Bignoniaccae. — " Padri-tree" of
India. — A large, spreading tree, with small pinnate leaves, native
of South India, deciduous for a short period in the dry wreather.
It bears for a week or two a profusion of white, bell-shaped
flowers. Thrives up to 1,500 feet.
Tabebuia spectabilis. Bignoniaceae. — A small tree of Vene-
zuela and the West Indies, introduced at Peradeniya in 1881. For a
short period, in March or April, when bare of leaves, the tree
is an exceedingly beautiful sight, being literally covered with
masses of bright-yellow flowers, which as they drop form a
golden carpet on the ground. Thrives at Peradeniya (1,500 feet),,
but as yet only rarely produces seed here.
302 ORNAMEXTAL FOLIAGE TREES
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES
SELECTION SUITABLE FOR Low OR MEDIUM ELEVATIONS
Agathis (Dammara) robusta. Coni ferae. Kauri Pine. — A tall,
stately tree with a round top, native of Queensland, introduced in
1865? to Peradeniya, where some very fine specimens may now
be seen. The tree bears cones occasionally here, but has not yet
produced fertile seed. Thrives from 1,500 to 5,000 feet or higher.
A. — Agathis robusta. KAURI PINE.
K.— ARAUCARIA COOKII.
Ailantus excelsa. Simarubaceae. " Tree of Heaven." — A
large, handsome, quick-growing tree, with long pinnate leaves
(3 to 4 feet long), native of India, etc. A striking species for
landscape effect. Propagated by seed.
Araucaria Bidwillii. Coniferae. Bunya-bunya Pine; "Monkey-
puzzle." — A tall tree of Queensland, said to attain a height of
ORXAMEXTAL FOLIAGE TREES
303
200 feet in its native country, introduced at Peradeniya in 1848. It
bears branches down to near the ground; the small leaves are
stiff and closely set, ending in a sharp point, hence the name
44 Monkey-puzzle." Thrives, but does not bear fruit, at Peradeniya.
y X
^i* -: te'^
.
BKEAUFKriT TREK. Artocarpns
A.— Cookii.— A very tall conical tree, with short, slender,
horizontal branches, native of New Caledonia, introduced at
Peradeniya in 1865. Here it has so far reached a height of about
135 feet; but does not produce fertile seed.
304 ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES
A. — Cunningham!!. Moreton- Bay- Pine. — A tall handsome
tree of Eastern Australia and New Guinea, established at Pera-
deniya since 1848. It is distinguished from A. Cookii by its more
spreading and horizontal branches and pyramidal shape. Not
fruitful at Peradeniya.
Artocarpus Canoni (=A, laciniatus). Urticaceae. — A medium-
sized tree of the Society Islands. The large oblong leaves are of
a striking purplish bronze colour, especially in the young state, on
account of which small plants are sometimes cultivated for
ornamental purposes in hot-houses. Introduced at Peradeniya
in 1906.
A. — incisa. Urticaceae. Bread-fruit; " Rata-del" -S. — A beauti-
ful quick-growing tree, with very large, palmately-cut, shining
leaves, native of Malaya and Pacific Islands. It grows to a height
of 50 to 60 feet, and few trees present a more noble appearance.
Propagated by suckers, rarely from seed. See under Tropical
Fruits.
A.— nobilis. Wild- Breadfruit; u Del" S. — A noble spreading
tree, with wavy or crinkled, rigid, oval leaves, peculiar to the
moist low-country of Ceylon. It is of rather slow growth, but
usually attains a height of 40 to 60 feet, sometimes with an
enormous trunk. Propagated by seed.
Axinandra zeylanica. Lythraceae. " Kekiri-wara " 5. — An
ornamental tree, about 30 feet high, with a straight trunk, bearing
numerous short drooping branches almost to the base; the hand-
some leaves are 7 to 10 inches long. Peculiar to the moist low-
country forests of Ceylon.
Barringtonia speciosa. Myrtaceae. " Mudilla " S. — A medium-
sized, handsome spreading tree, with large leathery shining
leaves, producing large white flowers; the latter consist chiefly
of a bunch of numerous long white stamens, and are followed by
a large quadrangular one-seeded fruit, which, owing to its thick
fibrous covering, is an excellent example of floating fruits, being
commonly found floating in lagoons, rivers, etc. The tree is
indigenous to the sea-shore, and is often planted for ornament.
Propagated by seed.
Casuarina equisitifolia. Casuarineae. She-Oak; Beef -wood;
" Kassa-gaha" S. — A lofty quick-growing tree, with fine cord-like
branchlets instead of leaves, native of Northern Australia. It is
specially adapted to the sea-coast, but also thrives inland up to
about 2,000 feet elevation, flourishing in dry or wet region
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES
305
It has been largely planted in South India for fuel and for reclaiming
sandy sea-shores, becoming in some places quite naturalised. The
tree is of an ornamental character, especially when young, and is
grown in temperate countries as a hot-house plant for decorative
purposes. Propagated by seed.
Carapa guianensis. Melincctic. Carapa, or Andiroba Tree. —
A quick-growing tree, 60 to 80 feet high, with handsome pinnate
CANNON-BALI, TKKE. CoiirOllpHil gl
leaves, composed of eight to ten pairs of shining leaflets. Thrives
at Peradeniya, and is suited to the low-country generally.
Columbia javanica. Tiliaceae. A tall, stately tree, 80 to 100
feet high, with smooth bark and large oval tomentose leaves,
native of Java; flourishes up to 1,500 feet elevation in the moist
region. Blossoms in August and January, the flowers being small
and dull-yellow.
306
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES
Cyathocalyx zeylanicus. Anonaceat. " Kekala " or " Ipetta/''
S. — A tall, quick-growing tree, with a straight erect stem and
Blender graceful branches, native of the moist low-country of
Ceylon. Leaves 6 to 10 inches long; fruit large, 2\ to 3 inches
long, ovoid in shape, yellow when ripe. Propagated by seed.
Dillenia indica. Dilleniaceae. " Honclapara" or " Wampara,"
S. — A very handsome, moderate-sized, round headed, symmetrical
MONUMENT ROAD, PERADENIYA GARDENS.
tree, native of Ceylon, India and Malaya. It is characterized by
large oblong, glabrous, serrate leaves, which are 10 to 12 inches
long. Fruit very large, globular, 5 to 7 inches in diameter. See
under Tropical Fruits.
Dimorphandra Mora. Legiuiiinosac. " Mora-tree " of British-
Guiana. — A large handsome tree, introduced to Peradeniya in;
1881. Noted for its excellent timber and immense seed.
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES 307
Duabanga moluccana. Lythraccae. — A handsome tree, attain-
ing about 100 feet in height, with very long graceful, drooping,
slender and brittle angular branches, bearing large shining leaves.
It is a native of the Moluccas, and has been introduced in 1852 to
Peradeniya, where it forms a striking object.
Durio zibethinus. Malvaceae. Durian. — A noble tree of
pyramidal symmetrical habit, attaining a height of 80 to 100 feet
or more. (See under Tropical Fruits.}
Enterolobium cyclocarpum. Legiuninosae. — A tall erect tree
with handsome feathery foliage, native of Venezuela, introduced
at Peradeniya in 1884. Bears curious circular twisted pods in the
dry weather. Propagated by seed.
Erythrina Parcelli. Leguininosae. — A small, soft, quick-
growing tree with handsome variegated foliage, the leaves being
marked by a creamy-yellow band running along the main veins
and centre. Native of South Sea Islands. Propagated by cuttings;
easy of cultivation, up to 3,000 feet.
Eucalyptus alba. Myrtaceae. A large tall slender tree with
smooth white bark and drooping foliage. One of the few
Eucalypti which flourish in the low-country; it is .especially
adapted to the semi-dry region, thriving and fruiting at Anuradha-
pura.
Ficus Benjamina. Urticaceae. "Java Fig" or "Java Willow. "-
A very large spreading tree, with graceful feathery branches and
small ovate leaves. It is indigenous to Malaya, and has been intro-
duced at Peradeniya in 1861.
F, — Canoni. See Artocarpus Canoni.
F — Cunninghamii. Queensland Fig. A very graceful spread-
ing tree, with long drooping branches and small oval leaves ;
very effective for lawns or parks.
F.— elastica. Rambong, or India-rubber tree. — A very large,
handsome spreading quick-growing tree, attaining a height of over
100 feet, with large oval leathery shining leaves, native of Assam,
Burma and Malaya, introduced into Ceylon about 1835. A very
remarkable tree on account of its aerial buttressed roots. (See
under Rubber.}
F. — regia. A tall erect tree, with smooth white bark and
large leaves, bearing a profusion of large fig-like fruits on the trunk
and branches; native of Burma, Malaya, etc.
308
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES
Filicium decipiens. Bnrscniceae. " Pehimbiya " S. — A
medium-sized or large tree, of rather slow growth, with remark-
ably handsome fern-like foliage, as its name implies. It is a
native of Ceylon, and produces in April quantities of soft vegetative
seed, which are of short vitality. Sometimes cultivated as an
ornamental pot-plant.
Kigelia pinnata. Bignoniaccac. " Sausage Tree." — A tall
or moderate-sized spreading tree of Tropical Africa, bearing large
pinnate leaves, and long-stalked panicles of Mowers. Its remarkable
RAMBOXG, OK INDIA-RUBBER TREE. FlCllS
oblong grey fruits are suspended by a strong cord-like stalk,
hanging thus from the tree, dangling in the air, for several weeks;
each fruit is 15 to 20 inches long by 3 to 4 inches in diameter.
In Nubia, the tree is held sacred by the Negroes.
Magnolia sphenocarpa. Magnoliaceae. Evergreen Magnolia.
— A moderate-sized spreading tree, with very large shining,
tapering leaves, the latter being 8 to 16 inches long; native of
the Eastern Himalayas, thrives at medium elevations in Ceylon,
having been long established at Peradeniya.
ORXAMEXTAL FOLIAGE TREES
309
Mesua ferrea. Gnttifenv. Iron-wood Tree; " Na-gaha " S.,
" Xaka " T. — A moderate-sized much-branched tree of pyramidal
shape and very handsome appearance, native of the moist low-
country forests of Ceylon. The young leaves are of a deep
crimson, passing through delicate shades of pink into the dark-
green of the adult growth. The tree is a slow grower. (See under
Flowering Trees).
SAUSAGE TREE. Kigclid piuiltlttl.
Myroxylon Balsamum. Lcgiiminosae. Balsam of Tolu. — A
large handsome erect tree, of Tropical America, attaining a height
of 70 to 100 feet, with small pinnate, dark-green leaves. Good
for roadsides, timber, and fuel. Thrives in rather dry districts, as
at Anuradhapura. The fruit, consisting of a lance-shaped one-
seeded pod, is produced usually in June and December. Introduced
into Ceylon in 1870.
Ostodes zeylanica. Eiiphorbiaccac. " Wal-kekuna " or
"Olupetta" S. — A very handsome tall tree with smooth bark and
large numerous leaves, the latter being 6 to 12 inches long;
310
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES
moist low-country, up to 1,000 feet. Flowers
indigenous to the
strongly scented.
Palms. See under Palms.
Pandanus furcatus. Pandanaceac. ScrewT-pine. — A large
handsome species, 30 to 40 feet high, with long, prickly leaves,
which are arranged on the stem in the remarkable form of a screw.
SCREW PIXE. Pandanus fnrcatits.
P. — Leram. Nicobar Islands Bread-fruit. — A striking species
of Screw-pine, with the stem repeatedly forked, bearing immense
heavy, green fruits ; introduced at Peradeniya in 1883.
Pangium edule. BLvacene. "Kapayang" or Pangi (Malay).—
A quick-growing, spreading tree with very large heart-shaped
leaves, bearing large oval reddish-brown fruits, about 6 inches long ;
native of Malaya, and introduced to Peradeniya in 1891. The
fruit is considered poisonous, but edible when cooked.
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES
311
Parkia Roxburghii. Lcguminosoc. — A huge and remarkably
handsome quick-growing tree, attaining a height of 120 feet or
more, with a clear smooth trunk, and beautiful fine feathery
pinnate leaves. It is indigenous to Malaya, Burma, etc.; has been
introduced into and become well established in Ceylon, thriving in
the moist low-country up to 2,000. feet. The tree flowers in
CANDLE TREE. PtinuciititTii ccriferu.
November to December, and bears fruit in February to March,
producing clusters of long pods, which contain a quantity of white
powdery farinaceous substance. Easily propagated by seed.
Parmentiera cerifera. ttignoniacene. Candle Tree. — A small
tree of Tropical America, writh small light-green leaves, suggesting
those of the Birch. It bears very remarkable candle-like yellow
fruits, produced on the stem and branches in great profusion
312 ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES
'- twice a year, during the drier months. These closely resemble
the old-fashioned candles of shops. Propagated by seed.
Pisonia morindifolia. Nyclaginciv. Lettuce Tree ; u Wata-
banga Kola" 5. " Lechchai Kedda " or " Chandi " T. — A small
tree with very striking pale-yellow foliage, much cultivated on the
sea coast, to which it is specially adapted. Propagated by cut-
tings. The leaves are edible, and cattle are fond £>f ihem.
Pithecolobium (Inga) Saman. Lcginiiinosae. Rain tree;
Quango ; Saman Tree ; " Peni-karal " S. — This large spreading,
quick-growing tree is too common in Ceylon to need description,
being commonly planted throughout the Island as a shade tree
for public and private roads, etc. It was first introduced from
South America into Ceylon, through Peradeniya, about 1850. The
tree is easily propagated from seed, the season for which is
usually from March to May. The brown pods are about 5 to 7
inches long and contain a quantity of sweet sugary pulp, which
cattle relish, and are exported from South America as a cattle food.
The small pinnate leaves have the habit of closing at night. The
supposed property possessed by the tree of producing rain is
mythical, and is probably derived from the excretion of moisture
sometimes produced on the leaves by means of insects.
Podocarpus cupressina. Conifcrae. — A small or medium-sized
ornamental evergreen tree, with rine graceful feathery foliage,
native of Malaya, introduced at Peradeniya in 1880.
Pometia eximia. Sapindacene. " Gal-mora " or " Bulu-mora,"
S. — A handsome tree with a straight erect trunk and large spread-
ing head, native of the moist low-country of Ceylon up to about
1,500 feet ; also indigenous to Malaya, etc. Grows to 80 or 100
feet in height. Seeds in July and August.
Pterocarpus echinatus. A handsome foliage tree. (See
under Beautiful Flowering Trees.}
P.— indicus. Leguminosae. "Padouk.1' — A very handsome
huge tree of Burma, with a spreading round head, long drooping
branchlets, and small pinnate leaves; bears a profusion of yellowish,
sweet-scented flowers in March or April, followed by circular
button-like pods.
Ravenala madagascariensis. Scitainineae. Travellers' Tree.
—A unique and remarkable looking tree of Madagascar, introduced
at Peradeniya before 1824. It thrives best in a hot and humid
ORXAMEXTAL FOLIAGE TREES
313
climate, and attains a height of 30 to 40 feet, assuming approxi-
mately the shape of a gigantic fan. The immense distichous
leaves are 12 to 15 feet in length and, like the Banana tree of the
TRAVELLERS' TREE. Raveuala madagascariensis.
same family, are invariably torn into ribbons by the wind ; but
this does not detract from their gracefulness. The name "Travel-
lers' Tree " is on account of the capacity of the tree for storing
314
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES
up water in the receptacles formed by the sheathing bases of the
leaf-stalks, being thus supposed to be of service to travellers in
deserts. The supposition, however, is rather discounted by the
fact that the tree does not naturally grow in districts where water
is scarce, and thrives only in regions where the rainfall is more
or less abundant. Moreover, during the dry wreather the water
collected in the leaf-bases referred to becomes putrid and infested
THE PALM DRIVE, PEKADEXIYA GARDENS.
with the larvae of mosquitoes and other insects. Propagated
by seed or root-suckers.
Schinus.— See Foliage Trees for Up-country.
Sandoricum indicum. Meliaceae. " Santol." — A tall erect
quick-growing tree, with handsome pinnate leaves, native of
Malaya, introduced into Ceylon in 1852. (See Tropical Fruits).
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES 315
Schizolobium excelsum. Legiuninosae. — A large quick-grow-
ing tree, with spreading branches and very graceful large feathery
leaves, which are finely bi-pinnate. Thrives up to 1,500 feet,
and flowers in the dry weather, bearing seed in June. (See under
Beautiful Flowering Trees).
Swietenia mahogani. Meliaceac. — The mahogany tree, noted
for its superior wood, native of tropical Central America, and
introduced into Ceylon about 1840. It thrives best in the drier
•climate of the north of the Island, where it often produces seed.
It is found to thrive in various parts of India, sometimes producing
seed freely. The fine pinnate leaves and ever-green foliage
render the tree worthy of growing for shade or ornament.
Swietenia macrophylla — A handsome upright tree, also of
Tropical America, distinguished from the latter species by its
larger pinnate leaves ; it is also a more rapid grower than the
ordinary Mahogany, and is suited to a moist climate, thriving up
to 2,000 feet. The discovery of this species and its introduction
to the East were due to an accident, chance seeds being received
with others and sown at the Botanic Gardens, Calcutta ; the
.seedlings, on being discovered, were watched and on reaching
maturity were found to be a new species, which was named by
KING as above.
Terminalia belerica. Conibretacea \ " Bulu, " S. — A huge,
handsome tree, with straight, often buttressed, trunk and long
horizontal branches, native of the moist low country, also of India
and Malaya ; often planted for use or ornament.
T. — Catappa. Country or Indian Almond ; " Kotamba" S. —
A medium-sized tree with large handsome shining leaves, native
of Malaya, but now grown in most tropical countries. Its greatest
disadvantage is that it sheds its leaves twice a year, causing a litter
on the ground for a considerable time. (See under Tropical Fruits).
Trevesia palmata. Araliaceae. — A small, sparsely branched
tree, with expansive palmate or digitate leaves. The young leaves,
in a radiating crown at the top, are of a striking dark crimson.
Trichadenia zeylanica. Bixaceae. " Tolol " or " Titta-tolol, "
S. — A large tree with very handsome foliage, the oblong or oval
.leaves being 6 to 12 inches long, borne on long slender branches.
Peculiar to the moist low-country of Ceylon.
Vateria acuminata. Dipterocarpaceae. " Hal, " S. — A large
.handsome tree, with spreading branches and a round head. Leaves
316 ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES
leathery and oblong, 6 to 10 inches long. Fruit large, pear-
shaped. Peculiar to the moist low-country of Ceylon, up to 2,000
feet. Propagated by sowing the large one-seeded fruits. The
bark is commonly used for retarding fermentation of palm-toddy.
CHAPTER XVI.
SELECTIONS OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS SUITABLE
FOR LOW AND MEDIUM ELEVATIONS
FLOWERING SHRUBS, ETC.
[ C.=cuttings. S.^-
Div.=di vision].
Name and Native Country
[ Hort.=Of garden origin J.
Natural Order
Colour of Flowers.
How
Propa-
gated.
Height in feet, etc.
Acalypha Sanderi.
Euphorbiaccac
Rose-pink
c
3—5
Fl's in long
New Guinea
tails.
Acokanthera spectabilis.
Apocynaccac
White, scented
,,
6—8
Poisonous
"Arrow poison." S. Africa
Adhatoda cydoniaefolia. Bra/ Acainithnccac
White & Purple
SorC
5—6
Allamanda Schottii Brazil
Apocynaceae
Yellow
3 — \
Alstonia sericea. Java
White
3
Aphelandra Facinator.
Acanthaceae
Scarlet
5- 6
Colombia
A. tetragona. Colombia
6-7
Ardisia crenata. China Myrsincac White
S 2—3
Handsome
Asclepias curassavica.
W. Indies
Asystasia chelomoides.
Ceylon and S. India
Baccbaris rhexioides.
Banisteria fulgens. W. Indies
B. — laurifolia.=Stigma
phyllon p^riplocaefol
Barleria cristata alba.
India. Malaya, etc.!
B. — cristata bicolor.
India. Malaya, etc.
B. — cristata rosea.
B. — Gibsoni. India
B. — strigosa. India
Baubinia Candida. India, etc.
Beloperone nemorosa.
Jamaica
B — oblongata. Brazil
Brunfelsia americana.
Trop. America
B. — uniflora. Brazil
6-7
Myrsineai' White S
Handsome
scarlet berries
Asdepiadeae
Orange SorC 4
Acanthaceac Reddish purple 1 ,. 4
Compost tac White
4
Miilpigliiaceac
Yellow C
6
Acanthaceae
White
4
»
White & pink „• 4
Pink or rose C or S 4
lf
Purple
C 3—4
Pale-blue
CorS
3
Leguixiitosae
Acanthaccae
White
Pink
S
CorS
4—5
4—5
Rose-pink
4—5
Solanaceac
Pale yellow
M
5—7
Blut; & white
M
4—6
Scented
318
FLOWERING SHRUBS, ETC.
Name and Native Country.
[ Hort.=Of garden origin J.
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
How
Propa-
gated.
Height'in feet, etc.
Byrsonima ligustrifolia.
Mn lp igh ia cca c
Orange-red
S
8—12
S. America
Caesalpinia pulcherrima.
Lcguniinostie
n
5-6
W. Irjdies, etc
Calliandra haematocephala.
Pink
tl
5-6
C. — Tweedii Brazi
M
t,
M
5—6
Capparis zeylanica. Ceylon
Capparidac
White & red
%j
6-7
Cassia alata. Tropics
Legit itii/iostic
Yellow
6—8
C. — auriculata.
(|
6—8
Ceylon and India
C. — corymbosa. S. America
„
M
}<
4—5
Cestrumfasciculatum. Mexico
Solaiuiceae
Purplish-red
Soi-C
5—6
Chiococca racemosa
Riibiaceae
White
5—6
W. Indies
Clavija ornata. S. America
Myrsimic
Orange-red
S
8 — iSFl'sborneon
stem.
Clerodendron fragrans. Japan
Vcrbenaceac
White
c
3—4 Fl's scented,
double; large
leaves, nat. in
Ceylon.
C. — inerme. Ceylon & India
White, tippedrec
CorS
3
C. — infortunatum. Ceylon,
n
White
C
4—10 Fl's scented.
India, Malaya, etc.
C. — macrosiphon. Zanzibar
M
Snow-white
M
3
C. — Minahasse. Celebes
White
CorS
6—8
C. — nutans. Assam, etc.
5—6
C. — paniculatum. Java
M
Scarlet
C
5 — 6 Large termi-
nal panicle.
C. — serratum.
M
Blue
v,
5—7 Large fl's.
" Kenhenda," S
C. — Siphonanthus. India
,,
}J
M
4 — 6 Naturalised in
Ceylon.
C.— squamatum. Japan
M
Scarlet
n
6—8
Clitoria cajanaefolia.
Leguminosae
Pink
M
4-5
Malaya & Trop. America
Costus speciosus.
Scitamincac
White, yellow
Div.
6—9
Ceylon, India, etc.
centre
Crossandra undulaefolia.
Acanthaceae
Orange-red
SorC
1—2
Ceylon, India, etc.
Crotalaria laburnifolia.
Legnminosae
Pnle-yellow
S
2—4
" Yakberiya," S.
Cystacanthus tu^gidus.
Acanthaceae
Spotted-purple
CorS
5-6
Cochin China
Daedalacanthus nervosus.
Deep blue
C
4—5
N. India
Datura chlorantha, fl. pleno.
Solanaceac
Yellow
CorS
6—8 Fl's double.
D. — fastuosa. "Attana," S.
n
Bluish-white
n
2-3
Ceylon, India, etc.
D. — Stramonium.
White
S
2 / Naturalised
Thorn Apple
in
D. — (Brugmansia) suaveolens.
M
White, scented
CorS
0— 15J Ceylon.
Trumpet Flower
Dombeya Mastersii.
Sierculiaceac
Cream
fj
5—6
Trop. Africa
S.=Sinhalese
FLOWERING SHRUBS, ETC.
319
Name an:l Native Country.
[ Hort.=Of garden origin J.
Natural Order. .
Colour of Flowers.
1..W
Propa-
gated.
Height in feet, etc.
D. — natalensis. S. Africa
Sti.rcttliaccae
Cream
c
4-5
Duranta Plumien.
Verbenaccae
Blue
CorS
S. America
D. — Plumieri alba.
White
n
8—15
Ecbolium Linneanum,
Acanthaceae
Light blue
,,
3
Cevlon. S. India, etc.
Eranthemum cinnabarinum.
M
Terra-cotta
C
5
Burma
Erythrochiton brasiliensis.
Rntaccae
Bright red
S
5
Brazil
Euphorbia pulcherrima.
Enphorbiaceae
Scarlet-bracts
c
8—10
(=Poinsettia). Mexico
E. — heterophylla.
Bracts pink at
SorC
2—3
S. America
base
Francisia bicolor.
See Brunfelsia bicolor.
Galphimia glauca. Mexico
Malpighiaccac
Bright-vellow
S
4—5
Gardenia florida.
Rnbiaccae
White
C
4—6
" Cape Jasmine."
China & Japan
Goethia strictiflora. Brazil
Malvaceae
Orange-red
o
6—7 Fl's borne on
stem.
Goldfussia rubescens.
Acanthaceae
Blue
c
3—4
Gomphia decora. Brazil
Ochnaceae
Bright-yellow
SorC
4-5
Hedychium angustifohum.
Scitatnineae
Bright-red
Div.
4—5
Ceylon, Assam, etc.
Heena macrostachya.
Mclastomaceae
White
C
4—5
Mexico
Helicteres Isora. "Liniya" S.
Tiliaceae
Brick red
,,
5—6
Ceylon. India, etc.
Hibiscus mu'abilis, alba.
Malvaceae
White
CorS
5—6
China
Hibiscus mutabilis rosea.
Pink
C
5—6
H. — rosa-smensis. "Shoe-
Scarlet
M
8—15
flower " India
H . — schizopetalus.
n
Orange-red
,,
8—10
Trop. Africa
Holarrhena antidysenterica.
Apocyuaceae
White
C
4—5 Fl's scented.
" Conessi Bark".
India, Malacca
Holmskioldia sanguinea.
Rnbiaccae
Orange-red
CorS
6—8
N. India
Humboldtia laurifolia.
Legutniiiosae
White & Pink
S
8—10 Fl's scented.
" Galkaranda " S. Ceylon
Hollow inter-
nodes inhabited
by ants
Ixoracoccinea. Ceylon, India
Rnbiaccae
Scarlet
CorS
4—5
. — Fraseri. Hort
M
Salmon-red
C
4—5
-javanica. Java
Orange
,
5—6
. — macrothyrsa. Sumatra
M
Deep-red
,
4—5
. — odorata. Madagascar
M
White & Pink
,
6—8
.- Pilgrimi. Hort
White
,
6—8
. — rosea Khasia
Rose coloured
t
4—5
Jacobinia coccinea. Brazil
Acanthaceae
Scarlet
CorS
5—6
J. — magnifica. Brazil
n
•»
*
5-6
S.=Sinhalese
320
FLOWERIXG SHRUBS, ETC.
Meinccylon nmbcUatum. KORA-KAHA. S.; PAXDIKAYA, T.
Name and Native Country.
[ Hort.=Of garden origin].
Natural Orde . Colour of Flowers.
How
Propa- Height in feet, etc.
gated.
Jacquinia ruscifolia.
Myrsincae Bright-orange
S
6—10
Mexico £ W. Indies
Jasminum revolutum India
J. — Sambac.
Olcaccac
Bright-yellow
White
CorS
4-5
4—5
Ceylon & India
Jatropha panduraefolia. CubwEuphorbiaceae Scarlet
,.
3—4
J.— podagrica. Panama „
Orange-red
2—3
Jussiaea suffruticosa. Onngraceac
Yellow
S
2 3
Cevlon. etc.
Justicia Betonica. " Sudu Acanthaccac
Greenish-white
C or S
3 4
puruk." vS. Ceylon, etc.
J. — calycotricha. Bra/il
,,
Yellow
2—3
Kopsia (ruticosa.
Apocynaccac
Pink
C 1 6—8
Burma, Java, etc.
Lagerstroemia indica. "Crepe
Lythraccae
Bright-pink
C or S
6—10
Myrtle." China, India
Lantana nivea.
Vcrbcueiccac
White
S
.-» ) Numerous
Trop. America
L. — trifolia \V. Indies ,,
Orange-vellow
CorS
^ , j varieties
Malvaviscus arboreus.
Malvaceae
Scarlet
4—6
S. America
Medinilla magnifica.
Melnstoruaccae
Rosy-pink
C
5—6
Philippines
M. — speciosa. Malaya
M
Crimson
..
5—8
S.=Sinhalese
FLOWERING SHRUBS, ETC.
321
A. — Mentation bipiuuatifiila. B. — Montanoa touicntosa
Name and Native Country-
[ Hort.=Of garden origin].
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
How
Propa-
gated.
Height in feet, etc.
M. — Teysmannii. Java
Melastomaccae
White
c
5
Melastoma malabathncum.
.
Pink-
CorS
4—6
" Maha-bovitiya " S.
Ceylon, India
Memecylon umbellatum.
M
Deep blue
S
6-8
" Kora-kaha,"
Ceylon & S. India
Montanoa bipinnatifida.
Compost tac
White
C
8—12
Tree-daisy, Mexico
M. — tomentosa.
8—12
Murraya exotica.
Rutaceae
Pure white
S
8—12. Fl'sscented.
" Etteriya" S.
Ceylon, Eastern Tropics
Mussaenda erythrophylla.
Rnbiaccae
Bright scarlet
C
4—6
Trop. Africa
Myrtus communis.
Myrtaceae
White
CorS
6-8
Myrtle. S. Europe
M. — tomentosus. Ceylon
»
Rose-pink
*»
3—5
S.=Sinhalese
322
FLOWERING SHRUBS, ETC.
TREE DAISY. Moiituiwii bipiiumtifida
Name and Native Country.
[ Hort =--Of garden origin ].
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
now |
Propa- Height in feet. etc.
gated. 1
Nerium Oleander.
Apocynaccac
Bright-red
c
5—8
Oleander. Asia Minor
N.-Oleander alba.
White
4—6
Notonia grandiflora. India
Cowpositac
Yellow
CorS
5—6
Ochna Kirkii.
Ochnaccac
Bright-red
l(
3—4
E. Trop. Africa
FLOWERING SHRCBS, ETC.
323
N'amc and Native Country
[ Hort.=Of garden origin 3
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
How
Propa-
gated.
Height in feet. etc.
Osbeckia aspera.
Melastontaccae
Pink S
4—5
" Bowitiya" S.
Ceylon & India
" -. - -~ ' •
Oxyanthus natalensis Natal
Rubiaceae
White C
4—5
O.— tubiflorus.
n
»»
4
\V. Trop. Africa
Palicourea gardenioidcs.
„
,,
„
5—6
Mexico
Paulwilhelmia speciosa.
Acanthaceae
Blue
4 — 5
Trop. Africa
Pavetta indica. " Pawalta."
Rubiaceae
White
3—4
S. Ceylon. India
P. — lanceolata. S. Africa
f
M
4—6
P. — madagascariensis. Hort
,,
Pink
U-2
Pentas carnea. Trop. Africa
n
»» »»
2—3
Peristrophe speciosa.
Acanthaceae
Carmine purple
»*
4
Himalaya
Phlogocanthus thrysiflorus.
Purple
»»~ '
4—6
India, Java
Plumbago capensis. S. Africa
Plumbagjnae
Pale blue
tt
2 — 4
P. rosea " Kat-nitul " S.
Rose scarlet
CorS
2—3
India
P. zeylanica. " Ela-nitul "
,,
White • 2—4
S. Ceylon, etc.
See
Plumeria acutifolia. "Temple
Apocynaccae
Creamy white j „ •
8—15] Beautiful
Tree." Mexico
r'*
f Flowering
P. — rubra. Trop. America
„
Crimson C
8—15) Trees.
Portlandia grandiflora.
Rubiaceae
White
8—12
\V. Indies
•Quassia amara. Guiana
Simambaceae
Scarlet C or S
8—10
Randia maculata.
Rubiaceae
Purplish-white 1 ,,
6—10
Trop. Africa
R. — macrantha.
..
White C
4—6
Trop. Africa
R. — Mussaenda. S. America
n
4—6
Ravenia spectabilis.
Ruiaceae
Pink
3—4
S. America
Reinwardtia tetragyna. India
Liiicac
Yellow JsorDiv.
2 — *
R.— trigyna. India
M
2—5
Rhodomyrtus tomentosus.
Myrtaceae
Bright pink C
4—5
Ceylon
Rondeletia odorata Mexico
Rubiaceae
Pink-
4—5
Rondeletia speciosa.
ff-
Scarlet "
3 — I
S.America
Russellia juncea. Mexico
Scroph it la riaceae
t>
3 — 5
R. — sarmentosa.
M
Pink
4—5
Trop. America
Salvia coccinea.
Liibirttae
Scarlet ,,
2
Cent. America
•S. — coelestina. Mexico
Lilac-blue
2
S. — larmacea. Texas
.
Blue
u
S. — splendens. Brazil
Scarlet
3
Sanchezia longiflora.
Acanthnccae
Magenta
6—8
S. America
Sophora violacea.
Lcgiiitiniostit
Violet-blue
S
2—3
Ceylon
S.=Sinhalese
324
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE SHRUBS, ETC.
Xame and Native Country.
[ Hort.=Of garden origin].
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
How
Propa-
gated.
Height in feet, etc.
Stemmadenia Bella. Mexico
Apocyuaccac
Pure-white
C
4—6
Stifftia chrysantha. Brazil
CoDipositac
Yellow
S
10-15
Strobilanthes ccloratus.
Acanthaceac
Purple
C
4—5
E. Himalaya
Stromanthe sanguinea. Brazil Scitaminae
Crimson
Div.orS
3 4
Strophanthus dichotomus.
Apocyuaccac
White & Purple
C
5—6
India & Malaya
Tabernaemontana coronaria.
Pure-white
M
3—4
India and Malaya;
Tecoma Stans. W. Indies Bignoniaceae
Yellow
CorS
10—15
T. — velutina. Mexico ,,
8-12
Tephrosia grandiflora I Lcgiuninosac
Red
S
2
S. Africa
Thespesiatomentosa. Mexico; Malvaceae
Yellow
C orS
4—5
Thevetia neriifolia.
Apocyuaccac
H
C
10—15
Trop. America
Thunbergia affinis. Acaiithaccac
Violet
4—5
Trop. Africa
T. — erecta. Trop. Africa
Dark-blue
M
4 — 5
Thyrsacanthus rutilans. ,,
Crimson
M
5—6. Fl's
Colombia
pendulous.
Tithoniadiversifolia. Mexico Comfiositac
Yellow
S
5—6
Uroskinnera spectabilis.
Scroph ulari acetic
Showv mauve
C
2—3
Cent. America
Woodfordia floribunda.
Lytliraccac
Brick-red
„
5—6
Ceylon, India, etc.
Wormia Burbidgei. Borneo
DiUcuiaceae
Yellow
8—10
Wrightia zeylanica " Suddu-
Apocyiiaccac
Snowy-white
CorS
3-5
idda " S. Ceylon
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE SHRUBS, ETC.
SUITABLE FOR Low AND MEDIUM ELEVATIONS.
[C.=cuttings. S.=seeds. Div.=division].
Name and Native Country.
[ Hort.=Of garden origin].
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Height in ft. and descriptive
notes.
Abroma fastuosa. Trop. Asia
Stet'culiaccac
C or S 8 — 12; Large roundish
Acalypha godseffiana.
leaves
New Guinea
Eiiphorbiaccac
C 3 — h L. white -margined
A. — illustrus.
C
6—8; L. large, blotched
with copper & crimson
A. — marginata. India
n
C
6 — 8; Margin of leaf
pinkish.
A.— obovata. Hort
M
C
5—8; L. inverted, oval-
shaped
A. — tricolor. Fiji Islands
»»
C
6 — 10; L. blotched with
red & crimson
A. — triumphans.
C
6 — 8; L. large, crimson &
green
A. — willinckii. Hort
M
C
6 — 8; L. very large, green
blotched with yellow
S'.=Sinlialese
ORXAMEXTAL FOLIAGE SHRUBS, ETC.
325
Name and Native Country.
[ Hort =Of garden origin ].
Natural Order.
1
How
Propagated.
Height in ft. and descriptive
notes.
A. — wilkesiana. Fiji Islands
Enphorbiaccac
C
5 — 6; L. twisted, copper-
coloured.
Alchornea ilicifolio.
,,
C
8—10; Holly-like leaves.
Australia
Alpinia rafflesiana
Scitamincac
Div.
4—5; L. variegated.
Amomum hemisphaericum.
M
S & Div.
6 — 8; Large handsome
Java
herbaceous leaves,
rising from base.
A. — magnincum. Mauritius
M
Div.
10 — 15; L. bronze tint, very
handsome. Fl's in large
pink heads on stalks 2
to 3 ft. high.
Aralta filicifolia.
Araliaceac
c
8 — 10; L. large, pinnatifid,
Pacific Islands
yellow when young.
A.— Guilfoylei. Pacific
M
c
8-10. Stemserect;L. edged
& blotched with white.
A. — maculata. Polynesia
c
8—10. Stems & leaves of
purplish hue with
green spots.
A. — triioba.
C
Leaves in 3 long lobes.
Arundo Donax variegatum.
Gramincae
C
5 — 8 Ornamental varie-
S. Europe
gated grass.
Bambusa. See Bamboos and
Ornamental Grasses
Beaucharnia recurvata.
Liliaceac
S
4—6 Draciena-like plant,
Mexico
stem swollen at base.
Boehmeria pulchra. Hort
Urticaccac
C
5 — 6; L. velvety dark-
green.
Carludovica palmata. Peru
Cydanthaceae
S or Div.
5 — 7 Panama-hat Plant.
Large handsome palm-
like leaves.
Chamaeranthemum Beyrichii
Acanthaceae
C
2 — 3; L. variegated, orna-
variegatum. Brazil
mental.
Codiaeum, or Croton.
Enphorbiaccac
C
[Highly ornamental
Malaya, Polynesia, etc.
5— 8 j shrubswithvarious-
( Numerous varieties ).
Uy coloured leaves.
Cordyline (Dracaena) cannae- Liliaceac \
/ Very elegant
folia. Australia!
J palm-like plants,
C.— Duffii. Polynesia
Portions
,- i ^ J usually erect and
C. — Fraseri do
of stem.
~ ~\ unbranched,
C. — magnifies do
"
j many with highly
C. — terminalis. Malaya,
/
\ coloured leaves.
China, etc.
Cycas circinalis. "Maclu" S.
Cycadeae
S or off-
6 — 12\ Handsome slow-
Ceylon, India, etc.
sets .
growing plants,
C. — Rumphii. Moluccas
n
^
6 — 8 > bearing a crown
C. — siamensis. Cochin China
,j
M
4 — 6 I of long pinnate
(Several other species).
/ leaves.
Cyclanthus cristatus.
Cydanthaceae
Div.
(L. radical, long &
plantain-like.
C. — discolor. Columbia
Stemless plants.
Encephalartos Hildebrandti.
Cycadeae
S or off-
{Slow-growing.
Zanzibar
sets.
Cycas-like plants,
with long pinnate,
E.— horrid us. S. Africa
n
»•
spiny leaves.
S.=Sinhalese
326
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE SHRUBS, ETC.
Name and Native Country.
[ Hort.=Of garden origin ].
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Height in ft. and descriptive
notes.
E. — villosus.
Cycadeae
S or off-
5 — 7. Long spiny leaves.
(Several other species)
sets
Erythrina Parcellii. Hort
Lcgnminosac
c
6 — 10; L. variegated,
creamy-white.
Excaecaria bicolor. Java
Enphorbiaccac
c
4 — 6; L. small, purple
beneath
Goldfussia anisophylla.
Acanthaceae
C
3 — 4 Dense hush ; small
Himalaya
leaves.
Graptophyllum hortense.
n
C
4 5; L. variegated,
" Caricature Plant."
ornamental.
Trop. Asia
Heliconia angustifolia. Brazil
Scitamincac
Div.
5 — 6; L. large, plantain-
like.
H. — aureo-striata. Solomon
,,
M
4 — 5 ; L. large striated with
Islands
yellow.
H. — brasiliensis. Lobster
n
Div. or S
5 — 6 Remarkable for large
claw. Brazil
bright-red fruit spikes.
H. — brevispatha. S. America
,, "
,,
3 — !•; L. long and narrow.
Fl's white with orange-
red spathes.
H. — insignis.
,,
Div.
5- -7; L. bright bronze.
long, narrow & wavy.
H . — metallica. New Grenada
4— - 5; L. bronze, drooping.
H. — pulverulenta.
,,
Div. or S
4—5; L. with white
S. America
powdery substance
beneath.
H . — spectabilis.
4 6; L. bright bronze.
Justicia grandiflora.
Acantliaceae
C 4 — 5 Handsome foliage
Leea amabilis. Borneo A inpclidcae
C
plant.
4 — 6) L. pinnate, hand-
L. — coccinea. Burma
H
C
4-5 j some ; veins marked
Macrozamia Fraseri.
Cycadeae
S
4 — 6\ Handsome fern-like
W. Australia
plants, with long
M. — Moorei. Queensland
n
S
4 -6 f feathery graceful
M. — plumosa. Queensland
S
2— 4/ leaves.
Miconiaflammea. S.America
Melastomaceae
c
4—5} Handsome plants.
Uvith large rugose
M. — Hookeriana. Peru
H
c
1 - 1 1
4 — oj leaves.
Muehlenbeckia platyclada.
Poly^onaceac
c
4 — 6 Curious straggling
Solomon Islands
shrub, with flattened
branches and stems
for leaves.
Myriocarpa longipes.
Ui'ticaceae
c
8—10; L. large oval,
Costa Rica & Mexico
rugose & hispid. Fl's
in long pendulous
threads.
Nandina domestica.
Bci'bci'idcae
Div. or S
4 — 6; L. small, bi-pinnate.
China & Japan
tinted red.
Palms, see under Palms
Panax fruticosum. Araliaccae
C
4 — 6 Quick-growing ;
Trop. Asiaj
handsome feathery
foliage.
Pandanus Sanderiana.
Paudanaceae
Offsets
4 — 6 ) Handsome varie-
P. — variegatus. Java
"
H
6 — 8 j gated leaves.
328
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE SHRUBS, ETC.
Name and Native Country.
[ Hort.=Of garden origin ].
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Height in ft. and descriptive
notes.
Pedilanthus tithymaloides. Enphorbiaceac
c
4 — 6. Erect succulent
S. America
shrub.
Phyllanthus myrtifolius.
n
S 5—6 Small myrtle-like
leaves
Pisonia alba. " Lettuce
\yctagi ncae
C ; 10—20; L. pale yellow.
Tree." India & Malaya
Ravenala madagascariensis.
Scitamincac
Sor Div.
10—20; See Ornamental
"Travellers' Tree."
Foliage Trees.
Madagascar!
Rudgea macrophylla. Brazil Rnbiaccae
C or S
5—6; L. large, obovate.
Fl's. cream, in dense
heads.
Sanchezia nobilis. Eucador Acanthaccae
c
- , (L. large, with white
S — glaucophylla.
'n
C 'u ^ bands.
Sesbania aegyptiaca. Trop.
Legnminosae .
S or C 6 — 8 L. finely bi-pinnate
Sophora tomentosa ." Mudu-
,,
S 4 — 5 Whole plant wooly-
murunga.'' S. Ceylon, etc.
white.
Tococa imperialis. Peru
T.- -latifolia. Brazil
Melastomaceac
M
c ( Large elliptic,
c 4— 6 \ satiny leaves, very
(handsome.
Thunbergia Kirkii. Africa
Acanthaccae
C 3 ft. Ornamental foliage;
square stems.
Vernonia macrophylla. Braz .
Compositac
S 6 — 8 Large ovate leaves.
I
ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING CLIMBERS
SUITABLE FOR Low AND MEDIUM ELEVATIONS.
[ C.=cuttings; S,=seed ; Tu.=tubers ].
Name and Native Country.
[Hort.=Of garden origin].
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
How
Propa-
gated.
Descriptive Remarks.
Acridocarpus natalitius.
Malpighiaceae
Bright Yellow
C
L. leathery, oblong
Natal
or obovate.
Adenocalymna nitidum.
Bigiiouiaccae
Yellow
c
L. trifoliate, ten-
Brazil
drilled.
Allamanda cathartica.
Apocynaceae
,,
c
" Willow-leaved
Allamanda." Trop.
| Quick-gi owing
America
I and free flower-
A. — Hendersonii.
M
• ,,
c
ing climbers.
Brazil
A.— Wardleana Hort
n
M
c
Antigonon insigne.
Polygalaccac
Rose-pink
c
/Elegant climbers.
Columbia
of moderate
A. — leptopus. Mexico
M
Pink
CorS
•< growth, suited
A. — leptopus albiflora.
,,
White
C
for arbours, ve-
\ randahs, etc.
Arauja grandiflora.
Apocynaccae
|f
C
Fl's tubular, scen-
Brazil
ted.
Aristolochia elegans.
A ristolocli iaceae
Reddish-purple
S
[Fl's saucer-shaped,
Brazil
) very elegant.
.S.=Sinhalese
ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING CLIMBERS
329
ARISFOLOCHIA PERGOLA, PERADBNIYA GARDENS.
Name and Native Country.
[ Hort.=Of garden origin ].
Natural Order,
Colour of Flowers.
How
Propa-
gated.
Descriptive Remarks.
1"Flv-catcher."Fl's
A. — gigas, var. Sturtevantii.1 Aristolochiaceac
Rich-brown,
C.
very large, of
Guatemala)
spotted
fensive odour.
A. — hians. Venezuela
M
Spotted-purple
S.
Fl's 2-lobed.
A. — labiosa. Brazil
,,
Purplegreen.etc.
C.orS.
Large broad lip.
A. -— ridicula. „
Greenish -brown
S.
Fl's 2-horned.
A. — ringens. „
,,
Purplish-green
C.
L. round.light-green
Fl's small, throat
A. — saccata. Himalaya
M
Purplish-red
C.
yellow. L. large,
hairv.
Asparagus falcatus.
Liliaccae
Creamy-white
S orTu
(Fl's in large pani-
"Hatawariya" S. Ceylon
cles, sweet scen-
A. — racemosus. Ceylon
M
-
ted.
Beaumontia grandiflora
Apocynaceac
White
C.
Strong grower. Fl's
"Nepal Trumpet-flower."
large, tubular.
India
.S.=Sinhalese
330
ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING CLIMBERS
ia magnified .
STRONG GK( WIXG CLIMBER ; FLOWERS BRIGHT MAGENTA.
Name and Native Country- N- t i ,, , ' ,
[Hort.=Of garden origin] Natural Order. Colour ot Mowers. Propa- Descriptive Remarks.
gated. I
B. — unguis-cati. Tropical!
America
Bignonia venusta. "Tanga
poo" T. Brazil
Bougainvillea glabra. Brazil
B. — glabra. var. Sanderiana
B. — spfdabilis, var. laterita.
Bra/ili
Bignonia magnifica. 1 Bigiioiiiaccnc I Magenta C. | [Vigorous grower,
i| very showy, fre-
( quent bloomer.
Bright-yellow S. or C. Fl's profuse, very
handsome.
Bright-orange C. j Fl's in dry weather;
very elegant.
Xyctagincac Bright-purple C or S'Large plant, fl's
very showy.
C Dwarf variety.
Brick-red C Straggling shrub,
• verv handsome.
T.=Tamil
ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING CUMBERS
331
GIANT FLY-CATCH KK. Aristoljchia (iigas vni: Stnrtevaniii
Name and Native Country.
[Hort.=Ot garden origin].
Camoensia maxima.
Trop. Afrija
Cereus triangularis.
"Xight-Ho\vering Cac-
tus." W. Indies
Clerodendron Thompsonae.
Prop. A triai
C. — speciosum. Hort
Clitoria ternatea.
" Kataroluwel," S (Also
a \vhite-Ho\\vred variety)
Congea tomen'osa. Burma
How
Natural Order. Colour of Flowers. Propa- Descriptive Remarks-
I ; sated.
Legumitusae White & yellow C or S Fl's very large,
scented.
Cactactac White C Epiphyte. Fl's large,
tubular.
Vcrbcnaceac White & scarlet C Lovely plant, small
growth.
Scarlet C Very ornamental.
LegnmimoMt \ Blue S Pretty, hut not a free
bloomer.
Vcrbcnaceac \ Delicate pink C Fl's in large sprays.
lasting several
weeks.
>.=Sinhalese
332
ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING CLIMBERS
JUNGLE ROPES. Aiiodciidrum pajiicnlatnui.
Xame and Native Country.
[Hort.=Of garden origin]
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
How
Propa-
gated.
Descriptive Remarks.
Cryptostegia grandiflora.
Asclepiadeac
Pink
C.
Climbing shrub.
Trop. Africa
showy.
Dipladenia amabilis. Hort
D. -flava. New Grenada
D. — splendens. Brazil
Apocynaccac
Rosy -crimson
Yellow
Rose
c
c
c
( Very showy climb-
ers, not yet well
1 established in
V Ceylon.
Glonosa Rothschildiana.
Liliaceac
Crimson &
Tu
/Beautiful herbace-
G. — superba. " Niyangala,"
S. Ceylon, Trop. Asia
and Africa
ti
yellow
Orange & yellow
•>
1 ous twiners.
(First named has
very large
G. — virescens. Trop. Africa
Greenish-red
Hoya carnosa.
Asclepiadeac
Pink
C
Thrives on tree-
" Wax Flower." Trop.
trunks ; medium
Asia.
elevations best.
Ipo.Tioea carnea.
Convohulaccac
Light pink
c
Straggling shrub,
Trop. America
fl's large.
S.=3inhaksc
ORXAMEXTAL FLOWERIXG CLIMBERS 333
SNAKE-LIKE CLIMBER. Banhiiiia aiigitiiia.
Conge a iomcntosa.
Woody climber ; flowers in large loose sprays, delicate pink.
334
ORXAMEXTAL FLOWERING LUMBERS
Gloriosa RoihschihUeina. A beautiful herbaceous climber,
with rich crimson flowers ; superior to Gloriosa snpcrba or "Xiyangala.
Name and Native Country.
[ Hort=Of garden origin].
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers
How
Propa-
gated.
Descriptive remarks.
Ipomoea Briggsii. W. Indies
Coni'olvtilaceac
Crimson
c
Very showv, free
bloomer.
1. — Learii. Trop. America
„
Purplish blue
C or S
Beautiful plant.
quick-grower.
1. — palmata. Trop. Africa
,,
Purple
S
Leaves small, palm-
ately divided.
l.-^Quamoclit. Tropics
Scarlet
S
Annual; fine pinnate
leaves.
I. — tuberosa. "Spanish
M
Yellow
S orTu
Very handsome.
Arbour Vine." W. Indies
Jacquemontia violacea.
Blue
C or S
Annual; free bloom-
Mexico, etc.
er.
Jasminum flexile. Ceylon
Olcaceae
White
C
Scented; trifoliate.
J. — pubescens. India, Burma
Pure white
C
Very fragrant.
ORXAMEXTAL FLOIVERIXG. CUMBERS
335
Odoniadenia spccioMi. Woody climber ; flowers large, bell-shaped,
salmon-yellow, fragrant and showy.
N'liine and Xative Country-
[Hort.=Of garden origin].
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers-
How
Propa-
gated-
Descriptive remarks.
J. — revolutum. "Saban-
Olt'ilCCae
Yellow
c
Climbing shrub.
pitcha," S. India
J. — sambac. " Arabian
,,
White
,,
Fl's strongly scent-
Jasmine." Ceylon, India
ed.
Lonicera Hildebrandiana.
Capri foliaceae
Yellow
M
The largest-flowered
Burma
Honey-suckle.
M icrosphyra longistyla.
Riihitict'tit'
Cream
Climbing shrub.
W. Trop. Africa
long tubular fl's.
X iravellia zeylanica.
Rannncnlaccae
Dingy white !
Thrives best on tree
Cevlon, India, etc.
trunks.
NyctocalosThomsoni. Assam
Bignoniaccae
White
.,
Beautiful plant
Odo.ntadenia speciosa.
Apocyiiiiiitit-
Salmon-yellow
L
Fl's fragrant and
S. America
Showy
S.==Sinhalese
336
ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING CLIMBERS
Petrcea vohibilis.
Woody climber ; flowers in pendulous racemes, bright heliotrope
and violet — a lovely plant.
Name and Native Country.
[Hort.=Of garden origin].
Oxera pulchella.
New Caledonia
Passiflora coerulea.
P.— jenmani. Guiana
P. — laurifolia.
Trop. America
P.- — racemosa. Brazil
P. — violacea.
Pergularia odoratissima
' Tonkin Creeper"
China & Sumatra
Pelroea volubilis.
Trop. America
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
How
Propa-
gated.
Descriptive Remarks.
Vcrbcuaccae
Greenish-white
C
A handsome plant
Passifloraccac
Bluish purple
C
Leaves 3-5 lobed
Creamy-white .
C
Very distinct
H
Red & violet , j C
See Foliage Climbers
ii
Scarlet
L. glaucous beneath
Pale-lilac
C
A beautiful species
Asclepiadeae
Greenish-white
S or C
Fl's fragrant. Fruit
- •>»£.
.large and winged
Vcrbcuaccae
Blue & violet
C
A lovely plant
338
ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING CLIMBERS
1 lumber gia grandifloni.
A quick-growing immense climber ; flowers large, pale blue or mauve.
Name and Native Country.
[Hort.=Of garden origin].
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
How
Prop-
agated.
Descriptive Remarks.
Porana paniculata. "Bridal
Convolvulaceae
Creamy-white
C
Large plant, hand-
Bouquet." India, Java
some when in fl.
P. — volubilis. " Horse-tail
()
Greenish-white
C
Vigorous grower ;
Creeper." Malaya
fl's in large loose
. v
panicles
Quisqualis indica.
Combretoccnc
Orange-red
C
Flowers in dry
"Rangoon Creeper."
weather, very showy
S. India, Malaya
Raphlstemma pu'.chellum.
Asclcpitidcac
White
C
L. heart-shaped.
Assam. Burma
Rhodochiton volubile.
Scroph ulai'iaceae
Bright-red
C
8 to 10 ft. in height
Mexico
Rose. "Marechal Niel"
— See Roses
ORXAMEXTAL FLOWERING CUMBERS
How
Xatural Order. Colour of Flowers. Prop- Descriptive Remarks.
agated.
Roupellia grata. A
"Cream Fruit."
\V. Trop. Africa
Schubert ia =Arauja
Senecio hederasfolia. C '(>////»<v/7<fC
icctn' Purplish-white 8 or C Strong grower. Fl's
in dense bunches
Yellow C or S Herbaceous plant
with Ivy-like
leaves.
Solanum Wendlandii. Sdnihtcctic Bluish-purple C Vigorous-grower
"Giant Potato very showy.
Climber." Costa Rica
Stephanotis floribunda. . i>< /<•/>/</</<•</<• Pure-white C Fl's tubular, scent-
Madagascar ed: very popular.
Thrives best in
tubs.
Stigntia )hyllon ciliatum. Malfrighiaceae
Bra/il
S. — periplocaefolium.
India
Thunbergia grandiflora. Actiutliticctu' Pale-blue S C or A quick-growing im-
Tu. mense climber;
large fl's
C A less robust var.
of above.
C Handsome free-
bloomer ; suited
T. —grandiflora alba.
Tristillateia austraiis.
Malaya, etc.
Yellow
or Mauve
White
Yellow
"|
but not free
C i bloomers.
Wigatea spicata. India
to sea-coast.
Scarlet C or S Vigorous grower ;
L. pinnate, thorny.
ORNAMENTAL-LEAVED CLIMBERS.
SUITABLE FOR Low AXD MEDIUM ELEVATIONS.
[C.=cuttings : S.^sccd : IMv.=-D:vis:o:i : Tu =• tubers ].
Xanie and Xatix'e Country.
[Hort.-=Of garden origin]
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Descriptive Remarks.
Argyreia speciosa.
'Elephant climber."
India, Java
Aristolochia leuconeura.
Colombia
A. tri'obata. \V. Indies
Asparagus plumosus.
S. Africa
A. Sprengeri Xatal
Hauhinia diphylla. Malaya
Bignonia argyreo-violascens.
Hort
Buddleia mad igascariensis.
Madagascar
Coiivoli'iilnci'iic
C or S Vigorous grower; L. large,
' silvery underneath. Fl's
Aristolochiaceac C or S
Bignoii/act'tic
Loganiaceac
purple.
White-veined leaves;
arbours. &c.
C Tri-lobed leaves.
S or Tu. Fine fern-like foliage.
Suited for growing in
pots.
Xeedle-like leaves. Pot-
culture.
L. small. 2-lobed; a
straggling shrub.
L. prettily marked with
white or violet veins.
Climbing shrub; 1. silky-
white beneath.
340
ORNAMENTAL-LEA VEI) CLIMBERS
JUXGLK IX PERADKXIYA GARDENS.
Xame and Native Country.
LHort.=Of garden origin].
Xatural Order.
How
Propagated.
Descriptive Remarks.
Cardiospermum Corindum.
Ceylon
C. — hirsutum.
Cissus (Vhis) discolor. Java A nipclidcac
Echites rubro-venosa. Bra/il
Geitonoplesium cymosum.
Queensland
Ipomoea sinuata.
Trop. America
Mimosa argentea. Hort
Nepenthes distillatoria.
Pitcher Plant. CeylonJ
Passiflora laurifolia.
Trop. America.
Siipinddcctic S ( Small climbers, with
finely cut foliage and
S ( white fl's.
( Young leaves beautifully
C tinted violet & purple..
( Requires shade.
Apocynaccac C L. with pink veins
Lilidd'dc S or Tu. L. linear or strap-shaped.
Convolvulaccae S L. deeply cut.
Lcgnniinosnc C Silvery white midrib.
Nepenthaceae C. div., or Leaf-tips formed into
S. " pitchers." Moist shady
situation.
Passifloraccac C L. ovate entire; excellent
plant for screens, etc.
ORXAMEXTAL-LEA VE1) CLIMBERS
341
irticnltlttl. " HIMBUTU-WEL."
Name and Native Country
[Hort.=0f garden origin]
Natural Order.
ProJSatecl. Descriptive Remarks.
P. — trifasciata. Braxil
Passifloracciif
C L. variegated, purplish
beneath
Paullinia thalictrifolia.
SapindaccQC
C A small plant with tine
Brazil
fern-like leaves.
Smilax argyraea. Bolivia
Lilinccnc
C ! L. spotted white : prickly
stems
S. — officinalis. Columbia
C Large shiny « blon£ leaves.
prickly stems
Vitis incisa. Texas
A in pel i tic tic
C Leaves much cut
V. — voinerriana. Tonkin
C L. large, thick, trifoliate.
hairy
342
CREEPERS
CREEPERS.
In the tropics, there is generally a lack of ornamental creepers.
The Ivy, which forms so delightful an adornment to gardens and
houses in temperate countries, does not thrive in tropical regions,
even at the higher elevations. Yet few buildings, whether bungalows,
Ficrs PUMILA. A good substitute for Ivy in the Tropics.
stores, churches, etc., which would not be greatly improved in
appearance by the growth of a suitable creeper over their walls, more
especially in situations which are exposed to the glare of the
tropical sun. Ficns piiinila (better known as F. repens) answers
this purpose remarkably well, as may be seen from the accom-
panying illustration. The plant thrives at all elevations, is ever-
green, a quick-grower, and readily increased by cuttings, which
may be planted /// situ. It occasionally bears large green oval
fruits, which are not edible. The following are a selection of
creepers suitable for pots, tree trunks, etc.: —
SHOU'Y AXXUALS AXD PEREXNIALS
343
Name and Native Country.
[Hort.—Of Harden origin].
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Descriptive Remarks.
Ficus pumi'a.
Urticaceae
C
See illustration
China, Japan, etc.
Epipremnum mirabile
Aroideae
c
Epiphytic creeper, large
" Tonga-Creeper,"
pinnatind leaves.
Malaya, Fiji, etc.
Monstera deliciosa. Mexico
••
C
A noble vigorous creep-
er, huge perforated and
pinnatifid leaves.
See Tropical Fruits
Pellionia daveauana.
Urticaceae
c
/Small creepers, varie-
Cochin China
' gated leaves, suited for
"l hanging pots and shaded
P. — pulchra
M
c
Vcorners
Philodendron anclreanum.
Aroideae
c
Large handsome satiny
Hort
leaves
P. — erubescens. Yene/.ueki
c
L. coppery beneath
P. — squamiferum
,.
c
Leaves and petioles with
glandular pinkish hairs
Pothos argentea. Borneo
M
c
L ovate, silverv-grey
P. aurea.
,,
C Enormous epiphytic creep-
"Colombo Agent"
er. L. large, ova-1, yellow-
Solomon Islands
ish. Moist shady places.
Raphidophora decursiva.
C
L. large pinnatifid ; creep-
"Dada-kehel" S. Ceylon.
. er on trees in moist shady
India, Java
• places.
R.- pertusa. Malaya, etc.
C
L. smaller than the above.
perforated.
Scindapsus argyraea.
C
L. coriaceous, with silvery
Philippines
spots.
SHOWY ANNUALS AND PERENNIALS.
SPECIALLY SUITED FOR FI.OWKK BEDS & BORDERS AT Low & MEDIUM ELEVATIONS
C.=cuttings. S.--^=seed. Tu.=Tubers. Div.=-division.
Name.
/l.=Annual
/J.=PVnl
S/z6.=Shrub.
ProSSted. Descriptive Remarks.
Acalypha Sanderiana.
Shb.
C 6 -8 ft. Fl's in long pendulous
scarlet tail>.
Achimenes, different
P.
S or Tu 1 ft. Tuberous plants, free-Hower-
varieties
ing and showv.
Ageratum, several varieties
A.
C or S
1 — U ft. Fl's blue."
Alternanthera, green and
P.
C
£ — 1 ft. Useful for edging and
bron/e var's
pattern work.
Amaran'.us tricolor, several
A.
S 2 — 4 ft. Showy coloured leaves.
var's
Ananas variegata.
P.
Su. U— 2ft. Variegated leaves
Variegated Pine-apple
Angelonia salicaraefolia.
P.
C
2 ft. Fl's bluish -purple, scented.
Arundo Donax variefcatus.
P.
Div.
6 — 8ft. Handsome variegated
grass; does best in light
sandv soil.
S.=Sinhalese
344
SHOWY ANNUALS AND PERENNIALS
A.= Annual
Name.
P.==PYnl.
SM.=Shrub
How
Propagated.
Descriptive Kemarks.
Aster, China.
A
S
2 — 1 ft. Numerous shades of pink
Numerous var's
red, white, etc.
A. — eminens.
P
Div.
I— U ft. Fl's pale blue.
Balsam, numerous var's
A
S
2 — 1 ft. Different shades, very
showy.
Bartonia a urea.
A
li ft. Handsome yellow fl's.
ciegonia, Fibrous-rooted.
P
C
1 — 2-j ft. Showy il's, pink shades.
several var's
Browallia grandiflora.
P
S
2—1 ft. Fl's dark blue.
Caladium Humboldtii.
P
Tu.
6 — 8 in. L. variegated white. Ex-
Numer's other sp. & varV
Calendula officinalis.
A
S
cellent for edging, designs, etc.
1 — U ft. Fl's orange-yellow.
Candytuft. " White Spiral."
A
I ft. Fl's pure white, in large
heads.
Canna, numerous varieties
P
Tu. * Div.
2 — 4 ft. Various shades of
(See under Tn heron:
orange yellow, red and pink.
PI nuts)
Some var's with purple or
bronxe foliage.
Celosia. "Cock's Comb"
A
S
I — 1 fl. Fl's in large heads,
crimson, scarlet, etc.
Chrysanthemum, Chinese
P
Div. & C.
1 — 2 ft. Fl's white, brown, or
yellow.
Chrysanthemum, annual;
A
S
1 — 2 ft. Various colours.
nu nerous var's.
Coleus, several var's
P
C
1 2 — 2 ft. L. beautifully coloured.
Coreopsis gra; diflora.
A
S
1 ft. Fl's yellow.
C. — tinctoria.
A
1 ft. Fl's crimson, etc.
Cosmos bipmnatus.
A
2 — 3 ft. Fl's pink or yellow.
C. — sulphureus.
A
,,
2 — 3 ft. Fl's orange-yellow.
Dahlia, "Caaus;" "Double"
P
Tubers
2 — 4 ft. Purple, scarlet, yellow.
and " Single " var's.
etc.
Dianthus chinensis. Indian
A
S
1 ft. Fl's white, pink, scarlet. &c.,
Pink. Single and Double
very showy.
var's
Euphorbia pulcherrima.
Slib.
C
4—10 ft. Large brilliant scarlet
Poinsettia
fl's (bracts), Miitable for
grouping. Cut back after
flowering.
Exacum zeylanicum. " Bin-
A
S < 1—1 £ ft. Beautiful violet-blue fl's.
dara" S.
Gomphrena globosa. " Globe
A
1 ft. Free flowering; fl's purple.
Amaranth"
in round heads.
Gynandropsis speciosa.
A
2 — 3 ft. Handsome pink fl's.
Helianthus annuus, several
A
2 — 3 ft. Very showy yellow fl's.
var's.
Hippeastrum, several var's.
P
Bulbs
t — 1 i ft. Fl's large, scarlet.
white, etc. Very showy.
Honckenya ficifolia. Trop.
A slib.
S or C
3 — 5 ft. L. bronze; fl's coppery
Africa.
red.
Impatiens Sultani. "Sultan's
P
C or S
1 — H ft. Showy scarlet or pink
lower"
fl's.
Marigold, African. (Tngetes
A
S
lj —2 ft. Fl's lemon-yellow, etc.
c recta)
M.— French. (T.—patnla)
A
1 ft. Fl's orange, crimson, etc.
Nasturtium. See Tropa'olnm
S.=Sinhalese
SHOWY ANNUALS AND PERENNIALS
345
Gynandropsis speciosa. "SPIDER FLOWER." FLOWERS PALE PINK.
t4.=Annual.
/».= P'r'nl.
?/ifc.=Shruh.
n ( )\v
Propagated.
Descriptive Remarks.
Nicotiana, numerous var's J.
o
2 — 3 ft. Fl's white, pink, etc.
Verv showy.
Pentas carnea
P.
c
2 ft. Delicate pink.
Petunia, numerous var's
J.or P.
S or C
1 — lift. Large showy white,
purple, or pink fl's.
Phlox Crummondii.
A.
S
1 ft. Beautiful free-fl o w e r i n g
Numerous var's
plants; fl's different colours.
P. — suffruticosa. Perennial
l\
Div.
li— 2 ft.
Phlox
Phrynium variegatum.
P.
Tu.orDiv.
2 ft. Handsome variegated large
leaves.
Plumbago capensis.
Slih.
C
3 ft. Fl's beautiful delicate blue.
Poinsettia. See Euphorbia
Portulaca, Several var's
A.
S
f 3 in. Brilliant shades of pink.
( yellow, etc.
Ruellia formosa
P.
S
2 ft. Fl's large, bright pink.
R. — macrantha
P.
S
2 ft. Ro>y purple.
R. — tuberosa
P.
S or C
14 ft. Fl's blue.
Salvia tarinacea
P.
C or S
U ft. Fl's pale-blue.
S.— "Scarlet Queen"
P. or Shb.
S or C
2—3 ft. Fl's bright-scarlet.
Several other species and
var's
SHOID' AXXCALS AXO PKREXXIALS
347
TOREXIA FOUKXIEKI.
Flowers dark-blue and white.
Annual
Xame
How
l.'fscriptive Remarks.
Sedum sexangular°.
"Stone Crop."
Smningia speciosa. Wild
Gloxinia!
Siphocampylus Humboldtii
Toitnia Bailloni.
T. — Fournieri
Tropaeolum, dwarf and
climbing var's
Turnera elegans
Uroskinnera spectabilis
Verbena venosa. Several
var's
Vinca rosea alba
V. oculata-rubra
Zinnia linearis.
Z. — " Fireball." X u in e r-
ous var's
P.
A.
A.
A.
P.
Shh.
P.
P.
P.
A.
A.
C
Tu.
C
S
S
S rr
C or
C
C or
3 in.
1 ft.
•1- ft.
4 ft.
Fl's oran
Suitable for edging and
rockery.
Fl's large, mauve, bell-
shaped. Likes shade and
rich soil.
Fl's scarlet.
Fl's yellow.
Fl's dark-blue and white.
e and yellow ; require
dry shady place.
1 £ — 2 ft. Fl's creamy white,
closing in sun: free bloomer.
2 — 3 ft. Fl's mauve, very showy.
1 ft. Fl's pinkish-purple, very
showy.
2 It. Fl's pure white.
2 ft. Fl's white with pink centre.
1 ft. Fl's orange-yellow.
1 — 2 ft. Free-flowering, scarlet.
pink, yellow, etc.
348
BULBOUS OR TUBEROUS PLANTS
ORNAMENTAL BULBOUS OR TUBEROUS PLANTS
SUITABLE FOR GROWING IN POTS OR SHADY BORDERS
UP TO 3,000 OR 4,000 FEET.
Propagated by bulbs, tubers, or division, and in some cases also by seed.
[ 's. Sinhalese ; 7'.=Tamil ].
Name and Xative Countrv.
[Hort.=Of garden origin].
Xatnral Order.
Colours-lowers | Height, &c.
Achimenes grandiflora.
Gesneraceae
Crimson 1 1 ft. ") Very showy,
Mexico
for beds or
A. — magnifica.
n
Scarlet
2 ft. J pots
Ne\v Grenada.
Numerous varieties
i
Alocasia. See Foliage Pot
Plants
Amaryllis, " Mrs Garfield."
Anuirylliticac White & scarlet
1-2 ft. Very hand-
Hort.
some
Amaryllis reticulatum.
n
Scarlet
10 in. L. with white
Brazil
or pale centre
Amorp'i ophallus
Aroiiieae
Lurid-purple
2 ft. Fl'r large,
campanulatus.
very foetid
" Kidaran " .S. India
>.
and Ceylon
A. — Titanum. Sumatra
n
Dark-purple
10 ft. Fl'r 5 ft.
high and 3 ft.
across
Arisaema speciosa. " Wal-
,,
Greenish-purple
2 ft.
kidaran " S. India and
Ceylon
Belamcanda (Pardanthus)
Iridcac
Orange, spotted-
U ft.
c'ninensis.
brown
" China Leopard Lily"
Caladium bicolor.
A roidciic
Leaves pink and
1-U ft. Very showy
green
C— Humboldtii.
H
Leaves variega-
8 to 12 in. Very
(=C. argyrea) Bra/.il
ted-white
effective
C. — "Madam d'Hambourg."
Crimson leaves
12 — 15 in. Very
Hort. Numerous other
showy
varieties
Callipsyche aurantiaca.
Amaryllideae
Orange
2 ft.
S America
C. — eucrosioides. Mexico] ,,
Scarlet
2i ft.
Canna, Orchid-flowered:
Variety "Austria"
Scitamineae
Lemon-yellow
3 ft. Leaves green.
"Australia"
„
Bright red
>5 "
"Britannia"
n
Orange-yellow
,, M
"Kronos"
Yellow & orange
M •'
"H. Wendlaucl"
Sea let & yellow
M M
"Africa"
Orange -red
2\ ft. Leaves bron/e
"Pluto"
Deep-red
,, ,,
"Rhea"
Red
"
HULBOUS OR Tl'liEROrs PLAXTS
349
Name and Native Country.
[Hort.-=Of garden origin].
Natural Older-
Colour of Flowers,
etc.
Height, etc.
C— Gladiolus-flowered:—
Variety "Circe"
Scitamincat
Salmon-pink
3 ft. Leaves green.
" Ehemanni "
M
Crimson
.,
"George King"
M
Cerise
••
"Janus"
„
Yellow
,,
" M'dme Cro/y"
n
Scarlet, edged
"
with yellow
Chirita Moor;ii. Cevlon
Gcsneraccac
Mauve-violet
2 ft. Very showy
Crinum asiaticum.
Amaryttidcac
White
2 ft. Flowers
"Tolabo" S. Trop. Asia
scented.
C. -augustum. Mauritius
M
Fink & White
1 ft.
C. — defixum. India
White
2ft.
C. — erubescent. Tiop.
White tK: purple
2 ft.
America.
C. — Moorei. S. Africa.
Rose
U »"t.
C. -Powelli. Hurt
Reddish
3—4 ft.
C. — specio«issimum.
Pure white
2 ft.
C. — zeylanicum. Cevlon
M
White 2 ft.
Dracontium gigas. Xicaragua
Aroideae
Brownish-red 8-10 ft.
Drimiopsis Kirkii. Zanzibar
Ltliaceac
Whitish 1 0 in. Leaves spotted
brown.
Eucharis grandiflora.
Amaryllideae
Pure white 1 2 ft.
Eucharis Lily. Colombia
Eucharis Sanderi. Colombia
White
1 ft.
Eurycles amboinensis.
1 — H ft.
Malaya, etc.
E. — Cunninghamii.
..
M
1 ft.
Australia
G°snera cardinally Brazil
Gesneraccac
Scarlet
lift.
G. — Hookeri. Colombia
M
M
11-2 ft.
G. — magnified. Braxil
A<
Purple
1 — H ft.
Glories* Rothschildiana.
Liliaccac
Crimson
5-7 ft.
G.— superba. "Niyangala"
,,
Orange -yellow
4—6 ft. Herbace-
S. Trop. Asia
ous climber
Gloxinia maculata.
Gesticraceae
Bluish -purple
1 ft. Fl's large.
S America
bell-shaped
Godwinia, See Di'ticotitiiini
Griffima hyacinthina.
Amaryllideae Blue
1 ft. Verv showv
Haemanthus Lindeni.
Rosy-scarlet
lift.
Congo
H. — multiflorus. Xumerous
M
Scarlet
1ft.
other species. Trop. Africa
Hippeastrum (Amaryllis)
Bright red
lift. Fl's large
equestre.
H. — solandriflora.
Pure white
H ft. Fl's in 2s or 3s
Xumerous garden var's
H ymenocallis amoena.
<(
1 ft. Fl's delicate
Trop. America
H.— ovata. \\'. Indies
tt
"
White
1 ft.
H. — tenuiflora. S. America
1 ft.
And many others
Isoloma (Tydaea) amabilis.
Gcsneraccae
Dark-rose
1—2 ft.
Xe\v Grenada
Kaempferia Roscoeana.
Scitamineac
Bright-pink
1 ft. Showy
Ceylon, India, etc.
-
350
BULBOUS OR TUBEROUS PLAXTS
A BANK OF " ROSE AMARYLLIS."
(Zephyranthes carinata), in Peradeniya Gardens.
Flowers bright pink, very showy.
Name and Native Country.
[Hort =Of garden origin].
Xaturai Order.
Colour of Flowers,
etc.
Height, etc.
K. — rotunda. Ceylon, India
and Malaya
K. — speciosa. S. Africa
Low. a grandiflora. Malaya
L. — longiflora. Perak
Pancratium (Hymenocailis)
caribaeum. W. Indies
P. — z -ylanicum.
" Wal-lunu " -S. Ceylon
Polianthes tuberosa.
Tuberose. Mexico
Sinningia (Gloxinia) specio-a.
"Wild Gloxinia." Bra/: I
Sprekelia formosissima.
Guatemala.
Tacca cristata. Trop. Asia
and Africa
Tulba^hia violacea. S.Africa
Tydaea. See Isoloui.a
Zephyranthes aurea. Peru
Z. — carinata.
"Rose Amaryllis."
Z. — tubispatha.
West Indies
Scitijiiu H<.\ic
Red & white
1 ft.
Amaryllidcae
Violet-purple
White
White & purple
White
1 it.
2 ft.
2ft.
2 ft.>|
,,
;,
-I
Fl's delicate
Gcsncraccae
Bluish-purple
2—3 ft. Fl's very
fragrant
1 ft. Showy
Amaryllideae
Bright crimson
1 ft.
Taccaccac
Brownish-
14—2
ft.
purple
JJliaccac Purplish-violet 1 ft.
Amaryllidcae Bright-yellow 10 in.
Bright-pink 10 in. Large ti's,
very showy.
White 8— 10 in.
S.=S:nh;ilesu
WATER PLAXTS
351
ORNAMENTAL WATER PLANTS
SUITED FOR THE LOW-COUXTRY.
I hose in bracket*, though not aquatics, are adapted for growing in water; if in tubs or pots
partly submerged.
[ C.=cuttings; S.=secd ; Tu.=tuhers; Div.=division.
Botanical and Common Name.
Natural Order.
Descriptive notes.
Propagated.
Acorus Calamus. " Sweet
Aroitlctic I-iv.
L. 3—4 ft. high, erect.
Flag." " Wadakaha " S.
Aponogeton monostachyum.
Naiadeac
L. floating; fl's pale blue
" Koddi J.
or white.
*
/Small floating plants
Azolia pinnata.
Rhizocarpeae
with pinnate leaves,
I forming a pretty sheet
v of light green.
{Carludovica palmata.)
L'ydiiiitlitu'CiH' Div. or S
Large, palm-like leaves,
6-8 f*. high.
Ceratopteris thalictroides.
Filict'tn- Div.
Fronds pinnate, edible
\Vater Fern
or spores
when tender, 1-^—2 ft.
(Chrysalidocarpus lutescens.)
Palnictic S or div.
Handsome, i nshy feathery
palm.
(Cyclanthus cristata.)
L'ydiiiitliiiieac Div.
Stemless plan ^, large leaves,
6—8 ft. long.
(Cyperus alternifolius.)
Cypcraccac
i Leaves diverging in
( whorls, 2—3 ft.
" Umbrella grass."
(C. — Papyrus.) Papyrus
j Large handsome brush-
( like leaves, 8-10 ft. high.
Eichhornia (Pontederia)
Pontcderiaceae
Floating plants, 1 ft. high;
Crassipes. "Water-
beautiful blue or lilac
hyacinth." S. .America
flowers.
Euryale ferox.
\ytnphiiciiccnc S
Large floating leaves with
upright spines.
Hedychium coronarium.
Scitciininccte Div.
Fl's white, scented.
H. -gardnerianum.
..
Fl's yellow.
Lasia spinosa. "Kohilla" .S.
Aroitlt'tic Div. or S
Leaves spinous, pinnatifid.
Limnanthemum indicum.
Gcutiaunccac
Floating heart-shaped
"Water Snow-flake."
leaves. Fl's white.
Limnochans Humboldtii.
Alisnitictiie
L. oval, floating. Fl's
" \Vater Poppy."
bright yellow.
L. — Plumierii.
Div.
L. erect, pale green. Fl's
smaller, yellow.
<Ludovia crenifolia)
Cycltiiitliiiccnc
Palm-like leaves, 3—4 ft.
long.
Marsilea quadrifolia.
Rhizocarpeae
Small clover-like plant.
allied to the Ferns.
Monocharia hastaefolia.
Pontcderiaceae
Fl's brilliant purplish blue.
"Diya-haharala" S.
Myriophyllum proser-
Halorageae
Floating feathery leaves.
pinacoides.
Nelumbium speciosum.
Xyniplun'ticcdc S or Tu.
{Large round peltate
leaves; fl's rose-colour-
Lotus Lily,' r> Xelun " S.
1
ed or white, scented.
S.=Sinhalese ; T. Tamil].
352
U'ATER PLAXTS
NympKdeaceat
Botanical and Common Name, i Natural Order.
Nipa fruticans. "Nipa," or
Water Palm. Ceylon
& Malaya]
Nymphaea Lotus.
Water Lily. "Olu" S.
N. stellata. "Manel" S.
Ouvirandra fenestralis.
Lattice-leaf plant.
Madagascar.
Oxystelma esculentum.
" Kulap-palai" T.
Pistia Stratiotes. Wafer
Lettuce
Pontederia crassipes.
"Water Hyacinth."
See EicliJioniia
(Rhapis flabelliformis).
Sagittaria sagittifolia.
"Arrow-head."!
(Schizocasia [= Alocasia]
Portei).
Susum anthelminticum.
" Induru," S.
Typha angustifolia.
Bull-rush
Victoria regia.
Giant Water-lily
See illustration
Aselepiadeac
A roidcac
Pontederiaceac
Palmac
Alismaccae
Aroideae
Flagellariaceae
Typhaceae
Nymphceaceae
How
Propagated.
Til. or S
Tubers
S or C
Div.
S or div.
Div.
S
Descriptive notes.
Feathery-leaved palm.
8— 10" ft. high, found in
lagoons near the sea.
Large floating leaves.
Fl's pale pink to bright
rose.
Fl's whitish-violet to light-
blue.
Curious lace-like floating
leaves.
Beautiful twiner w i
cream and pink fl's.
Floating stemless plant.
tb
Floating plants, 1 ft. high;
beautiful blue or lilac fl's.
Cane-palm. 5 — 6 ft. high.
Large sagittate leaves.
{Very large, hastate, red-
dish eaves, with prick-
ly leaf stalks.
Long floating shoots, with
large erect, handsome
panicles.
Erect ribbon-like leaves.
4—6 ft. high.
L. floating, circular, 6 — &
ft. in. diam. with a raised
margin; fl's 'arge, cream
or pink, strongly scented.
A remarkable plant.
SELECTED SUCCULENT OR CACTUS PLANTS
This class of plants is not generally suited to a humid climate, the great majority
of them being indigenous to dry regions, as Mexico and South Africa.
Those marked t flourish in a wet climate and up to 5,000 ft. elevation.
[Su.=suckers; C.=cuttings; S.=seeds; Tu=tubersl
Name and Native Country
[Hort.=Of garden origin].
Natural Order
How
Propagated.
Descriptive notes.
t Agave americana variegata.
Ainarvllidcac
Su. or S
\ Stemless plants with
Hort
A. — densiflora. Mexico
| large succulent pointed
> leaves, the latter often
A. — heteracantha.
,,
I spiny at the margin.
Texas, &c.
/
JA. — Morrisii. Jamaica
"
•i
L. rather spathulate.
S.=Sinhalese : 7\=Tamil
354
SUCCULENT OR CACTUS PLANTS
Name and Native Country.
[ Hort.=Of garden origin ].
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Descriptive notes.
A. — rigida. Sisulana,
Antaryllidcac
Su. or bul-
isal Hemp, which see.
S. America
bils
Numerous other species
JAloe saponaria. S. Africa
Liliacctie
'Small plants, usually with
Numerous other species
a short stem, bearing a
rosette of succulent.
^ spotted grey leaves.
tBromelia Pinguin.
ttromcliaccac
Offsets
j— 8 ft. Stemless plants,
W. Indies
with long spiny leaves.
+Caralluma campanulata.
Asclepiaileae
C
)warf leafless plant, with
Ceylon and India
square stems.
+ Cereus grandiflorus.
Cactaccac
C
Creeper, reaching the tops
" Night-flowering Cactus,"
of tall trees. Fl's large,
W. Indies
white.
C. — jamacaru. Brazi
„
Jrfsets or C".
Stout single stem, u n-
branched, 4 — 5 angled.
JC. — peruvianus. " Torch
M
C
20—30 ft. Large, branch-
Thistle," S. America
ing, tree-like plant.
JC. — serpentinus. Mexico
,,
C
Creeper, with thin hairy
stems.
Dyckia altissima. Brazil
Itroiticlidcciic
Offsets
L ft. Leaves narrow, wiry
and recurving.
Echinocactus, numerous
CtJCttlCCilC
,,
Small unbranching, ovoid
species. Mexico
or globose, succulent
plants.
Echinopsis (Cereus)
n
,,
Erect unbranching plant
multiplex. Brazil
with numerous spine-
covered angles.
t E Diphyllum truncatum.
C
Small shrub, with hand-
Brazil
some rose-coloured fl's.
Furcraea gigantea. Trop.
AiHcii'\'lli(h'iic
Su. or bul
8—10 ft. See Mauritius
America
bils.
Hemp.
Gasteria trigona. Salm-Dyck
Liliaceac
Offsets.
( \ ft. Leaves very thick,
Aloe. S. Africa
distichously arranged.
G. — verrucosa. S, Africa
M
( Suitable for pots.
Haworthia attenuata.
"
,,
Small Aloe-like plants,
S. Africa
leaves in a rosette.
Numerous other species.
+ Kalanchoe laciniata.
Crassnlaceae
C
I ft. "Life-plant." L.
Trop. Africa
deeply cut.
tLomatophyllum borbonicum
IMiacccic
S
3 ft. Bears long spiny fleshy
Bourbon
leaves on a short stem.
Mammillaria glauca. Mexico
Ccictaceae
Offsets
/Dwarf plants, composed
M.— megacantha. Mexico
Jf
of close tubercles, each
M.— nobilis. Mexico
•j of which is terminated
Numerous other species.
I bv a bunch of hairy
Nopalea coccinellifera.
C
^ spines.
!4— 5 ft. A branching
Mexico
leaf-less shrub, flat oval
spiny tubercles.
Opuntia Dillenii. S. America
C
/4— 5 ft. Branching leaf-
Prickly Peai
less shrubs, with large
O.— grandis. Mexico
C
\ circular or oval tuber-
cles, clothed with tufts
O. robusta. Mexico
M
C
\ of hair like spines.
PIXXATE OR FEATHER-LEAVED PALMS
355
Name and Native Cnuntiy. v^t,,™! rirri«»r
[Hort.=0l garden origin].
How
Propagated.
Descriptive notes-
+ Pedilanthus tiihymaloidfs. Enphorbiiiccac
C
3 — \ ft Erect shrub.
S. Americ;
^Phyllocactus amabilis. Hort. Cuctiiceac
+ P. — crenatus. Honduras.
C
C
/Small shrubs, with flatten-
ed leaf-like branches;
P. — grand is.
M
C
I flowers showy, bright
+ P. — speciosissima. Hort.
..
C
\ pink, etc.
Numerous other species
and hvhrids.
iRhipsalis Cassytha.
Trop. Asia
••
Cor S
/Epiphytic leafless plant,
cylindrical pendulous
stems. The only Asiatic
V cactus.
R.— pachyptera. Trop.
C Large flattened leaf-like
America branches.
Stapelia grandiflora. S. Africa Asclcpiadeuc C Small leafless plant.
Vitis quadrangularis. Ainpclidi'iic C& Tu. Climber, with square suc-
Trop. Asia, etc.
culent stems.
PINNATE OR FEATHER-LEAVED PALMS.
Those marked t are best suited to elevations above 3.000 feet.
Acanthophoenix crinita. Mauritius and
Bourbon
Acanthoriza aculeata. Cent. America
Acrocomia sclerocarpa. " Macaw Palm.'"
Trop. America 1
Actinorrhytis calapparia. Malaya
Archontophoenix Alexandrae. Queensland
A. — Cunninghamii. (=Scaforthia clcgniis) \
Queensland
Areca Catechu. " Arecanut." Trop. Asia
A.— concinna. Ceylon
A. — triandra. Assam & Burma
Arenga obtusifolia. Java & Sumatra
A.— saccharifera. " Gomuti." or " Sugar
Palm." Malaya
A. — Wightii. Malabar
Astrocaryum rostratum. Bra/il
Attalea Cohune. "Cohune Palm,"
Honduras
A. — excelsa. Brazil
Bactris major. Colombia
Bentinckia Condapana. Travancore
<Zalamus ciliaris. Malaya. Numerous
other species ; Ceylon. India, etc.
Calyptrocalyx spicatus. Moluccas
Caryota Cumingii. Philippines
C. — ochlandra. China
•C. — rumphiana. Malaya & Australia
•C. — urens. Trop. Asia
Catoblastus praemorsus. Venezuela
tCeroxylon andicola. Colombia
Chamoedorea elegans. Mexico
C. — Sartorii.
C. — Tepijilote. Mexico
Chrysalidocarpus lutescens. Madagascar
Cocos flexuosa. Bra/il
C. — insignis.
C.^nucifera. Coconut Palm. Hab. ?
C. — plumosa Braxil
C.— schizophylla. Bra/il
C. — weddelliana.
C. — romanzoviana
Cyrtostachys Renda. "Sealing-wax
Palm." Sumatra
Desmoncus major. Trinidad
Dictyosperma album. Mauritius
D. — fibrosum. Madagascar
Didymosperma distichum. Sikkim
D.— porphyrocarpum. Java
D. — tremulum. Siam
Diplothemium maritimum. Bra/il
Drymophloeus appendiculatus. Malaya
D. — ceramensis. Moluccas
Dypsis madagascariensis. Madagascar
Elaeis guineensis. " Oil Palm."
Trop. Africa
Euterpe edulis. Trop. America
E. — ol«*racea. Bra/il
Exhorrhiza Wendlandiana.
Geonoma gracilis. Costa Rica
356 PIXX ATE OR FEATHER-LEAVED PALMS
m,
DIDYMOSPKK.MA DISTICH UM.
A curious fan-shaped palm from Sikkim.
G. — prlnceps. Colombia
G. — schottiana. Brazil
Hedyscepe canterburyana. Lord Howe's
Island
Hetcrospathe elata. Amhoyna
Howca belmoreana. Lord Howe's Island
H. — forsteriana.
Hydriastele wendlandiana. Queensland
Hyophorbe amaricaulis. Mauritius
Hyophorbe Verschaffeltii. Rodriguez
Jubaea spectabilis. " Coquito Palm." Chili.
Kentia australis. Lord Howe's Island
K. — elegantissima. Hab?
K. — Sanderiana.
Korthalsia Junghuhnii. Java
Loxococcus rupicola. " Dotalu." Ceylon
Manicaria saccifera. Cent. America
Martinezia caryotaefolia. Colombia
358
PIXXATE OR FEATHER-LEAVED PALMS
DOUBLE COCONUT, OK COCO DE MER.
Lodoicca Sccltcllnnini. (Male Tree).
M. — lindeniana.
Maximiliana regia. " Cocurita Palm."
Braxil and Guiana
Metroxylon Rumphii. Prickly Sago-Palm
Moluccas, New Guinea
M. — Sagu. Sago Palm. Java, Sumatra
Myrialepis Scortechnii. Malaya
Nephrosperma van-Houtteanum.
Seychelles
Nipa fruticans. "Nipa" or "Water
Palm." Malaya. Ceylon, etc.
Oncosperma fasciculatum. " Katu-Kitul" vS.
Ceylon
O. — filamentosa. " Xihung Palm." Java
Orania regalis. Philippines.
( Pericarpedihle ).
Orbignya Sagottii. Demerara
Oreodoxa Meracea. W. Indies
O. — regia. Cuba and Panama
Phoenix dactylifera. Date Palm. Africa
P. — paludosa. India and Cochin China
P. — reclinata. S. E. Africa
P. — Roebelinii. A handsome species
P.--rupicola. Sikkim
P. — sylvestris. Wild Date-palm; India
P.— zeylanica. Ceylon
Pholidocarpus Ihur. Malaya
Phytelephas macrocarpa. " Ivory-nut
Palm." Colombia
Pinanga Kuhlii.
P . — pa r ad o xa . Malaya
P.— spectaKilis. Malaya
Flectocomia elongata. Sumatra, etc.
Prestoea trinitensis. Trinidad
P'ychandra glauca. Malaya
Ptychococcus paradoxa. New Guinea
S =Sinhalese
PINNATE OR FEATHER-LEAVED PALMS 359
PHOEXIX RUPICOI.A. A graceful feathery palm.
AVKNUE OF 1'ALMYKAH PALM (BoniSSIIS \ftilbilcfcr),
IX PKKADEX1YA GARDENS.
360
FAX-LEAVED PALMS
Ptychoraphis augusta. Nicobar Islands
P. — singaporensis. Malaya
Ptychosperma Macarthurii. Trop.
Australia
P — perbreve. Fiji
Raphia Hookerii. Trop. Africa
R.~ Rufh'a. Madagascar
Rhopaloblaste hexandra. Moluccas
Roscheria melanochaetes. Seychelles
Scheela excelsa. Brazil
Synechanthus fibrosus. Guatemala
Veitchia Johannis Fiji
Wallichia caryotoides. Burma, etc.
W. — densiflora. Himalaya
Zalacca edulis. Malaya
FAN-LEAVED PALMS.
Bismarckia nobilis. Madagascar.
Borassus flabellifer. Palmyra Palm.
India & Africa i
Brahea nitida. Mexico
tChamaerops humilis. S. Europe & N.
Africa j
Copernicia cerifera. Carnauba Wax-
palm. Bra/il i
Corypha umbraculifera. Talipot Palm.
Ceylon & S. India |
tErythea armata. California.
Hyphaene thebaica, Doum Palm.
(One of the few branching palms) \
Trop. Africa j
Latania Commersonii Mauritius and
Bourbon
Licuala elegans. Sumatra
L. — gracilis. Java
L. — grandis. Pacific Islands
Licuala peltata. Assam, Burma, etc.
L. — spinosa. Malaya
Linospadix Micholitzii. Malaya
Livistona altissima. Java
L. - australis. Australia
L. — chinensis. China and Japan
L. — Hoogendorpii. Java
L. — humilis. Australia
L. — Jenkinsiana Assam
L. — olivaeformis. Java
L. — rotundifolia.
L. — subglobosa.
Lodoicea sechellarum. "Double Coco-
nut," or " Coco-de-mer." Seychelles,
Phoenicophorium sechellarum. (=Steven-
sonia grandi flora}. Seychelles
Pritchardia aurea. Fiji
P. — Martii. Sandwich Islands
Pritchardia pacifica. Fiji
tRhapis flabelliformis. China and Japan
tR. — humilis. China
Sabal Adansonii. " Dwarf Palmetto."
S. United States
S. — Blackburniana. Bermuda
S. — filament osum. Jamaica.
S.-— glaucescens. Trinidad
S.— palmetto. Palmetto Palm.
S. United States
tSerenoa serrulata. " Saw Palmetto."
S. United States
Stevensonia grandiflora. Seychelles
Teysmannia altifrons. Sumatra, Perak, etc.
Thrinax argentea. West Indies
T. — barbadensis. Barbados
T. — excelsa. Jamaica
T. — parviflora. W. Indies
tTrachycarpus (Chamaerops) Fortunei.
China
Verschaffeltia splendida. Seychelles
CEYLON INDIGENOUS PALMS.
Those marked * are endemic, i.e., confined to Ceylon.
Botanical and Vernacular Names.
Natural locality.
Areca Catechu. Betel-nut ;
" Puwak" S. " Kamukai" T.
" Lena-teri" S.
. — concnna.
Borassus flabellifer. Palmyra ;
"Tal" S. "Panai" T.
Moist low-country
Dry region
Descriptive notes.
Stems straight, slender,
30—50 ft. high.
Stems straight, slender,
8—12 ft. L pinnate.
Fan-leaved palm, 60—70
ft. high.
S.-^Sinhalese. 7'.=Taniil.
CEYWX 1XDIGEXOUS PALMS
361
TALIPOT PALM. Corvplia umbniculifera.
Botanical and Vernacular Names.
Natural locality.
'Calamus delicatalus.
" Xarawel " S.
*C. — digitatus. " Kukula-wel " S.\
*C — ovoideus.
" Thamhutu-wel ' S.j
*C. — pseudo tenuis.
* C. — pachyst emonous .
*C.-radiatus. " Kukula-wel" S.!
*C.— rivalis. "Ela-wel" S.
Descriptive notes.
Moist low-country;
up to 1 ,000 ft.
Dry region
C.— Rotang. " \Ve-wel " S.
"Perampu" T.I
*C. — Thwai»csii. | Moist low -country
*C. — zevlaivcrs.
un to 1.000 ft.
Climbing palms, with
spiny, elegant, pinnate
leaves. The slender
stems are the "Canes
of commerce.
S— Sinhalese ; r=Taniil
362
CEYLON INDIGENOUS PALMS
AVENUE OF TALIPOT PALMS (Corypka iimbrnciilifcra},
IN PERADENIYA GARDEN?.
Botanical and Vernacular Xanies.
Caryota urens. Toddy Palm ;
""Kitul" S.
Cocos nucifcra. Coconut ;
"Pol" S. "Tennai" T.
Corypha umbraculifera. Talipot ;
"Tal" S.
Natural locality
Moist low-country
up to 3,000 ft.
Low-country up to
2,000 ft., cultivated
Moist region, below
2,000 ft.
Descriptive notes.
Trunk 40 to 60 ft L, bi pin-
nate, very handsome.
Pinnated-leaved ; trunk
50—80 ft., never straight
Trunk stout, erect, 40—80
ft. L. immense, 10— 20ft.
diam. Seeds large, ivory-
like, made into buttons,
etc.
5?.=SinhaIese : 7'.=Tamil
.<
-i «
~ x.
S x
< 5
- 5
s
364
ORNAMENTAL GRASSES AXD SEDGES
Botanical and Vernacular Names
*Loxococcus rupicola. "Dotalu" S.
Nipa fruticans. Nipa, or Water-
Coconut ; " Gin-pol " S.
Oncosperma fasciculatum.
" Katu-kitul " S.
Phcen x pusilla. "Inchu"7".
P. — zeylanica. " Indi " .S.
Natural locality. Descriptive Notes.
Moist region, 1 ,000 S t e m s slender, erect,
to 5.000 ft. 20-30 ft. L. pinnate.
South-west Coast Rootstock U ft. diam. L.
pinnate, 10-15 ft. long.
Moist region up to ^Steins clustered, 40 — 60 ft.
1,500 ft. L. pinnate, leaflets long,
pendulous.
Forests of dry region Stem very short. L. 4-5 ft.
long, lower leaflets
reduced to spines.
Moist low-country Stem 6 — 20 ft. L. pinnate,
with numerous long
narrow leaflets.
BAMBOOS, ORNAMENTAL GRASSES AND SEDGES.
Those marked f are suited for Up-country.
OKXAMEXTAL GRASSES AND SEDGES:—
Anthistiria gigantea. Malaya. — A handsome grass, 5-7 ft. high, with large grace-
ful drooping flowering panicles.
JArundo Donax variegata. Mediterranean, Egypt, etc. — A bushy variegated grass,
6-10 feet high, excellent for ornamental effect.
Carex brunnea variegata. India, 1 ft. high, suitable for growing in pots.
Coix Lacryma. Jobs' Tears; "Kirindi-mana" S. Ceylon, India & Malaya. — A
bushy annual, 3-4 ft. high, with hard bead-like fruit. See Oniauieiitul
seeds.
t Cyperus alternifolius. "Umbrella-plant." Australia. — An ornamental grass-like
sedge, with narrow diverging leaves, about 3 ft. high.
C — Papyrus. Egyptian Papyrus. Egypt. — A large, very ornamental plant
with brush-like leaves, suitable for swamps or water margins.
t Euchlaena (Reana) luxurians. "Teosinte." Guatemala. — An annual grass,
10-15 ft. high, very handsome when in flower. See Fodder Grasses,
tlsolepis gracilis. Sub-tropics. — A favourite pot-plant for green- house and con-
servatory decoration, with pendulous hair-like leaves.
Oplismenus Burmanii variegatus. New Caledonia. — A very ornamental creeping
grass, the leaves being white with a central green or pink stripe.
t Panicum plicatum. Ceylon, India, etc. — A handsome grass, with large broad
leaves, 2-3 ft. high.
tP- — pulchrum. — An ornamental species, lj ft. high.
Pennisetum longistylus. Abyssinia. — A handsome grass, 4-5 ft. high.
t Phalaris arundincea. "Ribbon grass," or "Gardener's garter." S. Europe. — A
small variegated grass, suitable for edgings, etc.
Tricholaena rosea. Natal Red-top Grass. Natal. — A handsome grass when
bearing its masses of purplish-crimson flowers, 1-2 ft. high.
S.=Sinhalese ; '/—.Tamil
GIANT BAMBOO ( Dcttdrocalamns gigtinteas), ix PERADEXIYA GARDENS.
366 ORNAMENTAL GRASSES AXD SEDGES
BAMBOOS AXD BAMBOO-LIKE GRASSES, ETC:—
Arundinaria suberecta. A small elegant bamboo, with delicate drooping foliage,
12 — 16 in. high; a favourite pot-plant.
T Bambusa aurea. Japan. — Stems yellow; light open foliage, very ornamental.
tB — Madake. Japan. — 10-15 ft. high, branches erect.
SIAMESE BAMBOO. BrtlJlbllSd S
T B. — nigra. India. — An interesting species, 25-30 ft. high, with the lower
part of the stems purplish black.
B. — Siamensis. Burma, Siam. — 20 ft. high, leaves small, in dense graceful
plumes. An exceedingly graceful bamboo.
B. — vulgaris. "Una" S. Common yellow-, or golden-bamboo. Ceylon, Tropics
generally. — A very handsome species, 30-40 ft. high, with pale yellow
stems, 3-4 in. in diam. Most useful for making pots, scaffolding, etc,
Thrives best on river banks, up to 5,000 ft. in valleys.
.S.=Sinhalese
ORXAMENTAL GRASSES AXD SEDGES
367
Dendrocalamus giganteus. Giant Bamboo. Burma, Malaya. — A magnificent
species attaining a height of over 100 ft. and 40-50 ft. in diameter of
clump; stems 10 in. or more in diameter. Used for buildings, plant-
pots, etc.
i Hamiltonii. Tropical Himalaya.— A large species, suited to medium elevations
D — strictus. "Male"-, or "Solid-Bamboo. India, Java. etc. — A large handsome
spreading species, 30 ft. high. Stems about 2 inches or more in diam..
sometimes almost solid; used for shafts, lance staves, fence posts, &c.
Gigantochloa aspera. B.iilding Bamboo. Java. — A graceful species, resembling
the Giant Bamboo. 70-80 ft. high, with stout strong stems.
Gynerium saccharoides. Trop. America. — A tall handsome grass, 15-20 ft
high, with long ribbon-like leaves.
GIANT BAMBOO, CLOSE VIEW.
Ochlandra maculata. "Mottled Bamboo;" " Ranabata-li " S. 12 to 15 ft. high,
leaves broad, up to 10 in. by 2\ in., stems blotched with brown.
O. Rheedii. Quill Bamboo." 12-15 ft. high. Leaves broad and long.
O. — Travmcorica. S. India. 15-20 ft. high. Large handsome broad leaves.
t Oxytcnanthera Thwaitesii. Ceylon and S. India. A large reed, 10-12 ft. high.
with leaves 12 in. long by 1-1 i in. broad; 4,000 to 6,000 ft. elevation.
Thyrsanolaena acarifera. Tropical Asia. — A large bushy spreading reed, 8-10 ft.
high, with large broad leaves.
S.=Sinhalese
CHAPTER XVII.
POT PLANTS: SELECTIONS SUITABLE FOR LOW
AND MEDIUM ELEVATIONS
ORCHIDS :—
The cultivation of orchids affords one of the most interesting
and pleasant occupations in the tropics, as elsewhere, and not a
few enthusiasts in Ceylon, India, etc., expend a good deal of money
on importing and growing showy kinds." Orchids may be divided
into two types, (1) terrestrial or ground-orchids, and (2) epiphytes,
— that is plants which are found growing naturally upon trees or
rocks. In order to grow orchids successfully, it is essential to
knowr to which of these types they belong, also the elevation and
conditions of climate under which they grow in their natural state.
Orchids of a dry region generally fail when removed to a wet
climate, and vice versa ; thus Cattleyas and other South American
species, \vhich are accustomed to a long dry period, soon deterio-
rate in the moist climate of the south-west part of Ceylon, especially
if not protected during the long rainy season. Nevertheless, it is
well to remember that in cultivation, orchids, like other plants, are
often adaptable to altered conditions, and careful observation of
the progress of the plants will generally suggest the more benefi-
cial modifications to adopt in their treatment. Epiphytic orchids
generally thrive better on trees than in pots, but the former con-
ditions cannot always be provided, and for various reasons pot-
culture is usually the more suited to the amateur grower. Many
species thrive best when fully exposed to the sun, provided suffi-
cient moisture is available at the roots ; others, however, grow and
flower most freely under light shade.
Potting orchids. — Special kinds of pots with several drainage
holes and perforated sides are made for growing orchids in. When
these are not procurable, very useful substitutes may be found in
well-seasoned joints of large bamboos, these being cut so as to leave
one of the divisions, the joint being then perforated at the bottom
ORCHIDS
369
and sides. Another useful style of bamboo pot for orchids is afford-
ed by a longitudinal section of the joint, with the corners rounded
off; thin copper wire should be strung through the margins to hold
the plant and potting material in position, a layer of coir fibre or
beaten coconut husk being placed between the material and the
wires. For epiphytes, a potting mixture consisting of old bark,
GIANT ORCHID. Graiimiiitopliylliiiii spcciosnm.
broken crocks or pieces of porous brick and some sphagnum moss
is essential. Peat is usually an excellent ingredient in mixtures for
orchids, but is not procurable in Ceylon. Sphagnum moss is diffi-
cult to obtain, being only found in a limited area on Horton Plains
in Ceylon. Bracken roots are a useful component in orchid
mixtures, and being common up-country, is easily obtained. Coir
ribre, which should be well-leached, is a most serviceable material
370
ORCHIDS
much employed at Penideniya for growing epiphytic orchids, and
is indispensable for fixing them on boards, stems of trees, etc. ; it is
CCELOGYNE ASPKRATA.
FLOWERS CREAMY-YELLOW GROUND, VERY FRAGRANT.
also used in composts for terrestrial orchids, the other ingredients
being those mentioned above in addition to well-decomposed cow
manure.
ORCHIDS
371
VIEW IX THE ORCHID HOUSE. PERADENIYA GARDENS.
The following are among the most shoxvy and successfully
grown orchids at Peradeniya, Ceylon, (elevation 1,540 ft., rainfall
about 80 inches):—
[Ep.=epiphyte ; Terr.=terrestrial.]
Name and Native Country.
Class.
Descriptive Notes.
Aerides odoratum. India and China Ep.
Angraecum sesquipedale. Madagascar
Cattleya Eldorado.
C. — Gaskeliiana.
C.-Gigas.
Rio-negro
Yene/uela
Colombia
Fl's scented, white, blotched with
magenta.
Fl's very large, ivory-white, long
spur.
Fl's bluish-whi.e and magenta.
Fl's scented, white and amethyst-
purple.
Fl's very large, rose, crimson-
purple and yellow.
C.-labiata.
Bra/il
C. — -Mossiae.
Venezuela .. Fl's large, crimson and rose.
"Cattleya Skinneri.
C. — Trianae
Guatemala
Colombia
Fl's rose-purple.
Fl's purple-crimson, very showy.
•Chysis bractescens.
Peru
Fl's large, creamy- white ; stout
fleshv stems.
•Coelogyne asperata
Borneo Terr. Fl's in long drooping racemes,
creamy vellow. scented.
"C. — Day ana.
Borneo .. Psuedo-bulbs 3-8 in. L. 2-3 ft., fl's
creamy yellow.
372
ORCHIDS
Name and Native Country.
Class.
Descriptive
Notes.
Cymbidium Lowianum. Burma
Dendrobium Dalhousianum. Burma
D. — densiflorum. India
D. — Farmeri. India and Burma
D.— fimbriatum. Burma
D. — Macarthiae. " Wesak-mal" Cey.
D.— nobile. India and Burma
D. — thyrsiflorum.
Burma
D. — Wardianum. Assam
Epidendrum radicans. Mexico
Grammatophyllum speciosum. Malaya j
Laelia purpurata. Brazil i
Oncidium luridum. West Indies;
O. — papilio. "Butterfly orchid'
Peristeria elata. '" Holy Ghost "
Orchid. Panama
Phaius (Thunia) Bensoniae. Moulmein
P.— Blumei.
Phalaenopsis amabilis.
P. — Schilleriana.
Java
Malaya
Philippine
Renanthera coccinea. Burma and
Cochin Chin.
R. — Imschootiana. Burma
Saccolabium guttatum. Fox-tail
Orchid. India, Ceylon, etc.
Stanhopea grandiflora. Eucador
S. — tigrina.
Mexico
Vanda coerulea. North India and
Assam
V. — Hookeriana. Malaya
V. — Roxburghii. Ceylon £ Burma
V.— spathulata. Ceylon & South
India
V. — teres. India, Burma, etc.
V. — tricolor.
Java
Ep. IFl's large, yellowish green, with a
crimson blotch.
Stems 3-5 ft. long; fl's large,
tawny-yellow and rose.
IFl's pendulous, amber-yellow and
orange.
Yellow, tinted with pink.
Fl's pendulous, rich orange-yellow.
Stems slender, 2-2\ ft. ; fl's rose-pink.
,, i Fl's large and showy, white tipped
with rose-purple.
\ Stems 18-30 in. high; fl's in large
drooping clusters, white and
yellow.
Stems 1 to 2 ft.; fl's white, purple
and yellow.
,, Stems long, slender, scandent; fl's.
terminal, bright orange-scarlet.
|Stems 6 to 10 ft. long; fl's ochre-
yellow, blotched with purple.
Fl's large and show}-, rose-white
and crimson-purple.
|L. leathery, 1-2 ft. long; fl's yellow
blotched with brown.
j Fl's large, butterfly-shaped.
Terr j L. 2-3£ ft. ; fl's scented, waxy white,
globose ; centre resemb'gadove.
2 ft. high ; fl's large, amethyst-
purple.
FTs buff-yellow, mottled with red..
Ep. I L. broadly oval, 6-15 in. long: fl's.
large, white, spotted with red.
L. 10-18 in. long, blotched with
grey; fl's large, rose-purple.
Stems 4-7 ft., creeping; fl's in large
raceme, blood-red, spotted with
yellow, very showy.
Height 6-24 in. fl's bright vermilion.
Fl's white, spotted with amethyst-
purple; showy.
Fl's large, fragrant, yellow, shaded
with orange and crimson.
Fl's large, scented, blood-reel,
spotted with yellow.
Stems 1-3 ft., fl's large, handsome.
light blue.
Stem and leaves cylindrical ; fl's
purple magenta a n d orange-
yellow.
Fl's pale buff or grey.
Stems several ft. long; fl's large,
bright yellow.
Stems and leaves cylindrical, 2-7
ft. high; fl's rose-magenta and
orange-yellow.
Fl'syellow, spotted brown! fragrant.
ORCHIDS 373
SELECTED CEYLOX INDIGENOUS ORCHIDS
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO REGIONS WHERE FOUND
NONTAX E ZOXE (3,000 TO 6,000 FT.):-
[ Terr.=terrestrial ; Ep.=epiphyte ; S.=Sinhalese].
Name. Descriptive Remarks.
Arundina minor (Terr.). Fl's pale pink, lip yellow.
Bulbophyllum elegans (Ep.). Fl's dull purple tinged with green, lip orange.
Calanthe purpurea (Terr.). Fl's pale purplish-pink.
C. — veratrifolia (Terr.). Fl's pure white, lip pale-pink or dull-yellow.
Chrysoglossu.Ti maculatum (Ep.). Fl's pale green with reddish blotches, lip white.
Cirrhopetalum grandiflorum (Ep.). Fl's yellow, veined and spotted with red; lip
purple : rare.
Cleisostoma tenerum (Ep.). Fl's yellow, lip white, with pink wings.
Coelogyne odoratissima (Ep.). Fl's white, with a yellow stain on lip ; scented.
Cymbidium ensifolium (Ep.). Fl's dull yellowr, lined with pink; sweet-scented.
Dendrobium aureum (Ep.). " Primrose orchid." Fl's pale yellow, sweet-scented.
Eria bicolor (Ep.). " Lily of the Valley Orchid." Fl's pure white, on purple
red stalks.
Ipsea (Pachystoma) speciosa (Terr.). Daffodil Orchid; " Xagamarapu-ala," S.
Fl's bright yellow. Open patnas.
Phajus bicolor (Terr.). Open pastures; fl's purplish orange, or pale orange-yellow.
Saccolabium roseum (Ep.) Fl's pale-purple.
MOIST LOW-COUNTRY (1,000 TO 3,000 FT.) :—
AcanthopHippium bicolor (Terr.). Fl's bright yellow tipped with purplish red.
Aerides lineare (Saccolabium paniculatum) (Ep.). Fl's white, tinged with pale pink.
Cymbidium bicolor (Ep.). Fl's cream coloured, stained with reddish purple.
Dendrobium crumlnatum '* Suclupareiyamal." " Dove or Pigeon Orchid." (Ep.).
Often on Coconut stems. Fl's pure white.
D.— Macarthiae " \Vesak-mal." (Ep.). Fl's violet-pink, rarely white. Rare;
moist forests below 2,000 ft.
D.— macrostachyum ( Ep.). Fl's pale-green or yellow, tinged with pink. Up to
4.000 ft.
EulopSia macrostachya (Terr.). Fl's purplish green, lip yellow.
E. — sanguinea (Terr.). Fl's dull purplish-red, lip pinkish-green.
E. — virens (Terr.). See Dry Region Orchids.
Phajus luridus (Terr.). Fl's yellow, striped longitudinally with red, lip yellow.
Endemic, rare.
Pholidota imbricata (Ep.). Fl's white, with a pinkish or yellowish tinge.
Saccolabium ochraceum (Ep.). Fl's yellow, with red transverse lines.
S. — Wight ianum (Ep.). Fl's pale yellow, tinged with red.
Sarcochilus pulchellus (Ep.). Fl's pure white, lip tinged with orange.
Tainia bicornis (Terr.). Fl's pale olive-green, stained with purple.
(INTERMEDIATE ZONE 2,000 TO 3,500 FT.) :—
Aerides cylindricum. (Ep.). Fl's cre.imy white. Foliage like Luisia. (1,000 to
4.000ft.).
iVIEW IN FERNERY, PERADENIYA GARDENS.
FERXS 375
Anaectochilus regalis (Terr.). " Wana-raja," S. Beautiful velvety brownish leaves,
with coloured veins. Among leaves in moist shaded forests.
Cirrhopetalum grandiflorum (Ep.). See Montane Zoin- Orchids.
Cottonia macrostachya (Ep.). Fl's yellowish-green, veined with pink, resembling
an insect. Rare.
Geodorum dilatatum (Terr.). Fl's white, lip suffused with yellow and pink.
Habenaria pterocarpa (Terr.). Fl's white, with the spur green. Endemic.
Zeuxine regia (Terr.). " Iru-raja," S. Handsome leaves, with longitudinal white
veins. Moist forests.
DRY (OR INTERMEDIATELY-DRY) REGION:—
Eulophia virens (Terr.). Fl's yellowish-green, lip white, with crimson lines.
Habenaria plantaginea (Terr.). " Pigeon Orchid." Fl's large, pure white.
Saccolabium guttatum ( Ep.). " Fox-tail Orchid." Fl's in brush-like pendulous
raceme ; white, dotted with violet-pink, very handsome.
Vanda Roxburghii (Ep.). Fl's pale buff or grey, streaked with brown lines.
Scented.
V. — spathulata (Ep.). Fl's bright yellow, in long erect racemes. Showy.
FERNS
These comprise an extensive family of plants, and are espe-
cially popular on account of the beauty and gracefulness of their
foliage. Mixed with other plants in the embellishment of verandahs
and plant-houses, ferns are always effective, while in floral
decorations their cut fronds are often indispensable. Contrary to
general opinion, ferns, with few exceptions, are not difficult to
cultivate ; they may easily be grown in pots, boxes, etc., provided
the proper conditions of soil, moisture and temperature are
afforded. By observing the conditions under which the plants
grow and flourish in their natural state, an accurate idea may be
formed of their requirements ; it will thus be seen that they are
usually found luxuriating on humous fibrous soil and limestone rock,
occupying shady banks or gullies, by the side of streams or water
courses. Therefore, it may be accepted as a general rule that three
essential conditions in their requirements are shade, moisture and
perfect drainage at the root. Though ferns generally are regarded
as shade -loving plants, a striking exception is found in the case of
the ''Gold fern," Gyinnogranniie chrysophylla, which thrives to per-
fection in Colombo in the full glare of the tropical sun, attaining a
large size when grown in tubs along paths or drives. Potting
mixtures for ferns should consist mainly of fibrous loam and leaf-
mould in equal proportions, to which should be added a small
proportion of lime rubble or old mortar, and a similar quantity of
376
FERXS
fine river sand ; broken pieces of porous brick mixed with the soil
are also a useful ingredient and have a beneficial effect in main-
taining proper aeration of the soil. No manure should enter the
potting compost unless it be in a thoroughly decomposed state.
Thorough drainage being essential, the pots should be filled to
about a quarter of their depth with crocks. Many of the more
delicate ferns, such as Adiantums ( Maiden-hair ferns ) resent too
much water overhead, so that their fronds should not be unnecess-
arily wetted. Ferns are generally easily multiplied by division of
the roots, and those that produce fertile fronds may be propagated
by spores. See under Propagation.
The following are some of the most ornamental ferns suitable
for cultivation in the tropics.
FERXS SUITED FOR THE LOW-COUNTRY : —
^Acrostichum aureum. Karang or Kere
[koku; sea-coast.
Adiantum concinnum." Maiden-hair"
A. — cuneatum. [Fern
A. — FarJeyense.
A. — Fergusoni.
•*A. — hispidulum.
A. — Pacottii.
A. — Peruvianum.
A. — trapezif orme .
A. — wiegandtii
Anemia Phyllitidis.
Asplenium falcatum.
*A. — lunulatum.
*A. — Nidus. " Bird's nest " Fern.
*A. — sylvaticum.
A. — tenerum.
*Blechnum occidentale.
*Cheilanthus tenuifolia.
Davallia Fijiensis.
*D. — pulchra.
D. — tenuifolia.
Dicksonia flaccida.
Didymochlaena lunuiata.
*Gleichenia dichotoma.
Gymnogramme chrysophylla. GoldFern
G. — pulchella. Silver Fern
G. — schizophylla.
Lomaria gibba.
Nephrodium macrophylla.
*N. -molle.
N. — decurrens.
*Nephrolepis cordifolia.
N. — davallioides.
*N.— Duffii.
*N.— exaltata.
N.- tripinnatifida.
*Ophioglossum pendulum.
Platycerium alicorne. " Elk's Horn "
[Fern
* Polypodium quercifolium. " B a i n -
[duru," S.
P. — verrucosum.
Pteris argyraea.
P. — cretica alba-lineata.
*P. — ensiformis.
*P. — quadriaurita.
P.- serrulata
PLANTS RELATED TO FERXS, SUITED FOR THE LOW-COUNTRY : —
*Azoll pinnata. (See Water Plants)
*Lycopodium cernuum. " Badal-
wanassa," S.
*L. — Phlegmaria. " Maha-hedaya," S.
*L.— Hookeri. " Kuda-hedaya," S.
L. — squarrosum.
*L.— zeylanicum.
*Marsilea quadrifolia. (See Water
Selaginella amoena. [Plants)
Selaginella caulescens.
*S. — crassipes.
S. grandis.
S. laevigata.
S. -Martensii.
S. — M . — variegata.
S. — uncinata.
S. — Wildenovii.
"Indigenous to Ceylon.
***,. '.' •' ! ,- *
"<•>%,
VIEW IX FEKXERY, HAKC.ALA GAKDEXS, CEYLON.
Showing tree-ferns, chierly Alsophila criiu'ta. in foreground.
378
FOLIAGE POT-PLANTS
FERNS SUITED FOR UP-COUNTRY (3,000 TO 6,000 FT.) : —
*Adiantum capillus-veneris. Maiden-
hair Fern
A. — cuneatum.
A. — Fergusoni.
A. — gracillimum. Finest-leaved
Maiden-hair Fern
*CheiIanthus farinosa.
*Diacalpe aspidioides.
*Davallia bullata.
*D. — majuscula.
*Lomaria Patersoni and L. Gibba.
* Nephrodium flaccida.
*N— Walkerae.
*Angiopteris evecta.
*Aspidium aculeatutn.
*A. — anomalum.
Asplenium bulbiferum.
*A. — tenuifolium.
*Blechnum orientale.
* Nephrodium zeylanica.
*Nephrolepis cordifolia.
*Osmunda Javanica.
*Polypodmm rufescens.
*Pteris incisa.
P.- -Victoriae.
*Stenoloma chinensis. Parslev Fern.
TREE FERNS : —
*Alsophila crinita. Wooly -Tree-Fern
*A.— glabra.
*Amphicosmea. See Hcmitelia.
Cyathea dealbata. Silver Tree-Fern
*Cyathea Hookeri.
*C.- — sinuata.
Dicksonia antartica.
*Hemitelia Walkerae.
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE POT-PLANTS
SUITED ALSO FOR SHADED BORDERS UP TO 2,000 OR 3,000 FT.
[C=cuttings; S=seed ; Div.=division ; Su.=suckers ; Tu.— tubers].
Name and Native Country.
[Hort.=Of garden origin].
Natural Order,
Acalypha godseffiana. New Euphorbiaccac
Guinea
Aechmea fulgens. Guiana Brotiieliaccnc
A. — mexicana. Mexico ,,
A. — Skinneri. Guatemala ,,
A.— Weilbachii. Braxil
Aglaonema costatum. Perak
A. — Haenkii. Philippines
A. — Marantifolium. Malaya
A. — pictum. Malaya
A. — versicolor.
Alloplectus Lynchii.
Colombia
Alocasia Argyrea. Hah ?
Aroideae
Gcsncraccac
Aroideae
A. — cuprea.
Borneo
A. — Johnstoni See
Cyrtospcrniii
A. — Lindeni. Papua
A. — longiloba. Malaya
How
Propagated.
Height and descriptive notes.
C. 2—3 ft. Leaves margined
with white.
Offsets 1 ft. \ „, ,
2 I Stemless plants
T! " [• with stiff sheathing
;: !f ;: J leaves-
Div. 6 in. \ Herbaceous
C 2 ft. plants with
C. or Div. 2 .. - fleshly variega-
l- 2 ft. ted or blotched
.1 ft. / leaves.
C 1A ft. L. bronze-coloured.
Tu.orOff- 2 ft. L. with grey bands,
sets.
1 — 2 ft. L. coppery green.
2 ft.
6— -10 ft. L. very large,
deeply cut lobes. Stem
5 to 6 ft., erect.
* Indigenous to Ceylon.
FOLIAGE POT-PLAXTS
379
AXTHUKIUM WAROCQUEANUM.
Nairn- and Native Countr
CSSSlSSiSS »•»-.. 0,der. „„,££,„, I H.i.h.Hndde.cnp.iv
A. — macrorhiza v_riegata.
Ceylon, etc
A — princeps. Malaya
A.— sanderiana.
Philippines
A. — violacea.
A. — zebrina.
Manila
Anoectochilus setaceus
"Wana-raja ' S. Ceylon.
Several other species.
Ananas sativus variegatus.
Variegated Pine-apple;
Orcltith'itc
Hroutcliticcitt
Div. or C [5ft. L. large, broad, blotch-
ed with white.
2 ft.
2 ft. Margins and veins
marked with prominent
silver bands; sinuate.
2 ft. L. metallic blue.
3 ft. L. sagittate, dark-
green bands
It. Velvety green leaves,
with golden veins.
Tubers.
Offsets.
li ft. L. variegated pinkish-
white.
S.=Sinhalese
ANTHURIUM VEITCH11.
FOLIAGE POT-PLAXTS
381
Name and Native Country.
[Hort.— Of garden origin].
Natural Order.
How
Propagated
Height and descriptive notes.
Anihurium andreinum.
A roidcac
C. or Off-
3 — 5 ft. Large, satiny, verv
Colombi;
s :ts.
handso.ne leaves.
A -bogotense. Colombia
„
„
2 ft. L. curiously 3 — lobed.
A. — crassinervium.
,,
3 --4 ft L. radical, obovate.
upright.
A. — cristallinum. Pen
t<
2—3 ft. L. large, white
si 1 verv veins.
A — digitatum. Pen
M
2 -3 ft.
A — Fitzeri.
M
L. large. 4 to 5 ft. long, simi-
lar to A. warocqueanum.
A -Harrisii. Bra/il
.,
2ft.
A. — longifolium. Brazil
M
..
lift.
A — macrjlobum. Hort
M
M
3ft.
A. -pandulifolium. Brazil
,.
L. 5—8 ft. long by 6—8 in.
broad.
A. — radiatum. Mexicc
ti
3 ft. L. radially digitate.
A.-Veitchii.
,,
,.
2£ ft. long, L. furrowed
Colorabh
transversely.
A. — Warocqueanum.
,.
Leaves 2—3 ft. long.
Colombia
Aralia Balfourii. Horl
A — elegantissima. Polynesia
A. — filicifolia.
A raliaccac
C
V_3 \ Quick-growing
( plants with hand-
A.— triloba.
- , " (some deeplv cut
^ »' •« 1 t
A.— Veitchii. \ew Caledonir
2 ^ ) leaves.
Arundinacea suberecta.
GraniincrtC'
Di\.
1— H ft. Small bamboo-
like plant with drooping
folia :e.
Asarum geophyllum. Chin;
A ristolocliiiiceac
M
5 ft. L. round, variegated
Aspidistra lurida variegata.
Liliaccac
1£ ft. Large variegated
Japai
radical, erect leaves.
B°gonia albo-picta. Brazi
Rcgoniaccac
C
U ft. L. spotted white.
B. --gogoensis. Sumatn
1 ft. L. peltate.
B. -grandis.
.,
1—2 ft. L. velvety, with
pale spots.
B. — Haageana. Brazi
.,
3ft.
B.— heracleifolia Mexicc
%)
lift.
B. — metallica. Mexicc
,,
3 ft. L. bronzy purple.
B. -purpurea.
,,
,,
2 ft. L. deep bronzy purple.
B. —President de Bourenilles
,.
,.
U— 2 ft. "L. deep bronzy
Horl
purple.
B -rex.
M
,,
1 ft. L. beautifully marked-
Numerous varietie.'
— sceptrum. Brazil
,,
M
2 — 3 ft. L. spotted grev.
B. — tomentosa. Brazil
,,
,,
U— 2ft. L. tomentose.
See Flowering Plants
for Potf
Bertolonia marmorata. Brazil
Mcltistoniiict'iic
M
6 — 10 in. Beautiful shade-
loving plants. with deli-
cate velvety leaves.
-superba. Madagascar
M
1 ft.
Bilbergia rosea. Trop.
Bromcliaceae
S. or off-
2—3 ft.\ Epiphytic plants
Americ?
sets.
I with long convol-
B.— sanderiana. Brazil
tl
M
H ft. >ute leaves; purple
I or bronze, blotch-
B.— speciosa. ,. |
-
U ft. / ed with grey.
AXTHl'Rir.M PANDUMFULIUM.
FOLIAGE POT-PLAXTS
383
Name and Native Country.
[Hort.=Of garden origin].
Natural Order. Pro£™ted
Height and descriptive notes.
Bowenia spectabilis.
Cycndeae Su. or S
2 — 3 ft. Large, bipinnate,
Queensland
fern-like leaves.
Caladium. See Bnlhons
and Tuberous Plants
*Calathea arrecta. Eucador
Scitiiim'ncac Div.
3 ft. L. velvety bronze.
C. — grandifolia. Brazil
H
M
2 ft. L. large, round.
C. — Leitzii. Hra/il
lift. Erect habit; 1. small.
C. — Lindeniana. Peru
u
2 — 3 ft. L. beautifully mark-
ed on both sides.
C. — sanderiana. Braxil
M
M
1 ft. L. lined with pink.
C. — Makoyana. Trop.
M
M
i ft. L. with curious roun-
America
ded blotches.
C. — medeo-picta. Bra/il
„
n
lift.
C.— Veitchii Bolivia
H
n
2—3 ft. L. blotched, purple
beneath.
C. — Veitchiana. Bra/il
»1
M
1 ft. L. variegated, purple
beneath.
C. — zebrina. " Zebra
2—3 ft. L. velvety, banded
Plant," Bra/il
dark and light green.
Caraguata andreana.
Colombia
C. — musaica. Colombia
C. — Zahnii. Chiriqui
Bromcliaccac
Su. & div.
2 tt- "I Stiff convolute
I £. > leaves, prettily
' j marked.
Carludovica palmata.
Cyclanthaccae
Su. or S
4—6 ft.\
Panama-hat Plant
1 Palm like stem-
S. America
j less plants.
C. — Plumerii. S. America
4—6 ft.)
Centradenia rosea. Mexico
Mdastomaceae
C or div. j 1 ft. Pinkish leaves.
Chamaeranthemum argen-
Acanthaceae
C li— 2 ft. L. variegated.
teum. Xew Britain
C.— pictum. Bra/il
lift.
Clinogyne grandis. Malaya
Scitamincac
Div.
3— 4ft.
Conocephalus suaveolens.
Urticaceac
C
4— 6ft.
Malaya
Cordyline australis.
Liliaccac
Su. or C.
10ft. \Palm-like plants;
Xew Zealanc
1 1. green, crimson
C. — indivisa. Xew Zealand
10 ft. > or purple.
C. — terminalis. Xumerous
,,
H
5 — 8 ft. 1 L. purple an d
varieties
/ crimson.
Costus afer. Sierra Leone
Scitamincac
Div.
3 — \ ft. Fl's white.
C. -elegans. Costa Ric;
2 ft. L. velvety with dark
bands.
C. — igneus. See Flour riii^
n
Jf
Plants for Pots
C. musaicus.
n
M
li — 2 ft. L. small, narrow,
Trop. America
margined with grey.
C. — pictus. Mexic<
n
n
4 — 6 ft. L. satiny green.
glaucous beneath.
Cryptanthus Beuckeri. Brazi
Bromcliaccac
Su
8 in. L. stiff, in rosette.
C. — zebrinus. Bra/i
~
M
8 in. Transverse bands of
dark green.
C.— zonatus. Bra/i
6—8 in.
Curculigo recurvata.
Amaryllidcac
Div. or S
3 ft. Palm-like plant.
Trop. Ash
"leaves close up at night.
384
FOLIAGE POT-PLANTS
ANTHURIUM CRISTALLINUM. Silver-leaved Anthurium.
Name and Native Country.
[ Hort =Of garden origin ].
Natural Order.
How
Propagated
Height and descriptive notes.
C. — recurvata variegata.
Amai'vllideae
Div. or S
3 ft. Variegated form of
Curmeria. See
above.
Cycas circinalis. " Madu" S. Cycadaccac
Offsets 01-
3—12 ft. Palm-like plants
Ceylon and India!
S
with large feathery leaves.
C. — revoluta. China j
3—4 ft.
Cyclanthus cristatus.
Cyclct 11 tliaccac
Div.
5 — 6 ft. Large radical
Colombia
leaves.
Cyperus alternifolius.
" Umbrella Plant,"
Madagascar
C. — allernifolius variegatus.
Cypcraccac
1 Quick -growing
r plants ; feathery
2-2* ftJ leaves"
Hort
N.=Sinhalese
FOLIAGE POT-PLANTS
385
X;ime airl Native Country.
[Hort.=-Of garden origin].
C. — Papyrus. Papyrus
Grass. Palestine, etc.
Cyrtosperma Johnstonii.
Solomon Islands
Dichorisandra mosaica. Peru
D. — undata.
D. — thyrsiflora.
D.— vittata.
Peru
Bra/il
Hort
Dieff?nbachia Bowmanni.
D. — eburnea.
Natural Order.
D.- -Jenmani.
D — Leopoldii.
Brazi
Brit. Guian:ij
S. Americ;
D. — .-nagnifica. Venezueh
D — Memoria-Cortii. Horl
D. — pica. Brazi
D. — spl-ndens. Colombia
DorsUnia argentata. Brazil
Dracaena Go^seffiana,
XV. Trop. Africa
D. — Goldieana. ,,
D. — Sanderiana.
\V. Trop. Africa
D.— Victoria.
XX'. Trop. Africa
Drac^ntium (Godwinia).
See R.ilbous and Tub-
erous Plants.
Elatostema lineolatum majus
Ceylon
Episcia cupreata. Nicaragua
E. — ( Centrosolenia )
tessellata. Peruj
Eranthemum atropurpureum.
Polynesia!
E. — eldo'ado. Polynesia
E. — tricolor.
E.— versicolor ,,
Fittonia a^gyroneura. Peru
F. — gigantea. Eucador
F. — verschaffeltii. Brazil
Garnotia Fergusonii var
fastigiata.
Gymnostachyum zeylanicum.
Ceylon
Aroideae
Com nidi iiaccac
How
Propagated
Div.
Div. or C
C or Su
Height and descriptive notes.
6 — 8 ft. Requires much
moisture, and thrives
best in a swamp.
4—8 ft. L. large, arrow-
shaped, veined with rosy
red, stalks mottled, spiny
6 in. L. with mosaic-like
white lines.
6 in. L. undulated, striped
with grey.
See Flowering Plants for
Pots.
6 in. L. purplish green ;
grey stripes.
2—3 ft. }
Urticaccae
Liliaccac
Div.
of Stem
or S
Dumb-canes.
Handsome quick-
growing fleshy
herbaceous
T plants, with
I leaves variously
blotched or
variegated.
1 ft. L. with central silvery
band.
3—4 ft. Shrub with varie-
gated leaves.
6 ft. L. with yellow bands.
1 — U ft. L. slender, streak-
ed with white.
2 — 4 ft. L. broad, recurved,
white with green stripe
in centre.
Urticaccae
Gcsiicraceae
Acanthaccac
Gram i ncac
Acauthaceac
Div
C
1 ft. Herb, with leaves
much cut.
Bronze-coloured
leaves.
U ft. )
U ft. j
I Shrubs with variegated
v and coloured leaves
4—8 ft. high.
6 in. L. white-veined.
1-2 ft. )L. oval, purplish
8 in. j with pink veins.
1£ ft.; graceful, slender
bushy grass.
8 in. L. oval, pink veins.
386
FOLIAGE POT-PLANTS
Name and Native Country.
LHort.=Of garden origin].
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Height and descriptive notes.
Heliconia aureo-striata
Scitamineae
Div.
4—6 ft. PI an tain -like
New Britain
plants.
H.~ illustris Hort
,,
,,
4—6 ft. L. with yellow
veins.
H. -spectabilis.
H
n
4 — 6 ft. L. large, bronze.
Trop. America
Hoffmannia discolor. Mexico
Rnbiaceae
Q
ift. L. bronze, satiny green
H. — (Higginsia)
M
lj — 2ft. Leaves variegated.
Ghiesbreghtii. Mexico
tender, lanceolate.
Hoffmannia (Higginsia)
(1
M
1-2 ft. L. deep bronze
refulgens. S. America
Homalomena picturata.
A roideac
Div.
1 ft.-.
Colombia
Ornamental
H. — rubescens. India
M
?i
2 ft. ," variegated leaves
H.— Wallisi. Colombia
HftJ
Jacaranda (ilicifolia. Panama
Bigtwniaceae
S or C
2 — 6 ft. Ornamental fern-
like foliage
Kaemperia Gilbertii. Burma
Scitamineae
Div.
•i ft. Leaves banded with
white
Kalanchoe flammea.
Crassulaccae
C
1 ft. L. succulent, deeply
"Life Plant." Somaliland
cut
Karatas fulgens. Brazil
Bromcliaccae
Offsets
1 ft. \ Sheathing leaves.
K. — Innocentii striata. Hort
H
n
1 ft. ^growing in the form
K. — spectabilis. Brazil
M
1 ft. j of a bird's nest
Ledenbergia roseo-aenea.
Phytolaccaceac
C
1—2 ft. L. coppery-green.
Central America
violet underneath
Leea amabilis var. splendens.
Ampclideae
,,
3 — 4 ft. L. bronzy-green.
white central band
Ludovia crenifolia. Brazil
Cyclanthaccae
Div.
3 -4 ft. Palm-like plant
Macrozamia Fraseri.
Australia
M. — Moorei
Cycadeae
Offsets
or S.
3—5 ft."} (;racefui fern-
3_5 ft. 5 like plants
Maranta imperial is
M. — insignis
Scitamineae
Div.
iTJ3 ^ \ Stemless plants
M. — makoyana
M . — M assan gean urn
"
,,
1 with large,
f |-J beautifully
> marked leaves:
M. — polita
"
"
j £- these close up
M. — s ngoreana. Hort
M. — tigrina
"
»
l^ft / centre at night
Nephthytis picturata. Congo
A roideac
n
lg ft. L. large, handsomely
marked with dark satiny
bands
Ophiopogon intermedium.
Ceylon, India, etc.
O. — japonicus Japan
O. — japonicus variegatus.
Haenwdoraceac
H
,,
1 ft> } Grass-like leaves ;
j ,, Especially suited for
1 ft' J snac^ecl situations
Japan
Oxalis bupleurifolia. Brazil
Geraniaceae
C
1— H ft. Leaf-like petioles
Panax crispum. Brazil
Araliaceae
M
2 — 3 ft. L. pinnate
P. — elegans. Australia
M
2—3 ft. L. pinnate
P. — rmiltifidum.
1 ft. L. like parsley
Pandanus Sanderi.
Pandanaceae
Offsets
3—6 ft. Handsome varie-
gated leaves
FOLIAGE POT-PLANTS
387
Name and Native Country.
[ Hort.«=O» garden origin J.
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Height and descriptive notes.
Pandanus Veitchii. Polyne-
Pandanaceac
Offsets
2—3 ft. Like P. sanderi,
sia
but less hardy.
Panicum plicatum. Trop.
Graniineae
Div.
2 ft. A grass with long
Asia, &c.
furrowed broad leaves.
Pandanophyllum (Mapania)
Cyperaceac
,,
Grass-like plant.
Wendlandii
Peliosanthes Teta. India.
Haeniodoraceae
Div.
1 ft. Stemless;!. plicate
or S
Pellionia daveauana.
I 'rticaccac
C
i— 1 ft. \ Creeper
Cochin China.
[• L. variegated,
P. — pulchra. Cochin China.
M
h ft. j oval, fleshv.
Peperomia argyreia.
Piperaceae
Div.
1ft. X
S. America
or C
Succulent
P.— Fraseri.
"
M
10 in. > variegated
P. — magnified. Hort
H
1 ft. I oval leaves
P. — Saundersii. Brazil
M
10 in. /
Phalaris arundinacea
Graniineae
M
10 in. See Bamboos and
vanegatus.
Grasses
Philodendron andreanum.
A roideae
C
3 — 5 ft. Large beautiful
Colombia
velvety leaves
P. — gloriosum.
,,
2—3 ft. L. large, cordate,
white veins and pink
margins.
P. — Mamei. Eucador
,.
„
2—3 ft. L. variegated,
large, cordate
P.-Selloum. Bra/il
M
(1
2 — 3 ft. L. handsomely cut
Phrynium variegatum.
Scitamincae
Div.
2 ft. L. handsomely varie-
Variegated Arrowroot
or Tu.
gated
Phyllanthus nivosus.
Enpliorbiaceae
C
2 ft. L. mottled with white
Polynesia
Phyllotaenium (Xanthosoma)
A roideae
Div.
1£ ft. L. large, handsome,
Lindeni. Colombia
sagittate, with white veins
Pothos. See Ornamental
Climbers for Pots.
Rhoeo discolor. Central
Coniinelinaceae
C 1 ft. Leaves with purple
America
edges, also underneath
Ruellia colorata. Moluccas
Acanthaccae
•i ft. L. copper-coloured
S.tnsevieria cylindrica.
Haeniodoraceae
Div. or
3—4 ft. L. cylindrical.
Trop. Africa
leaf-C
erect
S. — guineensis. Trop. Africa
M
3 ft. ") L. flat, s w o r d-
S. — zeylanica. Ceylon,
t1
3 ft. j shaped.
India, etc.
Schismatoglottis decora
A roideae
Div.
5 ft. L, lanceolate, hand-
Borneo
somely variegated.
S. neoguineensis.
n
1 ft. L. large, oval, blotch-
NY\v Guinea
ed with grey.
S— picta. Java
M
1 ft. L. dark-green. 2 grey
bands.
S. — siamensis. Siam
.»
-,
1 ft. L. lanceolate, spotted
Schizocasia (Alocasia) Portei.
5 — 8 ft. L. large, pinnati-
Xew Guinea
fid, sagittate.
Stangeria paradoxa. Xatal
Cycadcae
Offsets
3 ft. Handsome fern-like
plant.
388
FLOWERING POT-PLANTS
Name and Native Country.
[ Hort.=Of garden origin ].
Natural Order.
How
Propagated/
Height and descriptive notes.
Stenandrium Lindeni. Brazil!
Steudnera colocasiaefolia.
Martaban
S. — discolor. India
Acantliaceae
Aroideae
C
Div.
Acanthaccac
C
Aroideae
Div.
Bromcliciccac
Offsets
Strobilanthes dyerianus.
Burma
Syngonium podophyllun albo-i
lineatum.i
Tillandsia pulchella. Brazil Bromcli
T. — splendens. Guiana,
Tradescantia fuscata. Brazil' Coninieli naccac
I
T. — reginae. Hort .,
Zamioculcas Loddigesii. Arodicac
Trop. Africa
Zebrina pendula. Mexico Comnieliiiaccae
Zeuxme regia. " Iru-raja" S.
Ceylonj
Zingiber D'arceyi.
"Variegated Ginger"!
C or
Div.
C
Div.
C
1 ft. Variegated leaves.
2 ft. Leaves peltate, oval
2 ft. L. peltate, blotched
with purple beneath
1 — 2 ft. Crimson velvety
leaves: requires shade
8 in. Leaves pinnate, varie-
gated.
I ft. Epiphytes ; ornamen-
tal- coloured leaves.
I ft. L. with transverse
violet bands.
•i ft. L. clothed with dark
red hairs.
I ft. L. mottled white with
violet centre.
Pinnate leaves, 2 — 3 ft. long
Small herbaceous creeper
with ornamental varie-
gated foliage.
Tubers j ft. L. dark green, with
white line down centre.
2 ft. L. radical, variegated.
FLOWERING POT-PLANTS
SUITABLE FOR SHADED SITUATIONS UP TO 2,000 OR 3,000 FT.
[ C.=cuttings; S.— -seeds; Div.=division; Su.=suckers].
N'anie and Native Country
[Hort.— Of garden origin]
Natural Order.
Acalypha sanderiana. Papua Enphorbiacd
Achimenes. See Bnlbonsand
Tuberous Plants'
/Echmea fulens. Guiana
Bi'oincliaccae
Gesueraccae
Aroideae
. — paniculigera.
W. Indies •
PE.. — spectabilis.
Guatemala W
/Eschynanthus Hildebrandii.
Burma
Amydrium humile. Borneo;
Anthurium Archduke
Joseph. Hort!
A. — carneum. Hort'
A. — chelseiense. Hort
A. — desmetianum. Hort
How
Propagated
Div.
Offsets or
S
Height, Colour of Flowers, etc.
4 — 5 ft. Fl's in long crim-
son pendant tails.
2| ft. Deep rich red.
1 — 2 ft. Rose-coloured.
24 ft.
2 ft. Scarlet, tipped with-
black.
1 ft. White.
2 ft. Bright rose.
Light rose colour.
li ft. Crimson.
2 ft. Carmine-scarlet.
S.-=Sinhalese
FLOWER1XG POT-PLAXTS
389
N'anie and Native Country.
[Hort.=Of garden origin].
A. — ferrierense.
A.— scherzerianum.
Gi
Numerous varieties and
hybrids
Aphelandra nitens.
Colombia
Centropogon lucyanus.
Hort
Clerodendron macrosiphon.
Zanzibar
Cochliostema jacobianum
Eucador
Costus igneus. Bra/il
Cyanotis barbata. Nepal
C. — kewensis. Travancore
Dalechampia roezliana.
Mexico
Dichorisandra thyrsiflora.
Bra/il
Euadenia eminens.
W Trop. Africa
Oriffinia hyacinthina. Bra/il
Impatiens flaccida var.
Ceylon
I. — mirabilis. Malaya
I. — repens. "Gal-demata "
Ceylon
I — sultani. /an/ibar
Isoloma. See Bulbous dud
Tuberous Plants
Karatas Innocentii. Bra/il
K. — spectabilis
Musa coccinea. " Flowering
Banana." China
Nematanthus longipes. Bra/il
Pitcairnea alta. W. Indies
P.— coerulea. Chili.
P. — corallina. Colombia
P. — muscosa. Bra/il
Saintpaulia ionantha
"African Violet,"
Central Africa
Sceutellaria mociniana.
Mexico
S. — violacea. Ceylon, etc.
Siphocampylus elegans.
New Grenada
S. — tovariensis. Vene/uelaj
Spathiphyllum candidum.
Colombia
\r\
in].
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Height, Colour of Flowers, etc.
Hort
Aroideae
Offsets
2 ft. Bright-red.
or S
••
44
I fc. Spathe large, scarlet,
:mala
or crimson, etc.
s and
Spadix spiral
Acnnthacciie C
Catnpannlaceae
Vcrhcimcciic
Coiiiiiit'liiiiiccac Div.
Scita mi neat'
Com melt naceac Div. or C
Euphorbiaccae C
Commelinaceae
Capparideae
Amarylliileae Div.
cae \ C. or S
C. or S
Bromeliaceae Offsets
..
Scitmnincae Su.
Gesneraceae C
Bromeliaceae Div. or
Su.
Gesneraceae
Labi at <ic
Campantilaceae
A roideae
Le if-C
or div.
S or div.
C
Div.
I £ ft. Leaves shining, dark
green ; fl's scarlet.
1-1 ft. Crimson, tubular.
2—3 ft. Snow-white.
1 £ ft. Fl's in large head,
blue and pink.
2 ft. Bright orange ;
leaves purple beneath.
i ft. Blue.
i ft. Pink.
2—3 ft. Pink and yellow.
3 ft. Bright-blue
1? ft. Large, pale-yellow
flowers
I ft. Beautiful blue, clustrd.
1 ft. White
2—3 ft. Yellow
Steins creeping. Fl's bright
yellow
I ft. Scarlet
I ft. Bright orange-red
1 ft. Red and violet-blue
3 — 5 ft. Spathes bright red
2 ft. Scarlet
3 ft. Red; long loose sprays.
3 ft. Blue
2 ft. Crims3n
1 ft. Red
i ft. Beautiful violet-blue
flo \ ers; 1. hairy, round
or heart-shaped, fleshy.
li ft. Scarlet.
1 ft. Violet-purple.
2 ft. Bright red.
2 ft. Scarlet.
1 ft. White, scented.
390
CLIMBERS
Name and Native Country.
[ Hort.=Of garden origin ].
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Height, Colour of Flowers, etc.
S — cannaefolium
A roidcac
Div.
1 ft. White.
Trop. America
S.— Patnii. Colombia
it
1 ft. White.
Spironema fragran*. Mexico
Com nicliiiaceae
S &'biv.
1 ft. White; spiral stamens.
Strelitzia augusta. " Bird of
Scitamineac
Su.orDiv.
6—10 ft. White, crimson
Paradise" Flower;
and purple,
S. Africa
S. — regina. S. Africa
,,
M
3- — 5 ft. Orange and purple.
Tacca cristata. Trop. Asia
Tillandsia Lindeni. Peru
Taccaceae
Bromcliaccac
Div.
Div. & Su.
2 ft. Brownish-purple.
la ft. Viokt, bracts rosy.
T. — nitida. Jamaica
n
"
2 ft. Blue ; 1. convolute.
T. — pulchra.
1 ft. Pink.
Trop. America
T. — (Vriesia) recurvifolia.
M
n
] ft. Blue, bracts rosy-
purple.
T. — Roezlii. Peru
n
"
li ft. Rosy.
ORNAMENTAL CLIMBERS ADAPTED FOR
GROWING IN POTS
SUITABLE FOR Low ELEVATIONS.
[C.=cuttings ; S.=seed ; Tu.=tubers ; Div-=division].
Name and Native Country. XT , , „ ,
[Hort.-=0f garden origin]. Natural Order'
How
Propagated.
Remarks.
Antigonon leptopus. Mexico
A. — leptopus albiflora.
Aristolochia elegans. Brazil
Asparagus plumosus.
"Asparagus Fern " S. Afr.
A. — Sprengeri. Natal
Cissus discolor. Bengal
Polygonaceae
A ristolocliiaceac
Liliaceac
Atnpelideae
S or C
S or Tu.
C
Beautiful bright-pink H's.
White flowers.
Fl's saucer -shapedr
curiously marked.
Handsome delicate foliage
Coarser foliage, 1. larger.
Young 1. velvety-purple.
Dichorisandra thyrsiflora. i Comnielinaccae C or Div.
Brazil!
Dioscoreaargyrea. Colombiaj Dioscoraccae \ Tu.
D. — multicolor. Trop. „
America
Gloriosa superba. Trop. Liliaceae .,
Asia and Africa
Hoya carnosa. i Asch'piadcae \ C
" Wax Flower." Trop. Asia;
Manettia bicolor.
Marcgravia paradoxa. Hort
Paullinia thalictrifolia.
S. America
Philodendron squamiferum.
Sapiudaccae
A roidcac
"
Beautilul deep-blue fl's.
Large variegated leaves
Fl's large, beautiful
orange-red.
Fl's in clusters, wax-like;
also a variegated variety
Small twiner. Fl's scarlet
and yellow.
Large handsome flat
leaves, closely adhering
to walls.
Small twiner ; leaves very
like Adiantum.
L. lobed, petioles with
fleshy pinkish spines.
CEYLOX PLANTS
391
Name and Native Country.
[Hort.=Of garden origin].
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Remarks.
Philodendron carderi. Hort
Aroideac
c
L. Delicate satiny-green.
with dark bands.
Pothos argenteus. Borneo
,,
Silvery leaves.
P.— reticulata.
..
,,
L. heart-shaped, spotted
pale green.
Smilax argyrea. Bolivia
Liliaceae
Div.
L. blotched with white
Stephanotis floribunda.
Asclt'piadcaf
C
Fl's tubular, waxy-white.
scented.
SELECTED ORNAMENTAL PLANTS OR SHRUBS
INDIGENOUS TO CEYLON.
(For Palms, Orchids and Ferns, see under their respective heads).
S.-— Shrub. A.=Annual. H. P.= Herbaceous Perennial. T.=Tree. Cl.=Climber. Cr.=Creeper.
W. Cl.=Wooly Climber.
Name.
Natural Order. See above. I Remarks.
Abutilon asiaticum.
"Anoda." (L.c.)
Aeschynanthus zeylanica.
(U.c.)
Alocasia macrorhiza variegata
.(L.
Alpinia nutans var. sericea.
' Rankiriya." (L.c.)
Alyxia zeylanica. (Lc.)|
Amorphopallus campanulat us .
" Kidaran." (L.c.)
Aneilema giganteum. (L.c.)
Anoectochilus regalis.
" Wanaraja "
( Moist region; I.e.)
Ardisia missionis. (L.c.)!
Barleria involucrata. (U.C.)
B. — mysorensis. " Katu-
nelu." ( Dry region)
B. — Prionitis. " Katu-
karandu " (Dry region)
Berberis aristata. (I'.c.)
Burmannia disticha.
"\Ia-diya-ja\vala." (L.c.)
Calophanes Nagchana.
(Dry region)
Capparis zeylanica.
(Dry region)
Malvaceae S 2 — 4 ft. ; fl's yellow.
Gcsncraceae P Cr. 2 — 2\ ft. ; fl's orange-yellow
Aroideac H P 3 — 4 ft.; very large varie-
gated hastate leaves.
Scitamineae H P 5 — 6ft. Large leaves; fl's
pinkish white.
Apocynaccac ' S '3 — 5 ft.; fl's pale yellow.
Aroideac HP Tuberous; very large
leaves and fl's; fl. foetid
3 ft.; fl's pale blue.
Ground orchid; beautifully
marked leaves. Moist
shaded places.
S 6 — 8 ft.; fl's in clusters, pale
pink.
S 3 — 4 ft. ; fl's brilliant purple-
blue.
S ! 3 ft.; fl's bright violet-blue.
S 2—3 ft.; fl's bright pale
orange-yellow.
S ; 5—6 ft. fl's bright yellow.
H P : 1—1 i ft. fl's. bright blue.
Commdinaceae H P
Orchideac H P
Myrsineae
Acanthaccac
Berberidae
Burmanniaceae
Acaiithaccae
Capparideac
S j 3 ft; fl's pale blue.
S 6—8 ft. Beautiful pink and
white fl's.
L.c.=Low-country generally. U.c.=iUp-counto'. I.e.— Intermediate elevation.
392
CEYLON PLANTS
Name.
Natural Order.
See heading
Remarks.
Cassia auriculata.
Legit miiiosae
s
4—6 ft.; fl's bright yellow.
"Ranavvara." (Dry region]
Cassia occidentale.
„
s
3—4 ft.; fl's bright orange
"Peni-tora." (U.c.]
yellow.
Chirita Moonii. (L.c.]
Gesneraceae
s
2—3 ft. Large mauve-violet
fl's; on rocks.
Clerodendron serratum.
Verbenaccae
s
4 — 8 ft. ; fl's purplish blue.
" Ken-henda." (L.c
Clitoria ternatea.
Legtttnttwsae
A. Cl.
8—10 ft. ; fl's bright blue.
"Nil-katarodu." (L.c.]
Costus speciosus.
Scitawincac
H. P.
4 — 5 ft.; fl's white and yel-
•'Tebu" (L.c.)
low ; showy leaves.
Crossandra undulaefolia.
Acantliaceae
S
2 ft. ; fl's salmon-yellow.
(L.c.)
Crotolaria Walkeri. (U.c.)
Legumitwsae
s
4 to 6 ft. ; fl's striated
yellow.
Curculigo recurvata.
Ainaryllideae
H. P.
2—3 ft. Large palm like
" Waga-pol." (L.c.)
leaves.
Cyanotis obtusa. L.c.
Coinnieliiiaceae
H. P.
1 ft.; fl's violet-blue.
Cycas circinalis.
Cycadeae
T
10—15 ft. Palm-like fea-
"Madu" (L.c.)
thery leaves.
Cynoglossum micranthus.
Boragineae
H. P.
2—3 ft.; fl's deep blue.
(U.c.
Cyphostigma pulchellum.
Scitaniineae
H. P.
6—10 in.; fl's bright pale
(L.c.
pink.
Datura fastuosa.
Solanaccac
A
2—3 ft. ; fl's large, white.
'Attana" U.c.
Daedalacanthus montanus.
Acanthaceae
S
2 — 3 ft. ; fl's pale violet-
(I.e.)
blue-
Dianella ensifolia. (L.c.
Li lift cene
H. P.
3—5 ft.; fl's pale-blue, fol-
lowed by pretty blue
berries.
Didymocarpus zeylanicus.
Gesueraceae
H. P.
j ft. ; fl's white and purple.
U.c.
Ferns, See Ceylon Ferns
Exacum macranthum.
Gentianaccae
A
1—2 ft. ; fl's large, deep
(U.c. open patnas)
purplish blue.
Filicium decipiens.
Bttrseraceac
T
Ornamental as small
4 Pehimhia." (L.c.)
plants; fern-like leaves.
Glonosa superba.
Liliaceae
H. Cl.
4 — 6 ft. ; large handsome
" Niyangalla " (L.c.)
orange yellow fl's.
Glossocarya scandens.
Verbenaceae
W. Cl.
Fl's white ; a beautiful
(Dry region)
climber or bush.
Gymnostachyum zeylanicum.
Acanthaceae
H. P.
j ft. Leaves variegated
(L.c.)
with white veins.
Hedyotis Lawsoniae. (U.c )
Rnbiaceae
S
5—7 ft. ; fl's white.
Hibiscus angulostis var grandi-
Malvaceae,
H. P.
5—6 ft. ; fl's large, bright
florus. (U.c.)
vellow with brown eve.
Humboldtia laurifolia.
Legit ui inosae
S. or
12—15 ft. ; fl's pinkish
" Gal-karanda." (L.c.
T
white, scented.
Hypericum mysorense. (U.c.)
Hypericaceae
S
5—8 ft. ; fl's bright yellow.
Impatiens acaulis. (U.c.)
(reraniaceae
H P
8 — 12 in. Fl's bright rosy
pink.
I. — cuspidata bipartite. (U.c.)
,,
,,
3 — 5 ft. ; fl's pale pink or
nearly white.
.c.=Lo\v-country generally. U.c.= Up-country. I. e.= Intermediate elevation.
CEYLON PLANTS
393
Name.
Natural Order.
See heading.
Remarks.
I.— elongata. (U.c.)
Geranirtceae
H F
About 2 ft. ; whole plant
tinged with red ; fl's
bright rose-pink.
I.— flaccida.
.,
A
2 ft. ; fl's bright mauve
"Kudalu-mal." (L.c.)
and pink ; also a pure
white variety.
I. — Hookeriana. (U.c.)
H F
3 — 5 ft.; fl's large, white,
veined with red.
I. - leptopoda. (U.c.)
A
2—3 ft. ; fl's pale pink, in
season all the year.
I. — repens. "G;»l-demata"
,,
Cr.
Fl's bright yellow.
(L.c.)
|
I.-Walkeri. (U.c )
„
H
2—3 ft. ; fl's pale scarlet.
sometimes yellow.
Ipomaea Bona-nox.
Convolvulaceae
\V. Cl. L. large, fl's white.
"Alanga."
I. — palmata.
M
L. compound, fl's dull violet
Ixora coccinea. (L.c.) Rnbiaccac
S
4-6 ft. ; fl's scarlet, v. showy.
I. — jucunda. (L.c.) ,.
S
10—12 ft.; fl's bright coral
red.
Jussiaea suffruticosa . (L.c.); OtiaRraccae
H P
4 ft. ; fl's yellow.
Justicia betonica. Acaiithaccae
S
4 ft. Pale violet.
" Sudu-puruk '' (L.c.)
Kendrickia walkeri (U.c.)
Mclastomaceae
Cl.
Fl's bright rose ; epiphytic
climbing shrub, v. showy.
Klugia notoniana.
GcsHcracau'
A
1 ft; rTs deep blue.
"Dyanilla." (U.c.)
Lawsonia alba. Tree Migno-
Lythraceae
S
5 — 6 ft. ; fl's creamy white.
nette (Dry region)
scented.
Melastoma malabathricum.
Melastomaceac
M
10—12 ft.; fl's violet-mauve
Maha-ho\vitiya. (L.c.)
Memecylon umbellatum.
M
7—8 ft.; fl's bright blue,
Kora-kaha. (L.c.)
all along the branches.
Mundulea suberosa Leguminosae
S or T
10—15 ft ; fl's bright pink-
"Gal-burutu." (Dry region)
ish violet.
Nepenthes distillatoria.
Nepeiithaceac
Cl.
5—8 ft. Elongation of leaf-
Pitclier plant: " Bandura-
tips formed into pitchers.
wel." S. (L.c)
O(:>hiopogon intermedius.
Haemodoraceac
H P
1 ft. Grass-like leaves;
(L.c.)
moist shady places. Fl's
dingy white.
Osbeckia buxifolia. (U.c.)
Melastomaceae
S
4—6 ft.; fl's rich inauve
O. — rubicunda. (U.c.)
,,
S
4 — 6 ft.; fl's brilliant purp-
lish crimson.
Oxystelma esculentum
Asclepiadcac
H P
Semi-aquatic ; fl's veined
" Kulap-palai," T. (Dry
with pink.
region)
Palms, See Ceylon Palms
Pavetta indica. (U.c.)
Rnhuuttit
S
4 — 6 ft.; fl's white, profuse.
Phyllanthus myrtifolius.
Eitplwrbinceae
S
6 — 8 ft. ; small myrtle-like
a Ceylon Myrtle. (L.c.»
leaves ; fl's purplish red.
Plumbago zeylanica. " Ela-
Plnmbagineae
S
2—3 ft. ; fl's white
netul." (L.c.)
Rhaphidophora decursiva.
Aronlcnc
Cr
30—40 ft. Large spread-
"Dada-kehel." (I.e.)
ing, deeply cut leaves.
L.c.=Low-country generally. U.c.=Up-country I. e.=Intermediate elevation. T.=Taniil
394
CEYLON PLANTS
Xame.
Natural Order. i See heading
Ericaceae T
Coiivolvulaceae Cl.
Rhododendron arboreum.
Rivea ornata. " Muchuddai,"
T. (Dry region)
Sansevieria zeylanica.
" Niyanda." (L.c.
& dry region)
Sophora foment osa. " Mudu- LcgHtnitiosae
murunga." (L.c.)
S. — violacea. (L.c.)i ,,
Stachytarpheta mutabilis.
" Balu-nakutu." (L.c.
and dry region)
Strobilanthes helicoides.
(U.c.)
S. ^Hookerii. (U.c.)
Haemodoraccae H. P.
S
Verbenacfae H. P.
Acaiithaccae
S. — pulcherrimus. (U.c.)
Tephrosia maxima.
(Dry region)
Thespesia Lampas.
(Dry region)
Torenia asiatica. " Kotala-
wel." (U.c.)
Vaccinium Leschenaulhi.
"Boralu,"S. (U.c.)1
Woodfordia floribunda.
"Malitta." (I.e.)
Wrightia zeylanica.
" Sudu-idda." (L.c.)
Lcgnmhiosae ', H. P.
Malvaceae S
Scrophnlari- Cr
aceae
Vacciniaceae S or T
Lylhraccac S
Apocynaceae S
Remarks.
Large showy fl's; Ap.-July.
On rocks in dry districts;
fl's white, scented.
2 — 3 ft. Sword-shaped
variegated succulent
leaves.
8 — 10 ft. Foliage grey
tomentose.
3 ft. Fl's violet.
2—3 ft. ; fl's pink.
3—5 ft. Fl's violet with
white tube ; very showy.
2—4 ft. ; fl's pure white,
with purple veins.
3 — 6 ft. Fl's pale pink and
violet.
1—2 ft. Fl's bright pale-
pink.
6—8 ft. ; fl's bright yellow,
crimson centre
Fl's dark purple, tube pale
yellow.
8—12 ft.; fl's bright dark
pink; Feb., Mar. & Sept.
6—8 ft. ; fl's orange red.
3 — 6 ft.; fl's waxy, pure
white.
L.c.=Low-CDUtitry generally. U.c.=Up-country. I.e.=Intermediate elevation.
S=Sinhalese, 2— Tamil.
CHAPTER XVIII.
SELECTIONS OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS, TREES, ETC.,
SUITABLE FOR UP-COUNTRY.
ORXAMEXTAL FLOU'ERIXG TREES:-
[S.=Sinhalese ; r.=Tamil].
Acacia dealbata. (Leguininosae). "Silver Wattle." — A small
Australian tree with finely cut leaves, distinguished from other
species of the same genus by the silvery-white under-side of the
leaves. Very ornamental when in flower, viz., during February
to March and July to August, with its large heads of yellow fragrant
blossom. An objection to the tree, however, is its habit of sending
up numerous suckers, which are difficult to eradicate. Commonly
grown at hill stations in India and Ceylon. Propagated by seed
or suckers.
A. — Baileyana. — A beautiful flowering and foliage tree of
New South Wales, characterized by slender shoots and bluish-green
leaves, not unlike A. dealbata. It bears very long sprays of rich
yellow flowers, and is grown in France commercially for the sake
of the latter. The tree is grown on Fairtield Estate, Lindula,
and elsewhere in Ceylon.
A. cultiformis. (Knife-formed, in reference to the form of
the phyllodes). "Knife-leaved Acacia." — A small tree or large
shrub, with pale yellow flowers, produced in the dry weather twice
a year, and small oblong glaucous phyllodes which end in a small
sharp prickle. The tree is also ornamental on account of its
foliage.
A.— decurrens. (Running down, in allusion to the union of
the leaves with the stem). Common, or Black Wattle. A large
Australian tree, well-established at Hakgala and elsewhere up-
country ; yields a valuable tanning bark and useful timber. It is
a quick-grower, reaching a height of 40 to 50 feet in a few years,
and its fragrant yellow flowers, produced in the dry months, render
it an ornamental tree. The seeds are small, 1,790 weighing only
an ounce.
396 SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUXTRY
A.— longifolia. (Long-leaved). "Sydney Golden Wattle."—
A small spreading tree, very ornamental when in blossom, viz.,
during February to March, and July to August, the flowers being
pale-yellow.
A.— -pycnantha. (Dense-flowered). "Golden Wattle" or
"Broad-leaved Wattle." — A medium-sized tree, with undivided
leaves (phyllodes), native of Southern Australia. Very ornamental
during the dry season, when it bears masses of yellow blossom.
It has flowered in Hakgala Gardens when only two or three
years old. For tanning purposes, its bark ranks as one of the
most valuable of Wattle-barks.
Callistemon lanceolata. (Myrtaceae). Bottle-brush Tree. — A
small tree with stiff, narrow leaves, native of Australia. It blossoms
all the year round, but chiefly after the rains, when its scarlet
flowers, crowded on spikes of the old wood in the form of a brush,
are very attractive. Propagated by seed, which are very minute
and should be sown in pots.
Calophyllum Walkeri. (G 1 1 It i ferae). "Kina," S.— This is the
familiar mountain "Kina" of Ceylon, a large handsome tree with
stiff coriaceous leaves, bearing from January to April a profusion
of pinkish-white, sweet-scented flowers. It is of slow growth, and
is propagated by seed.
Elaeocarpus glandulifera. (Tiliaceae). — A medium-sized tree,
very handsome when in blossom, being then literally covered with
racemes of creamy-white flowers.
Eucalyptus ficifolia. (Myrtaceae}. Scarlet-flowering Gum
Tree. — A small tree, native of South- West Australia, perhaps the
most showy of the Eucalyptus family. VON MUELLER mentions it as
worthy of cultivation for the sake of its magnificent trusses of
crimson flowers, irrespective of its claims as a shade or avenue
tree."
Hymenosporum flavum. (Pillosporaceae). — A small tree of
Eastern Australia, introduced about 1882 into Hakgala Gardens,
Ceylon, where it is now well established. It bears during the dry
weather a profusion of small pale-yellow flowers. Propagated
by seed.
Meliosma Arnottiana. (Sab/aceae). — A moderate-sized tree,
indigenous to the montane zone of Ceylon; it bears a profusion of
creamy-white flowers in April, being deciduous in January. DK.
TRIMEN said of it : "A great ornament to the montane forests when
covered with its sheets of cream-coloured blossoms."
ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING TREES
397
Pittosporum undulatum. (I'lllos'poi 'tn t'tie). "Victorian
Laurel." — A small Australian tree, introduced and established at
Hakgala Gardens, bearing in March or April a profusion of
fragrant cream-coloured flowers.
STKNOCAR1TS SINTATl'S. FI.OxVKKS ScAKI.KT.
Rhododendron arboreum. (Ericaceae). "Maha-ratmal" S. —
A small tree, 15 to 30 feet high, common in a wild state in the
montane zone of Ceylon above 5,000 feet. Very conspicuous when
bearing its large dark-crimson or pink flowers, from April to July.
398 SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY
Stenocarpus sinuatus. (Proteaceae). "Fire Tree" or "Tulip
Tree" of Queensland. — An erect tree, 40 to 50 feet high, very showy
when bearing its large clusters of scarlet flowers. It has been
established in Peradeniya Gardens since 1883, also at Hakgala
Gardens. Flowers during the dry weather, but has not yet set fruit
in Ceylon. Suited to elevations of 1,500 to 4,000 feet.
Sterculia acerifolia. (Sterculiaccae). "Flame Tree. " — A
moderate-sized tree with large shining, angular leaves, native of
Southern Australia, introduced into Ceylon in 1882. In cool shade,
it grows and flowers at comparatively low elevations, but is more
suited to the higher altitudes, thriving up to 5,500 feet in Ceylon.
It produces in May and June, when bare of leaves, large masses of
brilliant red blossom. Propagated by cuttings, or by seed when
procurable.
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES.
Acacia decurrens. (Leguminosae). Black or Tan Wattle. —
A handsome tree, 40 to 60 feet high, native chiefly of Eastern
Australia ; thrives between 4,000 and 6,000 feet on poor land, but
grows best in rich soil. The tree has of late become popular at
the higher elevations in Ceylon for planting amongst Tea for the
purpose of green- manuring or windbreaks ; it affords excellent
fuel. (See Up-country Flowering trees.)
A.— Melanoxylon. Blackwood Tree, or "Leafless Acacia."—
A large handsome tree, native of Southern Australia, characterized
by usually having phyllodes only for leaves, rarely bearing pinnate
leaves except in the young state. It furnishes a handsome and
excellent timber, "one of the best in Victoria for railway carriages,
etc." The late MR. J. K. NOCK stated: "Wood splits well for
shingles ; the tree is a greedy feeder, roots spreading a consider-
able distance, being consequently injurious to any plants growing
near it."
Acrocarpus fraxinifolius. (Lcguuiiiwsae). A medium-sized
tree with feathery foliage which is of a beautiful crimson tint \vhen
young, usually about February. Introduced from India into
Hakgala Gardens about 1890.
Agathis (Dammara) robusta. See Foliage Trees for Low and
Medium elevations.
Ailanthus glandulosus. (Simarubaceae). — A very handsome
tree, 50 to 60 ft. high, with long pinnate leaves.
Araucaria Bidwillii. (Coniferae). "Monkey Puzzle." — A large
stately tree with flat scale-like, stiff, pointed leaves ; grows to a
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES 399
great height in its native country. Thrives at Hakgala Gardens,
Ceylon. See Foliage Trees for Low elevations.
A. Cookii. See Foliage Trees for Low elevations.
A. Cunningham!!. Moreton-Bay Pine. — A tall, erect tree of
Eastern Australia, etc., with short, rather slender, branches. Very
graceful.
A.— excelsa. Norfolk Island Pine. — A beautiful symmetrical
tree, with regular tiers of short horizontal spreading branches,
attaining to a great height; grown in Europe as an ornamental
pot-plant in hot-houses. Thrives at Hakgala. See Foliage Trees
for Line elevations.
Bucklandia populnifolia. (Hanianielidcae). — A handsome tree,
with large leathery, glossy leaves, native of the Himalayas. Thrives
at Hakgala Gardens.
Castanospermum australe. (Legiiininosae). Moreton Bay
Chestnut. — A moderate-sized tree with handsome pinnate leaves,
native of Queensland.
Casuarina torulosa. (Casitarineae). She-Oak, or Beef-wood.
— A handsome leafless tree, with cord-like branchlets representing
leaves. Of several species, this is one of the most suited to
the higher elevations.
Cedrela Toona. (Meliaceae). Red Cedar, Indian Mahogany. —
A very handsome tree on account of its long graceful, pinnate
leaves, which when young are of a crimson tint. It grows to a
height of 40 to 50 feet, and yields fine timber, which is of
commercial importance.
Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana. (Coniferae). "Funeral" or
"Weeping" Cypress. — An elegant tree with graceful drooping
branchlets; a favourite for planting in cemeteries.
C — Knightiana. — A very elegant tall tree, with drooping
feathery branchlets. distinguished by a glaucous hue. It is a
native of Mexico, and has become thoroughly established at the
higher elevations in Ceylon.
C. — Lawsoniana. — See Chamaecyparis.
C.— macrocarpa. "Monterey Cypress." — A large, handsome,
quick-growing tree, similar to C. Knightiana, but distinguished
from it by its more vertical and pointed branches, also darker
hue.
C. pyramidalis. — A tall tree with somewhat erect whippy
branches, considered to be a variety of the following species.
400 SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY
C. — sempervirens. Common Cypress. — A pyramid-shaped
tree, with horizontal branches and feathery drooping foliage,
native of South Europe, where it grows to a great height. It is
especially ornamental in a young state. Thrives up-country.
Elaeocarpus glandulifera. — A medium-sized tree with striking
foliage. See Flowering Trees for Up-country.
Eucalyptus citriodora. (Myrtaceae). Lemon-scented Gum-
tree. — A handsome slender tree with a smooth white bark, native
of Queensland. Its leaves have an agreeable lemon-scented odour
E. globulus. Blue Gum-tree. A large tree, commonly grown
up-country for fuel and windbelts. Very handsome on account of
the glaucous-blue colour of the young leaves. Thrives best between
4,000 and 6,000 feet. Propagated by seed.
Ficus macrophylla. (Urticacea). Moreton Bay Fig. — A Queens-
land tree, with Urge leathery leaves; thrives in sheltered situations
up to 6,000 ft.
Frenela (Callitris) rhomboidea. ( C o n ife r a e ) . — A n elegant
Cypress-like tree, native of Australia, introduced and acclimatised
at Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, where it bears seeds freely. Very
ornamental for lawns, etc.
Gordonia anomalum, (Ternstromiaceae). — A medium-sized
handsome foliage tree, indigenous to the hill forests of Ceylon.
DR. TRIMEN stated: "Very rare: I fear that extensive clearings
have exterminated this fine species in most places.''
Grevillea robusta. (Proleaceae). Silky Oak. — A medium-sized
tree, introduced into Ceylon from Australia in 1856, and extensively
planted up-country amongst Tea for shade, as wrell as for fuel and
wind-breaks. The pretty, fern-like leaves are silvery white beneath
and render the tree very ornamental. The tree does not thrive
well under 1,000 feet. Propagated by seed.
Juniperus Bermudiana. (Coni ferae], Bermuda Cedar. — A
medium-sized tree, with leaves of two forms. It thrives at eleva-
tions of 4,000 to 6,000 ft., and attains a height of 30 to 40 ft. at
Hakgala Gardens.
Melaleuca leucadendron. (Myrtaceae}. "Tea Tree" of
Australia. — A large tree, with graceful foliage and curious nbrous-
scaly bark, which may be pulled off in large sheets.
Pinus canariensis. (Conifer ae). Canary Island Pine. An
excellent pine for high elevations in the tropics and for sub-tropical
regions. In its native home, the Canary Islands, it grows from
sea-level to 9,000 ft. altitude. It is being extensively planted in
ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE TREES 401
S. Africa, and is preferred to all other pines in Chili. The wood
is remarkably durable, and the stumps send out new shoots when
cut down.
P.— insignis. Monterey Pine. — A California!] pine-tree,
thrives best at elevations of 4,000 to 6,000 ft. It was first intro-
duced at Peradeniya in 1868.
P.— longifolia. — An Indian pine-tree, remarkable for its long,
slender, pendulous leaves, which are 12 to 14 inches in length.
Established at Hakgala Gardens.
P.— Montezumoe. — A large handsome pine-tree of Japan, with
long spreading branches, introduced at Hakgala Gardens about
1880, and now well-established there. Leaves very long, in
bunches of nine.
Rhodoleia Champion!. (N. O. Hamamelideae). — A medium-
sized spreading tree, with glaucous-grey foliage and bright-red
flowers. It is a native of Hong-Kong, and has become quite
established in Hakgala Gardens.
Schinus molle. (Anacardiaceae). Pepper Tree. — A small
spreading handsome tree with fine pinnate leaves, native of tem-
perate South America. It is best adapted to medium elevations in
the tropics and to sub-tropical climates. It is one of the most
beautiful of ornamental shade trees, and the foliage when cut may
be used for decorative purposes. Propagated from seed or cuttings.
S.— terebinthifolius, native of Brazil, is similar to the above
and a useful ornamental tree. Introduced to Peradeniya in 1884.
Syncarpia laurifolia. (Myrtaceac). Turpentine-tree of Queens-
land.— A tall handsome quick-growing tree, of an erect symmetrical
habit. Yields excellent timber. Established at Hakgala Gardens,
where it bears seed.
Tristania conferta (Myrtaceae). Queensland Box- wood. — A
very handsome tree, with smooth shiny pointed leaves, suited to
the higher elevations. It attains a great height, is suitable for
avenues, and yields excellent timber.
ELOWERING SHRUBS AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS
SUITED FOR UP-COUXTRY.
[C.=cuttin8s: S.=sced; Div.=di vision; Su.=suckers; L.=layers].
Name.
Natural Order.
Colour of Flou-t- rs.
How
Propa-
gated.
Height in feet,
etc.
Abelia chinensis
A — grandiflora
A.— rupestris
Cnprifoliaccac
Pink-
White
Pinkish-white
C
5—6
402
FLOWERING SHRUBS, ETC.
Name.
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
How
Propa-
gated.
Height in feet, etc.
Abutilon, "Boule de Niege"
Malvaceae
White
C
4—5
A — "Golden Fleece."
Yellow
t
5—6
Numerous species & var's.
Allamanda Schottii
Apocynaceae
n
C or S
3-5
Aloe Hanburyana.
Liliaceae
Coral-red
S. or
l-ll
Numerous other species
Su.
Althaea rosea. Hollyhock
Malvaceae
Rose-pink, etc.
Div. cS:
3—5
S
Azalia, different varieties
Ericaceae
Red, Pink, White
L
2—5
Begonia fuchsioides
Begoniaceae
Crimson
C
2-3
Belopsrone oblongata
Acanthaceae
Bright-pink
4—5
Bellis perennis. Daisy
Compositae
White or Pink
Div.
Berberis cristata. Barberry
Berberidae
Yellow
C
3 -4
B.— Fortunei
3—4
B.— leschenaultii
Yellow
C or S
10—20
Brugmansia, see Datura
Brunfelsia uniflora
Solanaceae
Blue & white
C
4—5
(= Franciscea bicolor)
Calliandra Guildingii
Mimosae
Pink
C or S
5—8
Callistemon brachyandrus
Myrtaccac
Yellow
M
5—6
C. — lanceolatus
Crimson
5—6
Camellia, numerous
Ternsti'omiaceae
White, pink, etc.
Layers
8—15
varieties
Campanula longifolia
Cn infra nu laceae
Blue
C or S
2—3
C. — medium. " Canter-
Blue & white
bury Bells"
Cestrum aurantiaca
Solanaceae
Yellow
5—6
C. — elegans
Crimson
H
Choisya ternata. "Mexican
Rntaceae
White
C
4-5
Orange"
Chrysanthemum pinnatifidum
Compositae
White
C or S
2£ — 3
C. — sinensis Numerous
n
White, pink.
,,
varieties
crimson, yellow.
Cotoneaster Simmondsii
Rosaceae
Red berries
1—4
Cuphea jorullensis
Lythraceae
Yellow
c'or
7
Div.
C. — platycentra. " Cigar
M
Red
C Div.
i— U
Flower "
or S
Cyphomandra fragrans
Solanaceae
Bluish-white
C or S
10—12
Datura coccinea. Thorn-
Scarlet
C
4—6
apple
D. — chlorantha fl. pleno
Yellow
6 — 8 )
D. — Knightii. " Trumpet
White
8— J2f Dounjen"s
Flower"
Delphinium hybridum
Rannncnlaccac
Blue
Div.
3—4
or S
Digitalis canariensis
Scrophulari-
Yellow
S or
2—3
aceae
Div.
D. — purpurea. Foxglove
^
Purple
Duranta Ellisii. " Duranta"
Verbenaceae
White
C or S
8—12
D. — Plumieri
Pale-blue
8—10
Eupatorium riparia
E. — Weinmanianum
Compositae
Red
Whitish
C
5—6
6 — 8 scented
Euphorbia splendens
Euphorbiaceac
Rose-scarlet
3—4
Franciscea bicolor, see
—
Brnnfelsia
SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY
403
DELl'HIN'IUM HYBKIDUM (SUTTOX's) FLOWERS BRIGHT BLUE.
Name
Natural Order.
\ How
Colour of Flowers. Propa-
1 gated.
Height in feet, etc.
Fuchsia arborescens.
" Tree Fuchsia"
r . — corymbosa
Oiiagracfue
Lilac
Scarlet
CorS
8--12
6-8
404
FWWERIXG SHRrBS. ETC.
How
Height in feet, etc
Name.
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
Propa-
gated.
Genista canariensis.
Legnnrinoseae
Yellow
C or S
3-4
Cape broom.
Habrothamnus, see Cr.s itntni
—
—
Heliotropium. Heliotrope,
Boragineae
Blue shades
C
3- 4
"Cherry Pie." Different
varieties
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. Shoe-
Malvaceae
Scarlet
„ 8-12
flower. Numerous var's
Shades of red,
6— 1 2
white, vellow.
H. — syriacus.
M
Bluish-purple
4- 6
Hydrangea hortensis.
Saxifragaccae
Blue, white or
U— 3
Hydrange
pink
Hypericum canariensis
Hypericineae
Yellow
S or C
5—6
H. — mysorense
M
8—10
Impatiens elongata
Geraniaceae
Bright rose-pink
C
7
I. — Hookeriana
White, veined
V 4
with red
I.— Walkeri
fj
Scarlet Div.
2- 3
Jasminum pubescens.
Oleaceae
White C
6—8
J.- -revolutum
J. — Sambac
Kniphofia aloides.
Liliaccae
Yellow
White
Scarlet
"
5—6
i 4
(=Tritoma uvaria) Torch
Lily or Red-hot-poker
Laurustinus, see Vibuniiin
—
—
—
Libonia floribunda
Acanthaceae Orange-yellow
C
2 4
Lobelia cardinalis.
Cninpaintliiccfic
Scarlet
C or S
^—4
"Cardinal Flower."
Magnolia fuscata.
Magiwliaceae
Cream
8-10 Fl
's strong! v
" Madanakam Poo " T
scented
M.— grandiflora
n
White Lavers
10—15
Montanoa bipinnatifida.
Composltae
c
8—12
"Tree Daisy."
Moraea iridioides
Irideae
Blue & white
Div. or
2
S
Musa coccinea. "Flower- Scitamincac
Scarlet
Su. or
5—6
ing Banana. "j
S
Nandina domestica. i Her be rid cue
Pinkish
C
3—4
Nierembergia gracilis.
,,
White & Yellow
C or S
2—3
"Cup Flower."
Notelaea liquestiina
Oleaceae
Pinkish
C or
i H
Su.
Philadelpus coronatius.
Saxifragaccae
Creamy-white
C
6 7
Mock orange
Phlomis floccosa
Labi ate ac
Yellow
,,
2
Pleroma macranthum
Mclastoiuaccac
Violet-blue
CorS
6—10
Plumbago capensis
Plumbagincac
Light-blue
C or
3-4
div.
Polygonum chinense
Polygonaccac
Creamy-white
C
5 — 7
Reinwardtia trigyna
Linaccac
Yellow
,,
3—4
R. — tetragyna
M
3—4
Rhododendron, numerous
Ericaceae
Pink, crimson,
S
3 6
species and varieties
white, etc.
R. — arboreum.
(<
Crimson
15—30
Ceylon Rhododendron
7'.=-Tainil
Name.
Spiraea media
S. — peruviana
Stevia Eupatoria
Streptocarpus, numerous
spp. and var's.
.Streptosolen Jamesoni.
Flame Hower
Strobilanthes gossypinus.
(See Folingf PI tints)
Tecoma capensis
T. — Smithiana
T.— Stans
"Free Daisy,"
See MOII tii nod
Viburnum tinus.
"Laurustinus."
Wiganda Vigieri
Vittadenia triloba.
Australian Caisv
ECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY
405
How
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
Propa-
Height
in feet, etc.
gated.
Rosaceae
White
C or
4-5
div
%t
5—6
Coiiif>osiliit'
Dingy white C
5 — 7
(n-siiiTtui'tii' Lilac, mauve
S
i
white, etc.
SolniuitTdf Orange-yellow
CorS 4—5
Aciintliiicciii- Lilac or Blue
C
4-5
Bigitoniticeiic Scarlet
-1—6
,,
Orange red
t.
0—8
:i
Yellow
SorC
10-20
Caprifoliaceae White
C
5—7 Fl'
s scented.
Hytlrofihyl- Dark-blue
Cor
8 10
Inccae
Su.
Coniposftac
White
C
4-1
1
ORNAMENTAL
FOLIAGE SHRUBS AND HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS
SUITED FOR UP-COUXTRY
[C.=cuttings: S.=.seed ; Div.=Division ; Su.=suckers ].
Name.
Abutilon Thompsonii
Acalypha marginata
Acanthus ilicifolius
A. — mollis
Agapanthus vanegatus
Agave amencana vanegata.
Xumerous species & var's.
Aloysia (Lippia) citnodora.
"Sweet-scented Verbena. "j
American Aloe, see Agnrc
Anthericum liliastrum
>% St. Bruno's Lily"
Bambusa aurea
B.^Fortunei variegata
B. — nana. See Bnniboos t'
Oniiiiiicnttil (ii'tissi's,
Bay Laurel, see Luiirns
Beaucarnea longifolia. Mexico)
Begonia, fibrous-rooted.
Xumerous spp. & var's
Natural Order.
ILih'iiccac
Enpliorhiuccnt
Aciinthaceac
Amaryllideae
How
Propagated.
Height in feet, etc.
C 3 — 4 Variegated leaves.
4—5
Div. or S 3 Holly-like leaves.
3- -4
Div. 1 — 1.J
Su. or bul-
bils
C
Div.
S
C or div.
6—10
2 3
1 Variegated foliage
10—15 Yellow stems.
1 Variegated foliage.
8
6 — 8 Large swollen base.
3-4
406
FOLIAGE SHRUBS, ETC.
Name.
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Height in feet, etc.
J-6
8—10
S or C 1 Silvery foliage
C 1 — H
Berberis Fortunei variegata Bcrberiilac C 4 — 5
Bocconia frutescens. "John Papavaraceae C or S 8 — 12
Crow Bush"!
Buxus sempervirens. Enpliorbiaceac C
Boxwood
Cerasus Lauro-cerasus. Rosact'dC
Laurel Cherry
Cineraria maritima. "Cotton Compositac
Lavender," see Santoliiui
Dielytra (Dicentra) spectabilis Fnnwriaceac
Lyre Flowei
Doryanthes palmerii. Spear Amaryllideac Su. or S 6 — 8
Lily
Echeveria metalica. "Oyster Crassnlaceae Div. or 3 in \ Small succulent
Plant" Su. losette-like plants.
E. — secunda ,, ,, 3 ., ) Suited for
Furcraea gigantea. Amaryllideac Bulbils or 6 — 8
Mauritius Hemp. Su.
See Succulent Plants
Iresine Herbstii Auiarantaceae C 2 — 3
I. — Lindeni ,, ., H — -
Laurus nobilis. Bav Laurel Lanrdccac 6 — 8
SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUXTRY
407
Name.
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Height in feet, etc.
Libertia, see Bulbous Plants, etc.
_
SPri/ed for the
Leucadendron argentium.
Protcaccac
C or S
silvery white
"Silver-leaf" of S. Africa
leaves
Melianthus major.
Supiudaceae
C or div.
3—4
" Honey Shrub "
Musa coccinea " Flowering" or
Scitanrineac
Su. or S.
5—6
Chinese Banana
Musa Ensete. Abyssinian
n
S
8—9
Banana
Myrtus communis. Mvrtle
Myrtaccac
C S 10
Nolina, see Bancartica
—
—
—
Periwinkle, see Vinca
—
—
—
Phormium tenax. New
Lilificcac
Div.
5 — 6 L. variegated, sword-
Zealand Flax
shaped.
Podocarpus macrophylla.
Conift'rac
S or C
6—8
Prunus lusitanica. Portugal
Rosaccae
C
6—12
Laurel]
Santolina chamaecyparisus.
Coinpositae
C or div.
1 Pale-grey foliage.
Cotton Lavender
strongly scented.
Strobilanthes gossypmus.
Acaiithaccac
C
A — 5 Fol. grev tomentose.
Vinca minor. Variegated
Apocynaceac
C
1
Periwinkle
ORNAMENTAL CLIMBERS AND CREEPERS
SUITABLE FOR UP-COUXTKY
[C.=cuttings: S=seed; L.— layers].
Name and Native Country
[Hort.=Of garden origin]
Natural Order.
Colour of Fl's.. etc.
How
Propa-
gated.
Position suited for.
Abronia umbellata (Annual)
Nyctagincue
Lilac or pink
C
Hanging-pots
California
Allamanda Hendersoni.
Apocynaceac
Yellow, large
,,
Trees, fence, etc.
Brit. Guiana
Ampelopsis Veitchii.
Ampdidcac
Leaves bronze
,,
Walls or pillars
' Virginian Creeper."
Japan
Begonia fuchsioides.
Bcgonincciic
Scarlet
M
Pillar, verandah, etc.
New Grenada
Bignonia capreolata.
Bignoiiiaceae
Pink & vellow
f,
)
N. America
\ Arbours & arches
B. — venusta.
M
Orange-yellow
,,
I
"Tanga-poo," T.
Bomarea carderi. Columbia
Amarvllidcnc
Bright pink and
M
Pillars, etc.
white
Bougamvillea spectabilis.
Nycttigiiiciic
Purple
»?
Trees, banks, etc.
S. America
Cassia viminea. W. Indies
Le&uminosae
Yellow
M
Trees, pillars, etc.
Clematis. several spp.
Ranuiicnlaccac
White, violet.
S
Walls, arbours, etc.
and varieties
blue. etc.
r.==Tamil
408
ORXAMENTAL CLIMBERS, ETC.
Name and Native Country.
[Hort.=Of garden origin].
Natural Order.
Colour of Fl's., etc.
How
Propa-
gated.
Position suited for.
Cobaea scandens. Mexico
Pole in o niacea c
Greenish purple
S&C
Tall trees,
fences, etc.
Convolvulus, different var's.
Couvolvnlaceae
Various
S
Fences, arbours, etc.
Crotalaria semperflorens.
Legiiniinosae
Yellow
S or C
Rockeries, etc.
Ceylon, etc.
Dumasia villosa. Nepaul
M
Pillars & arbours
.Ficus pumila (=F. repens.)
. Urticaccae
Small ornamen-
C
Creeper on walls
Ceylon, etc.
tal foliage
Fuchsia radicans. Brazil
Onagraceae
Scarlet
Pillars, banks, etc.
Hardenbergia monophylla.
Legiuninosae
Blue
C or S
Hanging pots, etc.
Australia
Hedera Helix. Ivy. Britain
Uni belli ferae
Handsome
C
Creeper on walls
foliage
Hibbertia dentata. Australia
Dilleniaceae
Yellow
L. entire, oval
Trees or trellises
Hoyacarnosa. Wax Flower.
Asclepiadeac
Pale-pink
ti
Jasminum pubescens
Oleaceae
White
,„
Sheltered pillars,
White Jasmine
trellis-work, etc.
Ipomoea rubro coerulea
Convolvnlaccae
Blue, pale centre
.
Mexico
Lathyrus latiflorus.
Legiuninosae
Pink, etc.
S or C
Fences, walls, etc.
Perennial Pea. Britain
Lonicera caprifolia.
Caprifolinceae
Yellowish
C
)
European Honeysuckle
• Tree-trunks,
L. — Japonica. Japanese
,,
Red & white
arbours, etc.
Honeysuckle
Lophosperma scandens
Scropli lilariaceae
Pink-
S
\
Mandevilla suaveolens.
Apocynaceae
White, scented
C or S
Buenos Ayres
Maurandya Barcklayana.
Scropli it la ri acetic
Violet- purple
- Trellis work, etc.
Mexico
M.— erubescens. Mexico
n
Rose-pink
n
Mina lobata. (= Ipoinoea
Convolvnlaceac
Orange-
S or C
Dwarf slow-
versicolor) Mexico
yellow, etc.
growing climber
Nasturtium, see Tropcicolnm
—
—
Passiflora edulis. Passion-
Passifioi ace nc
White
S
Fences, trees, etc.
flower. W. Indies
Rhynchosperma cyanosperma
Legiuninosae
Bright -red
Rockeries, etc.
or white
Roses, see article on Roses
Rosace a e
Various
C or L
Fences, arbours, etc.
Rubus (Bramble),
,,
Striking foliage
C or S
Trees, fences, etc.
several species
Ruscus (Semele) androgynus.
Liliacene
Handsome
C
Tall trees
Canary Islands
foliage (not
true leaves )
Schmidia (Thunbergia)
Acantliaceae
Pink & yellow
Arbours, arches, etc.
bicolor
Senecio scandens. S. Africa
Composite
White
M
Fences, walls,
or pillars
Smilax argyraea. Bolivia
Liliaceae \
Variegated
1 Trees, etc.
S. — ornata
i
foliage
Solandra grandiflora. Jamaica
Solaiiaceae
White
Large trees
Solanum jasminoides.
,,
Fences, arbours,
S. America;
arches, etc.
1
ROSES
409
Name and Native Country
[Hort.=Of garden origin].
Natural Order.
How
Colour of Fl's.. etc. Propa-
gated-
Pusitinn suited for.
Tacsonia mollissima. Quito
Passifloraceac
Pink C
T. — quitensis. Peru
i
S & C
T. — van Volxemii.
M
Scarlet
Pillars,
New Grenada
arbours, etc.
Tecoma jasminoides.
Bfgttoniaceae
Waxy-pink & C
Queensland
white
Thunbergia fragrans.
Acanthaceac
Pure-white S & C Hanging pots.
Ceylon, etc.
rockeries, etc.
Tropaeolum canariensis
Geraniaceae
Bright-yellow S
1
T. — majus. Nasturtium.
.,
Orange-yellow CorS
[Trellis-work,
Peru
pillars, etc.
Also double varieties
L
1
T. — Lobbianum. Columbia
Scarlet S or
Tu.
Vinca minor. Periwinkle
Apocynaccac
Blue C
)
Europe
1 Rockeries and
V. — variegata.
,,
Variegated foli-
hanging pots.
age
1 •
Wistaria sinensis. Japan I*cgnminosac
Blue or purple ,, Verandah walls and
pillars
ROSES
One of the most satisfactory features of horticulture in the
tropics is the fact that Roses — the "Queen of Mowers" — can, with
careful attention and selection of suitable varieties, be grown with
a wonderful degree of success, not only in the hills, but also at all
elevations down to sea-level. In the tropics, roses can usually be
had in blossom all the year round, and in up-country gardens the
size and quality of the blooms is frequently such as would compare
well with those produced in temperate countries. Unfortunately,
however, in equatorial regions, especially at low elevations, roses
usually lack not only size and form of bloom, but also much of
the delightful fragrance which is so characteristic of these flowers
in cooler climes.
The following hints may be considered as preliminaries to
-success in growing roses : Choose a site with full exposure to the
sun, shade from trees or houses being detrimental to the plants ;
protection from wind is necessary in the hills. A medium loamy
soil with a clay sub-soil is best, while light sandy soils are the least
suitable. Perfect drainage at the roots is essential. A liberal
•quantity of manure (preferably cow-manure in a well-decomposed
state) should be worked into the soil, and the plants may be plant-
ed about 4 ft. apart each way in rows. If the land be flat, the soil
410 SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY
should be raised into beds or borders, so as to ensure good drainage.
A mulching of stable manure, renewed at intervals, should cover the
whole surface and sides of the beds ; this will protect the latter
from the sun and retain moisture in the soil. Young plants should
be chosen for planting out in preference to old ones. Any flower
buds that may appear early should be removed, as the plants should
not be allowed to bear blooms until at least 3 to 4 months after
planting. In dry weather, the plants must be liberally watered.
Manuring. — Dung, when applied, should always be in a well-
decomposed state ; otherwise grubs and termites will come in its
wake. As a further precaution against these, a sprinkling of
unslaked lime should be added to the manure before being forked
into the soil. Castor cake forms an excellent manure for the
growth of the plants, wrhile phosphate fertilisers are considered
important for the function of blooming. An expert grower recom-
mends basic slag at the rate of i to 1 Ib. per plant, either alone,
or incorporated with the dung when replenishing the beds. An
application of liquid manure once or twice a week is most
beneficial .
Pruning Roses. — As a general rule Tea, Noisette, and Bourbons,
which are the only kinds suited to the low-country, do not need
much pruning beyond the removal of worn out or dead wood.
Branches that have made vigorous growth and have finished
flowering should be cut back, otherwise the plants will assume a
ragged and straggling appearance. The Hybrid Perpetual varie-
ties are, however, generally benefited by a hard pruning, and this.
is best carried out, in the hill districts at any rate, towards the end
of October; thus the new growth which follows should afford a
display of bloom during the " hot season " months in the hills, viz.,
February to May.
Propagation. — This is invariably effected in the tropics by
cuttings or layering, as plants on their own roots are the most
adapted to the climate. Cuttings may be put down at any season,
and they strike best in a soil consisting mainly of fine sand with an
admixture of charcoal. It is customary to make the cuttings with
a heel when possible, and it is best to insert them in the ground
sloping-wise. They should be shaded and kept moist until new
growth is visible. Layering is adopted in the case of varieties,
which do not propagate easily by cuttings, e.g. " Marechal Niel,"
and is successfully effected at Peradeniya all the year round. The
layered shoot is pegged down into a bamboo- joint rilled with fine
ROSES 411
sandy soil, the new plant being thus easily removed when it has
developed roots and become independent of the stock.
Roses in pots or tubs. — In the low-country and hot dry region,
Roses generally do better in pots or wooden tubs than in an open
border, owing to the unsuitable conditions of soil or climate. The
former method enables the requirements of the plants to be better
attended to, for the tubs can be rilled with only the best soil and
provided with efficient drainage, while the plants, being movable,
may be afforded the most suitable spot in regard to light and
shelter.
Diseases. — Roses are, on the whole, comparatively free from
diseases in the tropics, mildew and " black spot," both fungus
diseases, being perhaps the most prevalent. For the former, an
occasional sprinkling of flowers of sulphur is a simple and effective
remedy, and for the latter, which Mr. N. C. ROLT considers the
worst enemy of the rose in Ceylon, formaldehyde diluted to a
strength of 1/8 per cent, i.e., 1 tablespoonful to a gallon of soft
water, has been found to be an excellent preventive.
Importing Roses. — When new plants or varieties are required,
they should when practicable be obtained from a reliable rirm at
home, such as MESSRS. CANT & Soxs of The Old Rose Nurseries,
Colchester, England. The plants being packed dry when in a
dormant state, they take up but little space and can be transmitted
in small packages by post. Though a good firm can be relied upon
for sending the best varieties, it is well to remember that only roses
on their own roots are adapted to the tropics, also that standard
roses are not suitable. Small rooted cuttings travel well when their
roots are in a ball of adhesive earth and surrounded by moss and
waterproof paper; the stems, however, must have plenty of air, or
will rot in transit. When imported plants arrive, especially if the
weather be dry, they should be grown in bamboo-pots in the shade
for a few weeks before being planted out.
VARIETIES
The success of rose cultivation in the tropics very largely
depends on the kinds or varieties chosen. This is more especially
true of the plains or low-country, where, as a rule, only "Teas,"
" Noisettes" and " Bourbons" will thrive. "Hybrid Perpetuals"
may be considered generally as unsuited to elevations below 2,500
ft., and even in the hills may. with few exceptions, be superseded
bv the excellent H vbrid-Tea varieties now available.
412
SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY
DESCRIPTIVE LIST
[FOR ELEVATIONS BELOW 2,500 FT. : THOSE MARKED t ARE
ALSO SUITED FOR UP-COUNTRY].
TEA-SCEX
tAdam. — Rose and salmon, large
blooms
t Beautelnconstante. — Carmine yellow
Catherine Mermet. — Light-flesh, ex-
quisite in form
t Devoniensis. — Creamy white, blush-
centre
t Enchantress. -Creamy white, free
bloomer
t Etoile de Lyon. — Sulphur-yellow.
(Dry districts, up to 5,000 ft.)
t Homer. — Blush-rose and salmon
tHon. Edith Gifford. -Flesh colour,
white scented
Jean Ducher. — Yellow, salmon
La Boule d'or. — Golden-yellow
Lady Roberts. — Pink apricot, orange
edges
TED ROSES:—
j Madame Camille.— Salmon-pink
,, de Watteville. — Salmon-rose
t ,. Lambard.— -Sal m on-rose,
free bloomer
t Maman Cochet. — Light pink, shad-
ed salmon-yellow
t Maman Cochet. — White variety
Mrs. B. R. Cant. — Very vigorous,
full, globular blooms; "always in
bloom, also good for a fence''
t Marie van Houtte. — Creamy
yellow, edged pink
t Niphetos. Pure white
Peace. — Creamy white. "Makes a
splendid bush, always in flower"
I Rolt)
President. Salmon-rose, large
t Safrano. — Coppery yellow
HYBRID
T Admiral Dewey. — Light blush
t Betty. — Exquisite, very large.
Coppery-ro>e, shaded golden
yellow
T Captain Christy. — Cleur flesh, dark
centre
Caroline Testout. — Salmon-pink
Clara Watson. — Salmon and pink
Clio.— White
Eearlute. — Scarlet-red, almost single;
"one of the best bedders"
Gloire de Lyonnaise. — Lemon-yellow
t Grace Darling.— Large, full, rich
pink
tj. B. Clark.— Rich scarlet, shaded
dark crimson
TEAS:—
t Killarney. — Pale pink
La France.— Silvery peach. (Dry
districts up to 2.000 ft.)
t Laurette Carle. — Brilliant velvety
ca. mine. "Splendid rose any-
where up-country. (Rolt)
Madame Abel Chatenay. — " Queen of
decoratives." Salmon-pink
t Richmond. — Pure rich scarlet.
Free bloomer
Viscountess Folkestone. — White, tinted
with pale salmon, very large.
Warrior. — Blood red, good for
massing
XOISETTES:—
T Aimee Vibert.— Pure white
t Boule de Niege.— Pure white
T Caroline Kuster.- Bright orange-
yellow
Celine Forestier. — Rich sulphur —
yellow
Cloth of Gold.— Yellow, pale margin
t Lamarque Jeaune.- Golden-yellow,
large blooms
L'ideal. — Yellow or coppery-red
7 Reve d'Or. — Deep-yellow, some-
times coppery yellow
tWilliam Allan Richardson.—
Orange-yellow or creamy-white
Apolline. — Light pink.
Empress Eugenie. — Rosy-blush,
pie edges
Madame Plantier. — Pure white
BOURBON:—
tMrs. Paul.— Blush white
t Souvenir de la Malmaison. (•-=" Hun-
dred-petal " rose). — Flesh colour
Victor Emmanuel. — Purplish maroon
shade
ROSES
HYBRID PERPETUAL ROSES:—
(FOR ELEVATIONS ABOVE 2.500 FT).
Abel Grand. — Rosy-blush
Charles Lefebre. — Crimson
Baron Rothschild. — Brilliant crimson
Baroness Rothschild. —Clear rose-
Beauty of Wai1 ham. — Rosy-crimson
Ben Cant. — Bright crimson
Black Prince. — Dark-crimson, shaded
with black
Captain Hay ward. — Carmine-red
Duke of Edinburgh.— Bright scarlet-
crimson
Dupuy Jamain. — Bright cerise
Frau Karl Druschki. — Pure white.
very large blooms
Her Majesty. — Satiny rose, large
Hugh Dickson.— Brilliant crimson
John Hopper. — Bright rose
Jules Margottin. Bright-carmine
Lord Raglan. — Scarlet crimson
Madame Eugene Verdier. — Deep pink
Victor Verdier.— Bri gh t
cherry-red
Maharajah. — Deep cnmson, single
flowers
Margaret Dickson. •- \V h i t e. r o s e
centre
Marie Baumann. — Bright carmine
Mrs. John Laing. — Soft-pink
Paule Neron. — Deep rose
Prince Camille de Rohan. — Deep
velvety crimson-maroon
Senateur Vaisse.- -Scarlet
Victor Hugo. -Bright crimson
Xavier Olibo. -Verv dark-red, velvetv
Mix'. X. C. ROLT, an experienced rose-grower in Ceylon, says: "The
Hybrid Perpetuals are hardly worth growing now. so many splendid Hybrid
Teas are on the market, these flowering almost all the year, which cannot be-
said of the former."
CLIMBING ROSES SUITABLE FOR TRAINING OX ARCHES.
FENCES. PERGOLAS, PILLARS, ETC.
THOSE MARKED t ARE SUITED FOR THE LOW-COUNTRY.
t Aimee Vibert.— White
Ard's Rover. — Crimson, good bloom-
er
Blush Rambler. — Crimson
t Celine Forestier. — Rich sulphur-
yellow
t Devoniensis (Climbing). — Cream y-
white or carmine
Duchesse d'Anersloedt. — Yellow
Felicite Perpetue. — Creamy white
T Gloire de Dijon. — Orange-yellow,
shaded salmon
t Gruss an Teplitz.— Bright crimson.
Suitable as a pillar rose
Lamarque Jeaune. — Golden yellow
Lamarque White. — Blooms white
t Marechal Niel. — B e a u t i f u 1 deep
yellow
f Niphetos (Climbing).- Pure white
Papa Gontier. — R o s e pink, f r e e
grower
Papillon. — White w i t h c o p p e r y
shading. Splendid pillar Rose
Reine Marie Henriette. — -Cherry red.
first rate for the Hills
Noella Nabounand. — Crimson
Reve d'or. — Deep yellow
The Garland. — Blush white
t William Allen Richardson. Orange-
Yellow
SHOWY ANNUALS AND BIENNIALS
CHIEFLY SUITED FOR UP-COUNTRY.
Name.
Natural Order.
Height in ft.
(or inches.)
Colour of Flowers, etc.
Acroclinium roseum.
" Everlasting" Flowers
Ageratum mexicanum
Alonsoa Warscewiczii.
Several var's
] -2 Rose, pink, and white var'
I — U Blue
Scrophulariitceac 14 — 2 Orange-red, etc.
SHOWY ANNUALS AXD BIENNIALS
415
NIGELLA "MISS JKKYLL."
Name.
Natural Order-
Height in ft.
(or inches).
Colour of Flowers, etc.
Alternanthera amoena. Amarantaccae
6— 10 in.
Leaves hron/e-green
J "Joy Weed."
Several varieties
Alyssum minimum. Cruci ferae
6 in.
White, scented
Sweet Alyssum
Amaranthus caudatus. ! Amarautaccac l£ — 2
Bright-red, pendulous
"Love-lies-bleeding."
tails
A.— tricolor. Several
Brilliant-red foliage
varieties
Ammobium alatum.
Compositae
U-2
White
"Winged Everlasting."
Anagallis grandiflora.
Primnlaceac
8— 10 in.
Blue, light-blue and white
Pimpernell
Antirrhinum ma jus.
Scrophttlari acetic
1
Shades of crimson
Large and dwarf var's.
SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY
417
Xanie.
Natural Order.
Height in ft.
(or inches).
Colour of Flowers, etc.
Arctotis grandis.
Compositae
14-2
Bluish-white
Argemone grandiflora
Paparcraccac
2
White
A. — Hunnemannii
w
2
Yellow
Asperula azurea. Woodruff
Rttbiaccac
1
Light-blue, scented
Aster, China.
\
Numerous varieties, as
"German," "Victoria,"
> Compositae 6 — 15 in. White, pink, lilac, etc.
"Mignon." "Crown,"
"Quilled." etc. /
Athanasia annua. • „
1
Yellow
''Everlasting."
Balsam (Impatiens). Gcsncraccae
8— 12 in.
White, pink, rose-red, etc.
numerous varieties
Bartonia aurea GcntiatlOCeae
1
Golden yellow, large fl's.
Brachycome iberidifolia. Compositae
1
Blue and white var's.
Swan River Daisy
Browallia grandiflora Solauaceae
1-2
Dark blue, large fl's.
Cacalia (Emilia) coccinea Compositae
H-2
Scarlet ; erect stems
Calandrinia grandiflora
Porhilaceac
1
Pink, rose, yellow, etc.
Rock Purslane
Calceolaria hybrida.
ScropJi it la riaceat
8— 10 in.
Bright-yellow
Slipper Wort
Calendula officinalis.
Compositae
i-H
Orange, yellow-striped,
Pot Marigold
pale-lemon, etc.
Several varieties
C. — pluvialis.
»»
I— li
White and purple
Cape Marigold
Calliopsis, see Coreopsis.
—
—
Callichroa (Layia) platyglossa Compositae
i
Yellow
Callirhoe digitata. Malvaceae
1 | Bright magenta.
"Poppy Mallow."
Callistephus chinensis.
—
—
See A'stcr
Candytuft, several varieties; Cnicifcrac
i-H
White, crimson, etc.
Centaurea cyanus.
Compositae
14
Rich-blue, lilac, pink, etc
Corn-flower
C. — moschata. Sweet Sultan
2
Purple.
Centranthus macrosiphon.
Valcrianaccae
H
Rosy purple
Chelone ( Pentstemon)barbata
Scroph it la riaceac
24
Scarlet.
Chrysanthemum coronarium. Compositae
H
White yellow-eyed, etc.
C. — carinatum ,,
H
Tricolor varieties.
C. — leucanthemura,
f|
U-2
Large, white, yellow eye.
"Ox-eye," or Shasta Daisy
C. — segatum.
- M
H
Yellow, several varieties.
Yellow corn-flower
Clarkia elegans.
C— pulchella.
Onagraccae
U
14
i Pale rose, pink, etc.
Clintonia (Downingia) elegans
Cainpaiiiilact'ac
i-U
White, purple, etc.
C. — pulchella.
M
Blue
Collinsia bicolor.
Scrap li 11 la riaceac
li
Purple and white
Convolvulus.
—
—
—
See Ornamental Clim-
bers for Up-country
Coreopsis (Calliopsis) bicolor
Compositae
1—2
Yellow and brown or
crimson.
SHOU'Y AXXL'ALS AXD IUEXXIALS
419
CLARKIA PL'LCHELI.A.
Name. Natural Order.
Height in ft.
(or inches).
Colour of Flowers, etc.
•C. — Drummondii Loiiipositac
Cosmos bipinnatus.
C. — sulphureus.
Cuphea miniata. Lvthi'ticctic
Datura Stramonium. SoluiiiicciU'
1-2
2—3
1~1"'
Bright-yellow
Fink, white, etc.
Yellow.
Scarlet, tipped with Yellow .
White
Delphinium cardiopelalum. Ranniicnlaccae
Larkspur. Numerous
varieties
Dianthus bar at us. Ctll'
Sweet William
] — 2 Different shades of blue,
purple, etc.
£ — 1 Pink and white
SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUXTRY
421
Name.
Natural Order.
Height in ft
(or inches).
Colour of Flowers, etc.
D. — chinensis.
Chinese or Indian Pink.
Caryo-
Several single and
phvllaccae
1
White, crimson, etc.
double var's.
Erysimum Perowskianum.
Crudferae
1
Orange and yellow
Eschscholtzia californica.
Papavaraccac
1-U
Orange-yellow
Californian Poppy.
Gaillardia picta. " Blanket
Compositac
1—2
Yellow and crimson.
flower."
Gamolepis tagetes.
M
9 in.
Briglit-vellow, single fl's.
•GaiKa grandiflora.
Onagraceae
2
White
Gilia tricolor.
Polcnioiiincenc
8 in.
Large, lavender or white
purple-eyed.
G. — muhicaulis.
H
1
Blue
Godetia Whitneyi.
Oiiagraccae
1
Rich-crimson, etc ; h"s
Numerous varieties.
large.
Gypsophila elegans.
Caryophyllaceat
H
Feathery, lilac.
Hehanthus annuus. Sun-
Compositac.
U-4
Yellow, dark-eye. Sho\\y.
flower. Numerous tall
and dwarf varieties.
Helichrysum. Lverlastings
»• • '
1|^-2|
Yellow, white-orange, etc.
Ipomoea rubro-coerulea
Convolvnlaccac
8—16
Various shades ; large
" Morning Glory."
handsome fl's.
Ipomopsis (Gilia) elegans
Polcmoniaceae
6-8
Tubular crimson fl's;
feathery leaves.
Jacobaea elegans, see Senecio
— —
—
Kaulfu.sia (Charieis) amel-
Compositac
1-U1
Blue, crimson and violet ;
loides.
daisy-like fl's.
Larkspur, see Delphinium
—
—
—
Lathyrus. see Sweet Pea.
—
—
—
Layia, see Callichroa.
—
—
Leptosiphon (Gilia) roseus.
Polcmoniaccae
8—10 in.
Rose-pink.
Leptogyne calliopsidea
Compositac
U
Lemon-yellow, like Mar-
guerites.
Linaria cymbalaria. Several Sci'oplinlnnacctu
6—12 in.
Lilac, yellow, orange,
var's.
crimson, etc.
Linum grandiflorum rubrum.
Linac
U
Scarlet, blue, etc.
Several var's.
Lebelia erinus. Numerous
Campannlaccae
1
Shades of blue, crimson,
var's.
purple and white.
Lupinus polyphyllus. Lupin.
Lcgnmiiiosae
h-2
Orange, yellow, blue, etc.
Several var's.
Malope grandiflora
Malvaceae
U-2
Crimson, white-striped,
etc.
Marigold, African. Tagetes
Compositac
,,
Lemon-yellow, orange, etc.
erecta.
M.— French. Tagetes patula.
11
i-1
Orange-yellow, and crim-
" Sarnie- poo " T.\
son var's.
Malcolm ia mari'ima. See
—
—
Virginian Stock
Matthiola annua. see Stocks
—
Mesembryanthemum tricolor.
Ficoideae
i— l
Different shades pink. etc.
Fig Marigold
Mignonette (Reseda odorata)
Resedaccac
i— H
Greenish-white or yellow,
Numerous varieties
very fragrant.
T=Tamil
SHO\rY AXXUALS AVI) BIENNIALS
423
AKC10TIS GKAND1S.
Name.
M imulus macu'osus.
Scrophiilariaccat
8— 10 in.
" Monkey Flower"
Mirabilis Jalapa. "Marvel- \ychigiiutc 1 — 1 £
of -Peru"
Myosotis. Forget-me-not BoragtHaceatf 8 — 10 in.
, "Royal Blue" and
other var's
Nasturtium (see Ornamental
Climbers
Nemesia strumosa. Scroplinl<iri(ici'<ic\l2—l5 in
Nemophila insignis. Hy(ii'op1i\llaccac\ %
Colour of Flowers, et
Pale-yellow, blotched, etc.
Rose-pink, white, etc.
Blue ; several varieties.
Blue, verv effective.
White, crimson, yellow, etc.
Blue, white, and purple-
margined.
SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY
425
Name.
Natural Order.
Height in ft.
(or inches.)
Colour of Flowers, etc.
Nicotiana affinis. Tobacco
Solanaceae
2—3
White, purple, pink, etc.
Plant
Numerous species anc
var's
Nierembergia frutescens.
1
Blue.
Nigella damascena. Fennel
Rannncnlaccac
12—15 in.
Fl's pale-blue ; feathery
flower.
foliage.
Nolana grandiflora.'
Nolaiiaceae
8—10 in.
White and blue ; trailing.
Nyctermia selagmoides.
Scroph nlanaci'ae
6—8 in.
Pink
Oenothera biennis
Onagraceae
1- *
Large, bright-yellow fl's.
"Evening Primrose."
Pansy, numerous varieties.
Violaccac
i
Numerous shades.
Papaver, see Popfry.
—
—
Pentstemon, numerous spp.
Scroph iilariaceae
i-U
Crimson, rosy-purple, etc.
and var's.
Petunia, single and double
Solanaceae
M
White, purple, and striped;
var's.
large showy fl's.
Phacelia campanularia.
Hydrophyllaceac
Bright-blue ; several var's.
Platystemon californicus.
Papareraceac
1
Bright lemon-yellow.
" California!! Poppy."
Philydrum lanuginosum.
Pliilydraccac
3
Yellow.
Phlox Drummondii.
Polemoniaceae
1
White, red, purple, crim-
Numerous showy var's.
son margined and fringed
var's.
Poppy, Shirley. (Papavcr
Papareraceae
1—2
Scarlet, purple, white, etc.
Rkoatas]
Poppy, opium. (P. Somni-
v
n
Different shades, s i ngl e
ferniu)
and double var's.
Poppy, Californian, see
ff
1
Bright lemon yellow.
Platystenwti
Portulaca grandiflora. "Sun
Portnlacaccae
ft
Brilliant different hues.
Plant."
Pyrethrum aureum.
Compositae
6— * in.
Handsome yellow foliage
Golden Feather
Reseda, see Mignonette.
Rhodanthe Manglesii.
Compositae
1— U
Rosy-purple, etc.
"Everlasting."
Salpiglossis coccinea.
Solanaceae
U-2
Scarlet, blue, purple, etc.
Numerous varieties
Saponaria calabrica.
Caryophyllaceac
1
Bright-pink.
Soap-wort
Scabiosa. Several varieties
Dipsaceae
H-3
Blue, yellow, etc.
Schizanthus pinnatus.
Scroph n lariaceae
H-2
Purple, crimson, etc.
"Fringe Flower"
Sedum. Stonecrop.
Crassitlaccae
i
Yellow, white, purple, etc.
Numerous varieties
Senecio elegans.
Compositae
U
Crimson, purple, white, etc.
Purple Jacob:ea
Silene pendula. "Catch Fly"
Caryophyllaccae
ii
Carmine; single and double
varieties.
Spartium junceum.
Legitminosae
2—3
Handsome yellow fl's.
"Spanish Broom."
Sphenogyne speciosa.
Compositae
1
Yellow, crimson, white, etc.
Several varieties
SHOU'Y AX7NUALS AXD BIEXXIALS
427
Name
Natural Order.
Height in ft.
(or inches.)
Colour of Flowers, etc
Statice sinuata. Sea Laven- Pliitnbagincac
der. Several varieties
Stocks, "Ten weeks," Crncifcnie
"East Lothian," and
"Virginian."!
Sanflower. See Helianthtts\
Sweet Pea. Lcgtnuinosae
( Ltitlivnis otloi'iit
Sweet William. (.\iryopliyllncciic
See Diiiiithns barbutns
Tobacco Plant, see
\/Ci)tltlll(1\
Torenia Fourneri. \Scrop1nilariiicecic
T.— Bailloni.
Trachelium coeruleum. Cainpaiiiiliiccac
Trachymene coerulea. I'lnbellifcnic
Tropaeolum majus. Gcrauiaccac
"Nasturtium."
Verbena. I'ci-bciuiccnc
Numerous varieties
Viola, see Ptinsy
Violet (Viola odorata). Viohtccnc
Several single and
double var's.
See page 439
Whitlavia(Phacelia) ^ Hvdrophvllaccae
grandiflora
Xeranthemum annuum. Conipositiie
"Everlasting "
Zinnia.
Numerous varieties
Z. Haageana.
4—5
1 — 10 in.
3
1 — 1.J
1 -T
1
Golden-yellow, rose-pur-
ple, etc.
White, purple, etc.
Numerous beautiful shades
Variegated scarlet, crim-
son, etc.
Pale-blue ; also a white
variety.
Yellow, trailing
Blue
Blue
Shades of crimson, etc.
White, scarlet, purple, etc-
Blue, purple, white, etc.
Violet-purple
Rose, white, violet, etc.
Scarlet, pink, yellow, etc.
Orange-yellow, single.
ORNAMENTAL BULBOUS OR TUBEROUS PLANTS
CHIEFLY SUITED FOR BORDERS, ETC., UF-COUXTRY,
Propagated by bulbs, tubers, or division, and in some cases also by seed.
Name. Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
Height in ft.
(or inches.)'
Agapanthus umbellatus. Liliaccae
Blue
2_2,
"African Lily'
A.— umbellatus, var. alba „
White
Albuca aurea. S. Africa „
Greenish-vellow
2 "
Allium fragrans. Numerous „
White
I
other species
Alstromeria muhiflorus Anuiryllulcac \ Orange-vellow
2—3
A. — psittacina
Crimson
.1-2
BULBOUS OR TUBEROUS PLANTS
429
Name.
Natural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
Height in ft.
(or inches.)
Amaryllis Belladona. | Amaryllidfac
Bright-pink
1
Belladona Lilvj
Anthericum Liliastrum.
y
White
I
St. Bruno's Lily
Antholyza bicolor.
M
Scarlet and green
2
Aristoea eckloni. S. Africa
Irideae
Bright blue
U— 2. Nat. in
Ceylon
Arthropodium cirrhatum Liliaccac
White
2
Arum Lily, see Richardia j
Begonia, tuberous-rooted. Bcganiaccac
Xuinerous varieties!
Scarlet, yellow, etc.
l-U
Belamcanda chinensis. Iridciic
Orange-red, spotted
1J
" Leopard Lily"
brown
Clivia, see Iniatitopliyllnm
—
-._
Crinum asiaticum.
Amaryllideae
White
2-3
C. — giganteum
C, — Mooreii
Rose
1
Cyrtanthus carneus
||
Bright-red
C. — inter medius
Pink
^
C. — Mackenii. "African
White
I
Bride"
Dahlia, " Cactus," " Pom- Coinpositae
Various
2h-3
pon ;" etc.
Double and Single var'sj
Fraesia refracta Irideae
Creamy white
U— 2. Scentel
Gladiolus, several varieties „
Different shades
2—3
Gloxinia, see Pot Plants
Hemerocallis aurantiaca Liliaceae
Bright-yellow
2|
" Golden Lily"'
H.—fulva. "Day Lily "
Orange-yellow
1-U
Hippeastrum. " Knight's Ainarvllideac
Star-Lily."
} Red, white-streak-
4
Numerous varieties.
j ed, etc.
Imantophyllum miniata ,,
Scarlet
i-U
Iris, different varieties. Irideae
Yellow, purple,
blue, etc.
Ismene calanthina. "Peru- Amaryllidcae
White
1 — 2, fragrant.
vian Daffodil "
Isoloma bogotense Gesneraceae
Yellow and red
U
I.— Molle.
Scarlet and vellow
U
Ixia flexuosa
Irideae
Pink'
2
I. — pendula
Yellow
2
Lachenalia aurea.
Liliaccac
Orange yellow
8— 10 in.
Leucojum aestivum. "Snow Amaryllidcae
White
Flake "
Libertia Formosa.
Irideae
n
U
L. — paniculata
11
Lilium longiflorum.
Liliaceae
3—4
L. — Harrissii. " Easter," or
Bermuda Lily.
L. — aura turn. "Golden- „
White, purple,
3—4
rayed Lily.'
vellow
L. — candidum. " Madonna
M
White
2—3
Lily.'
SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY
431
Name.
Xa'ural Order.
Colour of Flowers.
Height in ft.
(or inches.)
L. — Martagon. "Turk's Cap
Lily."
L. — nepalense
L. — tigrinum. "Tiger Lily."
Lycorisaurea.
L. — sanguine i
Marica coerulea.
Montbretia, see Tritonia
Moraea iridioides.
Nerine japonica (=L\'coris
radiatn}
N. — sar.iiensis. " Guernsey
Lily."
Ornithogalum nutans.
"Star of Bethlehem."
Pardanthus Hahinicnnda
Phaedranassa chloracea
Richardia (Calla) aethiopica.
Arum Lily.
R. -Elliotiana
Sparaxis grandiHora.
Sparaxis tricolor
Sprekelia formosissima.
" Jacobaea Lily "
Tigrida pavonia.
"Tiger Lily"
Tritonia (Montbretia) aurea.
"Torch Lily "
Vallota purpurea. ' Scar-
borough Lily "
Watsonia augusta
W.— densiflora
Zephyranthes Candida.
Zephyr Lily
Z. — Carinata. Rose
Amaryllis
Z — tubispatha
Liliiicctic I Purple and white
A maryllidea
Iridcac
Lilliaccac
Amaryttideae
A r old cue
Iridcac
Amaryllidcac
Iridcac
Ainai'vllidccic
Iridciic
Amai'vllidcac
Dark purple
Orange
Yellow
Carmine
Blue
Red
White, etc.
3—4
1— l-i
Crimson | 1
White j 2
Yellow 1 2
Purple, white, etc. 1 2
Orange and yellow j 2 Large h"s
Deep-crimson 1
Orange-red
Orange
• Red, crimson, white
Scarlet
Bright-crimson
White
Bright Rose
White
SELECTED PLANTS SUITABLE FOR GROWING
IX POTS UP-COUNTRY
Many of the foregoing selections of annuals, biennials, bulbous
and tuberous plants, etc., are well-adapted for pot-culture at medium
to high elevations, and in addition to these the following may be
mentioned as especially suited for the purpose with however, the
protection of a green-house or a glazed verandah, palms and many
other choice plants of lower elevations (which without such
artificial protection would not thrive much above 3,000 ft.) can be
grown in the hills with much success. The limit of elevation in
Ceylon, under ordinary conditions, for purely tropical palms may be
SELECTED POT-PLAXTS
433
said to be about 3,000 ft. Pajms which are indigenous to sub-
tropical regions or high elevations will, however, flourish best
at the higher altitudes, and are unsuited to low elevations. For a
list of these see under Palms.
Achimenes. -Small tuberous-rooted herbaceous plants Flowers nu-
merous and showv.
> HAST A DAISY. Clt rysti iitliciuit 111 leucantkcmum.
Aspidistra lurida variegata.- Hardy stemless plant, with large hand-
some green and white-striped leaves.
Azalea indica.— Small shrubs, bearing a profusion of large showy pink,
white, or yellow Howers. Numerous varieties.
Begonia, fibrous-rooted.— Numerous varieties, showy flowers and
foliage.
B. tuberous-rooted.— Very large, brilliant yellow or scarlet flowers.
B. — rex. -About 10 to 12 inches high. Foliage large, very ornamental.
Numerous varieties
Calathea. — A herbaceous steirkss genus, with large showy leaves.
Propagated b\ division.
DTELYTKA SPECTABILIS. " LYKK FLOWER."
SPIKAEA (HOTEIA) JAPOXICA.
SELECT10XS FOR UP-COUXTRY
435
Chrysanthemum, Japanese.— One of the most beautiful genera
of flowering plants. Numerous varieties.
Cineraria. — A genus of showy flowering plants, hearing large heads of
blue or purplish flowers : cultivated as annuals.
Coleus. — Annuals with beautifully marked, soft velvety leaves, easily
propagated bv cuttings.
CINKKAKIA STKLLATA.
Clyclamen.— Small tuberous plants, bearing very pretty delicate pink,
vrimson, or white flowers ; suited onlv for growing under cover at the higher
elevations.
Dracaena (Cordyline). -Handsome palm-like plants, with bronze,
crimson, or green leaves. Numerous varieties. Propagated by suckers or
portions of the stem.
Epiphyllum. — Succulent plant*, bearing very showy, bright pink or
•crimson flowers.
SELECTED POT-PLAXTS
437
Ferns. — See article on Fcrns.
Francoa ramosa. — An ornamental creeping plant, suitable for hanging
pots ; Propagated by division or cuttings.
Freesia. — A Cape genus of small tuberous plants producing a profusion
of creamy-white, scented flowers. There are several, species and varieties.
BKOXVAJ.LIA Sl'KCIOSA. KLOXVKKS BRIGHT BU'K.
They require a cool atmosphere and protection from the rains, and are best
groxvn under cover.
Fuchsia. — A very ornamental gem of small floxvering shrubs ; numerous
varieties. Propagated by cuttings.
Genista. — Small free-floxvering shrubs, xvith yelloxv blossoms.
438
SELECTIONS FOR UP-COUNTRY
Geranium. — A universal favourite. Numerous varieties ; Hovvers of many
shades, showy and scented. With care they thrive for a time at low and
medium elevations, but require frequent pruning. They are much improved by
a weekly application of a fertiliser, given in solution with water.
G. — , Zonal or Tri-color. — Leaves beautifully marked, horse-shoe
shaped, fragrant.
GLOXINIA, "SUTTON'S GIANT."
G. — , Ivy-leaved. — Showy and free-flowering, suitable for training on
pillars, trellises, etc
Gesnera. — A genus of numerous species of small choice herbaceous
plants, generally tuberous-rooted.
G. — Douglasii and G. — magnifica are especially attractive.
Gloxinia. — An extensive genus of tuberous-rooted small plants, exceed-
in glv showy when in bloom.
SELECTED POT-PLANTS 439
Impatiens. — A showy genus -of herbaceous flowering plants. Among
the best are /. Holstii, I. Stiltnni, and l.faacicnlata.
Pelargonium. — A class allied to Geraniums, with scented, curly or cut
leaves and showy flowers. Pelargonium is the botanical name for Geranium.
Petunia. — A very showy genus of flowering annuals, blooming freely
and continuously. Single, double, and fringed varieties.
Primula chinensis.— Small annual flowering plants, of which there are
numerous varieties.
P. — obconica. Small perennial plants, flowering in the winter season.
Spiroea (Hoteia) japonica. A popular plant for pot-culture; flowers
creamy white, in large panicles.
Streptocarpus.— A perennial herb with prostrate leaves, bearing scapes
of large bluish or lilac flowers. Several species and hybrids.
Violets. (Viola odorata). — Several single and double-flowered varieties;
can be grown successfully in sheltered borders or in pots. Among the best
are : \cnpolitan (double fl's ;) pale lavender, very sweet-scented ; Czar (large,
single, blue fl's) ; Compte Braszn (large double, white fl's).
CHAPTER XIX.
PLANTS SPECIALLY SUITED FOR THE DRY REGION,
SEA COAST, AND SANDY SITUATIONS.
ORXAMEXTAL AXD USEFUL TREES FOR THE
DRY REGIOX :—
[.S.=Sinhalese ; 7\=Tamil].
Acacia leucophlcea. " Maha-andara " S.. " Velvel " T. A large tree with
spreading branches, and bright pale-yellow flowers. Heart-wood hard
and durable.
Adansonia digitata. Baobab Tree. A medium-sized tree, native of Central
Africa, famous for the great age and enormous size of trunk to which
it attains. It has become well established and bears fruit in the dry
Northern part of Ceylon, where it has been long ago introduced by
Arab traders.
Adenanthera pavonina. Bead Tree ; " Madatiya " S. See under Shade Trees.
Azadirachta indica. Margosa. >% Kohomba " S. A tall straight tree with long
spreading branches. Flowers white, sweet-scented.
Bauhinia tomentosa. " Petan " or "Kaha-petan" S., " Tiruvatti " T. A. small
tree or large shrub, with slender branches and yellow Hovvers. Heart-
wood hard, dark-red, very tough.
Berrya ammonilla. " Hal-milla " S., Chavandalai " T. A large erect handsome
tree; valuable timber. See Important Timbers of the Tropics.
Caesalpinia coriaria. Divi-divi. A spreading, medium-sized tree, with fine
feathery leaves, producing greenish-white, sweet-scented flowers. See
Tan n in Products.
Cassia Fistula. " Indian Laburnum," " Ehela, " S. \ gec Benntiful Flower-
C. — marginata. " Ratu-wa " S., " Vakai " T. > ing Trees for low
C.— multijuga. (South American Tree.) J elevations.
Eucalyptus alba. A tall slim tree with pale grey bark ; one of the few species of
Eucalypti suited to the dry region.
Holoptelea integrifolia. " Indian Elm," " Goda-kirilla " >»'.. " Velayil " T.
A tree 50 to 60 ft. high, with handsome drooping branches ; good
timber.
Millingtonia hortensis. Cork Tree. See lieuiitiful FIou'erin.i< Trees for low
elevations.
Mischodon zeylanicus. " Tammana," .S., Tampani " T. A tree 30 to 40 ft. high,
with long lanceolate leaves; young foliage bright pink. Excellent timber.
PL AXIS FOR SEA-COAST AX I) DRY REGIOX
441
Murraya exotica, var buxifolia. " Rtteriya " S. A small graceful tree : flowers
pure white and sweet-scented.
Persea (Alseodaphne) semecarpifolia. " Wewarani " *>., " Kanai," or " Vavaranai "
T. A large much-branched tree, common to the dry region. One of
Ceylon's best timber*.
Pithecolobium (Inga) Saman. Rain tree ; " Peni-karal " S. See under Shade
'frees. Thrives in a fairly dry district if planted in good deep soil.
Poinciana regia. Flamboyante. See under FUncer/ug Trees for loiv elevations.
Polyahhia longifolia. " Maia-illupai " T. A large handsome erect tree, much
planted as an avenue tree in North Ceylon and S. India.
Spathodea campanulata. See Hean ////// Floiceriiig Tre-'s.
Tamarindus indicus. Tamarind ; " Siyambala '* S. A large handsome tree
adapted for roadsides. Excellent timber.
Thespesis populnea. Tulip Tree ; " Suriya " S.. See under Shade Trees
Vitex altissima. " Milla " or Sapu-milla " S\ " Kadamanakku " T. A very
large tree, with a dense head and somewhat drooping branches.
V.— Leucoxylon. " Xebedda.'' S. " Kaddu-nochchi " T. A large tree \vith
spreading head, common in dry region, especially near tanks. Wood
hard, dark-grey, valuable timber.
SHADE TREKS. — See Chapter on Slunk Trees.
FLOWERING SHRUBS.
Allamanda Schottii. Flowers \ellow
Barleria cristata. Pink and white
Caesalpinia pulcherrima. " Peacock
flower." Bright yellow or scarlet
•Gardenia florida. FJ's white, scented
Ixora coccinea " Katambala " S.
Flowers scarlet
Ixora rosea. Flowers pink
Jasmmum pubeseens. Fl's white, scented
Lagerstroemii indica. Bright purple fl's
Pavetta inchica. Fl's white
Randia dumctorum. " Kukuruman "
S. Fl's white
Reinwardtia tetragyna Yellow fl's.
Thunbergia erecta. Blue or white fl's
Turnera ulmifolia. Fl's white
ORNAMENTAL CLIMBERS : —
Allamanda Hendersonii. Fl's large
white
Antigonon leptopus. Fl's lovely pink.
Bignonia unguis. Fl's yellow
Bougainvillea spectabilis. Bright pur-
plish-crimson
Ipomoea Briggsii. Fl's bright-crimson
Ipomoea tuberosa. Fl's yellow
Porana volubilis. " Bridal Bouquet "
Fl's creamy-white
Quisqualis indica. "Rangoon Creeper"-
Fl's orange-red
Thunbergia lauriiolia
=T. grandiflora
Fl's. large blue
FOR THE SEA-COAST.
ORNAMENTAL TREES : —
[S=Sced ; O=cuttings ; Su--^suckers. ]
Name.
Natural Order.
How Propa-
gated,
Height and descriptive notes.
Artocarpus incisa.
Bread-fruit
Bamngtonia speciosa
Mudilla" S.
I 'rlicaceac
Myrtaceae
Su.
S
40—50 ft. A beautiful
foliage tree.
About 50 ft. : handsome
large leaves.
S=Sinhalese ; r=Tamil.
442
PLAXTS FOR SEA-COAST
Name.
Carallia integerrima.
" Devvata " S.
Casuarma equisitifolia.
Beef-tree : " Kassa " S.
Cerbera borbonica.
" Mudu-kaduru " -S.
Cocos nucifera. Coconut
Palm
Eucalyptus alba. 1 White
Gum-tree
E. — citriodra. Lemon-
scented Gum-tree
Gliricidia maculata.
14 Madre"
Morinda citrifolia. '"Ahu" S.
Ochrosia borbonica.
"Mudu-kaduru." .S.
Peltophorum ferrugineum.
"Iva-vakai " T.
Pisonia morindifolia. Lettuce
Tree; " Letchicotta " T.
Pithecolombium dulce.
" Madras Thorn "
P. — Saman. Rain Tree ;
" Peni-karal " S.
Plumeria acutifolia.
Temple-Tree
P. — rubra. Crimson,
Temple-Tree
Poinciana regia.
Flamboy.mte
Polyalthia longifoli*.
" VJara-illupai " T.
Pterocarpus indicus. Padouk
Spathodea campanulata.
Thespesia populnea.
Tulip Tree ;
"Suriva" .S.
Natural Order.
How Propa-
gated.
Height and descriptive notes.
Rltizoplioraeetie
S
50—60 ft.
C dsiuiri i/tie
50 80 ft. Ornamental.
Apocynaceac
,.
About 25 ft. Fl's white.
Pti/ntiie
60—80 ft.
Myrhiceae
50 — 60 ft. Sino th, white
bark.
40—50 ft. Slender hand-
some tree.
Legiitninosae
S or C
About 30ft. See Hcnuli-
fnl Flincen'iig Tree.
Ritbiiieene
S
25—30 ft. Large leaves
Apoeyiniee<ie
30 ft. Large handsome
leaves.
Legnnii uosae
See Beautiful I'lwcring
Trees.
Xyela&inetie
C
See Oriniiiieiitdl Foliage
Trees.
Lcgiiniinosac
S
40 — 50 ft. high; also cop-
piced and used as hedges.
M
t)
See Shade Trees for Rond-
sides.
Apocynaccitf
C
]
C or vS
]• See Kftiiitifiil Flowering
Trees.
Li'gn mi nostie
S
)
A iioiHieette
See Oriiiiiiientdl Foliiigc
Trees.
Legiimiitosac
See Oriuinieiitdl Foliage
Trees,
Bignoniaceac
See Beautiful Flowering
Trees.
Malrueene
See Shutle Trees for Road-
sides.
ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS :—
[S.=seeds: C.— cuttings ; Su.=suckers].
Name.
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Height and descriptive notes.
Acalypha, different var's
Enphorbiaceae
C
8—10 ft. Large bright-
coloured leaves.
Agave americana variegata.
Anuii'ttvllidcae
Su. or S
6 — 8 ft. Leaves variegated.
American Aloe
very striking.
Aralia filicifolia.
Anilitieeae
C
6—8 ft. Young leaves.
yellow, very handsome.
Arundo Donax variegata.
Grtiiiiinene
Div.orC
6 — 8 ft. Handsome variega
ted grass.
S.=Sinhalese. TWTamil.
PL AXIS FOR SEA -CO AST
443
Name.
Natural Order.
Caesalpinia pulchemma.
"Peacock Flower"
Carissa Carandas.
" Maha-karainha " S. ;
"Perunkila" T.
Clerodendron inerme.
" YVal-gurenda " S. :
" Pinari " T.
C. — nutans.
Leguniinosac
Apocyttaci'fti'
\\rhcimct\ic
C. — Siphonanthus.
Croton (Codioeum), Euphorbinceac
different var's
Datura suaveolens. Soliiinicciii'
" Trumpet-flower "
Hibiscus (Shoe-flower), Miih'tin'iic
numerous var's
Ixora, different species Rubinceac
and var's
Lagerstroemia indica. Lytlirnccnc
"Crape Myrtle"
Nerium Oleander. Oleander Apocyiniccnc
Panax fruticosum.
Pandanus odoratissimus.
Screw-pine ; " Mudu-
keyiya" S.; "Talai" T.'
Pa vetta indica. "Pawatta"
S.; "Pavaddai" T.
Scoevola. Kcenigii.
"Takkada" T.
Sophora tomentosa.
" Mudu-murunga " S.
Vinca rosea. Madagascar
Periwinkle
Wrightia zeylanica.
"Wal-idda" S.
Yucca gloriosa.
"Spinish Bayonet"
Araliaccae
Leguminosae
How
Propagated.
Inscriptive notes.
5 -6 ft. Fl's bright yellow.
A spiny shrub with white
fl's. See Tropical Fruits.
S or C 3—5 ft. Fl's white, tinged
with pink.
C 4 — 5 ft. Fl's white, pen-
dulous.
S or C 5—6 ft. Showy.
C 5—8 ft. Very showy, bright-
ly coloured foliage.
6— "8 ft. Fl's large, white.
0 — 8 ft. Fl's of various
shades, pink to scarlet
yellow and white.
4 — 6ft. Fl's various colours
pink, yellow, and scarlet.
6—8 ft. Fl's purple-lilac,
in large racemes.
8 — 12 ft. or more. Fl's large,
bright crimson or pink.
5 — 6 ft. Leaves much cut.
ornamental.
Su. or S 15 — 20 ft. high. Fruit glo-
bose or oblong, scarlet.
C or S 4 — 6 ft., bears a profusion
of white flowers.
A large bush. 6—10 ft.,
fl's white.
4 — 6 ft. covered with grey
velvety pubescence.
2 ft. Fl's rose-pink or
white.
3—5 ft. Slender, erect
branches; fl's pure white.
S or Su. 5-8 ft. Leaves stiff, sharp-
pointed : fl's white, in
large erect panicle.
ORNAMENTAL CLIMBERS :—
[S.=Seed; C.=Cuttings ; Su.=Suckers].
Name.
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Descriptive notes.
Allamanda Hendersonii
Antigonon guatamalensis
Apocynacftic
Polygoiiiicctic
C
CorS
A quick-growing climber,
with large, yellow bell-
shaped fl's.
A moderate-sized climber
with lovely pink fl's.
.S.=Sinhalese : A=Taiuil.
414
SA XD-BINDING PL A XTS
Name.
Natural Order.
How
Propagated.
Descriptive notes.
Argyreia speciosa Coirvolriilaccac C or S
" Maha-clumudu " .S.
Bignonia unguis
liigiioniacetic \ S or Su.
Clerodendrcn Thomsons
Vcrbcuaccac C or S
Cryptostegia grandiflora
Asclcpindt'iic C
Ipomoea Briggsii
Convolmilaceae
I. — carneum
„
I. — vitifolia
S or Su.
Quisqualis indica
Coinbn'taccac C
" Rangoon Creeper"
Porana volubilis
Convolvuhiccae
"Bridal Bouquet."
Tristillateia australas.
Malpigh iuci'iic
"
Australia
Leaves large handsome,
greyish-white beneath
h"s large, purple.
A slender creeper, yellow
fl's, very beautiful.
Fl's white and scarlet.
Fl's bright pink.
Bright crimson, very
showy, free bloomer.
Fl's pale-pink.
Fl's bright yellow.
Fl's orange-red, sweet-
scented.
A large climber; fl ' s
creamy-white, in large
panicles.
Fl's in yellow racemes ;
free bloomer.
SAND-BINDING PLANTS
Certain plants have a natural capacity for growing in loose
sandy soils, or even in pure sand, as on barren sea-shores or river
banks. The value of such plants does not consist only in their
sand-binding properties, by which they prevent the erosion of land
or the shifting of sand-banks, etc., but also in establishing a foun-
dation in which it may be possible to introduce and grow more
useful plants. For sand-banks by the sea-shore, the following
plants are among the most adaptable : —
Calotropis gigantea; "Wara" S. A large glaucous shrub,
with large oblong leaves; common near sea coast in Ceylon.
Canavalia obtusifolia. " Mudu-awara" vS. A creeping legu-
minous perennial, with bright-pink (sometimes white) flowers.
Grows on the sanely sea-shores.
Spinifex squarrosus. "Water Pink," " Maharawana-rewula "
S. A grey or glaucous grass which grows in broad tufts on the
sandy sea-shores. It is especially cultivated on the Madras coast
for its sand-binding properties.
Ipomoea biloba. — "Mudu Bin-tamburu" S. A creeping plant
of the Convolvulus family, with bright purplish-rose flowers and
thick succulent leaves; common on the sea-shore sand along the
south and west coast of Ceylon.
Scaevola Koenigii. A large glaucous bush, with yellowish
white flowers and pithy stems; common on the south-west coast of
Cevlon.
SAND-BINDING PLAXTS 445
Pandanus odoratissima. Screw Pine; " Mudu-keiya" S. A
spreading bush with numerous aerial roots, which descend and fix
the plant in the sand.
Barringtonia racemosa. "Medilla" S. A small tree with
drooping branches, common near the sea-shore in Ceylon.
Tephrosia purpurea. "Plla" S. A perennial, 1 to 2 feet
high; flowers small, purplish-pink.
Cassia auriculata. " Ranawara" S. An annual, 1 to 2 feet
high, with spreading branches and bright-yellow flowers. The
dried leaves form the " Matara Tea" of Ceylon.
FOR INLAND SANDY BANKS
Certain useful sand or bank-binding plants also afford valuable
fodder or gra/ing for cattle. Thus in the low-country, the
"Mauritius-grass" (Panicnm iniilicnin), "Guinea grass" (P. maxi-
mum), and "Etora" (P. repent) are excellent subjects for combin-
ing the purposes of fodder and soil-binding on the banks of rivers
or streams; while in drier situations the Doob-grass or "Arugam-
pillu" T (Cynodon Daciylon), Love-grass or "Tulteri" S. (Chrysopogon
nciculatus), " Hin-undu-piyali" S. (Dcsmodium triflorum), C(issi<r
mimosifolia, and the Sensitive-plant (Mimosa pitdica). all have useful
binding properties on loose sandy soils. At elevations of 4,000 to
6,000 feet, Paspalum dilatatum ("Golden-Crown" grass) is an
excellent plant for binding railway banks, etc., while it is also one
of the best fodder plants for up-country.
CHAPTER XX.
SHADE TREES
FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES AND ELEVATIONS
The importance of shade trees in the tropics is impossible to
over-estimate; they are essential to the planter for his crops, and
are a boon to man and beast on account of the shelter they afford
from the sun, as well as for their effect in tempering the atmos-
phere. Most crops in the tropics require shade at some stage of
their growth, some more or less permanently, especially at low
elevations, where also bungalows or other human abodes are
improved in comfort by a certain amount of protection from the
powerful rays of the tropical sun. Shade trees enhance the beauty of
oiir surroundings, and render the atmosphere cooler and healthier by
checking radiation from the soil. In towns as well as in malarial
districts, the hygienic effects of suitable and well-grown trees are
well known. It is a mistake, however, to plant trees or shrubs,
especially such as have adaptations for collecting water, as sheath-
ing leaf-bases or spathulated inflorescence, too near houses, for
they harbour mosquitoes and thereby encourage malaria. Certain
trees, as Spathodea, may also be a source of danger from their
liability to be blown down by wind, while others (as species of
Ficus) are objectionable on account of their extensive root system.
Others again, as Casuarina, frequently block gutterings, drains, etc.,
by the almost constant dropping of leaves.
Qualities of Good Shade Trees. — The suitability of trees for
purposes of shade depends much on local conditions and individual
requirements. Some trees may also serve other useful purposes in
addition to providing shade or shelter ; thus, certain kinds which
yield edible fruit or other useful product may in some localities be
also used to combine shade. In parts of India, Mangoes and other
fruit-trees are employed for this dual purpose ; while in some
European countries the leasing of fruit-trees which have been
planted along public roads is a valuable source of revenue to their
respective governments. The most essential qualities of a good
SHADE TREES
447
shade-tree are : (1) it should be ever-green, or at least have the
habit of putting on fresh foliage immediately after shedding the
PITHKCOLOBIUM (iNGA) SAMAN, " RAIN TREE" OR GUANGO.
An excellent road-side shade tree when properly planted and attended t<
old leaves: (2) it should have a normally spreading form, with
an upright clean trunk for at least 15 ft. from the ground; (3) it
should be a fairly fast grower ; and (4) the foliage should be of a
448
SHADE TREES
light feathery nature, with small leaves which have the habit of
closing at night or in dull weather. Too rapid a growth must be
deprecated as being productive of brittle wood and short-lived
trees. Shade trees may be said to belong to either of two types
in regard to habit of growth, viz : (1) centripetal (towards the centre),
in which the branches are developed in an upward or horizontal
direction ; and (2) centrifugal (from the centre), with the branching
system curving downwards or drooping. Trees of the former type
BIUM (INGA) SAMAN AS A SHADE TREE, SHOWIXC;
EFFECTS OF ILL TREATMENT.
are the most suitable for road-sides or streets, while those of the
latter are very effective when planted in parks, pastures or open
spaces. The quality of any shade tree may be said to depend
largely upon the attention given it when young, as well as on the
manner of planting. Careless or improper planting, injury by
cattle, etc., when young, or ruthless treatment by disinterested
owners of adjoining land, will permanently dishgure shade-trees
however good their qualities may be.
SHADE TREES
449
Trees for Parks, Pasture Land, etc — Scenic effects should
here be studied in combination with the practical purposes of
shade-trees. Those of bold appearance, with striking foliage and
drooping branches, will produce an imposing effect and, at the same
time, improve the conditions of pasture, their shade encouraging
the growth of soft, tender herbage.
Shade Trees for Field Crops. — That suitable shade-trees,
thinly planted and properly attended to, have beneficial effects,
physically or chemically, upon most crops in the tropics is an
established fact. They help to conserve moisture, aerate the soil
SHADY KIVEK-DKIVE IX PERADEXIYA GARDENS.
by means of their deep-feeding roots, which bring plant-food from
the under-strata to be returned again in the form of mulch by the
fallen leaves. Leguminous trees are preferable for various reasons,
viz: — (1) They are usually fast-growers, (2) their thin feathery
foliage does not form too dense a shade, (3) their leaves have often
the habit of closing up at night, and (4) many of the family have
the property of collecting free nitrogen by means of bacteria
nodules on their rootlets.
Trees for Road-sides, Streets, etc. — Trees of the type with
upright or horizontally spreading branches should be chosen for
450 SHADE TREES
this purpose. Large leaves and heavy dangerous fruits are obviously
characters which disqualify for planting in public thoroughfares.
The ideal tree for this should have, in addition to being evergreen
and of an upright spreading habit, light thin foliage, with the
leaves closing up at night or in dull cloudy weather. Probably
the Inga Saman or Rain Tree approaches most closely these
requirements. It is a handsome tree when well-grown, being
adapted to a fairly wide range of climate, and incidentally its
nutritious sugary pods form an excellent cattle-food. The planting
and preservation of suitable shade trees for road-sides being of
great importance to the public, the writer would suggest the
adoption of certain recognised rules, such as the following, for
their proper planting and maintenance : —
(a) Proper holes (from 2 to 3 ft. deep, by as much in diameter, and
| filled with good soil) to be prepared before planting.
(b) Where possible, holes to be well behind the side-drains and not in
the margin of the road ; the distance from the road should be from
8 to 10 feet, according to circumstances.
(c) The plants to be well-established in bamboo-pots or plant-baskets
before being planted out.
(d) Planting out should, as far as possible, be done at the commence-
ment, not at the end, of the rainy seasons.
(e) The distances for planting apart in the first place may be from 25
to 30 feet (according to species of tree), every alternate tree being
cut out later, if necessary, as it fills its allotted space or encroaches
on its neighbour.
(f) Proper protection must be provided against cattle, &c., either col-
lectively or individually by means of tree-guards or fence, until the
trees are sufficiently established to take care of themselves.
(g) The injudicious cutting of branches, or interference with the growth
and proper form of trees in public thoroughfares, should be con-
sidered an act punishable by law.
(h) The building of houses, huts or shanties too close to the trees should
be prohibited.
SHADE TREES SUITED FOR THE MOIST
LOW-COUNTRY.
[Elevations below 2,000 ft. with average annual rainfall of 70 in. or more].
FOR ROAD-SIDES : —
[S.=SINHALESE ; r.=Tamil].
Canarium commune. Java Almond; "Rata-kekuna" S. A large Malayan tree.
See under Tropical Fruits.
Filicium decipiens. "Pehimbiya" S. " Katu-puwarasa " T. An elegant evergreen
tree, 50 to 70 ft. high. See Ornamental Foliage Trees.
SHADE TREES 451
Lafoensia Vandelliana. An erect, medium-sized tree with small leaves, native
of Brazil; introduced at Peradeniya in 1865.
Myroxylon toiuiferum. Balsam-of Tolu; "Rata-karanda." S. A large handsome
tree with small pinnate leaves, native of S. America. See under
Important Timbers. &c.
Parkia Roxburghii. An immense tree with fine feathery leaves, native of
Malaya. See Ornamental Foliage Trees.
Peltophorum ferrugineum. A handsome foliage and flowering tree, with fine
feathery leaves, native of Ceylon. See Beautiful Fhnvering Trees.
Pithecolobium Saman. "Saman;" "Rain-tree;" Quango; " Peni-karal," S. A
very large quick-growing tree, with small pinnate leaves, excellent for
road-sides ; introduced into Ceylon from S. America in 1851.
Pometia eximia. "Gal-mora" S. A large handsome tree with around head
See Ornamental Foliage Trees.
Pterocarpus indicus. Padouk; " Rata-gammalu " S. A large handsome tree with
fine foliage and drooping branches. See Ornamental Foliage Trees.
Terminalia belerica. Myrobalan-tree; "Bulu" S. " Rani-maran " or "Tanti," T
A very large handsome tree. See Ornamental Foliage Trees.
FOR PARKS OR OPEN SPACES : —
[ See the above, also Ornamental Foliage Trees].
FOR FIELD CROPS, AS TEA, CACAO, ETC : —
Adenanthera pavonina. ( Legn mi nosae). Bead-tree; " Madatiya" S. A moderate-
sized, straight tree, with small pinnate leaves.
Albizzia moluccana. (Legnmi nosae). Sau Tree ; \ Large, very quick-growing
" Rata-mara S. trees, with thin feathery
Albizzia stipulata, (Legn mi nosae). "Kabal- j foliage ; in flower Dec.
mara" S. to Jan.
Erythrina lithosperma. (Legnntinosae). " Dadap," A moderate-sized tree of rapid
growth, suitable for shade; also affords a quantity of foliage for mulching
or geeen-manuring.
Erythrina umbrosa. (Legn mi nosae). " Immortel " or " Mortel." A moderate-sized
tree with large leaves, much used as a shade tree for Cacao and other
crops in the West Indies.
Eryihrina velutina. (Legn mi nosae). "Bocare." A popular shade tree for Cacao in
the West Indies.
-Gliricidia maculata. (Legn mi nosae}. " Madre," or "Madura." A small quick-
growing tree of Nicaragua, suitable as a shade tree for Cacao, &c.
See Beautiful Flowering Trees.
•Grevillea robusta. (Proteaceae). Silky Oak. An upright medium-sized tree of
Australia, with light foliage, much planted for shade amongst Tea, also
for wind-belts, fuel reserve, &c., in Ceylon. Thrives best from 1,500 to
4,000 feet.
Inga laurina. (Legu mi nosae) " Pois-doux." A small tree, used in the West Indies
as a sharle tree for Cacao.
Myroxylon toiuiferum. (Legn mi nosae). Balsam-of -Tolu. Suitable as a permanent
shade tree for field crops. See Ornamental Foliage Trees.
452 SHADE AND WIND-BELT TREES, ETC.
FOR TIMBER, WIND-BELTS, AND FUEL : —
[See also Important Timbers, etc., of the Tropics].
Artocarpus integrifolius. Jak; "Kos," S. A moderate -sized or large tree, affording
excellent timber, suitable for wind-belts and timber reserve.
Cassia siamea. "Wa" S. A large quick-growing tree, yielding hard dark
timber and good fuel.
Casuarina equisitifolia. " She Oak " " Beef -wood;" "Kassa-gaha," S. Suitable
for wind-belts; very hard, durable timber and good fuel.
Eugenia Jambos. "Jambu." A. small bushy tree, suitable for wind-belts.
Filicium decipiens. "Pehimbiya," S. A slow-growing tree, suitable for wind-
belts; excellent timber and fuel.
Melia dubia. "Lunu-midella" S. A handsome quick-growing tree. Wood light.
much used for ceilings.
Mesua ferrea. Ceylon Iron- Wood; "Na-gaha" S. Slow-growing, thick foliaged
tree; would make effective and permanent wind-belts.
Michelia Champaca. Ch unrac; "Saru" S. A large quick-growing tree, affording
good timber and fuel.
Mischodon zeylanicus. "Tammanu" S. "Tampanai" T. A small much-branched
tree, suitable for wind-belts; excellent timber.
Myroxylon toluiferum. Balsam -of-Tolu. A moderate sized or large tree; good
timber, suitable for wind-belts.
Pterocarpus marsupium. "Gammalu" S. A wide-spreading handsome tree; fine
hard timber.
SHADE TREES SUITED FOR THE INTERMEDIATE
OR SEMI-DRY REGION.
[With rainfall of 50 to 70 inches].
FOR ROADSIDES: —
Albizzia Lebbek. "Mara" S. "Woman's Tongue" of the West Indies; native
of Ceylon and Eastern Tropics.
Azadirachta Jndica. "Kohomba" S. "Margosa"; "Vempu" 7\ A moderate-sized
tree, with straight trunk and spreading branches; suited for dry region..
Caesalpinia c<>riaria. Divi-divi — See Tannin Products.
Diospyros Embryopteris. " Timbiri " T. A moderate-sized evergreen tree with
spreading branches.
Eucalyptus alba. White Gum-tree. A tall slender tree with smooth grey biirk,
native of N. Australia; thrives and bears seed at Anuradhapura, Ce3rlon.
E. — citriodora. Lemon-scented Gum-tree. A handsome slender tree, with
smooth bark.
Mischodon zeylanicus. " Tammanu " S. "Tampanai"?'. A much-branched tree,
30 to 40 feet high, suited to dry region.
Myristica laurifolia. "Wild Nutmeg" "Malaboda" S. " Palmanikam " 7\ A
large tree with wide spreading branches and large leaves; thrives in
rather dry as well as moist region.
Peltophorum ferrugineum. "Iva-vakai," T. A moderate-sized or large much-
branched, handsome tree, indigenous to dry region of Ceylon. See
Beautiful Flowering Trees.
SHADE AND WIND-BELT TREES, ETC. 455
Pithecolobium (Inga) Saman. "Saman;" "Rain-tree," "Peni-karal," vS. See Shade
Trees for Moist Lmv-coitntry.
Poinciana regia. Flamboyante. See under Beautiful Flou'ering Trees.
Polyalthia longifolia. "Mara-illupai" T. A handsome evergreen tree, suitable for
avenues and road sides.
Pterocarpus marsupium. "Gammalu" S. (See above). Suited to moderately dry
region.
Swietenia macrophylla. Large-leaved Mahogany. A large handsome tree, suited
to dry districts.
Tamarindus indica. Tamarind; "Siyambala" S. "Puli" T. A large handsome tree,
adapted to a dry as well as moist region.
Thespesia populnea. Tulip Tree; "Suriya" S. "Kavarachu" T. A small much-
branched spreading tree, with ovate pointed leaves, Indigenous to the
dry region of Ceylon near the sea, often planted as an avenue or shade
tree. See Important Timbers of the Tropics.
FOR PARKS, PASTURE LANDS, AVENUES, ETC.:—
Same as above.
SHADE TREES SUITED FOR MEDIUM ELEVATIONS.
(2,000 to 5000 ft; Rainfall 70 to 140 inches).
FOR ROAD-SIDES, PASTURE LAND, AND OPEN SPACES:—
Acacia melanoxylon. Black wood. A large tree, furnishing excellent timber.
Acacia pycnantha. Golden-wattle. 30 to 40 ft high; good timber, valuable
tannin bark.
Albizzia momccana. Sau Tree; "Ruta-mara" S. A large quick-growing tree;
thrives from 1,000 to 3,500 ft. Thin feathery foliage.
A.— stipulata. "Kabal-mara" S. (See above).
Castanospermum australe. Moreton Bay Chestnut. A medium-sized tree, thrives
from 1,000 to 3,000 ft.
Cedrela serrata. Red Toon \
^ _, Quick-growing handsome trees; good timber
C— Toona. Toon-tree; In- \ v_ _ , ™ °
and shade. Thrive up to 6,000 ft.
dian Mahogany. /
Cullenia excelsa. "Wild Dtirian." A symmetrical, spreading, evergreen tree;
thrives up to 3,000 ft.
Grevillea robusta. Silky Oak. (See above). A useful and ornamental tree with
fine feathery foliage, excellent for shade, wind-belts and fuel; also
affords serviceable timber.
Pterocarpus marsupium. "Gammalu" S. Thrives up to 3,000 ft. (See above).
Schinus molle. "Pepper Tree." A handsome, spreading, small tree with pinnate
leaves. See Ornamental Foliage Trees for Up-country.
FOR TIMBER, WIND-BELTS AND FUEL :—
(See also Important Timbers of the Tropics.
Acacia pycnantha. (See above) Cedrela serrata. See above.
Albizzia moluccana. „ I Cedrela Toona.
Eucalyptus Leucoxylon, Iron-bark Tree, A large Australian tree, affording very
hard, durable, and strong timber, used by cartwrights and ship-builders.
454 SHADE AND WIND-BELT TREES, ETC.
E. — marginata. Jarrah. — An Australian tree, yielding valuable, durable timber,
resistant to termites and other insects; largely used for sleepers, street-
paving, jetty-building, &c,
E. — robusta. Iron-bark. An upright tall tree, with rough brown bark, much
planted for timber and fuel reserves at elevation of 3,000 to 5000 ft. in
Ceylon.
Grevillea robusta. Silky Oak. (See above).
Michelia Champaca. " Sapu " S. — A large quick-growing tree; good timber and
fuel: thrives up to 2,000 ft.
FOR FIELD CROPS, TEA, ETC : —
(See also Shade Trees suited for crops in Low-country),
Acacia dealbata. Silver- wattle. See Ornamental Flowering Trees.
A. — molissima = (A. ducurrens). Black or Tan-wattle. A large Australian Tree,
commonly grown at the higher elevations in Ceylon. (See Tun Barks.)
Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, A handsome quick-growing Leguminous tree.
Albizzia moluccana. ( See above ) \
A.— stipulata ( ) ,- Thrive up to about 4,000 ft. in Ceylon.
Erythrina lithosperma ( ,, ) )
Cedrela serrata. Red Toon. ( See above ) \
~ .„ , ^.,. ~ , f x \ Thrive from 2,000 to 0,000 it.
Grevillea robusta. Silky Oak ( ,, ) )
TREES SUITED FOR WIND-BELTS, TIMBER, AND FUEL.
FOR ELEVATIONS ABOVE 4,000 FT.
Acacia decurrens. Black or Tan-wattle. (See above).
A. — melanoxylon. blackwood. A large tree, furnishing excellent timber (See
Ornamental Foliage Trees)- Also several other species of Acacia.
Calophyllum Walkerii. "Kina" vS. A large tree, with a thick straight trunk and a
round head; common at the higher elevations in moist region. Good
wind-belt tree. Peculiar to Ceylon.
Cedrela serrata. Red Toon. See above; also Ornamental Foliage Trees.
Cupressus Knightiana. Conifer. \ Large, quick-growing, handsome trees, useful
1- for timber, fuel and wind belts. See Orna-
C — macrocarpa. ,, ) mental Foliage Trees for Up-country.
Eucalyptus Leucoxylon. Iron-bark Tree. See above.
E. — marginata. Jarrah. A large tree of Western Australia, affording one of the
most durable timbers known (See above). Also several other species of
Eucalyptus.
Frenela rhomboidea. A moderate-sized, handsome, coniferous tree, good for
timber, fuel, &c.
Grevillea robusta. Silky Oak. — See above.
Michelia nilagirica. "Wal-sapu" S. A moderate -sized shrubby tree, with a
round head, common in moist forests above 4,000 ft. One of the best
of indigenous mountain timbers in Ceylon.
Schinus molle. "Pepper Tree." A handsome, spreading, small tree, with fine
feathery foliage. See Ornamental Foliage Trees for Up-country
CHAPTER XXI.
RAILWAY, SCHOOL, AND RE5THOUSE GARDENS.
[For fuller information, see special Chapters on different subjects].
The vicinity of Railway Stations, Schools and Resthouses
affords in many cases excellent opportunities of establishing attrac-
tive and useful little gardens, often in isolated or sparsley cultivated
districts, and are thus capable of serving as object lessons to the
peasantry, in addition to their primary purpose of ornament or utility.
Through their agency useful and ornamental plants may be intro-
duced and established in remote districts, and thsy may be the
means of demonstrating the kinds of plants most adapted to the
particular climate and soil of their locality. The most cheerless
and bleak situations may be made attractive and interesting by
establishing and maintaining neat little gardens suitable to the
surroundings, and the effect of these also in rendering a vicinity
salubrious and agreeable can hardly be over-estimated.
Laying out and Planting. — The outline of the garden being
decided upon, the boundary should be planted with suitable trees
for the purpose of providing shade or shelter. These should be
planted closer than they are intended to remain when grown up,
allowance being thus made for thinning out as the trees approach
maturity. Deciduous trees should not, as a rule, be planted for
shade, as they are likely to drop their leaves when shade is most
required. In planning the garden, it may help to make one's idea
clear by first sketching on paper the general contour of the ground
and the outline of the scheme it is proposed to follow, afterwards
marking off the space with string and pegs. The plan to be carried
out should, of course, depend on the area, whilst the labour avail-
able for carrying on the work and maintaining the garden in a
proper condition must also be considered. Therefore, never make
a garden larger than you can manage to maintain in good condi-
tion. A small garden well kept is obviously preferable to a larger
one which always presents an untidy or neglected appearance.
Persons in charge of Resthouses and Railway gardens in Ceylon
RAILWAY, SCHOOL, AND RESTHOUSE GARDENS 457
frequently make the mistake of thinking that a great number of
miniature beds and borders, sometimes but a few inches in width
and of fantastic outline, constitute an attractive garden. Such
geometrical figures are neither ornamental nor practical, being
unsuitable for the growth of most ornamental plants, and too small
and intricate to allow of their being maintained in a proper con-
dition. These should, therefore, be discouraged. Simple beds of
moderate dimensions, either oblong, round, or oval in shape, and
borders of suitable width and natural curves are much more
preferable.
Borders are, as a rule, best confined to the outskirts of the
garden, where they should be planted with tall shrubs so as to form
a striking background for the smaller plants and beds in front.
Flower-beds may be dotted about the lawn and by the sides of
paths, but care should be taken to leave the centre of the garden
as open as possible. Where only a narrow strip of ground
is available, as at some railway stations, no elaborate design should
be attempted ; a bold border consisting of mixed ornamental
shrubs for a background, finishing with smaller plants in front,
being in such cases the most practical and effective arrangement.
The ideal small garden should present a striking background of
tall shrubs and shady riowering-trees, with beds of gradually
smaller plants in the foreground, the latter being set in a smooth
level lawn, with plenty of space between them. This will present
the best effect when looked at from the front, as from the railway
carriages.
Paths. — These should always be wide enough for two persons
to walk comfortably abreast, and may be either straight or grace-
fully curved. It must be remembered that they are meant for
convenience rather than ornament ; therefore avoid having any
more than are necessary. Cleanly kept paths, of uniform width
and with neatly trimmed edges, add greatly to the general effect
of a garden.
Hedges. — It is essential at the outset to guard against vermin
and wandering cattle, and also in some places against deer, por-
cupines, etc., so that protection by means of a wall, a paling of old
sleepers, or a good barbed-wire fence is usually indispensable.
When such is employed, it should be concealed and beautified by
showy climbers, or by a neat hedge of ornamental shrubs. A live
fence or hedge of some formidable prickly plant may in itself, in
some cases, afford an efficient barrier when well established.
RAILWAY, SCHOOL, AND RESTHOUSE GARDENS 459
Climbers.— Ornamental climbers can be used with charming
effect over bamboo or iron arches, twined round tree trunks or
trained in festoons between pillars. They may also serve useful
purposes in screening off an unsightly outhouse or shading an
exposed verandah. Climbers, however, may be injurious to buil-
dings if allowed to grow unchecked over the roof, and 'Should
therefore be kept within bounds.
Lawns — The beds or borders should be so arranged as to
leave plenty of working space between them, and this should,
whenever feasible, be laid in turf so as to afford all the lawn
possible. The latter forms the best setting, and if well kept will
not only increase the ornamental effect of the plants, but will in
itself always present a very attractive and pleasing appearance. A
lawn is easily produced, and when made entails less labour in up-
keep than the same area laid out in fanciful strips of paths and
borders. The ground should first be dug up and uniformly
levelled ; the surface may then be covered with turf, or, if this is
scarce, roots of grass may be dibbled in at three or four inches
apart, and the surface afterwards rolled. Seed of any good local
turf grass, as " Tutteri," if sown and covered with a sprinkling of
soil will soon form a green sward. Wet weather should, of course,
be chosen for any work of this nature. When th^ turf is well
established the grass should be kept short, which may easily be
done by an edged bamboo splint, if a small lawn mower is not
available.
Upkeep. -However well a garden may be laid out and planted,
its usefulness and attractiveness will depend upon how the grounds
and general surroundings are looked after. As a rule it may be
accepted that the condition of a garden invariably reflects the
extent of personal interest of its owner or the person in charge.
Keeping the grass short and the turf uniformly level, the paths
clean- weeded with neatly cut edges, hedges neatly trimmed, weed-
ing, forking, and mulching the soil — these are operations which
should never be neglected, and go far to make a perfect garden.
Propagation. — Simple propagation, as by cuttings, division of
roots or bulbs, etc., may easily be carried out in small gardens, as at
Railway stations, Resthouses, Schools, etc. Too often valuable
plants are allowed to run out of stock, and the Government Gardens
are expected to replace them when required. All that is necessary
is a bed of loose rich soil in a shady corner. This should be dug to
about 2 feet deep, so as to afford good drainage and encourage the
retention of moisture in the soil in drv weather. Remove anv
RAILWAY, SCHOOL, AND RESTHOUSE GARDENS 461
coarse stones, roots, etc., and place on the surface a layer of fine
soil, to which should be added some leaf-mould and fine river-sand.
Very little attention is required beyond shading and watering the
beds when necessary. The advantages of this practice are obvious,
for not only are the plants thus ready at hand when required for
planting out or for filling vacancies, but the supply of special kinds-
suitable for definite purposes or locality can be relied upon.
SELECTED FLOWERING AND FOLIAGE PLANTS,
ANNUALS, CLIMBERS, ETC.
SUITABLE FOR GARDENS FROM SEA- LEVEL TO 6,000 FT.
ELEVATION.
See also Selections for Low-and Up-country.
FLOWERING AND FOI.IAGK PLANTS,
5 it. TO 8 ft. HIGH : —
Lagerstroemia indica. Flowers pink
Tabernam^>ntana coronaria. Flowers
pure-white
Croton. Different varieties. Orna-
meiital foliage
Palms. Different varieties. Hand-
some graceful foliage
Acalypha. Different varieties; large
coloured leaves.
Pisonia alba. (Lettuce-tree). Green-
ish-yellow foliage
Arundo Donax. Large variegated
grass
Hibiscus. Different varieties. Showv
flowers
<\momum magnificum. Ornamental
leaves, showy flowers
Poinsettia pulcherrima. Showy
scarlet flowers
Heliconia aureo-striata. Large orna-
mental plantain-like leaves
Panax fruticosum. Ornamental
feathery leaves
Cordyline. (Dracaena). Ornamental,
purple, crimson, or bronze leaves
Aralia filicilolia. Ornamental feathery
leaves
Mussasnda erythrophylla. Showy
scarlet flowers
Gardenia florida. White, scented
flowers
Kopsia fruticosa. Fink and white
flowers
Plumeria rubra. Red Temple-tree.
Crimson flowers
LOW PLANTS SUITABLE FOR BEDS,
FRONT ROWS. OR EDGING: —
Cannas. Numerous varieties.
Flowers yellow, scarlet, pink, etc.
Leaves large, green or bronze
Vinca rosea Pink or white flowers
Coleus. Different varieties. Orna-
mental foliage
Caladiunr.s. Different varieties.
Ornamental foliage
Alternanthera. Several varieties.
Dwarf plants, useful for edging
Coreopsis. Yellow flowers
Ageratum. Blue flowers
Angelonia Bluish-purple flowers
Cosmos. Pink and white flowers
Ananas variegata. Ornamental foliage
Turncra elegans. Creamy white
flowers, closing in afternoon
Gynandropsis. Large pink blossom
Torenia Fournieri. Small plant, vio-
let-blue and white flowers
Chrysanthemum. Perennial. White-
flowered varieties the best.
Gomphrena globosa. Purple flowers
Phrynium variegatum. Ornamental
variegated foliage
SaKia farinacea Blue flowers
Pentas carnea. Pink flowers
Ruellia colorata. Purple leaves,
perennial, creeping
Salvia. Scarlet flowers
Petunia. Showy purple or white
flowers
Cuphea jorullensis. Flowers orange-
yellow
Marigolc's. Flowers showy, yellow,
orange, etc.
462
FLOWERING AND FOLIAGE PLANTS
CLIMBERS:—
Solanum Wendlandii. Blue flowers
* Allamanda Hendersonii. Large yellow
** flowers
Bignonia magnifica. Beautiful magenta
flowers
«E B. — unguis. Bright yellow flowers
§Cissus discolor. Pretty, satiny colour-
w ed leaves
^ Antigonon leptopus. Pink flowers
i Clerodendron Thomsonae. Beautiful
white and scarlet flowers
Y Petraea volubilis. Beautiful blue and
violet flowers
Congea tomentosa. Showy pink
flowers in large sprays
CLIMBERS.
Ipomosa Briggsii. Dark crimson
flowers
Bignonia venusta. Tang a-p o o .
Flowers orange-yellow
Solanum seaforthianum. Blue flowers
FLOWERING AND FOLIAGE
SHRUBS.
A Pavetta indica. Flowers white
Russeilia juncea. Flowers scarlet
Sanchezia nobilis. Ornamental varie-
^ gated leaves
**" Strobilanthes coloratus. Flowers dark
O purple
10 Montanoa bipinnatifida. Tree-daisy.
ri Flowers white
Graptophyllum hortense. "Caricature
Plant." Variegated foliage
Tecoma Stans. Yellow flowers
Beloperone oblongata. Pink flowers
FLOWERING AND FOLIAGE
SHRUBS.
Duranta Plumieri. Pale blue flowers
Plumbago capensis. Pretty blue
flowers
Berberis cristata. Yellow flowers
Pleroma macranthum. Large violet
flowers
Bocconia frutescens. Large ornamen-
tal leaves
Iresine Herbstii. Ornamental varie-
gated foliage
Musa coccinea. Flowering-banana;
scarlet flowers
Streptosolen Jamesoni. Showy orange-
red flowers
Brunfelsia uniflora. Bluish-white
flowers
Hedychium coronarium. Flowers
white, scented
SHOWY FLOWERING
ANNUALS.—
Acroclinium. Everlastings, pink and
white
Asters.
Balsams.
Browallia.
Celosia, or Cock's Comb
Chrysanthemums (Annual).
Clarkia. Pink flowers
Candytuft. White or purple
Cosmos, Pink and white
Dianthus. Indian pink
Exacum macranthum.
Larkspur.
Linaria.
Linum.
Mignonette.
Nemesia Six to eight inches high.
Nicotiana. Different varieties
Petunia. Single
Phlox Drummondii.
Poppies
Portulaca. " Sun plant ;" dwarf
Salpiglossus.
Schizanthus.
Verbena.
Zinnia
BULBOUS AND TUBEROUS
PLANTS.
Agapanthus umbellatus. Lovely blue
flowers
Ixia pendula. Orange-yellow
Hippeastrum. Different varieties;
large showy flowers-
Dahlias. Purple, yellow, scarlet, etc.
Tritonia aurea. Orange-yellow
Cyrtanthus. ("African Bride").
White or pink, scented.
Cannas. Yellow, scarlet, etc.
Heliotrope. Blue flowers
Roses. Different varieties.
Hydrangea Flowers blue or white
Vinca (Periwinkle). Blue or white
TREES FOR MEMORIAL PURPOSES.
463
FLOWERING AND FOLIAGE
SHRUBS.
Datura fastuosa. Flowers large, white
Cestrum (Habrothamnus) elegans.
Bears bright crimson berries
Libonia floribunda. Orange-red
flowers
Fuchsia arborescens. Showy lilac
flowers
Spiraea peruviana. Creamy white
flowers
POT-, BORDER-PLANTS, ETC.
Cineraria. Blue, white, scarlet, etc.
Chrysanthemums, perennial;
white, yellow, etc.
Violets. Blue, violet, purple, white
Daisies. White, scarlet, etc.
Geraniums. Scarlet, pink, white, etc.
Santolina ("Cotton Lavender"). White
cottony foliage, scented
Pansies. Different colours
Sweet Pea. Various shades.
ORNAMENTAL CLIMBERS:
Cobaea scandens. Large plant; flowers
purplish white
Mandevillea suaveolens. Chili J ismine.
Flowers large, pure white
Schmidia (Thunbergia) bicolor.
Flowers vellow and brown
Solanumjasminoides. Fl's. white, showy
Tacsonia. Different var's. Fl's. showy
Tropaeolum (Nasturtium). Flowers
yellow, etc.
Wistaria sinensis. Flowers beautiful
pale-purple
TREES SUITABLE FOR MEMORIAL PURPOSES
[For descriptions, see chapters on Beautiful Flowering and Foliage Trees]
For the moist Low-country :
FINE FLOWERING TREES:-
Amherstia nobilis
Brownea grandiceps
macrophylla
Cassia grandis
„ multijuga
„ nodosa
Couroupita guianensis. Cannon-
ball Tree
Jacaranda mimosaefolia
Lagerstrcemia Flos-reginae.
Pride-of-India; " Murutu."
Peltophorum ferrugineum
Plumeriaacutifolia. Temple tree
rubra. Red „
Poinciana regia. Flamboyante
Schizolobium excelsum
Spathodea campanulata
FOR THE DRY REGION:—
Cassia Fistula. "Ehela;" "In-
dian Laburnum"
Plumeria acutifolia. Temple
Tree
P. — rubra. Temple Tree, crim-
son-flowered.
Polyalthia longifolia
Tamarindus indica. Tamarind
Thespesia populnea. Tulip Tree
HANDSOME FOLIAGE TREES:—
Agathis robusta
Araucaria Bidwillii
Artocarpus incisa. Bread-fruit
Canarium commune. Java al-
mond
Enterolobium cyclocarpum
Ficus Benjaminii. "Java wil-
low "
Filicium decipiens. "Pehimbiya"
Mesua ferrea. Ceylon Iron-
wood Tree
Myroxylon toluiferum. Balsam-
of-Tolu
Parkia Roxburghii
Pometia eximia
Podocarpus cupressinus
Pterocarpus indicus
Schizolobium excelsum
Swietenia macrophylla. Large-
leaved Mahogany
UP COUNTRY:—
Araucaria Bidwillii
Cupressus, different species and
other Coniferae
Eucalyptus, different species
Frenela rhomboidea
Grevillea robusta
Stenocarpus sinuatus
Syncarpia laurifolia
464 TREES AND PLANTS FOR CEMETERIES
SUITABLE PLANTS FOR CEMETERIES
FOR DESCRIPTIONS, SEE SPECIAL CHAPTERS ON FLOWERING AND
FOLIAGE PLANTS. ETC.
Dwarf or slow-growing plants, which are either evergreens or
produce white flowers, are the kinds usually desired for planting
on or around graves. The following are selected species for the
purpose : —
FOR LOW ELEVATIONS
TREES, ETC:—
Casuarina equisitifolia
Cupressus funebris. "Weeping
Cypress"
Cycads (Ceylon " Madu ")
Palms: Chrysalidocarpus. Areca,
Caryota, etc.
Plumeria acutifolia. "Temple tree"
Thuja orientalis. "Arbor Vitae"
FLOWERING SHRUBS WITH WHITE OR BLUE FLOWERS: —
Brunfelsia americana; flowers
cream
B. — uniflora ; flowers white and
blue
Clerodendron macrosiphon ; flowers
white and pink
Heeria macrostachva; flowers cream
Plumbago capensis; white and blue-
flowered varieties
Tabernaemontana coronaria ;
Flowers pure white
Vinca alba. Fl's white
Wrightia /eylaniea; flowers pure
white
DWARF OR EDGING PLANTS:—
Alternanthera; dwarf plants for
edging, etc.
Amaryllis; white-flowered
varieties
Caladium argyrites; small variegated
white and green leaves
Coleus; handsome velvety variously-
coloured foliage
Eucharis lily; pure white flowers
Eurycles; white flowers
Ophiopogon; creamy white flowers
Pancratium zeylanicum; pure white
flowers
Phalaris arundinacea; small
variegated grass
Sal via farinaceae: pale blue flowers
Tuberoses; creamy-white flowers.
see i; ted
Vinca alba; white flowers
Zephyranthes; white flowers (tuber)
FOR UP-COUNTRY:-
Alternantheras; dwarf foliage plants
suited for edging, etc.
Amaryllis Belladona, Belladona lily;
pink flowers
Carnations; flowers white,
crimson, etc.
Coleus; handsome foliage; (see
above)
Crinum Moorei; white fl's (tuber)
Cyrtanthus Mackenii; white flowers
Eurycles; white flowers (tuber)
Hydrangea; white or pale blue
flowers
Pancratium; white flowers (tuber)
Santolina; Cotton Lavender, pale
grey scented foliage
Sweet-william; white and pink
flowers
Tuberose; white fl's; see above
Vinca major; Periwinkle; creeper,
flowers pale blue
Zephyranthes; white flowers (tuber)
Also various white-flowering annuals, etc.
AGRI-HORTICULTURAL SHOWS 465
AGRI-HORTICULTURAL SHOWS
HINTS ON FORWARDING AND ARRANGING EXHIBITS
<£;
Procure in good time a catalogue or schedule of the forth-
coming -Show; go carefully through the various classes, when
possibly some of the prizes offered will suggest themselves as
within your scope.
1. — If time permits, sow or plant crops of vegetables, Mowers,
etc., to allow them to grow and mature in time for the Show; the
period required in each case will depend on the nature of the crop,
as well as on local conditions of climate or soil.
2. — If in due course you are satisfied that the result of your
efforts will make at least a creditable exhibit, write to the Secretary
of the Show, intimating the articles which you wish to exhibit, and
state the space you require for them.
3. — In selecting exhibits, adhere to the rules laid down in the
catalogue, especially in regard to number or quantity required;
disregard of these particulars may disqualify an exhibitor.
4. — Show-rules usually state that exhibits which have not been
grown by the exhibitor or his employer for at least two months
before the exhibition will be disqualified. This does not neces-
sarily apply to flowers for table decorations.
5. — In transporting delicate fruits, such as oranges, mangoes,
mangosteens, sapodilla. tomatoes, etc., they should be packed in
shavings, sawdust, or some soft material to prevent them from
being bruised. Smaller fruits, such as uguressa, kon, straw-
berries, etc., may be packed in layers with their own leaves; whilst
large kinds, such as plantains, pineapples, durians, jak, etc., should
be packed with dry straw or shavings, in crates or well-ventilated
boxes.
6. — Plants should be sent in crates, and the stems, leaves or
flowers securely tied and held in position. Support the stems,
of flowering annuals in pots. Avoid obtrusive pots, stakes, or ties.
See that, before despatch, the pots or tubs are well wrapped in
straw or shavings, and bound round so as to prevent the soil from
being shaken or tipped out.
7. — Wash root-crops carefully before sending to a Show, and
cut off all unnecessary roots.
466 AGRI-HORTICULTURAL SHOWS
8. — Remember that quality counts for more than quantity —
that vegetables, fruits and other edible products should be in a
reasonably lit state for consumption when exhibited, it being
impossible to properly judge under-ripe or over-mature articles.
Therefore do not send fruit in an unripe or over-ripe state.
9. — The impression your exhibit makes on the judges is largely
dependent on the manner it is arranged. Do not stage small
articles in large and unsightly receptacles, such as cadjan baskets,
with their contents usually hidden at the bottom. See that potsr
tubs or other receptacles containing plants are properly washed.
10. — Fruits, vegetables, herbs, etc., should be shown in shallow
basket-trays or plates of uniform sizes. Fruits, especially small
kinds, are rendered more effective by having a few of their own
leaves arranged neatly around them. Parsley, or similar foliage, as
Panax, affords an excellent material for decorating and displaying
exhibits to best advantage.
11. — Cut-flowers should have their stalks placed in water
immediately after cutting ; these will keep longer if, when being
trimmed, their stalks are cut under the water instead of in the air.
12. — Overcrowding of exhibits, especially as regards plants
and flowers, should particularly be avoided, for exhibits of first-rate
quality often fail to make an impression by a disregard of this
rule.
13. — The value of an exhibit will be much enhanced if a label
is fixed to it giving the name under which it is commonly known
also, if possible, the scientific name; this will secure points in the
judging and add interest to the Show; it is one of the most impor-
tant considerations at floral exhibitions in England, and applies
particularly to such exhibits as Roses.
14. — Flowers which naturally grow in clusters, as Verbena,
Phlox, Schizanthus, etc., are best shown in bunches; while blooms
of a large size as Dahlia, Hibiscus, etc., are seen to best advantage
when displayed singly.
15. — Though bottles or tins, if of uniform size and securely
held in position, may answer the purpose of displaying cut-flowers
at an exhibition, the proper thing to use so as to show the flowers
to the best effect as well as to facilitate arrangement, is an
exhibition box. This may be made of any light wood, on the
principle of a writing desk, and painted green. The size may
vary according to requirements, but for all practical purposes the
AGRl-HORTICrUTRAL SHOW'S 467
following are suitable dimensions: 3 ft. 9 in. long, H ft. broad,
7 inches high at the back, and 5 inches in front. The cover is
6 inches in depth at the back, and 8 in front, being li inches longer
and wider than the box, and having a narrow beading within the
four sides, half an inch from the bottom of the lid, which overlaps
the box, leaving ample room for the blooms.
16. — Lids of wooden cases should be screwed, not nailed down,
or, better still, hinged and if necessary locked with a padlock.
Packages should be addressed clearly and ful$, and marked
URGENT; when closed, the top should be marked THIS SIDE
UP, and FRAGILE when containing glass or breakables.
17. — Fruits which have an objectionable odour, such as Durian
and Jak, especially when cut open for judging, should not be placed
among the more attractive exhibits, but confined to an isolated
corner or shed.
JUDGING AT SHOWS
GENERAL RULES FOR SOCIETIES AND JUDGES
I. — To be an efficient judge, one should possess a practical
knowledge of all the classes he or she has to judge, not only as
they appear at the Show or on the market, but also preferably
through their cultivation.
II. — It is usually advisable to appoint three judges to form a
quorum, as this will enable a casting vote being given in cases of
close contest.
III. — The system of judging by points, i.e., awarding a certain
number of marks out of a possible maximum to different points or
qualities of the exhibit, should be adopted where there is close
competition.
IV. — The judging should always be done as punctually as possi-
ble and, needless to say, before the public are admitted to the Show.
Frequently the judges have too much to do in the allotted time,
which must result in their work being unduly hurried, or its being
delayed until it has to be carried on in the presence of the public.
V. — The judges should be provided with ruled sheets of paper,
on the left-hand side of which are written or printed the exhibits
and prizes, with sufficient space allowed opposite these for the
names of winners and anv necessarv remarks.
468 AGRI-HORTICULTURAL SHOWS
VI. — The executive committee should make a point of seeing;
that the exhibits are arranged as nearly as possible in the order in
which they are given in the Show catalogue.
VII. — Societies should avoid offering prizes for classes which
are not in season at the date of the Show, as this will limit the
prizes which would be available for other classes, or bring forward
inferior specimens, if any.
VIII. — The prize cards and rosettes should be of a uniform
size and colour,%ccording to their respective value, for all classes
in the Show. Thus the first-prize cards should be red, the second-
prize blue and the third or " highly commended" lavender or yellow^
SECTION 4.
CHAPTER XXII
STANDARD PRODUCTS OF CEYLON.
[S=SlXHALESE ; 7— TAMIL]
Cacao or Cocoa ; Chocolate Tree ; Chocolath-gas, S. ; Coco
niaram. T. (Theobroma Cacao. Sterculiaceae). — A small tree, 20 to
25 ft. high, with large oblong leaves, native of tropical America, and
cultivated extensively in its native home as well as in the West Indies,
Ceylon, and West Tropical Africa. The tree bears a great number
of small pinkish or yellowish flowers in bunches on the stem and
branches, followed by the fruit ; the latter is a large warty or
furrowed (sometimes pointed) pod, 6 to 9 inches long, red, yellow,
or grey when ripe. Each pod contains from twenty-five to forty
large seeds, closely packed in a column in the hollow centre and
surrounded by a mucilaginous substance. Cocoa or chocolate is
prepared by roasting the seeds, which are afterwards ground
between hot cylinders to a paste (for chocolate), or mixed with
sugar, starch, etc., for cocoa. "Cocoa butter" or "oil of theo-
broma" is obtained from the seeds by expression; this is of
special value in medicine, etc., and is used extensively.
Climate, Cultivation^ and Harvesting. — The Cacao tree has a
long tap-root, and requires deep and well-drained soil. It thrives
best in a warm moist climate at elevations of 500 to 1,500 ft., but
also yields good crops in a moderately dry climate, provided the
annual rainfall is not below 60 inches. It is susceptible to exposure
to the sun or strong winds, and must be afforded protection by
means of suitable shade trees (such as species of Erythrina), planted
60 to 70 feet apart. Propagation is by seed (occasionally by bud-
grafting), which must be sown fresh, preferably in plant-baskets.
The seeds germinate in about three weeks, and the seedlings.
which first grow at a rapid pace, are ready for planting out in three
to four months from the time of sowing. The distance for planting
apart should, under average conditions, be about 12 by 12 ft.,
though on good flat land it may be as much as 15 by 15 ft., while
470
CACAO
on poor steep soil 10 by 10 ft. will be sufficient. In the West
Indies, catch crops, such as Bananas, Tapioca, etc., are usually
grown between the rows for the hrst year or two, both for the
purpose of yielding an interim return and affording temporary
AMELOXADO CACAO TREE.
shade to the young Cacao plants. Clean weeding is essential ; very
little pruning is necessary beyond removing superfluous suckers
and dead or barren branches. Excessive pruning or thinning out
is injurious, and exposes the fruits to the attacks of the insect
472 STANDARD PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX
Helopeltis. The pods must be cut oft, not pulled or torn ; they are
collected into heaps, then cut or broken open (shelling), the seeds
(also known as "beans" or "nibs") being afterwards carried to the
curing house, where they are heaped to undergo fermentation for
about rive or six clays, the heaps being turned every other clay.
In Ceylon, but not always in other countries, the
seeds are then well washed to get rid of the
mucilage surrounding them, then dried either in
the sun on barbecues, or under a movable roof.
The drying process occupies from three to six
days, according to the weather. Colouring the
beans with clay, brick-dust, etc., is often practised
in the West Indies and Venezuela in order to give
them a fancy but fictitious appearance and polish;
for this purpose annatto dye also is sometimes
PRUNING HOOK. used. Polishing the seeds is generally essential for
the sake of good appearance in the trade, and this is
usually accomplished by rubbing them with the hands, or sometimes
by "dancing" among them with bare feet, as is done in the West
Indies.
Yield. — The first crop is obtained in the fourth or fifth year
from planting, but the trees will not be in full bearing until ten or
twelve years old. Two crops a year are produced, the principal
one (in Ceylon) from October to December, and the other from
April to June. In a plantation, however, a few fruits will usually
be found throughout the year. The yield should not be less than
from 6 to 7 cwt. of cured beans per acre, though about 9 cwt. per
acre is sometimes obtained.* An average crop of fifty pods per
tree is considered good, but certain trees under very favourable
circumstances may bear as many as 400 to 500 pods. " Forastero"
pods contain on an average 32 to 35 seeds each. Fifteen average
pods may be expected to give 1 Ib. of made cocoa.
The Cacao tree was introduced into Ceylon about 1819, but
its systematic cultivation was not undertaken till about 1878,
when the first export of 10 cwt. (from 300 acres) was recorded.
The present area under the product in Ceylon is estimated at
approximately 28,000 acres, with an export of about 70,000 cwt.
valued at over £200.000 ; the market price at present ranges from
60s. to 90s per cwt. according to quality and demand. The Gold
Coast now shows the largest export of cacao of any country.
*An average of 9i cwt. for 800 acres has been obtained on Kondesalle Estate, Ceylon, in 1909,
474
CACAO
VARIETIES. — There are numerous more or less distinct varieties, which
may be divided into two or at most three groups, vi/., "Forastero" (= foreign>
"Criollo" (=native), and "Calabacillo" (—small calabash); the last named
DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF CACAO FRUIT.
Xos. 1 to 5 — pods from 1 to 7 weeks old.
6 to 8 —Longitudinal and transverse sections of pods.
though long regarded as a form of Forastero, is now considered a distinct type.
The typical Forastero has a thick and deeply furrowed bottle-necked pod, and
is of a red or yellow shade ; the seeds, which are large and numerous, are some-
what rounded, and purplish in section ; the tree is a vigorous grower and
TYPES OF CACAO FRUITS.
Xos. 1. 2. & 3— Nicaragua Criollo. Xo. 5-Anielonado.
No. 4— Theohroma pentagona. .. 6— Criollo or Caracas-
Xos. 7. tf and 9 — Forastero.
476 STANDARD PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX
usually a prolific bearer. Some of the best varieties of Forastero are
"' Cundeamar," "Amelonado," "Verdilico," and '"Cayenne." The "Criollo"
type(knovvn in Ceylon as "Caracas" or "Old Ceylon Red"), which is apparently
identical with the "Nicaragua," is distinguishable by its smaller, thin-shelled
and red pods, with globular seeds which are usually white inside. The
"Calabacillo" has usually a small and roundish pod with a smooth skin ; beans
flat, dark-purple inside. The "Criollo" variety generally commands the highest
price, but the tree is of a delicate nature and liable to disease, as compared with
the Forastero type.
Theobroma pentagona, or ''Alligator Cacao," is a distinct
species, introduced at Peradeniya from Trinidad in 1895. The
pods are small and have rive prominent ridges ; the seeds are very
large, but few, and white in section. It is highly spoken of in
Trinidad, but at Peradeniya the tree is a very scanty bearer.
T. angustifolia. — "Monkey Cacao." A remarkable species
introduced at Peradeniya in 1895, and fruited for the first time here
in 1909. It bears large, hairy, brown and furrowed pods ; the
seeds are of no commercial value.
Cardamoms. — See Spices.
Cinnamon. — See Spices.
Coconut Palm; " Pol," S. ; "Tennai" or Thenga, T. (Cocos
nucifera). — To the inhabitants of Ceylon, where it is estimated
there are some 900,000 acres under the product, and of other
tropical countries where the coconut palm flourishes, this is one of
the most important trees of the vegetable kingdom. Though
extensively grown in most tropical regions, the original or indi-
genous home of the palm is unknown. It thrives best in a moist
hot climate, especially near the sea, but will also succeed to a
considerable distance inland where the climate is sufficiently hot
and moist. In Ceylon, it is cultivated and gives good returns up to
1,600 ft. above sea level. Coconut cultivation, together with the
preparation of its different products for market, forms a large
industry in Ceylon. These include the following, of which very
large quantities are exported, viz., copra (the dried inner portion
(endocarp) of the nut broken in half, from which oil is obtained),
coconut-oil, desiccated coconut (used in confectionery and cooking,
and commanding a price of 22 to 25 cents per Ib. locally), coir-
fibre from the husks, and whole nuts to the extent of nearly
20 million a year. The local uses of the nut, leaves, stem and flowers
for cookery and domestic purposes are innumerable, and in some
cases almost sufficient to supply the total requirements of the
poorer Natives.
cocoxrr
477
Copni is usually dried in the sun or in specially constructed low
houses or kilns, over the smoke and heat caused by smouldering
tires made with the husks and shells. Forced hot air-driers are now
used for the purpose, the copra shells being placed on movable trays;
it is claimed that the copra is thus dried in 15 hours. The annual
export of copra from Ceylon amounts to some 800,000 cwt., which
usually fetches, according to quality and demand, from about £18to
£26 per ton, or Rs. 70 to Rs. 85* per candy ; and of desiccated
coconut about 14,000 tons. From 1,200 to 1,400 nuts usually go to a
COCONUT PALMS (CoCOS Illtcifcm), IX CEYLON.
candy of copra, and 4 candies make a ton. The extraction of the
sweet juice from the base of the flowering spathe, obtained by inci-
sion and tapping, constitutes a large local industry. This juice un-
fermented, known as toddy, forms a pleasant sweet beverage ;
fermented and then distilled, it yields arrack — an alcoholic liquor
consumed by the poorer as well as by many of the better classes.
The best and healthiest trees are selected for the purpose of toddy
drawing. Tapping for toddy may continue from 5 to 9 months,
according to the climate, and the yield of the liquid may be from
100 to 180 gallons per tree in that period. The extraction of toddy
* The ruling price in Ceylon at present is Rs. 106 <£ 28) per ton, which is a record. August, 1913.
Coconut plantation, in the Low-country, Ceylon, showing method of using the
husks for manuring, or rather for retaining moisture near the roots. The longitudinal
dark slits on the two trees in foreground (right and left side) are old' scars caused by
the Coconut bleeding-disease.
STANDARD PRODUCTS OF CEYWX 479
means of course the sacrifice of the nut crop. According to the
Ceylon Customs returns, desiccated coconut is exported from the
Island annually to the extent of over 4 million pounds (valued at
some £-524,400), and poonac (residue of copra after expression of oil
in local mills) of about a quarter million cwt. The latter is largely
used as a nutritious cattle-food.
The palm likes moist alluvial or deep loamy soil, and flourishes
especially on the sandy sea-coast, as well as on the hanks of
rivers. It is propagated by the nuts, which are sown in the
husk in a nursery bed, being usually laid on their side and almost
covered with fine soil. These germinate in about 3 months,
and in six to ten months the seedlings are ready for planting
out. The holes in which they are to be planted should be not
less than 3 ft. deep by 3 ft. wide, and allowed to remain open
for some time previous to planting. When the plants are put
in, the holes should only be partially filled, leaving the crown
of the plant, when planted, about a foot below the surface of the
ground ; in course of time through the process of cultivation and
weathering, the hole becomes filled up, and the tree is thus
ensured a firm hold of the ground. The holes should be 25 or 27 ft.
apart each way, according to soil, thus allowing 60 or 70 trees to the
acre. A crop may be obtained in the 7th or 8th year from
planting ; the trees are in full bearing at the age of 12 or 15 years,
and continue productive until about 70 to 80 years old. They
yield all the year round, and an aggregate annual return of 60 to
70 nuts per tree, or about 3,000 nuts to the acre, is considered
a good yield. In the Straits, Sumatra, etc., a somewhat higher
yield is usually obtained, the trees here being generally more
prolific than in Ceylon, and come into bearing rather earlier. The
trees attain a height of 70 to 80 ft., with an unbranched, wavy
< never straight ) stein. They are easily climbed by the Natives
who, throwing their feet in a loop of cloth or fibre, pressed against
the stem, are thus afforded a foot-hold. In Ceylon and South
India the ripe nuts are picked by hand, but in some countries they
are allowed to fall on the ground as they ripen, and then
gathered,
VARIETIES. — A great number of varieties are in cultivation, these varying
chiefly in the size, shape and number of nuts produced, also in thickness of
the husk and of the interior, height of tree. etc. Some of the more distinct
varieties are known by different local names. The King Coconut is a distinct
variety, said to have Originated in Ceylon; it bears a yellow oval fruit, which
is distinguished bv its sweet juice, and is esteemed for culinary purposes, but is
STANDARD PRODUCTS OF CEYLON 481
of little value for copra. The Dwarf Coconut bears fruit when only two or three
feet high, and the nuts are small in proportion. Needle Coconut is a distinct
variety with a large triangular fruit, the nut having a sharp point at one end ;
it is cultivated in the Xicobar Islands. Maldivc Coconut is characterized by a
small, almost spherical iruit ; while the Edible-husked Coconut is furnished with
a husk which, when tender, is fleshy and of a sweetish acid taste.
Rice ; Goyan, S. (Oryza saliva. Gramineae). — Rice is the
staple food of the native population of tropical Asia, where the
plant is indigenous, and has been extensively cultivated from time
immemorial. Its cultivation has in recent times spread to other
tropical and sub-tropical countries, as the warmer parts of South
RICE HARVEST IN CEYLOX,
Men and women cutting the crop with sickles.
America, West Indies, etc. The Rice plant is an annual grass,
growing, according to variety and soil, from 2 ft; to 4 ft. in height, and
its grain is considered to furnish the human race with a larger
proportion of food than any other plant of the vegetable kingdom.
The area under rice cultivation in Burma is estimated at
137 million acres, the export of the grain amounting to nearly
15 million pounds sterling.
There are numerous varieties, which come under two main
types, (1) common or aquatic rice, and (2) hill rice. The former
kind requires marshy or irrigated land and a hot climate (up to
about 3,000 ft., in valleys), while the latter may be grown on dry
land, and thrives up to about 4,000 ft. For the aquatic rice,
a sandy loam, overlying a clayey subsoil (to prevent the water
482 STANDARD PRODUCTS OF CEYLON
draining away) is essential. Manuring is beneficial, sometimes
indispensable, crushed bones or bone-dust, at the rate of about
200 Ib. per acre, being among the most suitable forms of fertiliser.
In India green-manuring is much practised for improving the soil.
When water cannot be turned on to the land from streams or
rivers, it has to be raised by mechanical means (often very primitive)
from wells, etc., and in dry provinces, as in Egypt, India and parts
of Ceylon, immense tanks or artificial lakes are constructed as reser-
voirs, the overflow from which supplies large tracts of irrigable
land. In Ceylon, sloping or steep land is often rendered irrigable
THRESHING RICE IN CEYLON.
This is effected by buffaloes being made to walk in a circle, the rice
being thrown under their feet to be trampled on. The operation is usually
carried out in the cool of the night, and the animals are sometimes blind-
folded to avert giddiness.
and suitable for rice cultivation by means of an elaborate system of
terracing (see under Irrigation). Here in preparing the land for
sowing, water is first turned on to soften the soil, which is then
either ploughed, roughly dug by mamoties, or merely puddled by
trampling teams of bulls or buffaloes. Before sowing, the seed is
usually soaked for 24 hours, then covered with banana leaves or sacks
and left for 6 days for initial germination to set in. In Ceylon, it is
generally sown broadcast in the field, at the rate of about 2 bushels
per acre. Transplanted rice, however, yields much greater returns,
and only about a quarter the amount of grain is required to plant an
acre; in this case the seedlings are transplanted to the fields when
STANDARD PRODUCTS OF CEYLON
483
7 to 8 inches high (or in 4 to 5 weeks from sowing), at distances
of 6 to 8 inches apart, allowing 2 to 3 plants to the hole. In
sowing, the ploughed muddy soil is first levelled with fiat boards ;
the grain is then broadcasted, and when the latter has sprouted
well the water is gradually turned on the field. The fields are
kept flooded until the flowers appear, when the supply of water
is reduced. When the grain is well formed, the water is turned
off so as to hasten ripening and facilitate harvesting. Harvesting
takes place in 3 to 7 months (according to variety) from the time
of sowing, the shorter the period the smaller the crop as a rule.
Two crops a year may be obtained in Ceylon, in the wet region:
<1) the " Maha" crop (the principal one), sown in July or August
iind harvested in January or February ; and (2) the " Yala" crop,
sown in April and May and reaped in August and September.
When the grain turns yellow, the crop is cut down with a sickle,
tied in sheaves, and dried in the sun. Threshing in Eastern
•countries is often, if not usually, done by the trampling of bulls or
buffaloes, these being tied in teams and made to walk in a circle,
the rice being thrown under their feet. The grain is afterwards
winnowed in the wind, then stored ; hulling is done in wooden
mortars, as required for consumption. The yield of rice varies
•considerably according to variety and mode of cultivation. The
.average return in Ceylon is about 25 to 35 bushels per acre, or about
15-fold. With good cultivation, however, 25 to 30-fold is easily
•obtained. Two bushels of paddy when hulled gives only about
one bushel of clean rice. The whole production of rice in Ceylon,
which is entirely in the hands of the Natives, is about 4i million
bushels per annum, against an import of about 8 million bushels
•(valued at over 50 million rupees) from India and Burma.
VARIETIES. — The Varieties of rice are almost innumerable, there being
about 200 in Ceylon alone. These are distinguished chiefly by size, form
and colour of grain, height of plant, also the period required to yield a crop.
The latter is an important character, some varieties producing a crop in
•60 days, while others take 6 or 7 months. The medium between these is usually
preferred, as the earliest yielding varieties give but comparatively poor crops.
The following are some of the principal varieties grown in Ceylon : —
Name of Variety. LjJS*
Time of
harvesting.
Name of Variety. ;
Time
of Sowing.
Time of
harvesting.
Ma-vi (seven
months' paddy): —
"Kalukuru-
mavi "
" Muthusamba "
" Sudu-mavi "
July
Feb.
Hatili (six months'
paddy):—
" Gangala "
" Kalu-hatali "
"Sudu-hatali "
August
Feb.
484
RUBBER
Name of Variety.
Time
of Sowing.
Time of
harvesting.
Xame of Variety.
Time
of Sowing.
Time of
harvesting.
Hondarawala
" Sudu-hinati "
Nov. &
Feb. &
(Five months'
May
Aug..
paddy) : —
El-vior Hill paddy
" Girisa"
August
Jan.
(seven months'
" Kalu-kumara"
paddy) :-
"Rat-el"
July
Feb.
"Kiri-narun"
•
" Suwand-el
Bala-vi (foul-
Pol-el (six months
August
Jan. and
months' paddy): —
paddy): —
Feb..
" Kiri-kurumba" Nov. &
Mar. &
Batukiri-el
May
Sept.
(five months'
Dec. £
" Sittarakali "
Nov. &
Mar. &
paddy) : —
Jan.
May
Sept.
Kalu-el (four
" Pana-mora "
months' paddy):- —
July
Nov.
Hinati (three
Mada-el (three
months' paddy): —
months' paddy) :-
August
,,
" Kalu-hinati " j
Feb. &
Aug.
RUBBER (PLANTATION)
Rubber is obtained from certain trees, climbers, or shrubs,
being extracted in the form of white milk or latex by means of
incisions or pricks made in the bark (cortex). The supposition
that latex is a waste product is doubtless incorrect, for it is main-
tained on good grounds that it is associated with certain functions,,
as the storage of food, water, and prevention of insect attacks, etc,
Tapping. The latex flows for a brief time from the said
incisions or pricks, being collected in small tins or coconut shells,
brought to the factory in enamelled buckets, and strained. In
tapping, specially constructed knives or pricking instruments are
employed for the purpose. These are sometimes used alternately,
but generally the former are most in favour, for they enable the
thinnest shaving being pared off the cut surface at each tapping.
Pricking instruments are at present generally in disfavour, owing
to their liability to injure the cambium and induce woody knobs
on the tapping area. Different systems of tapping are employed,
some being better adapted than others to certain species and to-
trees of different ages; but nearly all are on the principle of what
are known as the "herring-bone" or "half-herringbone" (some-
times referred to as the "half-spiral") systems. Taking Heveav
the most important rubber tree, the tapping methods employed at
present vary as experience may bring one or another into favour,
A method in general vogue is to mark the circumference of the
RUBBER
485
•stem, up to about 5 feet from the base vertically, into quarters;
one quarter at a time or alternate quarters on reverse sides, may
be operated on simultaneously. This area is marked off with 1 to 3
(now usually 2) wide V's cut about a foot apart vertically, and
joined by a vertical central channel. For young trees with a small
2 3 4
SOME TAPPING KNIVES IN USE.
1 . Pask's " Universal " Knife
2. Miller's Knife
3. Sculfer Knife
4. The Lanka Knife
5. The Scorpion Knife
circumference, the system of cutting a single large V or Y at 12 to
18 inches from the base of the stem has found favour, this being
followed by a second V or Y cut on the reverse side, when the
stem is large enough. A thin shaving (not less than 20 to the inch)
is taken off the lower side of each cut every alternate day or so
486 RUBBER
until the intervening space of bark becomes too narrow or ex-
hausted of latex, when the operation may be repeated on a fresh
quarter of the stem. The tapping. may thus be extended over
almost the whole year. Each following year the opposite or
adjacent quarter may be operated upon, the whole area thus occu-
pying from 4 to 6 years, by which tirne the renewed bark on the first
2 3
TAPPING KNIVES.
1. Farrier Knife. 2. Barrydo Knife. 3. Baniber's Ceara Pricker.
quarter should be ready for re-tapping. It is essential to prevent
the incision from penetrating the cambium (see under Plant Life),
otherwise a knotted condition of the stem will be produced, which
will render tapping difficult, and if the cambium be much injured
the life of the tree will be affected.
Coagulation. — The latex coagulates on exposure to the air,
and that of some species coagulates much more rapidly than
RUBBER 487
others. The process is, however, usually accelerated by adding
a few drops of acetic* or other acid, the rubber particles thus
quickly forming a Moating mass; heating the latex also hastens
coagulation. The soft wet rubber is then separated from the re-
maining liquid (which is discarded), thoroughly washed by means
of water with machine rollers, and then made up into the usual
commercial forms, as crepe (Nos. 1 and 2), blanket-crepe, sheet,
block, or lace. Until lately it was commonly made into biscuits,
but this form is now too laborious to cope with the quantity turned
out. Smoked sheet usually commands the highest price at present.
Smoking is considered to have a preserving effect on all forms of
rubber, and is applied, in the case of wild rubber, by exposing the
latex on rollers over the smoke of palm kernels, the roll increasing
in layers as fresh latex is poured on, while one man keeps twisting
the roll round. Various estates have adopted different methods for
treating the latex or rubber with smoke, but smoke-curing on
plantations is at present in a transition or experiment stage.
Drying and Packing. Ordinarily about two months are required
for the rubber to become quite dry and ready for packing for
export, but with hot-air dryers and light airy drying sheds as are
now used drying may be completed in a few days. In packing
rubber, it should be laid perfectly flat, not bent or twisted. No
packing material should be used with it, and the cases should be
planed smooth on the inside.
RUBBER-PRODUCING TREES, SHRUBS, CLIMBERS, ETC.
Hevea (Para) Rubber. (Hevea brasiliensis. Euphorbiaceae).
— A quick growing, tall, erect tree, native of South America,
introduced into tropical Asia in 1876, through the Royal Botanic
Gardens of Kew, being first established at, and later distributed
by, the Botanic Gardens of Ceylon and Singapore. About the
year 1898 the cultivation of this and other rubber-producing
trees received a great impetus, and has since made rapid strides
in Ceylon, Malaya and most other tropical countries. Whereas in
1900 the export of rubber from Ceylon was 8,223 lb., of £859 in
value, in 1913 it had increased to over 12,300 tons valued at about
£4,084,600. The area under Hevea rubber at present in Ceylon
is estimated approximately at 240,000 acres, and in Malaya at about
430,000 acres. Hevea, the most important of all rubber-producing
* PARKIN* found from experiments that \°lo glacial acetic acid to pure latex was sufficient
for coagulation, but a somewhat larger percentage is usually allowed by planters.
488
RUBBER
species, thrives in any moderately good soil from sea-level to about
2,000 feet elevation, provided the rainfall is evenly distributed and
not under 70 inches a year, with a minimum temperature of
60° to 70° Fah. The trees should be planted out (preferably as
stumps or basket plants) at distances, in the first place, of not less
than about 20 by 15 feet apart, say 140 trees to the acre; this will en-
able the plantation being thinned out later, on the merit of individual
trees and irrespective of lines, to distances of about 20 by 25 feet
YUI:NG PLANTATION OF HEVEA RUBBER IN CEYLON.
apart, leaving finally 90 to 100 trees to the acre, according to the soil
and c.imate ; this is considered preferable to planting out at wide
distances in the first place. Excessively close planting results in
exclusion of light and air when the trees attain maturity, and
therefore in slow and unsatisfactory renewal of bark over the tapping
area. With good growth, the trees become tappable in fron 5 to
6 years, or when the stems have attained a girth of about 18 to
20 inches at 3 feet from the ground. (See Tapping.} The average
One of the first Hevea. trees introduced into Ceylon, in Hene-
ratgoda Gardens. Aged 39 years; yielded 375 Ib. dry rubber in
3i years, 1909 — 1912 inclusive, and is still in bearing (1914); the
tapping has been done by paring and confined each year to one-
quarter the circumference of the stem.
RUBBER 489
annual yield of dried rubber may then be approximately i Ib. per
tree, increasing to 2 or 3 Ib. per tree at 8 to 10 years old, and to an
average of 4 to 6 Ib. per tree when these are 12 to 14 years old.
A return of 150 Ib. of dried rubber per acre, from trees 6 years old,
and 400 to 500 Ib. at ten years old are considered good average
yields, though in many cases a much larger crop is obtained. Ten
trees on Culloden Estate, in Ceylon, about twenty-two years old
gave an average yield of 18 Ib. of dried rubber each in 1909, the range
being from 13 to 25 Ib. per tree. The trees increase in circum-
ference of stem at an average rate of 3 to 4 inches per annum, and
bear seed when 5 to 6 years old, producing from 2 to 3 thousand
seeds at that age, to about 40 or 50 thousand when 18 years old (See
below). The usual cost of bringing Hevea rubber into bearing,
exclusive of cost of land, varies from about £,20 to £30 per acre,
according to the nature of the land and locality, while the cost
of collecting and shipping the rubber ranges at present from
IQd. to Is. Sd. or more per Ib. The price of rubber fluctuates
considerably; that of Fine Hard Para rose from about 3s. 6d. to
9s. 4d. during 1909, reached 12s. 6d. in April 1910, with Plantation
smoked sheet at 12s. Wd. per Ib. Fine Hard Para is still the stand-
ard grade, but plantation rubber commands a higher pricet and
is now largely employed in the manufacture of tyres as well as for
the finer uses. The seeds (see foregoing remarks) are large and
oily, about 110 weighing a pound ; they are of short vitality, and
germinate in about 10 to 12 days when fresh ; for transmission by
post, 500 seeds \vith packing weigh about 9 Ib.
Ceara Rubber. (Manihot Glaziovii. Euphorbiaceae). — A small,
rather spreading, quick-growing tree, 25 to 40 feet high, native of
South America, introduced into Ceylon in 1877. By 1883 as many
as 977 acres were reported to be under this tree in Ceylon, but,
owing to difficulties of tapping the cultivation fell into neglect for
a number of years. Lately, however, with a greater demand
for rubber and with better methods of tapping, the trees yield a
satisfactory return, and the rubber is second in quality only to
that of Hevea. The tree is suited to a dryer climate and higher
elevation than the latter, but unfortunately no perfect method
of tapping it appears to have been yet devised. In Hawaii,
where Ceara rubber is largely planted, the climate being unsuited
to Hevea, the bark is stripped off perpendicularly in sections 6 in.
t At the time of writing, this has suffered a seveie dro\ the -verage London price being
about 2s. !</ per Ib. as against 3s. 1<7. for Fine Hard Para. (October 1913)
490
RUBBER
wide. In this area numerous incisions are made, the latex being
allowed to run down to the base of the tree. A similar method is
employed in German East Africa, where the tree is more or less
extensively cultivated, and also in South America. Vertical incisions
with the multiple pricking knife, without removing the outer bark,
is considered by some the most satisfactory system of tapping
for Manihots. The Manihot latex is remarkable for its readiness
to coagulate without the addition of acid. The tree may
be planted at closer distances than Hevea, and also tapped
at an earlier age than the latter. Seeds of a hard horny
Manihot dichotoma plantation, 2 years old, in dry region, Ceylon, interplanted
with Crotolaria striata, a green-manure crop.
character, retaining their vitality a long period; should be rasped at
one or both ends before sowing (see under Propagation] ; about
720 seeds go to a pound. According to MR. H. POWELL, in the
Agricultural Journal of British East Africa, for April, 1908, seeds at
least a year old (from the time they fall from the trees) should be
selected for propagation, fresh seed being "of slow and uncertain ger-
mination." The seeds are edible, having a pleasant nutty flavour.
Jequie Manicoba Rubber. (Manihot dichotoma). — A quick-
growing species similar to, but rather smaller than, Ceara rubber,
being distinct from the latter by the regular forking of the
RUBBER 491
branches. It is a native of South America, and has been introduced
into Ceylon in 1907. The seeds are larger than, but not so hard
as, those of Ceara rubber; at Peradeniya they germinated in a
fortnight to three weeks, without tiling or other artificial aid. The
tree is adapted to a dry hot climate, thrives on a loamy soil, and is
tappable at three to four years from planting, yielding its maximum
return of rubber from the age of eight years onwards. In Brazil
the trees are planted about 6 or 7 feet apart, say 1,000 to the acre,
and a yield of about 1 Ib. per tree is said to be obtained, but
this requires confirmation. The trees are said to be tapped about
twice a month only, for about 9 months in the year.
Remano Manicoba Rubber (Mnnihot Pi ait hye list's). — Another
South American tree resembling the two former species, described
as reaching a height of only 8 to 15 feet, the branches being forked
two or three times. It has been introduced into Ceylon in 1908.
The tree is found in the state of Piauhy, and grows best in a light
sandy soil. Both this and the Jequie rubber are said to be superior
to Ceara rubber in yield, but they have not been found satisfactory
in Ceylon. The seeds are larger than those of the preceding
species, and, being less hard and horny, germinate more readily.
Manihot heptaphylla. — Another species of Manicoba rubber,
growing to about 20 to 25 feet in height, with dark-brown bark
and purplish twigs. The seeds are larger and paler than those of
Ceara rubber.
Central American, or Ule Rubber. (Castilloa elaslica. Urti-
cac^ae). — A tall quick-growing tree, with large oval leaves, native
of Central America, introduced into Ceylon in 1876. It is pro-
pagated by the white, papery seeds, which are of the size cf peas
and of short vitality; it thrives best at medium elevations, with a
rainfall of not less than 70 inches. The trees may be planted at
the same distances apart as Hevea, say about 150 to the acre,
thinning out afterwards to about 100 to the acre. They are tapp-
able at six to seven years of age when the yield should be about
100 Ib. per acre; at eight years old the yield may be 175 Ib. per
annum, and this should increase until at least the tree is about twelve
years old, when it is estimated that a minimum of 2 Ib. per tree a year
should be obtained. Unlike Hevea and Manihot, the tree cannot be
tapped at frequent intervals, the supply of latex becoming exhausted
after each tapping. In quality, the rubber is considered to be next
to Ceara rubber. High expectations have been formed of this
tree in Trinidad and parts of South America, but these have not
Is,
RL'IWER 493
been warranted by results obtained in Ceylon, where the tree has
ceased to be cultivated.
Lagos Rubber. (Fiuitiuniti eltistica. Apocynaceie). — A large,
upright tree, native of West tropical Africa, Uganda, etc., intro-
duced into Ceylon in 1897. Cultivation is much the same as for
Hevea, but, like Castilloa, an interval of 3 or 4 weeks must elapse
between each tapping; also like the latter, the latex takes a
comparatively long time to coagulate. An annual yield of one pound
or more per tree has been obtained from uncultivated trees in
Uganda, and the quality of the rubber is but little inferior to that of
Para rubber. The tree, however, takes longer than the latter to at-
tain a tappable size. In Ceylon, a caterpillar pest regularly attacks
and completely defoliates the branches. The seeds are small and
grain-like, with a long silky appendage at the top end; they retain
vitality well, and germinate readily in about fourteen days.
Rambong, Assam or India Rubber. (Ficns clastica. Urtica-
ceae). — A very large spreading tree, often with aerial roots developed
downwards from the branches, or with enormous buttressed roots
spread over the surface of the ground. The aerial or buttressed
roots as well as the stems may be tapped for rubber, but the tree
takes comparatively long to attain a tappable age; when at maturity,
however, it yields large quantities of good rubber. The tree does
not produce fertile seed in Ceylon, and has to be propagated by
cuttings, which do not strike root readily.
Guayule, or Mexican Rubber (Parthcnium ' argentalum. Com-
positae). — A small slow-growing shrub, 2 to 4 feet high, indigenous
to the deserts of Mexico. Of late years this came into pro-
minence as a source of a low-grade rubber. Besides what is
extracted locally, large quantities of the dried shrub have for
some time been exported to Germany and the United States for
the extraction of rubber, but the supply is limited and rapidly
diminishing, and, with the present low price of rubber, will pro-
bably soon cease. The plant cannot be cultivated with profit, as
it takes upwards of 20 years to come to maturity. In the process
of rubber extraction, the whole shrub is pulled up and crushed
between rollers. The plant contains no latex, but granules of
rubber are scattered throughout the tissues. At one time it was
cultivated in Malay, Java, etc., for rubber, but its cultivation has
now been discontinued.
Ecanda, or Bitinga Rubber. (Raphionacnic utiJis. Asclepi-
adeae). — A low stemless plant, bearing a large tuberous root, not
SEEDS, FRUITS, TUBERS, ETC., OF THE PRINCIPAL RUBBER PLANTS.
OTHER RUBBER-YIELDING PLANTS 495
unlike a turnip in form, native of the treeless grass tracts or
plateaus of Zambesi, British Central Africa, etc. It is found chieHy
at elevations of 4,000 to 5,000 feet above sea-level, and is consider-
ed one of the most important of root-rubbers, the tuberous rhizomes
containing a large percentage of rubber, which is extracted by
rasping and boiling the rhizomes. Propagated by tubers. So far
probably no one has succeeded in germinating seed of this plant
outside its native country.
Jelutong.— A glutinous resinous substance obtained from the
latex of species of Dyer a (chiefly D. costulata) and Alstonia — large
trees, indigenous to Borneo, Sumatra, and Malaya. To obtain the
latex the trees are tapped, generally once a week, in a similar
method to the tapping of Hevea, the latex being coagulated by
adding a little kerosine oil, or sometimes other mixtures. A large
tree is said to yield about 100 Ib. of latex per annum. The latex
contains about 10% of rubber, the rest being water, resin and
other solids.
OTHER RUBBER-YIELDING PLANTS
[Many of these afford only a small proportion or an inferior quality of rubber].
Actinella Richardsonii. (Apocyitacctic). Colorado Rubber.
Anodendron paniculata. (Apocynaceae). Large liane of Ceylon, India, etc.
Bleekrodea tonkinensis. (Urticaceae). Tonkin rubber. A sub-tropical tree of
Cochin China.
Carpodinus lanceolata. (Apocynaceae). Root-rubber. African climber, with large
tuberous roots.
Clitandra Henriquesiana. (Apocynaceae). Root-rubber. An erect shrub of Cent-
ral Africa.
Cryptostegia grandiflora. (Asclepiadeac). An ornamental climber, native of
tropical Africa; commonly grown in gardens for its large showy pink
flowers.
Cryptostegia madagascariensis. " Lombiri " or Madagascar rubber.
Ecdysanthera glandulifera. (Apocynaceae). A climber of Cambodia.
Eucomia ulmoides. Chinese Rubber. A bushy tree of China, suited to a cool or
temperate climate.
Euphorbia rhipsaloides. (Euphorbiaceac). "Almeidina" or "Potato-gum." A
kind of rubber obtained from a small succulent tree in Portuguese East
Africa, whence it is exported ; it fetches 6d to 9d per Ib. in London
(March 1913).
Ficus Vogleii. (Urticaceae). West African, Congo or Memleku Rubber. A
medium-si/ed tree, introduced at Peradeniya in 1881.
Forsteronia floribunda. (Apocynaceae). "Milk-vine" of Jamaica.
F. — graciiis. A liane of British Guiana.
Hancornia speciosa. (Apocynaceae). Mangabeira Rubber. Small shrubby tree ;
fruit edible, seed of short vitality.
496 TEA
Landolphia florida. (Apocynaccae). Mozambique Rubber. \
L.— Kirkii. Zanzibar Rubber.
_ .„. _ >Large Afncan lianes.
L. — owanensis. Congo or Sierra-Leone Rubber.
L. — Petersiana. East African Rubber.
L.— ugandensis. Nandi Rubber. A vine found in B. E. Africa, at elevations of
6,000 to 7,000 ft. Tapping is effected by shaving off slices of bark, the
latex being coagulated by smearing salt water on the surface, also by
chewing.
Leuconotis elastica. (Apocynaccae). Borneo.
Mascarenhasia elastica. (Apocynaccac). " Hazondrano." A tree 50 to 60 ft. high,
with slender branches, native of Madagascar and East Africa; introduced
at Peradeniya in 1902. The trunk usually branches low down ; leaves
opposite, coriaceous. Adapted to swampy ground.
Parameria glandulifera. (Apocynaccac). Talaing milk-creeper. A Malayan liane.
Plumeria acutifolia and P. rubra. (Apocynaceae). Respectively white -and red-
flowered Temple-trees, both indigenous to tropical America. They
yield a quantity of white latex which, though resinous, is used in Mexico
for the extraction of rubber. See Flowering Trees.
Sapiun Jenmani. (Euphorbiaccac). Large trees yielding the "Carthagena rubber"
of Colombia and " Tonckpong Rubber" of British Guiana.
S. — Thomsoni. Virgen Rubber ; also a native of Colombia.
Tabernamontana Crassa. (Apocyuaceac). Medium-sized tree, native of Central
Africa.
Ureceola elastica, (Apocynaccac). A climber of Burma.
Willughbeia firma. (Apocynaccac). Borneo rubber. A large liane of Borneo, etc.
Tea; Thay-gas, S.; Tey-ile, T. — The tea of commerce consists
of the cured young leaves and tender tips of shrubs belonging,
according to SIR GEO. WATT, to either of two distinct varieties or
races of Camellia Tliea, — viz., Camellia Thea variety Viridis and C. T.
variety Bohea. To variety Viridis, a native of North-eastern India,
is considered to be traceable the races " Assam Indigenous "
and "Manipur," as well as many other cultivated varieties widely
planted in India, Ceylon, and Java. The China Tea (variety
Bohea) is distinguished by its squat straggling habit and compara-
tively thick leaves ; it is the Tea plant chiefly grown in South
China, and is cultivated on some of the higher estates in Ceylon,
being hardier than, but not so productive as, the Indian kinds
named. The " Assam Hybrid " is considered to be a natural
hybrid between the "Assam" and "China" teas. Left to itself,
the Assam Tea is an erect tree, 30 to 40 feet high, but in cultiva-
tion it is " topped " early and kept as a bush, not being allowed to
grow higher than about 4 ft. Tea has been cultivated from time
immemorial in China and Japan. Its cultivation in Ceylon on a
commercial scale may be said to date from 1867, although the
498 TEA
earliest record of its introduction to the Botanic Gardens goes as
far back as 1839 for Assam Tea, and to 1824 for China Tea.
Tea is now extensively grown in Southern India, Bengal, Assam,
Java and Ceylon. In the latter country it is the principal planting
product ; here the export rose from 23 Ib. in 1873 to about 192
million Ib. in 1913, and about 400,000 acres are now under the
product. China is considered to be the largest tea-producing
country, though the bulk of its production is consumed locally. In
recent years, tea has been successfully cultivated in Natal and
Nyasaland. The tea plant, more especially the Assam Tea, is
adaptable to a wide range of temperature and various conditions
of soils, provided the rainfall is not less than about 70 inches and
is evenly distributed ; in Ceylon it thrives from sea-level to over
6,000 ft. It will not, however, flourish in a dry climate, especially
at low elevations. The soil must be well drained and should
contain a certain amount of humus : when the latter is deficient
it should be supplied by means of green-manuring, as by inter-
planting quick-growing leguminous trees or shrubs which can be
loppjd frequently, the twigs and leaves being left on the ground
to form a mulch, or preferably dug in. Manuring periodically by
artificial or cattle manure is necessary in order to maintain the
crop in a remunerative condition. Tea seed is usually sold by the
maund (80 Ib.). A maund may contain 2,000 or more seeds, ac-
cording to the jat (the better the jat the heavier the seed), and
this should give about 15,000 plants. " Planted at 4 by 4 ft. apart,
a maund of seed should be sufficient for 3j acres; at 5 by 4 ft., 4?
acres; and at 5 by 5 ft., 5i acres." (RUTHERFORD'S Note-book).
Propagation is entirely by seed, which may be sown in raised
nursery beds, at distances of 4 inches apart each way, the beds
being shaded by fern fronds or Grevillea leaves fixed in the ground
slanting-wise. It is best, however, to raise plants in small plant-
baskets or bamboo joints. In about ten months from the time
of sowing, the seedlings should be ready for planting out in the
field. Holes being made in lines, the plants are set out at
distances of about 4 ft. by 4 ft. or 5 by 4 ft. apart, being shaded,
and watered when necessary, until well established. About eighteen
months after planting, the plants are " topped " (i.e. cut back
to 12 or 15 inches from the ground) so as to induce a spreading
bush. The first crop of leaf is obtained in the third year in
the low-country, it being a year or so later at higher elevations.
At low elevations plucking takes place about every ten days, and
TEA 499
at the higher altitudes once a fortnight or three weeks, ac-
cording to elevation. When the bushes stop flushing, they are
pruned back severely, this being necessary at intervals of about
fifteen to eighteen months in the low-country, or of three to four
years up-country. When in full bearing at seven or eight years
old, the crop of made tea may, according to elevation, soil, and
degree of cultivation, be from about 400 Ib. to over 1,000* Ib. or more
per acre ; 600 Ib. is considered a good average yield. The
tea plant lives to a great age. The oldest tea in cultivation
in Ceylon is over fifty years of age, and shows no lack of vigour.
Plucking, which is usually done by women or boys, consists in
nipping off by hand the tender end leaves with the bud and shoot ;
taking two leaves and end bud constitutes fine plucking and
affords a good quality tea, while three or four leaves and a bud
forms coarse plucking and yields tea of a lower quality. Pluckers
will pluck from 20 to over 80 Ib. of green leaf a day, according to
the condition of the field and the activity of the workers. The
leaf being brought to the factory, it is withered on tiers of hessian
screens in drying sheds, through which hot air is driven; it is then
rolled by means of rolling machines (during which the process of
fermentation takes place), being followed by firing, in drying
machines, and finally sifted. By the latter process the tea is
simultaneously graded into such qualities as "souchong," "pekoe
souchong," "orange pekoe," "broken orange pekoe (the best
quality)," and " dust." It is then packed into lead-lined square
cases or chests of uniform sizes for export. A full-size chest
contains 80 to 100 Ib.; a i chest, 40 to 50 Ib. Black or ordinary
tea has been exported from Ceylon in 1913 to the extent of nearly
186J million Ib., valued at over £5,852,600.
Green Tea. — This is made by subjecting the green leaf at once
to a process of steaming in a revolving cylinder, and afterwards
by rolling, drying, etc., the process of withering and rolling
being omitted. China teas are usually made on this principle.
There is a certain demand for green teas in some countries, notably
the United States, and Ceylon now manufactures and exports a
considerable quantity to meet this demand. In 1912 the exportt of
green tea was over 8,093,000 Ib., valued at £ 23,550.
Brick Tea. — A cheap and coarse tea, made in China and used
largely in Tibet, being boiled with salt, butter, etc. Brick or
tablet-tea is made in two forms, one of which consists practically
"On Mariawatte Estate, Gampola. Ceylon, a field of over 100 acres has given an average per
acre of 1,357 Ib. for seventeen years. tBeing somewhat less in 1913
500 TOBACCO
of twigs and leaves of tea, pressed with some glutinous substance,
and dried in moulds; the other kind is essentially the liner sif tings
and dust of ordinary tea compressed into slabs; this latter is
consumed chiefly in Russia.
Leppet or Leptet Tea. — A form of tea prepared only in Burma
and the Shan States, where it is used as a vegetable rather than a
beverage. It consists of tea leaves preserved on the principle of
a silo, these being afterwards eaten mixed with garlic, salt, oil and
other ingredients.
Soluble Tea. A process has in recent years been invented
by MR. KELWAY BAMBER, the Ceylon Government Chemist, by
which the essence of tea is extracted and rendered available in a
concentrated soluble fine powder form, known as soluble tea.
Arabian Tea. }
Ayapana Tea. > See Chapter XXIV.
Paraguay Tea, or Mate. J
Tobacco; Dhoom-kola, S; Poyile, 7. — The dried cured leaves
of Nice liana Tabaccum and N. rustica (or varieties of these), both
of South American origin, may be said to constitute the tobacco of
commerce. The cultivated tobacco plant is an erect annual, 4 to
6 ft. or more in height, bearing large lanceolate alternate leaves,
and characterized by viscous glandular hairs. The principal
tobacco-growing countries are Cuba, Sumatra, South America,
Philippines, Borneo, India, Turkey, and South Africa. Tobacco-
growing forms a local industry in the North of Ceylon, the produce
being largely used for chewing with betel and for making inferior
cheroots, being also exported to a limited extent to South India.
Nearly 4 4 million pounds have been exported from Ceylon in 1913.
The best soil for tobacco is considered to be alluvial or light sandy
loam, rich in potash, lime and humus ; clayey or calcareous soil
is unsuitable. A hot humid climate favours the growth and the
development of the special properties of the plant, but a dry season
must be relied upon for harvesting. Tobacco is a very exhausting.
crop, so that manuring is essential. Cattle or other organic manure
when obtainable is considered by some to be the best, at least for
certain forms of manufacture, while for other forms it is said to be
injurious. The crop is an annual one, the plants being raised from
seed* (which is small and should be sown under cover), and
planted out in the field at intervals of about 2 ft. in rows, the
latter being 4 ft. apart. The young tender plants must be shaded
* 1 oz. contains about 875,000 seeds.
TOBACCO
501
with small branches or fern-fronds (and watered if the weather
be dry) until well established, after which no shade is required.
In live to six weeks from planting, the flower buds will appear at
the top of the plants ; these as well as any side-buds must be nipped
off, the operation being known as suckcring or disbudding. Such
buds must be repeatedly removed as they appear, so as to divert
the vigour of the plant to the leaves.
Harvesting. About six weeks later, or three months from
the germination of the seed, the leaves should be ripe for
TOBACCO FIELD IX JAFFXA, CEYLOX.
cutting, this being indicated by their turning a yellowish green,
with the appearance of brown spots and the edges and tips curling
downwards. Cutting should not be done when rain is on the plant,
nor when the sun is at its hottest. There are several methods of
harvesting. In some cases the whole plant is cut within 3 or 4
inches of the ground, in others the leaves are cut separately as
they ripen, from the bottom upwards, which is obviously the
more rational method.
Withering. — The leaves being carried to the drying shed, they
are first spread on the floor to wilt, then tied in bundles of
502 TOBACCO
25 to 30 and strung on poles to dry gradually. Drying or withering
takes about 3 weeks, and may be decided by the softness of the
mid-rib of the leaf. The process renders the leaves soft and
pliable, and prevents their being broken when handled.
Fermenting or Curing, a most important process, follows,
and upon this depends the proper development of the peculiar
narcotic principle of tobacco. When sufficiently dry, the leaves
(which are sorted according to quality into hands, usually of
about 14 leaves each) are placed in heaps on a concrete or wooden
floor to ferment, being laid out in double rows with all the tips
towards the centre and overlapping. The heaps are then pressed
do\vn by weights and turned over at intervals to equalize, and
prevent excessive, fermentation. Complete curing takes from 8 to 12
weeks, after which the leaves will have acquired the qualities of
tobacco.
Grading the leaves is a very important matter, and is
dependent upon their size, colour, aroma, texture, etc., the chief
object being to obtain grades of as uniform a character as possi-
ble. There are a number of distinct types of tobacco leaf recog-
nised by experts, each of which is adapted to definite trade
requirements. It is said that even the crop from the same field
can sometimes be sorted by an expert into as many as seventy
different grades. The various well-recognised forms are, however,
usually associated with variations in soil and climatic conditions
under which the crop is grown, and also with different methods
of production. Thus certain districts are known to possess certain
qualities which adapt them to definite purposes.
Yield — Each plant should yield about 8 marketable leaves
on an average. In India and Ceylon a good average field gives
30 to 40 maunds of cured leaf per acre, and the price usually
obtained varies from about Rs. 5 per maund upwards. A maund
(80 Ib.) equals about 1 ,000 leaves.
CHAPTER XXIII
MINOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON
[S=SIXHALESE: T=TAMIL]
Annatto or Arnatto. (BLva Orellcinci. Bixaceae). A large,
quick-growing shrub or small tree, native of tropical America,
thriving in Ceylon from sea-level to 2,000 feet in the moist region.
It bears at the ends of the branches clusters of brown or dark
crimson capsular fruits (covered with fleshy spines), which
contain a number of small seeds. The bright crimson covering of
the latter affords the annatto dye of commerce. The fruits are
collected when nearly ripe, and as the shells dry they open and
disperse the seeds, which are then either made into annatto "paste,"
or dried with their covering when they are marketed as annatto
" seed." Formerly the paste form was preferred by manufacturers,
but the demand for this has now much declined in favour of the
dried seed. The amount of annatto seed imported into England
is said to be from 75 to 100 tons a year; the price fluctuates
from about 2id to 5d per lb., according to quality and demand.
Small plantations of Annatto have been made in Ceylon, chiefly in
the Matale district, and at one time a considerable quantity of the
seed was exported; now, however, very little is exported, but the
seed is sometimes used locally for dyeing. The export of Annatto
seed from Ceylon in 1909 was 263 cwt., valued at £307; but the
Customs give no figures for 1912. The tree is readily propagated
from seed, and a crop may be obtained from the third or fourth
year. Two varieties of the tree occur in Ceylon, these differing
chiefly in the shape and colour of the fruit, which in one case is
oblong and pointed, and in the other rather circular.
Areca-nut, or Betel-nut; " Puwak." S; " Pak-ku," T; " Pan "
\_Hind.~\\ (Areca Catechu. Palmae). A tall, slender, erect palm, 40 to
50 feet high, with a thin cylindrical straight stem, native of Malaya,
but naturalised in Ceylon. It is extensively cultivated throughout
tropical Asia for its "nuts " (seeds), which in the husk are usually of
the size and form of a hen's egg, being yellow or orange-yellow when
504 MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON
ripe. The brown conical nut (seed) is commonly used throughout
Ceylon, India, Malaya, &c., as a masticatory. In preparing the
latter, a few thin slices of the nut are taken, to which is added a dash
of lime-paste, some tobacco-leaf, cardamom or other spice; all is
then made up in a pellet with the leaf of the betel-vine (see under
Betel). Large quantities of arecanuts are thus consumed annually
throughout Asia. Arecanuts are also commonly used for destroy-
ing wrorms in dogs, in the preparation of dentifrices, and for
ARECANUT PALMS. At'CCCl Catccllll .
SHOWING COOLIES CLIMBING FOR THE " XUTS."
tanning. The local consumption of the nut is very large, and a con-
siderable quantity is exported, chietiy to South India. The quantity
now exported from the Island is about 7,480 tons a year, valued at
about £185,560. Arecanuts are sold in London at 18s to 22s per c\vt.
Very large quantities are produced in South India, Sumatra, Malaya,
etc. In Ceylon, the arecanut palm thrives in the moist low-country
up to 3,000 ft., and requires but little care in cultivation when well
established. It takes six to seven years to come into bearing, and
MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CKYLO\'
505
cit maturity an average yield of 250 to 350 "nuts" per year may be
obtained from each tree. The trees continue productive for 20 to
30 years, but may live unproductive for many years longer. At
5 by 5 ft. apart, 1,742 may be planted to an acre, the crop from
which, estimated at an average of 29 cents per tree, should be worth
about Rs. 340 (say j£23). The area under Arecanuts in Ceylon is
estimated to be equivalent to about 70,000 acres. The palm is
frequently planted in Ceylon as boundary lines, for which it is well
adapted.
BETEL-VIXE CULTIVATION IX CEYLOX.
Betel-leaf; Bulath-vel, S.; Veth-thile, T. (Piper Belle. Pipe-
raceme). — A perennial evergreen climber or creeper, with large
heart-shaped leaves, indigenous to Ceylon, India and Malaya,
cultivated throughout tropical Asia for the sake of the leaves.
The latter are universally used in the East for chewing, in a green
state, in the masticatory commonly known as " betel," the other
constituents of which are a dash of lime and a few slices of
arecanut (see above). The leaves have a sharp pungent taste,
and when chewed are considered to have sustaining properties.
SIR EMERSON TENNENT expressed the opinion that the habit of
MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON 507
betel-chewing is "advantageous to a people of whose ordinary
food Hesh forms no part, and that it is at once the antacid, the tonic,
and the carminative which they require." The plants require a
rich humus moist soil and a partially shaded situation. They are
readily propagated by cuttings, which are planted against poles,
trellises or tree trunks for supports. In Bengal and Northern India,
the plant is cultivated in low sheds or "betel houses."
I ARIETIES. — In addition to the ordinary type, the following varieties are
known in Ceylon: " Rata bulath-vel " or " Siribo bulath ; " " Xaga walli-bulath "
(with variegated leaves), and %v Getatodu bulath."
Camphor; Kapuru-gas, S. (Cinnaniomiun Camphora. Laura-
ceae). — A moderate sized much-branched tree, native of Formosa,
Southern China and Japan, yielding by distillation of the wood,
twigs, leaves or roots the camphor of commerce. Camphor is
used largely in the manufacture of celluloid, xylonite, smokeless
gun-powder, and in the preparation of disinfectants and medi-
cines. The world's supply at present (approximately 5,180 tons)
comes almost entirely from Formosa. The tree, however, is
commonly cultivated in Japan and S. China. Grown for seed, it
takes 20 years to become fruitful. The season for the seed
is in November. In recent years, Camphor cultivation was intro-
duced into Ceylon, South India, California and Hawaii. The
Camphor tree, however, has been established at Peradeniya since
1852. In 1893, experiments were begun at Hakgala Gardens,
Ceylon, in the systematic cultivation of the product, plants being
raised from seed imported from Japan for distribution to the
planters. The tree, though naturally a sub-tropical one, is adapted
to a wide range of climate and soils. In Ceylon it has been found
to grow well under varying conditions of climate, as at Galle,
Anuradhapura, and Peradeniya; but the most uniform and vigorous
growth occurs at the higher elevations, as at Hakgala, on fairly
good and well-drained soil. Some Camphor plantations have been
successfully established in Ceylon in recent years at elevations of
from 3,000 to 5.000 feet, but the slump in the price of the product
has rendered the cultivation unprofitable. Here also the tree is
sometimes planted as a wind-belt, for which it is well adapted.
About 1.000 acres were estimated to be under Camphor in -Ceylon
in 1908, the export for that year being nearly 15 cwt., valued at
Rs. 3.075. In cultivation, the trees have to be coppiced to a height
of about 4 to 5 feet, in order to obtain successive clippings; there-
fore they may be planted at distances of about 6 ft. apart each way,
giving about 1,210 trees per acre; in the third or fourth year they
508 MINOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON
are fit for clipping, the shoots being cut with a knife or hedgeshears.
The clippings on distillation usually give a yield of 1 % to 1'50^ of
pure camphor, in addition to about 30 per cent, of camphor oil.
The bushes may be clipped three or four times a year. MR. W. NOCK
estimated that an average of 14 Ib. of clippings a year may be
obtained from each tree at Hakgala Gardens, which should give at
least 170 Ib. of camphor per acre. In Formosa the annual yield is
estimated at 120 Ib. per acre; while in the United States a yield of
200 Ib. is said to be ordinarily obtained. BAMBER estimated 170
to 200 Ib. to be about the average yield in Ceylon, being obtained
from 20,000 Ib. of fresh loppings, in 3 to 4 clippings a year. Fair
average camphor commanded £20 per cwt. in 1907; to-day (1913)
it fetches only about £7 to £8 per cwt. Left to itself, the tree
grows to a height of 9 to 12 feet in five years, attaining in time
a height of at least 30 to 40 feet. It is best propagated from seed,
which take about 3 months to germinate, and have often a low
percentage of germination; if sown quite fresh, howrever, about
2,000 plants may be obtained from a pound of good seed. The
tree may also be raised by root-cuttings, but branch-cuttings are
difficult to strike root. Seedling plants should be large enough in
8 months for planting out.
Distillation. — The camphor is obtained by steam distillation
of the clippings, wood, or roots, and the process is briefly described
thus:—
The vapour is condensed in a box, divided into compartments and placed
upside down, in water in a larger, shallower box. The sides of the inverted
box extend above the bottom, and water is constantly allowed to run on to this
box, keeping it cool and renewing the layer of water in the larger, shallower
box which acts as a seal. A third box is inverted over the first, and is made
in a similar way to condense any vapour that may escape; in both cases holes
are made in opposite corners of the partitions in the boxes in order to cause
the vapours to travel by a circuitous route. The crude camphor and oil are
skimmed from the surface of the water or scraped from the sides of the
condenser; separation of the two products is effected as far as possible by
pressure.
Synthetic Camphor.— A compound prepared from oil of
turpentine, the introduction of which has probably contributed to
the considerable drop in the price of natural camphor within
recent years, viz., from £20 to about £7 per cwt., as already
referred to.
Borneo or Sumatra Camphor (Dryobalanops aromatica. Dip-
terocarpeae). — A large tree, yielding a variety of camphor, or a
camphor-like resin, which is obtained from the trunk and forms an
MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX 509
important article of commerce in China and Japan, but is not
imported into Europe. It is said to be preferred by the Chinese
to the ordinary camphor.
Nagai Camphor (Bhunea bahamifcra. Compositor). — A peren-
nial shrubby plant, native of Borneo. The leaves when bruised
smell strongly of camphor, and are used medicinally by the Natives.
Cassava. See Tropical Vegetables and Food Products.
Cinchona, Peruvian or Quinine Bark. — Quinine and the allied
alkaloids, cinchonine. cinchonidine and qitinidine, consist of the
active principle of the bark of several species of Cinchona, — small
upright trees, 25 to 40 feet high, all natives of the mountains of
Bolivia, Peru and other parts of South America. The principal
species affording the valuable bark are Cinchona Succirubra
(Red-bark), C. offtcinalis (Crown bark), C. Calisaya (Yellow- bark),
and C. Ledgeriana (Ledger's-bark) ; the last named is considered
the richest in quinine, and is the one chiefly grown in the
Government Cinchona plantation in Bengal. To these may be
added several superior hybrids. The valuable curative effect of
quinine in malarial fevers were first made known in 1638, when the
drug was administered to the Countess of Cinchon, wife of the then
Viceroy of Peru, after whom the plant was named. Cinchona
was introduced at Peradeniya in 1861, but not until about 1870
were the Ceylon Planters induced to take up its cultivation, the
Government first establishing nurseries of Cinchona at Hakgala
Gardens, and issuing plants free of charge. The area under
Cinchona, however, rose from 500 acres in 1872 to 64,000 acres
in 1883, the export of bark at its maximum extent (1887) being
nearly 16,000,000 Ib. The result was great over-production and
consequently a fall in the price of the commercial drug from 15s.
to Is. 3d. per oz. — an immense boon to the public, though a
disaster to many planters. At the present time the area under
Cinchona in Ceylon is only about the equivalent of 190 acres;
the export of the bark in 1912 was 111,918 Ib. valued at £299.
Cinchona cultivation is still carried on profitably in Java, now the
chief producing country, where quinine sulphate is locally manu-
factured ; also on plantations at Mungpoo and elsewhere in India,
which are worked by Government for the benefit of the peasants,
to whom the article is supplied in small pice packets.
The plant thrives best in a rich humous soil with a porous
subsoil, preferring a cool mountainous climate (4,000 to 6,000
ft.), with a moderate rainfall and shelter from strong winds.
510 MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON
i
C. succirubra is, however, an exception, and thrives best between
2,000 and 4,000 ft. The plants may be propagated by cuttings,
layering, or from seed, the latter method being usually adopted.
The seed is very minute, and should be sown thinly in boxes or on
raised nursery beds under cover, finely sifted soil being sprinkled
over the surface and the whole carefully watered with a fine rose.
In about three weeks the seedlings will be up, and when 2 inches
high these should be transplanted to a well-prepared nursery plot
so as to harden them off, the shade being reduced gradually ; when
8 to 9 inches high, they may be planted out in their permanent
places. The proper distances for planting vary according to the
variety grown and locality. Close planting (4 ft. by 4 ft.) at first,
and gradually thinning out later until only half the number of
original trees are left, is considered preferable to the wide planting
formerly adopted, viz., 12 by 12 ft. The uprooted trees afford a
return, the bark being stripped from their stem and roots. Root-
bark is considered the most valuable.
To obtain the bark from the standing trees, four different
methods are employed : (I) lopping, by which the branches are
lopped, and the bark removed from these in longitudinal strips ;
(2) coppicing, the trees being cut down to the ground when about
6 years old, and the stems barked ; this induces the production of
upright shoots, which in turn are cut down and barked ; (3) shaving
the stem by means of a spoke-shave, care being taken not to reach
the cambium ; only two sides of a tree are shaved at once ; (4)
mossing, — the bark of trees seven or eight years old is removed in
alternate strips 1^ in. wride, the stem being protected by a covering
of moss tied on ; thus in about two years the renewed bark, which
is richer in quinine than the first bark, is again ready for removal.
The peeled bark is dried gradually in the sun, and exported in
bales, the various forms being kept separate, as "root-bark," "flat-
bark," "quill-bark," and "shavings." 600 Ib. of dry bark per acre a
year, or 2 Ib. per tree (at seven years old), is considered a good
average yield.
Citronella-Grass ; Pangiri-mana, S. Cymbopogon (Andropogon)
Nardus. A large coarse grass, 3 to 4 ft. high, cultivated in Ceylon
(and of late years in Java) for its essential oil, which is obtained
from the leaves by distillation. The grass grows in any ordinary
soil, and thrives best in a hot and moist climate. It flourishes up
to 2,000 ft. elevation, but its cultivation in Ceylon is confined to the
sea-coast in the South-west part of the island, where approximately
MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX 511
30,000 acres are under the product. The grass is readily propa-
gated by root division (seed being rarely produced), and may be
planted about 2 by 3 ft. apart, in rows. Permanent shade is
unnecessary, and the mode of cultivation is very simple, weeding
being the chief requirement. It is recommended to replant the
grass about every live years. The clumps are ready for cutting in
about eight months from time of planting. Two cuttings a year may
be obtained, and about 40 Ib. of marketable oil per acre is estimated
to be an average annual yield. The oil has a strong aromatic
odour, and is exported for use in scented soaps, perfumery, etc. ;
it is also an excellent preventive against mosquitoes and leech bites.
Owing, however, to overproduction and the fall in the price of the
oil (the present price being about Is. per Ib.), this industry has
considerably declined in recent years. The export of oil from
Ceylon in 1912 was about 1^ million pounds, valued at £"79,500.
\'ARIETIES. — In Ceylon there are two varieties cultivated, " Maha-pangiri "
or " Winter's Grass" and " Lenabatu-pangiri ; " the former, with broader leaves,
is considered to give the larger yield and better quality of oil. A distinct variety
with broad drooping leaves, introduced by BAMBER from Java, is known at Pera-
deniya as "Java Mahapangiri."
Lemon Grass; "Seyra," S. (Cymbopogon (Atuiropogon) citratus).
A grass resembling the former kind, cultivated for the production of
Lemon-grass oil. The latter commands a higher price than
Citronella oil, but the demand for it is limited. The plant may be
grown successfully up to about 2,000 ft., and has given an annual
yield of 20 Ib. refined oil per acre at the Peradeniya Experiment
Station (1,600 ft.). Propagation is by division of mature clumps,
and general cultivation is the same as for Citronella grass. The
oil is used for scenting fine soaps, blending scents, and for similar
purposes. The yield varies with soil and climate; but usually, with
two crops a year, the return per acre is considered to amount to
about 5,000 bundles (each 6 in. diameter), capable of yielding at
least 100 quarts of oil. Refined lemon-grass oil sells in Europe for
at least 6d. per oz. As a quart contains forty fluid ounces, the
product of an acre should thus realize a value of £100.
VARIETIES, Etc. — C. flexuosus, known as Malabar or Cochin grass, fur-
nishes the Lemon-grass oil of Malabar, supposed to be superior to C. citratus.
See Oils.
Coca, or Cocaine-plant. (Erythroxylon Coca. Linaceae). — A
small shrub, 6 to 8 feet high, indigenous to Peru and Bolivia, being
found at elevations of 4,000 to 6,000 ft., introduced into Ceylon in
1870. It is extensively cultivated in its native habitat, where the
512
MIXOR PRODL'LTS OF CEYWX
dried leaves (from which cocaine is obtained) are exported to the
extent of about 800 to 900 tons a year, chiefly to Germany and the
United States. The plant thrives best at elevations of 1,000 to
3,000 ft. in Ceylon, where small areas have been successfully estab-
lished, the dried leaves being regularly exported. The best condi-
tions for cultivation are a rainfall not under 70 inches, good friable
soil (preferably that of virgin forest), and land of a gentle slope.
Good natural drainage is important, and shade is essential until the
plants are well established, but not afterwards. The seed must be
sown fresh, preferably under cover and in baskets, the seedlings
COCA, OR COCAINE PLANT ( EiytJlt'O.VVloU
IN CEYLON.
being afterwards planted out at distances of about 4 by 4 ft. apart.
In South America, a method sometimes adopted in the raising of
seedlings is to throw the seed when fresh in a heap, thus setting
up fermentation and inducing germination ; in other cases they are
sown in rows in situ, the ground being then covered with grass-
litter or leaves, the seedlings being afterwards thinned out as
desired. The first picking of leaves may be obtained at about
18 months from the time of planting, or at 2| years from seed.
Several pluckings are made in the year, the mature leaves only
MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX 513
being selected as far as practicable. These are best dried in the
shade, so as to retain their green colour as much as possible.
Sun-dried leaves are considered to contain less cocaine. The
dried leaves are best packed for export in zinc-lined air-tight
cases, as any moisture or sweating is injurious to them. On some
plantations, however, the bushes are clipped with shears, and the
dried twigs with leaves made up in pressed bales for export. A
return of about 1,200 to 2,000 Ib. of dried leaf per acre per annum
may be obtained.
The chief use of the plant is for the extraction of cocaine from
the leaves. In its native home the leaves are very largely used as
a masticatory, being chewed with a little unslaked lime ; the imme-
diate effect is said to be a " gentle excitement, with sensations of
high enjoyment, lessening the desire for food, and enabling the
chewer to undergo an enormous amount of fatigue." The leaves
are also sometimes infused as tea, the infusion being taken as a
drink. Since the restrictions on opium consumption in India, large
quantities of cocaine are frequently smuggled into that country for
use as a substitute for opium. The value of the dried leaves, though
said to be largely judged by appearance, depends upon the amount
of alkaloid they contain. DR. DE JOXG estimated that in Java
1.125 Ib. of dry leaf yields about 7 Ib. of alkaloid ( =1*5 per cent.),
from which 13^ Ib. pure cocaine can be obtained. The price ob-
tained for the leaf fluctuates considerably. In Colombo it varies
from about 30 to 45 cts. per Ib. ( =say 5</. to 7i</.), and in London
from 6d. to 10J. per Ib., according to quality of leaf and demand.
The export of Coca leaves from Ceylon in 1911 was 1,432 cwt.
valued at £• 4.654; but in 1912 the figures dropped to 1,186 Ib.
valued at £ 3.838.
VARIETIES.— The plant occurs under two distinct types (of which there
are different forms), distinguished chiefly by the leaves, viz. (1) var. tioi-ugmna-
/f//.\Y(=Huanaco or Bolivian Coca), characterized by pale-green leaves and a
free bushy habit, producing a good quantity of leaves ; (2) var. truxillcnsc
{=Peruvian type ). with narrower and darker leaves. The former is the one
chiefly grown in Ceylon, and is more esteemed in commerce, being known as
Ceylon-Huanaco. Var. sprnccuintin, which closely resembles var. trnxillensc,
is said to be the one chiefly grown in Java.
Coffee. " Kopai," S. & T. — The coffee of commerce is fur-
nished by Coffea arabica, known as " Arabian coffee, " and to a
small extent by allied species or varieties ( see below ). Coffea
arabica is a small slender tree, native of tropical Africa, but intro-
duced into all tropical countries and cultivated extensively in
514
MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX
B:azil, West Indies, South India, Java, etc. According to the late
DR. TRIMEX the Arabian Coffee was first introduced into Ceylon
in 1690, by Arabian traders. Coffee cultivation in Ceylon may be
slid to have hrst begun, on an important scale, in 1825, when
Ganaroowa Estate ( now Government Experiment Station ) was
opened as the first upland plantation. In 1869 a serious fungus
disease ( Hemeleia vast air ix), known as the "Coffee-leaf disease,"
appeared, and spread with alarming rapidity until in a few years it
devastated the whole industry and ruined many planters. The
export from Ceylon consequently dropped from nearly one million
FIELD OF ARAHIAX COFFEE, UNDER SHADE, IX NIUilRIS, S. IXDIA.
cwt. in 1874 to 1,040 cwt. in 1909, and to 156 cwt. in 1912 valued
at about £566. No\v, however, with better prices and larger yields
obtainable ( especially from C. robust a ), the prospects of Coffee
cultivation in Ceylon are improving, more particularly as a catch-
er intercrop with Rubber, Coconuts, etc., and at present about
900 acres are under the product.
Coffee requires a moderately humid atmosphere, and prefers
deep loamy and well-drained soil ; it is unsuited to stiff clayey or
poor sandy soils. The most suitable climate for the Arabian coffee
MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX 515
is at elevations between 2,000 to 4,500 ft., while the Liberian coffee
is best suited to elevations below 2,000 ft. Propagation is by seed
sown in nursery beds or, preferably, in baskets or bamboo-pots.
The seed germinates in about six weeks, and the seedlings should
be ready for planting out in about eight to ten months. In planting
out in the Held, the plants are set in lines, the distances apart being
about 6 ft. each way for the Arabian kind, and 8 to 10 ft. for the
Liberian. Temporary shade must be afforded until the plants are
established, permanent shade being usually considered unnecessary,
except at low elevations. In South India, however, Coffee is
usually grown under permanent shade trees. Manuring periodi-
cally is indispensable, and farmyard manure when obtainable is
considered the best. Pruning is effected mainly to keep the trees
in shape, thinning out superfluous or useless branches. The
bushes blossom chiefly in March or April, the following crop being
harvested in October and February. The first crop is obtained
when the plants are four to five years old. When in full bearing,
a yield of about 1 Ib. dried coffee per tree, or 6 to 7 cwt. per acre,
is considered a good average crop, though under favourable
conditions a much larger yield is obtained. In South America the
average annual yield is said to be about 8 cwt. per acre. The
berries are picked when they turn red, and a good worker can
pick three bushels a day. A bushel of berries will yield about
10 Ib. of dry coffee. Arabian coffee is at present quoted in
London at 75s. to 80s. per cwt.
Pulping (i.e., removing the shell or pulp of the berries) is done
by a pulping machine ; or it may also be done by pounding the
berries in a mortar. Each berry contains two seed ("beans"),
with their flat sidss facing each other. The mucilaginous substance
surrounding these is removed by fermentation, afterwards washing
the beans in water, after which they are dried in the sun. The
"beans" are then known as parchment or plantation coffee. The
parchment or thin shell of the seed is removed by "hulling'1
machines or by pounding the seed in wooden mortars. A
bushel of parchment coffee will only give about half that quantity
of clean beans. The coffee is then put through a winnowing mill
to separate the chaff or broken parchment, etc. Sometimes the
berries are simply dried whole, being then known as native
Coffee or dry berry. In this form the quality of the coffee is said
to be superior, but the pulping and subsequent processes are more
troublesome, and transport is mere costly.
516 MINOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON
OTHER KINDS OF COFFEE
Liberian Coffee. (Coffea liber ica). — A robust-growing species,
native of West Tropical Africa, and introduced into Ceylon about
1870. The tree is distinguished by its considerable height (growing
to about 25 ft. high if left to itself), its large, thick leaves, and
comparatively large berries. It does not require permanent shade,
bears fruit almost throughout the year, and the berries do not drop
when ripe, as do those of the Arabian Coffee. Neither do the berries
become soft when ripe, like those of the latter, but remain hard
and fibrous ; the permanent skin is also comparatively tough, so that
the labour entailed in cleaning is increased. The aroma of the
bean is not generally highly appreciated, which results in a lower
market price for the product. The vigorous constitution of the
Liberian coffee-tree renders it more or less resistant to the effects
of the leaf-disease. Suited to low elevations only, i.e., up to 2,000 ft.
The trees may be planted about 8 ft. by 8 ft. apart, and should be
topped at a height of about 6 or 7 ft.
Congo Coffee. (Coffea robust a). — A species of coffee inde-
genous to the Congo, recently brought into cultivation, and not
unlike the Liberian coffee, having large handsome wavy leaves. It
is said to give very satisfactory returns in the Straits as well as in
Sumatra and Java for at least a few years, being especially in favour as
an intercrop with young rubber. It thrives best from 1 ,000 to 3,000 ft.
elevation, yields a crop of about 1 cwt. per acre in 2 years from
planting, 4 to 5 cwt. in the 3rd year, and 14 to 18 cwt. in the 4th year.
I am informed that even a yield of 24 cwt. per acre has been
obtained in the 6th year. The bean fetches at present from 54s. to
64s. per cwt. This species has been introduced at Peradeniya
Gardens in 1900, and thrives well here.
Sierra Leone Upland Coffee. (Coffea stenophylla). — A slender-
stemmed West African species, bearing a profusion of small oval
berries, which are black when ripe. This is said to be superior in
flavour to all other coffees. The plant has been introduced in
1894 at Peradeniya, where it flourishes and bears fruit in abundance
twice a year.
Hybrico Coffee. — A Brazilian variety whose fruits contain four
or six instead of two seeds ; its quality is well spoken of, but it
does not appear to be known in the East.
Maragogipe Coffee. — Another kind from Brazil, with large
leaves, similar to those of the Liberian Coffee. This has been
MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON 517
established at Peradeniya since 1884, but although the tree
flourishes here it is not a prolific bearer. The flowers and fruit are
similar to those of the Arabian Coffee.
Hybrid Coffee. — The most important of hybrid coffees growing
at Peradeniya is a cross between the Arabian and Liberian species.
This obviously partakes of "the character of both the parents, and
bears a heavy crop of good-sized berries. The plant is a vigorous
grower, and its robust constitution appears to render it to some
extent resistant to the coffee-leaf disease.
Mocha Coffee. — Arabian-grown coffee is generally known by
this name, and is so-called because it was formerly shipped entirely
from Mocha. It is a variety of Coffea arabica, with rather small
berries, and its cultivation is confined to the province of Yemen in
South-western Arabia.
Cotton; "Pulun," S. — This consists of the delicate hair-like
fibres which clothe the seeds of various species of Gossypiinn (of
the Natural Order Malvaceae), which though shrubby perennials
in nature are usually cultivated as annuals. Cotton is the most im-
portant of all textile fibres, and has been used in India from time
immemorial. The principal cotton-producing country is the United
States, those countries coming next in importance being Egypt,
India and Queensland. The cotton plant requires a rich friable
deep soil (black humous soil being considered the best), a warm
climate with a wet season of 2 or 3 months followed by dry
weather. It is suited to the semi-dry region of Ceylon, especially
in the North and North-Central provinces, where it appears to have
been cultivated from remote times. In some of the principal cotton
growing districts of South India, the annual rainfall is only about
27 inches. With, however, a limited rainfall, such as this, irrigation
must be resorted to. Shade trees must be avoided, but strong winds
are injurious to the crop. The seeds, which must be fresh, should be
sown in the rainy weather, at such a time as will result in the crop
being picked in the dry season. After the land is ploughed and
harrowed, sow the seeds in rows, allowing 4 to 5 ft. between the
latter and about 2 ft. between the plants in the row, say 5,000
plants to the acre. It is usual to sow 2 to 4 seeds to the hole,
4 inches apart ; the weaker seedlings are afterwards pulled out,
leaving the strongest one. About 6 Ib. of seed* is thus sufficient to
sow one acre. In fairly moist districts the ground should be thrown
up in drills, but in dry regions with loose soil, level cultivation
0 1 lb.=about -I.030 seeds.
518 MINOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON
should be adopted. Vacancies should be supplied by seeds, not by
plants when thinning out, as transplanted plants are seldom success-
ful. The crop is ready for picking in 5 to 6 months (according to
variety) from the time of sowing. In Ceylon, it is best to sow in Octo-
ber or November (rainy season), the crop thus maturing in March and
April, which are dry months. When ripe, the pods burst, and the
cotton bolls are then picked by hand. The cotton is afterwards
thoroughly dried in the sun (thus getting rid of stainers and other
insects), being then separated from the seed by a ginning machine,
after which it is made up into compressed bales for export.
Grading, which is of great importance, should be begun in
the field and completed in the factory or store, it being essential
to sort the cotton according to quality into 2 or 3 grades so as to
obtain more or less uniform qualities. An average of 30 to 40
pods per plant is considered a fair average crop, though some
plants may bear as many as 100 pods. Fifty pods should yield 1 oz.
clean cotton, and an acre may produce from 200 to 400 Ib. ginned
cotton (or 1,000 Ib. seed cotton), or more according to soil and
cultivation. The seeds also yield a revenue, these being largely
used for cattle food as well as for the extraction of oil. Cotton by
itself has not as yet been found a very remunerative product in
Ceylon, but as a catch-crop with coconuts, rubber, etc., it may fur-
nish a subsidiary source of revenue. The exportt from Ceylon in
1912 was 140,171 Ib., valued at Rs. 64,605.
VARIETIES. — The numerous varieties may be classified under the two
main types of long staple and short staple. To the former belong the Sea Island
cotton (Gossypium barbadense) considered the best of all cottons, owing to the
length (about 2 inches) and silkiness of the fibre ; also the Egyptian Cotton, a
variety of the Sea Island kind. Of these again there are numerous varieties ;
one of the best of the Egyptian class is the Mit-afiffi. Of the short-staple
varieties, the American Upland (Gossypium hirsutum) is generally considered
the best and is in greatest general demand in commerce ; it has given the best
results at the Maha-illupalama Experiment Station, Ceylon. Peruvian Cotton
(G. barbadense var.), Indian Cotton (G. herbaceum and G. neglectum) are also
short-staple varieties. Tree Cotton (G. arboreum), is a small tree, attaining a
height of 14 to 20 ft., considered a native of Africa. Caravonica : a perennial,
bushy hybrid-cotton, raised recently in Queensland ; said to yield about 3 Ib.
per tree a year. Allen's and Sunflower varieties have proved superior to
Egyptian cotton in Uganda, giving a yield of well over 300 Ib. per acre (Vide
Uganda Administration Report, 1911-12).
Silk Cotton or Kapok. (Eriodendron anfractuosittn* Malva-
ceae) A moderate-sized, quick-growing, upright thornless tree, indi-
genous to tropical Asia and Africa. A striking peculiarity of the tree
tCeylon Customs Report. tff=Cciba Pentandra.
MINOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON 519
is the manner in which the branches stretch out horizontally in
whorls, at right angles to the stem. The tree is deciduous in the
dry season, January to April, the greenish-white flowers being pro-
duced in clusters shortly after the leaves have dropped, and the
fruit pods which follow are ripe about three months later. The
latter contain a quantity of silky cotton (kapok), and when ripe
burst open and disperse their contents. The pods should there-
fore be collected before they are quite ripe, being then dried in
the sun. Kapok is largely used for stuffing pillows, mattresses,
upholstering, etc., both in the countries where grown and in those to
which it is exported. The largest supply come from Java, where
the trees are planted as a secondary product. The export of kapok
from that country has increased from 1,125 tons in 1899 to over
8,000 tons in 1911. In the latter year about 100 tons were exported
from the Philippines, while in 1912, 255 tons* were exported from
Ceylon, valued at £> 9, 140. There is a steady demand for the product
which has considerably advanced in price during the last few years,
and now stands at about 6d. to 9d. per Ib. according to grade. The
tree is readily propagated from seed or cuttings, and thrives from
sea-bvel up to about 2,000 feet. It attains a height of about 30 to
50 feet or more, and may be planted about 18 feet apart each way.
Planted along roadsides or as wind-belts, the trees may be used as
supports for Pepper vines.
Yield. The trees begin to yield about the fifth year from
planting, and may be expected to yield 3 to 4 Ib. of lint when 6 to
7 years old, increasing later to 7 to 8 Ib. A good tree at maturity
should produce 1,000 to 1,500 fruits a year. On an average 100
fruits should contain about a pound of clean fibre. The weight of
the seed in a pod is about double that of the fibre.
Red Cotton-Tree, " Katu-imbul" (Bombax malabaricnm. Malva-
ceae). A very large handsome tree, 80 to over 100 ft. high, com-
mon in the low-country of Ceylon, South India, etc. It is quite
deciduous for 3 or 4 months in the year (usually January to April),
the large scarlet fleshy flowers quickly following the shedding of
leaves, and the fruit is ripe in April. The woody pods, like those
of the Kapok, contain a quantity of white silky lint which, though
less valuable, is sometimes used for mixing with Kapok cotton.
(See Beautiful Flowering and Foliage Trees).
Croton-Oil ; " Jayapala," S. — This powerful purgative, used in
medicine, is extracted from the seed of Croton Tiglittin (Euphorbi-
aceae), a small tree or large shrub, native of India. The cultivation
'Ceylon Customs Report.
520 MINOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON
of the plant has been undertaken in Ceylon a few years ago, when
the seeds were sold in London for 70s. to 80s. per cwt., but a large
shipment speedily reduced the price, and the cultivation soon
declined. The product is, however, still cultivated here to some
extent, the export of the seed in 1912 being given as 785 cwt., valued
at £ 2,197. The present price of the seed in Colombo varies from
Rs. 22 per cwt. upwards, according to quality and demand.
Kitul Palm ; Toddy Palm. (Caryota urens). — A very handsome
palm, indigenous to Ceylon, with large spreading bipinnate leaves.
From the young flower raceme is obtained, by means of tapping,
a copious flow of sweet sap, which upon boiling yields a quantity
of sugar or jaggery. In a fermented state it is distilled to produce
arrack. Each flower raceme is said to continue to yield for 1^ to
4 months, producing on average from a half to 2 gallons toddy a
day, or a single tree an annual yield of about 180 gallons.
Kola-nut; "Bissy" or " Gooroo nuts." (Cola acuminata.
Sterculiaceae). A small tree, 30 to 40 feet high, indigenous to
West Tropical Africa, cultivated for its large white or pink seeds,
which become reddish brown when dried. It bears warty oblong
pods, 4 to 6 inches long, which contain from four to ten or more
seeds. The latter are highly prized as a masticatory in tropical
Africa on account of their stimulating and sustaining properties,
due to the presence of the alkaloid caffeine (also found in coffee),
and to a small extent of theobromine (active principle of cacao).
The dried nuts (seeds) are imported into Europe, etc., and used in
medicine as well as for the manufacture of kola wine and other
beverages. As a vegetable product, the Kola-nut ranks next in
importance to the Oil-palm (Elaeis) in West Tropical Africa. The
tree was introduced into Ceylon in 1879, and has become estab-
lished in the moist low-country up to about 1,600 feet, being
cultivated to a small extent as a minor product in conjunction with1
tea; the seeds are simply dried and exported. Kola-nuts occur under
two different species, viz., Cola acuminata and C. vera. The seeds
of the former possess four cotyledons, and those of the latter
(supposed to be the more valuable) only two.
The tree is propagated from seed, which must be sown per-
fectly fresh ; it bears fruit when six or seven years old, producing
two crops a year, equivalent of 500 to 800 pods, or about 50 to 120
Ib. of seeds per tree. In cultivation, the trees should be planted
about 18 feet apart each way. The product is prepared for the
market by merely drying in the sun. In 1890, kola-nuts were
MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX
521
worth 2s. 9</. per Ib. in London, while at the present time (1913)
the London price is reported as varying from 2\d. to 4^d. per Ib.
according to quality. They are exported from the West Coast of
Africa to some considerable extent. The export of Kola-nuts from
Ceylon in 1912 was 97 cwt., valued at £77. The Kola-nut tree
has been introduced into various tropical countries, and is said to
have become naturalised in the West Indies.
XUX-VOMICA. Stryclinos Xii
N ux- vomica. Goda-kaduru, S. ; Kanchurai, T. (Slrychnos Xnx-
vonrica. Loganiaceae). A moderate-sized tree with opposite shiny
leaves, indigenous to Ceylon (forests of the dry region), India and
Burma. The flat, circular, ash-grey poisonous seeds, produced
chiefly from August to November, are collected from wild trees,
and exported for the purpose of extracting from them the alkaloid
522 MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON
strychnine, valued in medicine as a tonic and stimulant. The
amount of these seeds exported from Ceylon in 1909 (all to
England, Germany, and America) was 782 c\vt., valued at £239,
while in 1912 the export fell to 21 cwt. The globular fruit is of
the size of an orange, yellow when ripe, and contains a mass of
soft pulp, upon which monkeys and certain birds feed.
Orchella-weed. (Roccella Montague/). — A pale geenish-grey
lichen, with flaccid ribbon-like fronds, found growing in the hot,
dry districts of Ceylon, close to the coast, specially on sea-shore
rocks. The plant is collected, dried and exported for the purpose of
manufacturing litmus, orchil, etc. The value of Orchella-weed
exported from Ceylon in 1909, to Belgium only, was given
as Rs. 50. u Fair Ceylon Orchella" is quoted at about 15s. per cwt.
in London. The demand for this is limited, and the collection of
the plant is now scarcely a profitable industry.
Palmyra Palm; "Tal-gas," $.; " Panna-maram," T. (Borassus
flabellifer. — An erect dioecious palm, 60 to 70 ft. high, with a
stout trunk and fan-shaped leaves, indigenous to the dry region
of Ceylon, India, and Africa. It is naturally suited to a rather
dry climate, and is extensively cultivated in India, Burma, Malaya
and in the dry northern parts of Ceylon, more especially for the
sake of the fruit and leaves ; these and other parts of the palm
are put to numerous uses, like the Coconut-palm in the humid
districts. The large black fruits ("nuts") are borne in a cluster
at the base of the leaves ; they contain a refreshing sap, much
relished as a cooling drink ; the soft kernels of young fruits are
much used as an article of food, being sold in Ceylon in large
quantities at the bazaars during the months of April and May.
The copious sap obtained from the flower spathes is collected
and either used for drinking as toddy (unfermented), or fermen-
ted and distilled for producing arrack (an intoxicating spirit) ;
otherwise it is boiled down for making sugar or jaggery. The
period of tapping for toddy extends from 1 to 3 months in the dry
hot season, and the yield of the liquid varies from 30 to over 100
gallons per tree, or from 3 to 4 bottles a tree per day. The young
leaf blades are used for making fans, baskets, buckets, ola, etc. ;
while the leaf -stalks and mid-ribs furnish an excellent brush -fibre,
which forms an article of export. To obtain the latter, the trees
are stripped of all but three leaves once in two years. The trunk
yields a hard and most durable timber, and the husks are in
demand for fuel. The annual export of palmyra fibre from Ceylon
MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLOX 523
is valued at about £15,000 (the price varying according to quality
from 25s. to 50s. per c\vt.), and of palmyra laths, £3,840.
In the East the Palmyra palm ranks next in importance to
the Coconut among palms, and the acreage under cultivation in
Ceylon alone is estimated approximately at 40,000 acres, while that
in Tinnevelley is said to be about 60,000 acres. It is propagated
from seed, which is sown /'// situ in holes made in sandy soil.
In about 8 to 10 years from sowing, the palms should be in flower,
when thev may be used for drawing toddy and making sugar ;
the total outlay in ten years for bringing the trees into bearing
is usually estimated at Rs. 14 per acre. When grown for the
fruit, an average return of about 3,500 nuts per acre may be
obtained. At the end of eighty years the value of the stems
(for timber, etc.) is considered to be about £40 or more per acre.
Sappan-wood. Pattangi, S. (Caesalpinin Sappan. Leguminosae).
— A large straggling spiny shrub or small tree, indigenous to India
and Malaya, introduced and naturalised in the moist low-country
of Ceylon. The reddish heart-wood yields a red dye, and is
exported to some extent from Ceylon ; the amount exported
has dropped from 11,099 cwt. in 1908 to 4,758 cwt. in 1912, the
latter being valued at about £1,152. Sappan-wood realises
locally from Rs. 35 to Rs. 40 (say £ 2'13'6) per ton.
Sugar-Cane. Uk-gas, S ; Karambu, T. (Saccharum officituinun.
Gramineaj). — A tall grass or reed, reaching a height, in cultivation,
of 8 to 12 ft. or more, found in a cultivated state in all tropical
countries, in some extensively grown for the sake of the sugar
obtained from the thick succulent stems. The Sugar-cane has
been grown for sugar from time immemorial. The chief countries
of cane-sugar production now are Mauritius, the Guianas, Java,
Hawaii, India and the West Indies. The plant requires a hot
humid climate, alternating with dry periods, and thrives best
at low elevations on flat or sloping land, with porous sandy-loam
or alluvial soil, the presence of a certain proportion of lime
being essential ; it flourishes, however, on any ordinarily good
soil, provided the necessary moisture is available. The crop
is an exhausting one, and manuring is indispensable. Propagation
is by cuttings, which, being selected from the upper joints of
the canes, are cut in lengths of 8 to 10 in. (including 3 or 5 joints)
and placed in lines or trenches, 10 to 12 in. deep and V-shaped
in section. The cuttings are inserted two or three together,
a few inches apart, in a slanting direction, and covered with
524 MINOR PRODUCTS OF CEYLON
soil with the exception of an inch or two at the top. The
distances between the lines or trenches, and between the plants in
the latter, vary according to variety of cane and conditions of soil,
but under average conditions they may be said to be 5 ft. by 4 ft.
The cuttings (called "plants") sprout in 10 to 14 days; the first or
44 mother" sprout is cut off so as to induce the plant to tiller. •
Subsequently weeding and forking up of the soil occasionally must
be attended to. All dead leaves (called "trash") should be left on
the canes in dry weather, but in wet weather or in rich soil they
should be removed and left on the ground to rot and form a
mulch.
Harvesting commences in 12 to 14 months from the time
of planting, the canes becoming tough and turning a pale yellow
colour when ready for cutting. They are cut as close to the
ground as possible, for nearer the root the better the sugar
content. The roots or stools will continue to crop for at least
3 or 4 years, sometimes as many as 8 or more, the subsequent
crops being known as ratoons, these being " first," " second," or
" third " ratoon, etc., according to the number of crops obtained.
Yield, etc. Under favourable conditions a good variety will yield
30 to 40 tons of canes or more per acre ; but under ordinary
circumstances the yield may not be more than 20 to 25 tons,
varying according to variety of cane and soil. FAWCETT considers
the average yield in Jamaica to be about 22 tons per acre, and
LYNE estimates the average yield in Portuguese East Africa to
be about 25 tons. The best varieties of cane, under suitable
conditions, should give about one ton of marketable sugar for every
10 or 11 tons of cane ; thus the crop may vary from 2 or 3,
to 4 tons of sugar per acre. The canes are put through machinery,
which either crush, macerate, or slice the canes longitudinally.
The sweet saccharine juice is afterwards submitted to processes of
clarifying (in which unslaked lime is used to neutralise the acids),
then heating, filtering, bleaching, etc. The fibrous material left
after the juice is extracted is known as 4t megass," which is used
as fuel for the machinery. Raw- sugar or 44 muscovado" is boiled
and clarified to form crystallized or white sugar, and this is at
once ready for the consumer. To make loaf or lump sugar, the
muscovado is exported. Molasses and treacle, from which rum is
made, are the uncrystallizable product drained from the muscovado
or raw-sugar.
VARIETIES. — Numerous varieties are in cultivation, and
in recent years many seedling varieties, which considerably
MIXOR PRODUCTS OF CEYWX 525
exceed the older sorts in yield of sugar, have been raised and
cultivated, making sugar-planting a more profitable industry, and
enabling it to compete \vith the beet-sugar. "Otaheite" and
"Bourbon" are old favourites in the West Indies. "Yuba" is
the principal variety grown in Natal and Potuguese East Africa,
where, according to MR. LYXE, it sometimes gives as many as
12 ratoons. Sugar cultivation has been tried on various occasions
in Ceylon, but though the growth of the cane has been all that
could be desired, the industry has not proved a commercial
success, owing, it is said, to "too much water and too little
saccharine matter in the juice" of the canes. Some small areas
are, however, still cultivated in the Galle district from which sugar
is made locally. A considerable quantity of sugar-cane is grown
in native gardens for chewing purposes; the total area under the
crop in Ceylon is estimated at about 1,000 acres. The plant
thrives up to 2,500 feet in the moist region.
Sugar Sorghum. | g j//w//,,,,ro/;s pmlllcls_
Sugar Palm
Vanilla. See Tropical Spices.
CHAPTER XXIV.
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
1. EDIBLE PRODUCTS
2. DRUGS
3. OILS
4. FIBRES
5. TANS
6. VEGETABLE WAX, GUMS
AND RESINS
EDIBLE PRODUCTS:
Arabian Tea. " Khat," "Cat," or "Cafta." (Catha cditlis.
Celastraceae). — A small shrub of Arabia and East Tropical Africa,
introduced to Peradeniya in 1882, where it flourishes in ordinary
soil, without shade. The leaves and young twigs form a consider-
able article of commerce among the Arabs, being chewed both
in the green and dry state, as a stimulant and to promote wakeful-
ness. A decoction resembling tea is made from the leaves,
although these are considered by Europeans to contain no trace of
caffeine.
Ayapana Tea. (Eupaiorium Ayapana. Compositae). — A lo\v,
spreading herbaceous plant, 2 to 3 ft. high, with long narrow
leaves, which and the stems are of a bronze tint. It is indigenous
to Brazil, and is said to be cultivated to some extent in Mauritius
and Reunion for the sake of its medicinal properties. The leaves
and young twigs are used for making a decoction like tea, and this
is said to be a mild stimulant and a cure for dyspepsia. The plant
is also cultivated in parts of India, where it is similarly employed
and esteemed. It is easily propagated by cuttings or division or
division of the roots, and thrives on ordinary soil, in partial shade,
up to 2,000 feet. The plant has a characteristic habit of rooting
freely at the nodes ; but it seldom produces seed.
Mate, Yerba de Mate, or Paraguay Tea. (Ilex paragunyensis.
Ilicineae), — A small bushy tree, with serrate alternate leaves, not un-
like those of the Tea plant proper. It is a native of South America,
where it is largely cultivated, the leaves being used as tea. In
Brazil and Paraguay the dried leaf forms one of the leading articles
of local commerce, being also exported in considerable quantities
MISCELLAXEOUS ECOXOMIC PRODUCTS
527
to neighbouring countries. According to DR. WILLIS, Director of
Botanic Gardens, Rio de Janeiro, the export of Mate from Brazil
alone in 1911 was about 139 million pounds, valued at nearly
2 million pounds sterling, averaging over 3d. per Ib. In preparing
the leaves for use, they are first partly dried in the sun near the
place where they are gathered, then toasted, which latter process
requires practically all the skill necessary in the preparation of the
product. The leaves must be dried thoroughly and evenly, without
AYAPAXA TEA. Enpatoriiim Ayapnnn.
scorching ; they are then usually ground small and packed solidly
into bags for market. An infusion from the leaves, which is
customarily drunk from the spout of a tea-pot, or sometimes
through a tube with a net-work at the bottom, called the bombilla,
is the favourite drink of a large proportion of the population of
Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic, etc. The
leaves contain a small percentage of caffeine, and are occasionally
imported into Europe. The plant was introduced in 1897 to
Peradeniva, where it has been found to thrive under ordinary
528
EDIBLE PRODUCTS
conditions. It appears to be suited to different elevations, in
moist districts, up to at least 2,000 feet.
Sago Palm. — The sago of commerce is obtained chiefly from
the stems of Metraxylon Sagn, a pinnate-leaved palm, 30 to 40 ft.
high, with a short cylindrical and usually recumbent or creeping
trunk. The palm is indigenous to the Malaya Archipelago, where
it is commonly cultivated or conserved for the sake of the sago.
It is found chiefly in damp, flat or swampy situations, and thrives
1. ASSAM OR ORDINARY TEA.
2. PARAGUAY TEA.
best in cultivation when these conditions are imitated. The life of
the individual palm extends to fifteen or twenty years, the tree
flowering at that age and then dying ; younger palms arising from
suckers and in various stages of development are, however,
produced around it. In a properly managed sago swamp, the
palms should be allowed to stand at suitable distances apart, and all
unnecessary suckers and stems removed. In this way the ground
should be continuously productive without much, if any, replanting.
The seeds, which are seldom fertile, are said to occupy two or
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
529
three years in ripening, but, as has been stated, propagation is easy
and best from suckers. To obtain the sago, the tree is felled when
it commences to Mower (which is usually at about the age of
10 years), the farinaceous matter in the stem being then in its best
state of development ; the trunk is cut into pieces of 3 or 4 ft. long
and these are split in two. The farinaceous substance is then
Metroxylon Sugn. SAGO PALM OF MALAYA.
extracted and reduced to a powder, which is mixed with water and
strained through a sieve. The water being allowed to stand, the
starch settles in the bottom, when the water is poured oft, and the
starch thoroughly washed and afterwards dried. This forms sago
meal, which is made into granulated sago by mixing with water to
form a paste, being then rubbed through sieves to cause granu-
lation, after which it is dried in ovens or in the sun. The process
530 EDIBLE PRODUCTS
of obtaining and preparing the sago varies, however, to some
extent i;i different localities. A single tree is said to yield from
800 Ib. to 1,400 Ib. of the finished article. England alone imports
sago (chiefly from Singapore and Sumatra) to the extent of about
4,000 ton ; annually. The Sago palm was introduced at Peradeniya
in 1880 an.! has flourished here since, being grown in a moist situa-
tion with loose deep soil. Here the trees flower freely and set
Cycas circinalis. SAGO PLANT OF CEYLON
fruit, but have not as yet produced fertile seeds. Several varieties
are recognised, these being either thorny or smooth-stemmed ; the
latter quality indicates the best and most prolific trees.
Sago Plant of Ceylon; Madu, S. (Cycas circinalis. Cycadeae).
A palm-like plant, 12-15 ft. high, with very handsome, long, feathery
leaves ; the large farinaceous seeds are commonly made into a
useful sago by the Natives.
MISCELLANEOUS ECOXOMIC PRODUCTS 531
Sugar Palm of Java. Gomuti-palm. (Amiga sacchar if era.) — A
large erect palm, with a stout trunk and very large stiftish pinnate
leaves, indigenous to Malaya. It is cultivated in Java for the
production of sugar, which is obtained by evaporation of the sap,
the latter being obtained from incisions made in the young in-
Horescence, similar to the manner in which the Coconut and
Kitul palms are tapped for toddy in Ceylon. The palm flourishes
in the moist low-country up to about 1,600 ft. In Java it is said to
thrive best at an altitude of about 1,000 ft. A sugar yield cannot
be obtained until the tree has reached its flowering stage, viz.,
about its twelfth year, and the productive period extends to four
or live years, i.e., so long as the palm continues to Hower, after
which it dies. A single tree is considered to yield in this time
"as much as 450 Ib. of sugar. Thus an acre bearing 100 trees,
would yield about 20 tons, which works out at rather more than
one ton of sugar per acre per annum." Catch-crops may be
grown beneath the palms for at least the first few years. Like many
other palms, the heart of the stem contains a large quantity of
excellent sago, hence it is sometimes known as the "sago-palm."
Sugar Palm of India, or Wild Date. (Phoenix sylvestris). — A
tall palm with stiff feathery leaves, allied to the Date palm, native
of India, where it is sometimes extensively cultivated for the
production of sugar or jaggery. It is estimated that in the Madras
Presidency alone there are 22,000 acres under the cultivation of
this palm. The method of obtaining the sugar is similar to that
adopted with the Coconut and other palms, viz., tapping the
Hower-stalk for the juice, which exudes copiously and is afterwards
boiled and evaporated; on cooling, a solid mass of brown
toffee-like sugar remains. Jaggery or palm-sugar is extracted in
large quantities in Ceylon from the Kitul-palm (Caryota nrens), the
Coconut palm and the Palmyra palm, the mode of procedure being
the same as that described above. In 1890, jaggery was exported
from Ceylon to the extent of 6,428 cwt., valued at £2,259, but the
figures have declined to 1,207 cwt. and £-380 respectively in 1908.
Sugar-sorghum ; Imphee. (Sorghum saccharattiin). — A tall-
growing grass similar to Guinea corn, sometimes cultivated for the
sugar obtained from its stems, which is chierly used in the
preparation of sugar-candy. Being somewhat hardier than the
sugar-cane, it may be profitably grown in climates where the latter
would not succeed. The plant has long been cultivated in India
Mid more recently in the Southern United States, for the production
532
DRUGS
of sugar 'and syrup. Numerous varieties are recognised. Like the
Guinea-corn, Sugar-sorghum may be grown in ordinarily good soils,
but gives the best yield on a moist sandy loam. In dry weather it
is much benefited by irrigation.
D R U G S
( See also plants used in Native Medicine in Ceylon ).
[.S=Sl\HAI.ESE ; 7'=TAMIlJ.
Cassia Fistula. "Ehela," S. (Leguminosae). — A large
tree, indigenous to the dry region of Ceylon, also to India and
CUBKBS. Piper Cnbcba.
Malaya. The long cylindrical pods (•* ft. to 3 ft. long) are valued
in medicine, and are exported from India and the West Indies,
being sold in London at about 18s. to 22s. per cwt. The bark of
the tree is esteemed in native medicine in Ceylon.
Cinchona. See Minor Products of Ceylon.
Cubebs. (Piper Cubeba. Piperaceae). — The Cubebs of com-
merce, which are of importance chiefly in medicine, .are the berries
of a species of a pepper-vine, easily distinguished from the ordinary
pepper by the stalked and larger berries or "corns." The plant
is a native of Java, Sumatra, etc., and thrives under similar
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 533
conditions as Pepper, requiring live or artificial supports and a
certain amount of shade. The world's supply of cubebs is
obtained chiefly from Java, where the plant is cultivated. Cubebs
thrive at Peradeniya, where they are grown on Erythrina trees,
and bear fruit freely. The plants are best propagated by cuttings
taken from the top or fruitful shoots, the plants thus raised being
more productive than those taken from near the base.
Ginseng. — The Chinese name for the root of Pdnax (Aralia)
qiiinqiie folia (Araliaceae), a small plant with palmate leaves,
native of North China. Ginseng cultivation is a Government
monopoly in Corea, and the dried root forms one of the principal
articles of export from that country to China. During 1905, China
received from Corea alone 107,480 Ib. of " Red Ginseng" of the value
of j£ 11 2, 350. This variety ranks in quality next to Manchurian
or " Imperial" ginseng. The roots are prepared for export by
steaming for about four hours in wicker baskets placed over boiling
water. So highly valued is ginseng in China, as a tonic and stimu-
lant medicine, that "it is sold at from 20 to 250 times its weight in
silver, sometimes for 500 times this amount." From a supposed
resemblance of the root to the human form, Chinese doctors
ascribe miraculous powers to it, claiming that it wards off
disease and restores exhausted animal powers, even making old
people young. The root is slightly bitter and aromatic, but is not
regarded by European medical men as having any medicinal value.
A variety of Ginseng is also furnished by a similar species found in
Xorth America. This is cultivated to some extent in the United
States, where the roots are sold at from two to four dollars per
pound for exportation to China as a substitute for the Eastern
product. This variety is ranked by the Chinese as fourth in
quality, next to this being Japanese ginseng, which is the least
esteemed. The plant thrives best in a rich loamy loose soil, and
requires light shade as well as a moderate amount of moisture.
Ipecacuanha. (Psychotria (Cephuelis) Ipecacuanha. Rubiaceae).
— A small bushy perennial plant with semi-creeping stems, indigen-
ous to the dense humid forests of Brazil. From its peculiar
annulated roots an extract is obtained which is used in medicine
as a well-known emetic, and also as a specific for dysentery.
The supply of the root comes chiefly from Brazil, and this is
frequently adulterated with roots of a similar appearance.
Ipecacuanha is imported into England to the extent ot about
50.000 Ib. a year, and commands a price of 4s. to 6s. 6if. per Ib.
534
DRUGS
The plant responds to cultivation under conditions similar to those
of its native habitat. A loose loamy or humous soil suits it best.
As the roots penetrate the ground deeply, the soil should be
trenched to a depth of about 2\ ft. LAWSOX, late Government
Botanist, Madras, found that "a healthy plant will yield ten to
twelve good roots of the necessary quality, these when dried weigh-
ing from 3 to 4 ounces." PROUDLOCK estimated from experiments
IPECACUANHA. PsVCotn'tl IpCCiU'lUllllltl.
made at Ootacamund, in a hot-house, that 2\ ox. of the dried
root could be obtained per square yard per annum, or 625 Ib.
per acre, the plants being planted in raised beds. The Ipecacuanha
plant has been introduced into Ceylon in 1866, and thrives both in
Peradeniya and Heneratgoda Gardens, more especially at the latter,
under the shade of trees, in well drained humous soil. It is
best propagated by cuttings or division. The plant is grown
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 535
successfully in the Straits Settlements, whence the dried roots are
exported to some extent. Recently the active principle of Ipecac-
uanha has been prepared in the form known as emetine, which is
much used for dysentery and bowel complaints ; consequently the
demand for the product has of late considerably increased.
Menthol, Peppermint or " Peppermint Camphor." (Mentha
pipcrita. Labiatae). — A dwarf creeping herb with a strong- aromatic
odour. A volatile oil obtained from the plant is well-known in medi-
cine as an antiseptic, stimulant, and carminative ; this yields the
crystalline camphor-like substance known as "menthol," commonly
used for neuralgia, etc. Menthol and menthol-oil are exported
from Japan, the former being worth from 16s. 6ii. to 17s. 6d. per
pound. The plant thrives at Hakgala Gardens, forming a dense
carpet on the surface of a raised bed of rich soil.
Opium. — This well-known and valuable narcotic drug is
obtained from the milky juice of the unripe fruit capsules of the
Opium Poppy (Papaver soinnifeniiu, Papavaraceae), an annual plant
native of India and Asia Minor, where, as well as in China, it is
extensively cultivated. The method of collecting the drug is to
make light incisions or scratches in the green unripe fruit; this
should be done in dry weather, in the evening; by the morning the
milky juice which flows out will have coagulated, and is then
collected and made into balls, which form the common opium of
commerce. From this morphia, the active principle, is obtained.
The yield of opium in India is said to average about 18 Ib. per
acre, valued locally at 4s. to 5s. per Ib. In Queensland, it is said an
average of about 20 Ib. to 25 Ib. per acre can be obtained, com-
manding about 25s. to 30s. per Ib. The market price however
appears to fluctuate considerably. The small seed is sown in drills
2 feet apart, with 9 in. between the plants in the drills. The plants
blossom in 2\ to 3 months from planting; the petals are removed,
and the capsules are ready about 10 days later for the collection of
opium.
There are two distinct varieties of the opium poppy, viz., var.
glabra which furnishes medicinal opium and is chiefly grown in
Asia Minor; and var. alba, which is the one principally grown in
India and China, yielding the opium used for eating, drinking, or
smoking. Considerable restrictions have been placed in recent
years on the consumption of opium in Eastern countries. A very
large number of persons in the East take the drug all their life
without showing a tendency to increase the daily allowance.
536 DRUGS
Quassia, Quassia-chips or Bitter- wood (Pier tie na excelsa. Sim-
arubaeeae). — A West Indian tree, the wood of which is largely used
in Europe and elsewhere as a source of an intensely bitter liquid,
which is extracted and used against aphides and other insects. A
ton of quassia chips yields only 10 oz. of the bitter principle, but
this is capable of embittering 24,000 gallons of water. To obtain
the bitter contents, 1 Ib. quassia chips should be steeped in cold
water for a few hours and then be simmered for 12 hours in
1 gallon water. See under Insecticides.
Sarsaparilla. — A drug obtained from the roots of various
species of Smilax (Liliaceae), and used for rheumatism, gout, etc.
The genus Sinilax are climbing plants, characterized by more or
less thorny stems and large leaves, found in a wild state in the
West Indies, Central America, Mexico, etc. Smilax officinalis
furnishes the Jamaica sarsaparilla, while other different species
supply the Brazilian and Mexican product. S. officinalis thrives at
Peradeniya, where it has been introduced in 1880. Several species
of Smilax are indigenous to the moist regions of Ceylon, being
found up to about 4,000 ft. The collection of sarsaparilla is
effected by scraping away the earth covering the roots, which run
horizontally under the ground ; when laid bare, they are cut off
near the crown, a few slender roots being allowed to remain to
assist the plant in renewing its growth. The collected roots are
then dried and packed in bundles for exportation. The present
price of Sarsaparilla in London is about Is. to Is. 3d. per Ib.
Indian Sarsaparilla; "iramusu," S. (Hemidesmus indicns.
Asclepiadeae). — A small slender twining plant, found wild in the
moist low-country of Ceylon, also in India. The roots are much
used as a tonic medicine, being included in the British and Indian
official pharmacopoeias.
Senna Leaves, or Senna Pods. — The dried leaves or pods of
certain species of Cassia, which are imported into Europe, etc., for
use in medicine, being well-known for their mild laxative properties.
Tinnivelly senna, the best known in commerce, is furnished by
Cassia angusti folia, a small shrub, native of Arabia and East Africa,
and largely cultivated in parts of South India. Alexandrian or
Nubian senna is obtained from Cassia obovata, a shrubby plant of
Egypt, now naturalised in Jamaica. Senna leaves fetch at present
from 4d. to 6d. per Ib. in London.
Thymol is prepared (by distillation) from the oil of Ajava or
Ajowan seeds, produced by Canun copticum, a small Umbelliferous
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
537
plant largely cultivated in parts of India. The oil is used medicin-
ally. The plant is not grown in Ceylon.
OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS
Name.
Natural Order, ctc
Principal Use.
Asclepias curassavica. Wild Asclcpifldcae\
Ipecacuanha a perennia
Brayera sp. " Koso "
Combretum Sundaicum.
Ipomoea Purga. Jalap
Pilocarpus jabcrandi.
Combrctaceae;
a large climber
Convolvulaccae;
climber or sprea-
ding shrub.
Rutaceae.
Rhamnus purshiana. [ Cascara
R. — Calif ornica. ) sagrada Rhamnaccac
Root a good substitute for
Ipecac, proper.
Dried H's used as a purga-
tive, also for tapeworm,
in East Africa, etc.
Antidote for opium habit.
^ Strong purgative.
Yields an alkaloid "pilo-
carpine," of value in
medicine.
Extract from dried bark:
well-known aperient.
OILS
Castor-oil ; Endaru-tel, vS. — This well-known oil is obtained
from the seed of Ricinus comiinuiis (Euphorbiaceae), a tall, quick-
growing annual with large palmate leaves. Besides its use in medi-
cine, castor-oil is largely employed for lubricating purposes, also in
soap manufacture, etc. Important bye-products are obtained after
the expression of the oil from the seed, viz., castor poonac, used as
cattle-food, and castor cake, a valuable manure. The castor-oil
plant has become naturalised in Ceylon, and often occurs as a weed
in cultivated ground in the moist low-country, up to about 3,000 ft.
It is cultivated commercially in India, Southern Europe, United
States, etc. The plant thrives in ordinary soil, but does best in
open friable, humous or alluvial soil. About 10 Ib. of seed is
sufficient to sow an acre ; the seed should be set in rows 5 by 6 ft.
apart, two to three seeds being sown in the same place a few
inches apart, and the seedlings afterwards thinned out to one in
each hole. The plants begin to bear in about four months from
the time of sowing, and the harvest should be completed two
months later. Under favourable conditions the yield should be
from 20 to 30 bushels of seed per acre; in the Southern United
States the yield is said to be about the same as that of wheat, varying,
like the latter, with the fertility of the soil. Good seed for oil
production is usually worth about 5s. per bushel or £12 per ton in
538 OILS
Europe. Enormous quantities of castor seed and poonac are im-
ported annually into India, Ceylon, Malaya, etc.
Gingelly-oil; "Til" or "Benni;" "Tala-tel," 5. (Sesaimini
indiciim. Pedaliaceae). — An annual plant, 2 to 3 ft. high, indigenous
to Ceylon, South India, and tropical Africa, extensively grown in
India on account of the small seeds, which are rich in oil.
Gingelly-oil, obtained from the seed by expression, resembles
almond-oil, and is used for blending with the latter. It is a good
table oil, being used throughout India and Ceylon in cooking and
medicine ; in England it is used chiefly in soap-making, but also for
mixing with olive-oil. In France it is said to be commonly used
for salads. The plant may be grown as a summer crop in a sub-
tropical climate, as Italy and the Southern United States. The
seed is sown broadcast after the land is ploughed, and the crop is
ripe in about four months' time. The plants being cut, they are
tied in bundles to dry, and the pods upon drying burst and dis-
perse the seeds. About 20 bushels of seed may be obtained from
an acre, which will yield about 63 gallons of oil. The residue,
known as gingelly poonac, forms an excellent food for cattle. It
is reported that in the Madras Presidency about a million acres is
usually cultivated with Gingelly. The plant is also occasionally
cultivated in Ceylon, more especially in the Northern Province.
Very large quantities of the oil and seed are imported into Ceylon
from India.
Oil Palm, African. (*Ela'is guincensis). — This important palm is
a native of West tropical Africa, where it forms one of the principal
commercial products of the country, and occurs over enormous
areas, both naturally and cultivated, more especially in Southern
Nigeria. The fruit supplies the Natives with a favourite article of
food, from the stem they extract an intoxicating drink, while with
the leaf-stalks and leaves they build and thatch their houses. The
fruit kernels, which are of the size of almonds, yield a valuable
commercial oil, and are largely exported on this account. The
present annual exports of oil and kernels from the Gold Coast are
valued at about £200,000. The oil-palm grows to 50 or 60 feet in
height, with a straight trunk, bearing a crown of large handsome
pinnate leaves. It has been successfully introduced into various
parts of the tropics, its introduction into Peradeniya Gardens
dating from 1850. Here it grows luxuriantly and bears fruit annu-
ally. It thrives best in a rather moist stiff soil, especially in
* See Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1909, Vol. VII, No. 4, and AV«' Kit etin, 1892.
MISCELLANEOUS ECOXOMIC PRODUCTS 539
sheltered valleys. In its native country it begins to bear fruit in
its fifth or sixth year, the produce increasing until its fifteenth year,
and continues fruitful for at least sixty years. A full-grown tree
is said to produce, on an average, from 6 to 12 bunches of fruit
every year, an average-sized bunch containing about 200 nuts.
The fruit has a fleshy fibrous outer layer, from which the ordinary
palm-oil of commerce is obtained. Distinct from this is the white-
oil, known as nut-or kernel-oil, obtained from the kernel. The
former is used chiefly in the manufacture of soap and candles, while
the kernel oil is used largely for making margarine or artificial
butter. The Natives extract the coarser oil by boiling the fruits in
earthenware pots, the kernel oil being generally expressed in
Europe by hydraulic presses ; the resulting cake affords a valuable
cattle food. A single tree may yield from 1 to 3 gallons of oil per
annum, the quantity varying according to rainfall and the character
of the soil. The price of palm-oil on the London market varies
from about £30 per ton, against £35 to £40 for Coconut oil f.o.b.
Colombo. The palm is propagated by seeds, which take 2 to
3 months to germinate.
Sun-flower Oil. (Helianthiis annuits. Compositae). — Sunflower-
oil is an important article of commerce, being obtained from the
seed of the familiar annual plant of the same name ; while the seed
is a nutritious food for cattle and poultry. The plant, originally a
native of Peru, grows 5 to 6 ft. or more in height, and thrives in
ordinary soil in any warm climate with sufficient moisture. In
Ceylon it flourishes at all elevations, more especially from 3,000 to
5,000 ft. It is extensively cultivated in Russia for its edible seed
as well as for its useful edible oil. The seed may be sown in rows
2j ft. apart, allowing about 1 ft. between the plants in the rows.
About 6 Ib. of seed is thus required to sow an acre ; a crop is ob-
tained in four months from the date of sowing, and a yield of
50 to 60 bushels of seed per acre is considered a good return. The
soil between the rows should be forked up or tilled occasionally in
the early stages of the crop. The method of harvesting is similar
to that of Maize, the heads being gathered and dried, then threshed
or rubbed out by hand over a rough grating. The seed is said to
be usually worth about £17 per ton for the purpose of extracting
the oil. A bushel of seed, on an average, is estimated to yield a
gallon of oil.
Shea Butter. (Biityrosperniuin Parkii Sapotaceae). — A medium-
sized tree with a stout trunk, bearing thick oval leaves, about 9 in.
540
OILS
long, 3 to 4 in. broad, and crowded at the tips of the branches.
The large fleshy "nuts" (seeds), of which each fruit contains only
one, yields a large percentage of stearine fat, which is suitable
for candle and soap manufacture. This has been valued by the
Imperial Institute at about £"27 per ton, i.e., approximately the
same as soft palm-oil (Elan's). The tree was introduced at Pera-
deniya Gardens in 1898.
OTHER IMPORTANT OIL-YIELDING PLANTS
OF THE TROPICS.
[ See also Standard and Minor Products of Ceylon ].
Those marked * are indigenous to or common in Ceylon.
Botanical & Common Name.
Natural Order & descriptive
notes.
Parts from
which extracted.
Principal uses.
*Aleurhes triloba. Candle-
Eitpliorbiacctic A tall
Fruit kernels
Varnishes, lac-
nut or Bankul oil
tree, naturalised in
quer, s o a p -
Ceylon
making, etc.
*Amoora Rohituka.
Mcliaceac. A moderate-
Seed
Lighting.
" Hingul." S.
sized tree of Ceylon,
India, etc.
*Anacardium occidentale.
Aii-ctcardiaccae.
Fruit
Antiseptic, etc.
Cashew-nut oil
A spreading tree
Arachis hypogaea.
Legit niiiiosne. A low
Seed
Culinary a;;d
Ground-nut oil
anmril
soap-m akin g.
See Trap i c u 1
Vegetables.
Argania sideroxylon.
Sapotiicctic. Medium-
Culinary.
Argan-oil
sized tree of Morocco
*Azadirachta indica.
Mcliaccae. A small
Medicine and
Margosa oil :
tree of Cevlon and
lighting.
"Kohamba-tel
India1
tBassia latifolia. Mahwa-oil
Sapotaccac. A large
Lighting, culi-
tree of Central India
nary, soap, etc
*B.— longifolia.
A large tree of the
»i ,
11 Mee-tel," S.
dry region Ceylon
*Brassica juncea.
Criicifereae. A small
Culinary, medi-
Mustard-oil annual
cine, etc.
*Calophyllum Inophyllum. ^Gnttifenie. Medium-
Medicine and
" Domba-tel," S.
sixed tree of Ceylon, etc.
lighting.
*Canarium zeylanicum.
Bni'scraceac. A large
Seed; gum-
Fumigation,
" Kekuna-tel," S.
tree, peculiar to low-
resin from
lighting, etc.
country of Ceylon
bark
*Cinnamomum zeylanicum. Laitraccnc. A large
Bark & roots
Medicine,
Cinnamon oil
treej
antiseptic. See
Spices.
*Cocos nucifera.
See Standard Pro-
Nut
Lighting, lubri-
Coconut oil
duct* of Ceylon
cating, culinary.
medicine.
1
[.S, ^Sinhalese ].
Samples of seeds have recently been valued at the Imperial Institute at £12, per ton.
MISCELLAXEOVS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
541
Kotan cal and Common Name.
Natural Order & descriptive ' Parts from
noles. 'which extracted.
Principal uses
*Cymbopogon citratus. Mel-
A perennial grass Leaves
Medicine and
issa-or Lemon-grass oil
perfumery.
*C. — nardus var. Citronella ;
..
Medicine, soap-
Citronella oil :
j
making, etc.
" Pangiri," S.
C. — muricatus. " Cus-cus "
Leaves and
Perfumery.
grass : Vetiver-oil
roots
Roots ma'de
into mats, or
ground into
p o w d e r a n d
used to keep
-j
awav moths.
C. — Schoenanthus.
.,
Leaves j Perfumery, etc.
Geranium-, Rusa-, or
Palmarosa-oil ;
Ginger-grass
*Dipterocarpus glandulosus.
Diptcrocarpcac. Tall
Kesin exuded
Medicine.
" Dorana-tel," S.
erect tree
from stem
* Eucalyptus globulus.
Myrtaccac A tall tree1
Leaves
Medicine, anti-
Blue-gum; Eucalyptus oil
of Australia
septic.
Eugenia caryophyllata.
Myrttict'iic. A small
Cloves Medicine, anti-
Clove-oil
erect tree
septic.
*Garcinia echinocarpa.
(iiittifernc. Small tree,
Seed Medicine.
" Madol-tel," S.
peculiar to Ceylon
*Gossypium vitifolivm, and
See under Fibres
Culinary.
other spp. Cotton-oil
Guizotia abyssinica.
Co ni post tn c. Small
,,
Culinary, medi-
Rantil or Niger-oil
annual, cult, in India
cine, etc.
Gynocardia odorata.
Bixaccac. Large tree
Bark & seed
Medicine.
Chaulmugra-oil
of Sikkim, etc.
*Isonandra grandis.
Siipotncciic. Medium-
Seed
Culinary, light-
" Mihiria-tel." S.
sized tree; Ceylon only
ing & medicine
Jatropha Curcas. Physic-
Enphorbiaccac. A
Burning, etc.
nut. Pulza-oil
well-known shrub
*Kokoona zeylanica.
Cclastraceae. Large
Lighting & rr edi-
Kokuna-oil
tree of Cey. & S. India
cine.
Melaleuca leucadendron.
Myrtaccac. Tall tree i Leaves and
Medicine, anti-
Cajuput-oil; "Tea Tree"
of Australia branches
septic.
Olea europea. Olive-oil Olcacctic. A small tree Fruit
See Sub-Tropical
I
Fruits.
Pogostemon Patchouli. Ltibintcai . A peren- Foliage
Perfumery and
Patchouly-oil
nial herb:
soap-making.
Quillaja saponaria.
Rosaccac. A small Bark-
Bark saponine.
Soaphark-oil tree of Chili
yields "vege-
table soap;" also
used in medi-
cine.
Santalum album. Siintalnci'tit'. Small
Wood Perfumery, anti-
Sandal wood-oil tree of Cent. India
septic: whole
tree fragrant.
Sapindus saponaria. -Sapiudacctic. Small
Covering of Saponaceous
Soap-berry oil tree of Jamaica
seed seed.
*Schleichera trijuga. \Sapi luliuctu '. Large
Seeds Medicine, etc.
" Kon-tel." S. tree of Cey., Ind. & Java
Macassar-oil
[.S.=Sinhalese].
542 FIBRES
FIBRES.
Bowstring Hemp; Niyanda, S. (Sansevieria zeylanica.
Hoemadoraceae). — A herbaceous stemless plant, with succulent,
.rigid, somewhat cylindrical, furrowed leaves, blotched with grey
and attaining a height of 2\ to 3i feet. From these a fine white
tough and elastic fibre is obtained, which is used by the Natives
for weaving into fine mats, also for bow-strings and twine. The
plant is indigenous to Ceylon, India, etc., being found in rocky or
sandy places, chierly in rather dry districts at low or intermediate
elevations. It thrives, however, in a moist climate up to 2,000
feet or more. The plant is readily propagated by seed, division,
or leaf -cuttings, the latter being the more convenient. It may be
planted in rows about 2 feet apart each way, say, 10,500 plants to
the acre, and the return of fibre is estimated at \\ tons per acre
per annum, the fibre being usually worth in London about
£30 per ton.
Broom corn, or Millet corn; " I d a 1 - i r i n g u " 5. (Sorghum
viilgarc. Gramineae). — A tall annual corn, cultivated throughout
the tropics for its grain (see Vegetables and Food Products), while
its panicles (inflorescence) are largely employed for making carpet
brooms and cloth brushes. There is a good demand for the
*' fibre," which ranges in price from about £20 to £30 per
ton or more according to quality. The cleaned fibre should be
not less than 14 in. in length, and must not be coarse, stiff, or brittle;
the colour should be pale with a green tint. An average crop is
said to yield from 7 to 10 cwt. of clean fibre and from 10 to 12 cwt.
of seed per acre. Sowing is done at the rate of about 6 Ib. of seed
per acre, the seeds being sown in rows 3 ft. apart; a crop should
be obtained in about 5 months.
Jute, or Gunny-fibre. — This valuable fibre is obtained from
the stems of species of Corckorus (N. O. Tiliaceae), chierly
C. capsularis and C. olitorius, annual plants with long thin stems and
yellow flowers, attaining a height of 8 to 12 feet, indigenous to
Ceylon, India and Malaya. The cultivation and manufacture of
jute forms a large industry in Bengal, where about two million
acres are yearly under the product. The fibre is separated by
retting the stems in water, and is extensively used for making
cordage, coarse cloth, fishing nets, gunny bags, etc. A hot moist
climate, followed by a dry season, suits the plant best. The crop
is raised either from seed sown broadcast in the field, or from
plants raised in nurseries and transplanted out into rows. Harvesting
MISCELLANEOUS ECOXOMIC PRODUCTS
543
takes place three months later, when the plants commence to
flower. The Jute plants are indigenous to Ceylon, occurring at low
elevations but are not cultivated here. Jute fibre is usually quoted
in London at about £25 per ton.
Manila Hemp; Abaca Fibre. (Mnsa text His, Scitamineae).—
A large herbaceous plant or small tree of the Banana family,
indigenous to the Philippines, where it is extensively cultivated
for its excellent and well-known nbre. The plant requires a hot
and humid climate, with a heavy and evenlv distributed
MAURITIUS HEMP. Ftircraca gigtintcn.
rainfall, and its habit of growth and treatment under cultivation are
similar to those of the Plantain or Banana. Hemp plantations in
the Philippines are confined chiefly to areas of volcanic soil
and possessing the climatic conditions mentioned, as in the
eastern side of the Islands. Propagation is entirely by suckers
(fertile seeds being rarely produced), which are planted out
when about 3 feet high, at distances of 8 feet apart each way.
These produce numerous stems (suckers), forming a clump. The
first crop is obtained two years from planting, and a full crop in
the fourth year, the plantation continuing to yield for fifteen or
544 FIBRES
twenty years. To obtain the fibre, the soft watery stems (formed
by the leaf bases) are cut down just before they begin to flower
(i.e., when they are best for fibre), about a foot from the ground
being then stripped into ribbons; the latter are drawn repeatedly
by hand between a blunt knife1 and a hard smooth board, the
fibre being then dried in the~sun. The inner portion of the stem
yields the finest quality of fibre. The > usual return is said to be
NEW ZEALAND HEMP. PlwrUlilllll teililX.
from 600 to 850 Ib. of dry fibre per acre from the fourth year,
or roughly 1 Ib. per tree. With good cultivation the yield could,
however, be increased to about 1,700 Ib. per acre. The price of
the fibre fluctuates somewhat from £25 to £35 per ton in London.
Mauritius Hemp; Green Aloe. (Purer aea giganten. Ama-
ryllideae). — A large succulent stemless perennial, indigenous to
Tropical America, bearing immense succulent leaves, 5 to 8 feet
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 545
or more in length. It has been introduced into Ceylon before
1824, and has become naturalised along the railway-line up-country,
where it was first planted to form a boundary. It has become
equally common in parts of India, where, however, as in Ceylon,
no commercial use is made of the fibre. The yield of the latter
is said to be only about 2 % to 3 % as against 3 to 4i % in Sisal
Hemp. The plant is similar in appearance, as well as in cultural
requirements, to the latter, but is distinguished from it by the
leaves being spiny along the margins towards the base.
New Zealand Flax. (Phonninin tcnax. Liliaceae). — A hand-
some perennial bushy, stemless plant of New Zealand, having long
sword-shaped leaves, which are either green or margined and
streaked with white; the latter form is of an ornamental appear-
ance and often grown for ornament. The leaves, rising from the
base, measure from 5 to 7 feet in length, and give upwards of 15 #
of their green weight in cleaned fibre; the latter is of a silky lustre,
nearly white in colour, '"with a breaking strain higher than that
of hemp or flax;" it is used for ropes, binder twine, and cordage.
It is estimated that an annual yield of 12 to 15 tons of green
leaves per acre may be obtained, furnishing from li to 2 tons of
clean fibre, which is said to be worth from £20 to £25 per ton.
The plant grows freely at the higher elevations in the tropics,
and has become quite acclimatized at Hakgala Gardens and
neighbourhood; it is readily propagated by division of the root-
stock or from seed.
Panama-hat Plant; Toquilla "Palm." (Carlttdovcia pahuata.
Cyclanthaceae). — A stemless palm-like plant with large palmate
leaves, similar to those of a fan-palm, with stalks 5 to 6 ft. long,
groxving naturally in clumps. The flowers, followed by the seed,
are produced in cones borne on stalks rising from the base, from
1 ft. to li ft. high. It is a native of Tropical America, and is ex-
tensively cultivated in parts of Eucador, Colombia, etc., for the
sake of the leaves from which the well-known Panama hats are
made. The plant is fully developed at about two to three years
old, and the same clump lives for many years in the same ground.
The young leaves are taken every month just as they begin to
unfold, the stalk being cut some distance below the leaf to facilitate
handling. Each leaf is torn into plaits about 3 inch wide (the outer
plaits being rejected), and finally into shreds by means of an in-
strument consisting of a piece of wood in which needles are pro-
perly arranged. These shreds, constituting the "straw," are then
546 FIBRES
submerged in boiling water for some time, being afterwards
bleached by sulphuring, then dried first in the shade and sub-
sequently in the sun. At the present time the "straw" sells in
its native country at from ^ to f of a dollar (say, 2s. to 2s. 9d.) per
Ib , the price having advanced considerably in recent years owing
to the increased popularity of Panama hats in Europe. Some of
the higher grade hats, being valued for fineness of fibre and ex-
cellent workmanship, commands as high as £5 each, some even
fetching much higher prices. The Carludovica plant has been
introduced into Peradeniya Gardens in 1866. It grows luxuriantly
in a moderately moist, loose loamy soil, and prefers light shade,
but the latter is not essential. A hot humid climate is indispens-
able.
Jippi-jappa Hats, which are similar to the Panama article,
are made from the leaves of Carludovica Jnuiaicensis, a plant which
closely resembles the preceding species.
Piassava Fibre or African Bass. — The fibre obtained by
retting, and then beating, from the stems of the fronds of Raphia
vinifera forms a valuable product in Liberia and other parts of
W. tropical Africa, where the palm is indigenous. The fibre, which
is used chiefly in making brushes, brooms, sweeping machines, etc.,
is usually valued at about £18 to £20 per ton in England.
Over 3,000 tons are exported annually from Liberia alone.
Ramie; Rhea-fibre or China-Grass. (Boehmeria nivea. Urti-
caceae). — A perennial shrub of the Nettle family, 5 to 6 ft. high,
with large heart-shaped leaves which are greyish-white beneath,
indigenous to tropical and sub-tropical Asia. From the inner
bark of the stems is obtained the rhea fibre of commerce, one of
the most valuable of textile fibres; it is pure white, of a silky
lustre, and is used in the manufacture of the finest linen, in-
candescent gas mantles, etc. The plant is easily grown, thrives
best in a loamy, alluvial or humous soil up to 2,000 or 3,000 ft.,
and requires either a moist climate or irrigated land. No shade
is necessary once the plants are established. These are readily
propagated by division of the root-stock or by cuttings; they may
also be raised from seed, which is very small. The soil being dug
or ploughed to a depth of 7 or 8 inches, the plants may be
planted about 2 by 3^ ft. apart, in rows. A small crop of stems may
be obtained in eight to ten months from the time of planting, and
afterwards a yield of 3 or 4 cuttings a year. The production of straight
clean unbranching stems is essential, as these furnish the best fibre.
MISCELLANEOUS ECOXOM1C PRODUCTS
547
About 30 tons of stems is an estimated annual yield per acre. One
ton of stems produces about 1501b. of prepared fibre, which is usually
valued at £-25 to £30 per ton in Europe, according to quality.
The difficulty of obtaining suitable machinery for degumming and
decorticating the fibre has long been an obstacle to the industry,
but this is said to be now almost overcome. It is stated that a
good field will not require replanting for five to six years, the plants
being kept within proper limits by chopping the sides of the rows
occasionally. The crop is an exhausting one; therefore manuring
is essential, and all refuse and mulch should be returned to the soil.
Sisal Hemp interplanted with Cotton, Maha-illuppallama Experiment
Station, Ceylon.
VARIETIES. — B. uivea, var tcnacissitna has smaller leaves (green under-
neath), and is suited to higher elevations than the above. B. pnlchra has large
handsome dark velvety-looking leaves, and is worth growing for ornament.
Sisal Hemp. (Agave rigida, var. Sisalana. Amaryllideae) —
A perennial stemless plant of the Amaryllis order, indigenous to
Mexico and introduced into Ceylon in 1890. The plant
furnishes a valuable fibre, known as Sisal-hemp, from its
leaves ; is extensively cultivated in parts of South America,
Hawaii, German East Africa and, to a smaller extent, in parts
548
FIBRES
of India and elsewhere. It bears long, thick, succulent leaves,
4 to 6 ft. long, usually smooth-edged and with a terminal spine.
The plant flowers at about its seventh or eighth year ; in order
to preserve the quality of the fibre, the pole or flowering scape
should be cut at 4 ft. from the ground, all suckers being also
removed. Each pole if allowed to grow will bear from 2,000
to 3,000 bulbils. The plant is suited to a dry or wet climate,
and is considered to thrive best on a limestone formation. It
flourishes, however, on almost any soil that is well drained, as
may be seen from its progress in Peradeniya Gardens. Propagation
f
SISAL HEMP IX FIJI.
is by bulbils (produced by the flowering pole) or suckers, and
on average soils the plants may be planted out at about
8 by 8 ft. apart. The first cutting of leaves takes place in the
third or fourth year from planting ; under favourable conditions
this will average from 20 to 22 mature leaves per plant a year,,
yielding from 3 to 4^ per cent, clean fibre. Subsequent cuttings
may be made at intervals of about six months, until an average
of about 160 to 180 leaves in all have been obtained from each
plant ; this will occupy a period of about eight years from the
time of planting, and is estimated to afford a total crop of about
10i Ib. of prepared ribre per plant, or about 7,000 Ib. per acre.
MISCELLANEOUS ECOXOMIC PRODUCTS
549-
The yield, however, is variously estimated. SIK DANIEL MORRIS'
estimate is 60 Ib. of fibre from 1,000 leaves, thirty-three leaves
per plant, 650 plants to the acre ; total yield, 1,200 Ib. fibre per
acre per annum. It has been found in Java that a return which
falls below 650 Ib. per acre is not remunerative under cultivation.
SACK OK BARK-CLOTH TREE. AntitlriS illHOXUl.
Showing (left) suit of bark cloth and (right side) sheet of same.
The price of the fibre Huctuates from about £-25 to £-30 per
ton, according to quality.
Sunn (or San) Hemp; " Hana," S. (Crotalaria jiincen.
Leguminosae), — An erect annual, 4 to 5 ft. high, with bright
yellow Howers, indigenous to tropical Asia generally and
commonly occurring in the dry region of Ceylon. It is cultivated
practically all over India, and to a small extent also in the
550 FIBRES
north or north-western districts of Ceylon, for the sake of the
strong and useful fibre obtained from the stems by retting.
It is also sometimes cultivated as a green fodder plant for cattle,
as well as for green-manuring. In cultivation, seeds are sown
thickly, either broadcast or in drills — generally broadcast if for fibre;
the quantity of seed sown per acre varies greatly, from 12 to 80 Ib.
per acre. The plant is invariably grown as a catch-crop, not
mixed with other products. In India the crop is sown with the
beginning of the rains, and occupies the ground usually for four or
five years, being cut when the plants blossom. In harvesting,
the plants are usually pulled up by the roots, though sometimes
cut close to the ground, and left on the field for a few days
to wither ; they are then stripped of the leaves and tied in
bundles of about a hundred stalks. The bundles are dried
for two or three weeks, then placed in pools (preferably of
still shallow water) and weighted down with stones or wood
logs ; they are thus left for five or six days to ret. The fibre
is afterwards stripped off, washed, bleached, and plaited into
tails. A good average yield is considered to afford about 640 Ib.
(or 80 maunds) of clean fibre per acre. The price of the fibre
varies greatly in India according to quality, from about Rs. 1 1 to
Rs. 18 per cwt. The best grade is said to come from Bombay,
and is about 4 ft. long. In London the fibre is said to be
worth about £16 per ton. The chief use of the fibre in India
is for making coarse canvas, cordage, and fishing nets. With
cultivation, the plant may be grown on almost any soil, but a
light rich soil is considered to suit it best, a clayey or inundated
land being the least suitable.
OTHER IMPORTANT FIBRE AND TEXTILE
PLANTS OF THE TROPICS.
[See also Chapters XXII & XXII I].
Those marked * are common or indigenous in Ceylon.
Bo-anica. or Common Name. Natural Order in Italics.
Purpose for which
principally used.
Abroma augusta \Sterculiaccae. Perennial
shrub of Ind. & Java
*Allaeanthus zeylanicus. \Urticaceae. A spreading
Cordage.
Ropes, etc.
"Alandu" S. tree, peculiar to Ceylon
*Ananas sativum. Pineapple fibre Bromeliacciic. See Tropi- Textile fabrics.
cal Prints
[.S.=-Sinhaltse]
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
551
Botanical and Common Name.
Descriptive notes.
Natural Order in Italics.
Purpose for which
principally used.
* Anodendron paniculatum.
.-1 pocynaceae. H uge
Ropes.
"Gerandi-dul," S
climber of Cey.. Ind.,
and Malaya
Anona reticulata.
Anonaceae. Small tree
Fine lace-like
Bullock's heart ; "Anoda." S
of Trop. America
fibre; wrappers, etc.
" Antiaris innoxia
Urticaceae. Large tree
Bark-cloth.
"Rid": Sack Tree
of Ceylon it Moluccas
Arenga saccharifera.
Large palm of Malaya
Ropes, brushes, etc.
Gomuti-fibre ; Sugar Palm
Asclepias curassavica.
Asctepiadeae. V\'est
Cordage.
Ja naica Ipecacuanha
Indian shrub.
Attalea funifera. Coquilla Nut;
Handsome Brazilian palm
Bass brooms, etc.
Piassaba, or Dass-fibre
Bauhinia racemosa. "Mavila," S
Leguminasae. Small
Ropes and cordage.
tree; Cey., Ind., Malaya
Borassus flabellifer.
Palmae. See "Minor
Brooms, ropes, etc.
Palmyra-fibre
Products of Cey."
Broussonetia papyrifera.
Urticaceae. Quick-
Tapa cloth, etc.
Paper Mulberry
growing tree of Burma
and China
*Calotropis gigantea. "Wara," S.
Asclcpiadcae, Common
Ropes and cordage.
"Mac'ar-fibre.'
shrub of Cey., India
and Malaya
Cannabis saliva. Indian Hemp ;
Urticaceae. Annual
Paper, textiles, etc. ;
Ganja. or Bhang
shrub of Central A>ia
also an important
narcotic drug.
*Caryota urens. "Kittil." S.
Handsome bi-pinnate
Brushes & brooms.
palm; Coy., Bengal, etc.
*Cocos nucifera. Coconut Palm.
See "Standard products
Ropes, brooms, etc.
of Ceylon."
Cryptostegia grandiflora.
Asclcpiadeac. Woody
,.
climber of India and
Trop. Africa
*Debregeasia velutina.
Urticaceae • Small tree
"Gas-dul,"S; " Wild Khea."
of Cey., India & Java
*Grewia microcos. ' Keliya." S.
Tiliaceae. Shrub; Cey..
Ropes.
India & Malaya
'Gyrinops Walla.
Thymelacaccac. A small
Ropes ai.d cordage.
'• Walla-patta," S.
tree, peculiar to Ceylon
*Helictere$ Isora. "Liniva," S.
Stcrculiaceae. Shrub of
Cordage.
Cey.. Ind. & Java
Hibiscus cannabinus.
Malvaceae. Shrub with
Fishing nets, paper.
Deccan or Bombay Hemp.
prickly stem; India
etc. ; largely culti-
vated in Java.
H. — elatus. Cuba-bast ;
Malvaceae. Small bushv
Cordage and mats
Mountain Mahoe.
tree of West Indies
H.— tiliaceu*. "Beli-patta," S.
\Ialvaccae. Large shrub.
Honckenya ficifolia. "Bolo-bolo."
Tiliaceae. Annual shrub
Cordage and mats ;
of trop. Africa
i r o n z e-c o 1 o u r e d
eaves, ornamental.
Lagetta lintearia.
Thymelaeaceae - Small
^ace-like inner fibre
Lace-bark Tree.
tree of West Indies
*Lasiosiphon eriocephalus.
riiymclaeaccae. A bushy
<opes. etc.
"Xaha," S.
shrub.
[S.-=Sinhalese]
552
FIBRES
Botanical and Common Name.
Descriptive notes.
Natural Order in Italics.
Purpose for which
principally used.
*Musa sapientum.
Plantain or banana
Pandanus utilis.
Raphia Ruffia. Raffia-bast.
Sansevieria guineensis.
Konje Hemp,
S. — Roxburghiana.
Murva or Moorva fibre
*Sesbania aculeata.
"Dhaincha'
*Sida rhombifolia.
"Kotikan-bevila," S
*Sterculia Balanghas. "Xava," S
Trachycarpus excelsus
"Chinese-coir or Hemp-palm.'
*Triumfetta rhomV»oidea.
"Epala," S,
*Urena lobata. "Patu-epala," S
*Villebrunea integrifolia.
Seitaniiiieac. See Fruit
Trees
Paiuiaueae. Screw -
pine; Madagascar
Large feathery palm.
Ropes.
Baskets, mats, etc.
Mats, tying material ;
of Madagascar thin cuticle of leaf.
, \ Haemodoraceae.
I Herbaceous perennials,
i I like Bow-string hemp
\) of Ceylon
Legniniiiosae. Semi-
woody annual; Ceylon,
Tropics
\Malvaceac. Shrubby
perennial. Tropics]
Fine mats, etc.
Mats, etc.
Mats and cordage.
Ropes, etc.
Sterculiaccae. A tree of
Cey., India and Malaya!
Palmae. A small palm ! Brushes & cordage,
of China'
Tiliaeeae. Shrubby iCordage, cloth, etc.
perennial. Tropics!
Malvaceae. Shrubby (Textiles & cordage.
perennial. Ceylon, etc. '
llriicaceac. A small up- ! Ropes, mats, etc.
country tree of Ceylon
and E. Tropics
PITH PLANTS, OLA, ETC.
Botanical and Common Name.
Descriptive notes.
Natural Order in Italics.
Purpose for which
principally used.
*Aeschynomene aspera. Shola ;
Legniniiiosae. A marsh
Floats for fishing.
"Maha-diya-siyambala," S.
shrub of Cey., Ind.,
Malaya, etc.
*Corypha umbraculifera.
See under Palms
Umbrellas, f a n s ,
"Tala-gas," S. Talipot Palm.
tents, &c. Young
leaves used as ola
for writing on.
Fatsia (Aralia) papyrifera.
Araliaeeae. Shrub,
Large palmate
Rice-paper Plant of China
8 to 1 0 ft.
leaves; naturalised
in some places up-
country.
Herminiera elaphroxylon.
LeRiifttinosac. Small
Sun-hats. &c.
Nile pith-tree.
aquatic tree of Trop.
Africa
*Scaevola Koenigii.
Goodenoviaceae. Large
Sun-hats, floats, etc.
"Takkada," S.
bush of Cey. &
E. Tropics
S.— Sinhalese].
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 553
TANS
Divi-divi Pods; " Vanni," T. — The fruit of Caesalpinia
con'ara (Leguminosae), a moderate-sized spreading tree with
finely pinnate leaves and sweet-scented flowers, native of Central
America and the West Indies. The tree has been introduced
into Ceylon, and thrives up to 2,000 feet, in moist as well as
in moderately dry districts, being especially suited to the latter.
In the Trincomalee district, with an annual rainfall of about
63 inches, the tree has been planted some years ago as a commer-
cial product, and its growth is reported to be satisfactory . Divi-divi
is cultivated in certain parts of South America, more especially
in the Island of Curasao. Seeds are best sown in baskets ;
the seedlings should be ready for planting out about rive months
after germination, and may be planted at distances of about
16 ft. apart each way. In course of time it may become necessary
to thin the trees out further, an average space of 26 ft. apart each way
being finally allowed, or say 64 trees to the acre. The small
twisted pods are picked when fully ripe, the proper condition
being indicated when the seed can be heard to rattle in the
pods. The best are exported as first quality, all fallen pods being
classed as second quality. The yield per tree may be from 40 Ib. to
80 Ib. annually, only one crop a year being produced. Divi-divi
pods are a valuable tanning material, and are largely exported from
South America, and to some extent from the West Indies. They
are usually valued in England at from £9 to £11 per ton.
Gambler; Terra Japonica. (Uncaria Gambler. Rubiaceae).
— A large climbing shrub, native of Malaya, where it is sometimes
cultivated as a catch-crop with Pepper. An astringent extract,
called "cutch," and used by tanners and dyers, is obtained by boil-
ing down the leaves and shoots; it is exported and commands about
37s. per cwt. in London. Cutch is commonly used in Malaya as
a chewing mastic, and commands an average price of about 6 dollars
per picul. The Gambier plant has been introduced into Ceylon in
1887, and flourishes in the moist heat of Heneratgoda Gardens,
near sea level. It is probably unsuited for cultivation above
1,000 feet elevation.
Wattle Bark. — The bark of several species of Acacia are
described as "the best of Australian tan barks, and among the rich-
est tanning barks in the world." The more important of these are:
Black or Tan-wattle (Acacia decurreiis var. uiollissima), Silver-wattle
(A. dealbata\ (Blackwood or green-wattle (A. MelanoAylon), and
554 TAXS
Golden or Broad-leaved wattle (A. pycnantha). All these and
other wattles or Acacias have been introduced into Ceylon and
established at elevations of 4,000 to 6,000 feet. A few years
ago Mr. KELLOW, of Albion Estate (elevation about 4,500 ft.),
disposed of a large quantity of the bark of Acacia decurrens
for use by tanners in Colombo, at about Rs. 140 (£ 9. 5.) per ton.
Wattles are also cultivated in India, South Africa, etc. Of Black-
wattle bark large quantities have of late years been exported from
Durban. Apart from the bark, most of the wattles afford excellent
timber. The small compressed seed is extremely hard, and should
be soaked in almost boiling water for at least twenty-four hours
previous to sowing. A pound contains from 30,000 to 50,000 seeds.
Seedlings are best raised in baskets or joints of bamboo or reed ;
the tall grass Arundo Donax affords useful reeds for this purpose.
The cultivation of Wattle-barks is very simple. They thrive in
almost any barren soil, provided there is sufficient depth for the
initial roots to penetrate. The plants should be planted about
12 to 15 feet apart. The bark may be profitably peeled from trees
six to eight years old, and an average yield of 28 Ib. per tree may be
expected at this age. Full-grown trees supply the best quality, and
yield as much as one cwt. of bark, very large trees giving even
more. In Australia, the cost of stripping the bark now varies from
£2 to £2. 5s. per ton. To obtain the bark, the trees are cut down
and stripped at once. Wattle-bark has in recent years dropped in
price and fetches at present from £6 to jG8 per ton, according to
quality.
OTHER IMPORTANT TANNING PLANTS.
Botanical and Common Xame Native Country, etc. ' Parts
Acacia Catechu. Cutch; Catechu.
Areca Catechu. Arecanut ;
" Puwak," S.
Careya arborea. Patana Oak :
44 Kahata," S.
Cassia auriculata " Ranawara," S.
Matara Tea.
N. India, Burma, etc. (Heart-wood and
A small tree. pods.
Malaya. An erect, slender Seeds. See Minor
pa 1m. Prod . of Ceylon .
Ceylon, India, etc. Bark astringent ;
A small tree. much used for
tanning
Ceylon, and India. A quick Bark largely used
growing large shrub. by tanners in
Colombo.
Diospyros Embryopttris. Ceylon, India, and Malaya. Unripe fruits astrin-
"Timbit i." S. Medium-si/.ed tree. #ent, commonly
used for tanning
fishing nets
[S.=Sinhalese]
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
555
Botanical and Common Name.
Mimusops hexandra. " Pallu." 5.
Phyllanthus Emblica. " Xelli." S
Rhizophora mucronata | Man-
"Kadol." S : "Randal." T. - grove
Ceriops Candolleana. J harks
Rumex hymenocepalus. "Canaigre"
Terminalia belerica " Myrobolan;
Bulu," S
T.-Chebula, "Aralu,"S.
Native Country, etc.
Parts from which tannin
is obtained.
Ceylon and India. Moder- Bark.
ate-sixed tree.'
. Ceylon. India, Java, etc. ! Fruits.
Small shrub or tree.
Ceylon and Eastern Tro-j
ipics. Moderate-sixed sprea-
ding trees, inhabiting
lagoons j
'Mexico. A tuberous Tuberous roots.
perennial.!
Ceylon, India, Malaya. A Fruits.
\ery large tree.
Ceylon, India. Malaya. A
moderate-sixed tree.
. extracts
" an ng
and dvei -
VEGETABLE-WAX, GUMS, RESINS, ETC.
Candcllila Wax — This vegetable wax is obtained from Eu-
phorbia aniisiphyllitica (N. O. Euphorbiacese), a small plant,
native of Mexico, which produces a considerable quantity of the
wax in a thin coating over all parts of the stems and branches.
In America the wax is classed with bees-wax in quality; having a
high melting point, it is claimed to be superior to Carnauba palm
wax, and is said to be in good demand in London, The wax is
obtained from plants growing wild in Mexico in arid regions, those
in moist districts furnishing little or none; it is extracted by a simple
process of boiling, by which a yield of about Z% to 4% of wax
(of about 90 % purity) is obtained. Candellila wax is used at
present in the manufacture of shoe polishes, floor waxes, varnishes,
carbon papers, gramophone records and for electrical insulation.
etc. It sells for about Is. per pound delivered in Europe. The
Candellila plant (signifying ''little candle") is easily propagated by
cuttings. The name is also applied to Pcdilanthns Pavonis, another
Euphorbiaceous shrub of North Mexico, 2\ to 4 ft. in height.
Carnauba Wax. — A product of the Brazilian Wax-palm (Co-
pernicia ccrifcra), a moderately-large, handsome palm, 30 to 40 ft.
high, found in abundance in the forests of Brazil. On the under-
side of the leaves is deposited a thin layer of wax, which is col-
lected either by gathering the leaves and exposing them in a dry
place to wither, when the wax cracks and peels off in flakes, or
by scraping the wax from the leaves, it being afterwards melted
and poured into moulds. Another mode of collecting is by
556 GUMS, RESINS, ETC.
cutting the leaves into pieces and boiling them in water, when the
liquid wax rises to the surface, and is skimmed off. The leaves
-arc cut twice a month, in the dry season, and about six to eight
leaves are obtained yearly from one palm. It is said that it takes
3,500 leaves to yield 34 Ib. of wax. The collection of the latter is an
important industry in Brazil, where the annual export of the article
is said to amount to about 2,000 tons, valued at £200,000.
Carnauba-wax is an article of high commercial value. It has been
used during many years past for the manufacture of fine-quality
candles, also as a basis for boot-polish. Recently it has been found
to be the most suitable substance for the manufacture of phono-
graph and gramophone records, and the additional demand thus
created has had the effect of materially increasing the value of
the wax, which at present is quoted in London at 100s. to 110s. per
c\vt. The value of the wax is dependent upon three factors
viz., tint, texture, and richness in oil. For trade purposes it is graded
into three qualities; the best quality is of uniform pale-cream tint,
smooth and homogeneous in texture and rich in oil, the inferior
grades being darker and less uniform in colour, somewhat porous
in texture and less rich in oil.
Wax-palm of New Greneda. (Ceroxylon andicola). — This
differs from the preceding tree, in that the wax is deposited on
the trunk and not on the leaves. The palm is also suited to a
higher elevation and cooler climate than the Brazilian species ; it
thrives in a sheltered spot in Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, where it
has been introduced about 25 years ago. It grows to about 30 ft.
in height, and the trunk is usually distended half way up. The
wax, which is deposited between the leaf-scars on the trunk, often
so thick than it can be removed in flakes, forms an article of trade
in New Greneda, and is used for making candles. The average
yield per tree is said to be about 25 Ib.
Vegetable (or Chinese) Tallow. — A product of Stipinni sebi-
t'eruin (Euphorbiaceae), a small tree, 25 to 30 feet high, native of
China and Japan. The fatty matter obtained from the layer
surrounding the seed is used in China in place of animal tallow for
the manufacture of candles and soap, also in cloth-dressing. A
brownish yellow oil is obtained from the seed kernels, which is
used as a burning-oil, and also in the preparation of varnishes, on
account of its dyeing properties. A mixture of the oil and fat is
stated to be a good substitute for lard used for industrial purposes.
Vegetable-tallow is exported from China to Europe, etc., in hard
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
557
white cakes, weighing about ^ cwt. each. The tree is said to he
cultivated on a large scale in China. It has been introduced into
Ceylon before 1824, and grows freely at elevations over 4,000 feet.
It has become naturalised at Hakgala Gardens, where it seeds
abundantly.
Ivory-nut Palm, or Corozo-nut (Phytelephas ttiacrocafpa). A
slow-growing palm, with handsome pinnate erect leaves, 10 to
IVORY-NTT HALM (.MALE), SHOWING INFLORESCENCE.
15 feet long, indigenous to Central America. It has been intro-
duced at Peradeniya Gardens in 1850, and has Howered and fruited
here at irregular intervals during the last 15 years. For many years
stemless, the palm forms in time a short prostrate stem. It is
dioecious (male and female flowers being borne on different plants),
so that it is necessary to have a plant of both sexes in order to
558
GUMS, RESIXS, ETC.
obtain fertile seed. The large whitish seeds (contained in large
round clusters of spiky fruits, produced at the base of the palm)
become very hard as they ripen, and are known as "vegetable
ivory." They are in demand for making superior buttons, articles
of ornaments, etc., and are said to command at present about
34s. per cwt. The source of supply is confined to Central America,
and the annual average production is about 48 million pounds, all
of which is exported.
IVORY-NUT PALM (FEMALE), A. — FRUIT CLUSTER.
Other palm seeds are also used to some extent as vegetable
ivory, as the Raphia vinifera of West Africa and the Coquilla-nuts
(Altalea funifera) of Brazil. The seeds of the Talipot Palm
(Corypha umbraculifera) are commonly worked into buttons and
articles of ornament in Ceylon.
Chicle Gum, or Zapote Chico. — The milky juice of the tree
Achras Sapota or "Sapodilla" (N. O. Sapotaceae), obtained from
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
559
incisions made in the bark. At first the latex is white, but it
rapidly becomes yellow and coagulates on exposure to the air.
This forms the basis of the chewing gum of commerce, so largely
used in America, being scented and flavoured with mint, vanilla
and other ingredients. The production of chicle gum in Mexico
is said to be a prosperous, though a small, industry ; the amount
yearly exported, chiefly to the United States, being about 2,200
tons. The article is also exported from British Honduras. See
under Tropical Fruits.
(H'MS.
OTHER SOURCES OF
RESINS, VEGETABLE-WAX, GAMBOGE, ETC.
Botanical and Common Name.
Native country, etc.
Nature of product and how
obtained.
Acacia arabica. Gum-arabic
N. India. Arabia &
Gum exudes from bran-
Soudan. Small tree.
ches, sometimes assisted
by incisions.
Canarium strictum. Black Dam-
India. A large tree
Resin obtained by incising
mar
and firing base of tree.
C. — zeylanicum. " Kekuna, ' S.
Ceylon only. A large
A fragrant gum-resin
tree; low-country.
exudes from base of
trunk.
Copaifera Landorfh'i. Balsam of
Brazil. A large tree
Balsam or gum-resin
Copaiba.
obtained from a stem.
Doona zeylanica. " Dun," S.
Ceylon. A tall tree.
A fragrant gum-resin
exudes from base of
trunk.
Garcinia morella. Gamboge ; Cevlon, India, etc.,
Yellow gum or gamboge.
" Gokatu," S.
A small tree.
exudes from stem.
Guaiacum offinale. Lignum Vitae.
Trop. America. A
A green resin is obtained
small very slow-
from incisions in trunk
growing tree
or by heating portions
of the wood.
Hymenaea verrucosa. Copal resin
Madagascar. A tree
Resin obtained from baik
40 ft. high.
incisions.
Liquidambar orientalis. Liquid
Asia Minor ; tree
Resin obtained from
Storax.
40 ft. high
inner bark by boiling in
water.
Myroxylon Pereirae. Balsam of
Trop. America ;
Exudation of gum resin
Peru
large tree.
from base of tree.
Odina Woodier. " Hik," S.
Ceylon, India, Java,
Gum obtained from stem.
etc. Small tree.
Pistacia Terebinthus. Turpentine
Asia Minor, Medi-
^ Oleo-resin obtained bv
Tree.
terranean. Smalll}- incisions in bark
P. — Lentiscus. Mastic.
tree.
J
Ptcrocarpus marsupium. "Gam-
Ceylon & S. India,
Gum-resin exudes from
malu," S. " Kino."
A tree 50 ft. high.
bark.
Raphia ruffia. Raffia Palm.
Madagascar. A
Wax obtained by beating
palm with large
dried leaves on mats.
feathery leaves.
Rhus succedana. Japan wax.
China, Japan, etc.
Wax deposits on fruits
A small tree.
obtained by boiling.
[S.=Sinhalese].
560
DYE PLANTS
Botanical and Common Name.
Native Country, etc.
Xaturt
Vatica Roxburghiana.
Ceylon and S. India
\
" Mendora," S.
A tree 50 ft. high
Valeria acumina'a. " Hal," S.
Ceylon only ; large
1 .
A clei
handsome tree.
?•
V. — indica. Indian copal or
S. India. A moder-
White dammar.
ate sized tree.
;
Nature of Product and how
obtained.
exudes abundantly
from the stem.
IMPORTANT DYE PLANTS
Annatto. — See Minor Product* oj Ceylon.
Henna; Tree-Mignonette; Marithondi, T. (Lawsonia alba.
Lythraceae). A deciduous much-branched shrub, indigenous to
Western India, Persia, etc., and to the dry region of Ceylon ; com-
monly cultivated throughout Egypt, Persia, India, etc., for its small
oval leaves, which yield the "henna" dye, also as a garden hedge
plant. A crop of leaves is reaped in the second year from planting,
two crops a year being afterwards obtained for many successive
years. At each cutting about 9 inches are taken from the top
shoots, an acre thus yielding about 20 maunds of dry leaves a year.
The leaves are dried and reduced to a powder which, made into a
paste with water, is very commonly used by Mohammedan, and
to some extent Hindu, women as a cosmetic for staining the
eye-brows, finger-nails, hands, feet, etc., a dull orange-yellow ; also
used sometimes for dyeing the hair a red colour. This use of
henna dates back from very ancient times.
Indigo. "Nil-awari," S. — A blue dye obtained from several
species of Indigo/era, chiefly /„ arrccta, I. siiiuatraiia, I. anil and
/. guatamalensis. All are shrubby plants, annual or perennial,
2 to 4 ft. high, belonging to the Leguminous family. Numerous
species occur in a wild state in Ceylon up to about 2,000 feet, but
chiefly in the dry country. India and Java are now almost the
only indigo-producing countries. Owing to the introduction of
synthetic indigo in 1880, the cultivation of the natural article has
become unprofitable in many localities, and consequently largely
abandoned. Of late, however, the industry appears to have some-
what recovered, the natural indigo, which is claimed to have better
dyeing properties than the synthetic, being preferred by many
manufacturers. More profitable species of Indigofera have also
been discovered in recent years, yielding a much larger percentage
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 561
of indigotine, the dyeing principle in indigo. Sect, the refuse
mould left after the extraction of indigo, being rich in nitrogen and
potash, is no\v regarded as a valuable manure and forms an im-
portant bye-product. 70 tons of green plant is estimated to yield
about 3 tons of sect. The best condition for the profitable
cultivation of the plant are a rich loamy soil with a free sub-
soil, and a moist hot atmosphere, with a fairly equally divided
rainfall not under 70 in. ; a temperature below 60° Fah. is un-
favourable to the crop. The land being ploughed and harrowed,
the seed is sown in lines about 2 feet apart ; the seed being small,
10 to 15 Ib. is required to so\v an acre. It germinates in three or
four days, and about three months later the flowers appear, when
the plants are ready for harvesting. The plants are usually cut
down to within about 6 inches from the ground, tied up in bundles,
and carried fresh to the factory. The stumps left in the ground
will afterwards "rattoon," and two, or in favourable circumstances
as many as four, cuttings may be obtained from the same roots
within the year. To produce the dye, the green crop is placed in
large masonry tanks and there subjected to a process of fermentation
and churning. The freshly cut material is weighted down with
planks, and water laid on so as to cover the whole. Fermentation
sets in and is allowed to go on for 12 to 16 hours, being stopped
when the leaves become a pale colour. The liquid is run off by
means of a tap at bottom of the tank, into a second tank or cistern,
and is kept constantly agitated by either wading coolies, who beat
with paddles, or by a mechanical contrivance, for two or three
hours, after which the indigo settles in the bottom in the form of
bluish mud. This, after draining off the water, is put into bags
which are hung to dry, being afterwards cut into cubes about 3 in.
square, stamped and further dried for export.
Yield.— The yield is variously stated at about 20,000 Ib. green
crop per acre for the first cutting, subsequent or rattoon cuttings
giving much less. About 40 Ib. of indigo paste may be obtained
from 1,000 Ib. green plant, and an outturn of 400 to 600 Ib.
standard paste per acre is considered a good average yield.
Approximately 100 Ib. green plant should give 3 to 4 Ib, paste.
The latter commands about IQtl. to Is. per Ib. in London.
Logwood. — (Haematoxylo n Ca mpechia nu m . Legum i n osae) . —
A small slow-growing tree, native of Central America, but intro-
duced and completely naturalised in several West Indian Islands.
The heart-wood as well as the roots are extensively exported for
562
DYE PLANTS
the extraction of log-wood dye, which is valuable in the manufacture
of woollen and silk goods, and for numerous other purposes in the
arts and sciences. The tree has been introduced in 1845 at
Peradeniya, where it has made but slow growth. It is considered
to thrive best in a hot and arid climate. Propagation is by seed ;
the seedlings may be planted out about 15 by 15 feet apart, or
about 200 to the acre. At the age of ten years the trees are ready
for felling ; the sap-wood, being valueless, is chipped off and dis-
carded, and the heart-wood, which is brownish-red, is made up in
bales for export, or used for the extraction of dye locally, as is
done in Jamaica.
Sappan-wood. See Minor Products of 'Ceylon.
Turmeric. — See under Spices.
OTHER IMPORTANT DYE PLANTS
Botanical and Common Name.
Native country, etc.
Parts from which dye
is obtained, etc.
Artocarpus integrifolia. Jak ;
" Kos," S.\
Carthamus tinctoria. Safflower. India (?). An annu-
Chlorophora h'nctorius. Fustic.
Hedyotis umbelleta.
Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis.
Shoe-flower.
Nopilea coccinellifera.
Nyctanthes Arbor-tristis. Night-
flowering Jasmine. "Sepalika," S.
Oldenlandia umbellata. Indian
madder; Chaya-root; >4Saya,"S.
"Chaya." T.
Opuntia coccinellifera and C Tuna.
Cochineal Cactus.
Pterocarpus santalinus. "Red-
sanders."
Semecarpus Anacardium.
Marking-nut.
al, 2 to 3 ft. high
India. A larg; tree Heart-wcod ; yellow dye-
Cried flowers ; red and
yellow dve.
Central America. jWood ; a yellow dye.
A large tree
See Oldenlandia
India, etc. Tall
shrub.
Mexico
Central India.
Flowers ; a red dve. used
in cookery, etc.
Coccid. Cochineal Cactus.
Flowers yield a yellow dye.
large shrub used in India for dyeing
cotton cloth, etc.
Cey. & India. I Pinkish-purple dye obtain-
Small annual; sea led from root; once a
coast, dry region, C e y 1 o n Government
monopoly.
JA bug (Coccus Cacti) which
feeds on the plant in enor-
mous numbers.
Heart-wood affords a red
tree brown dye, used for dyeing
woollen cloths.
India, Malaya, etc. (Juice of nut mixed with
A moderate-sized quicklime is used for mark-
tree, ing linen, etc.
Mexico
ilndia. A small
GUTTA-PERCHA AND BALATA
Gutta-percha. — A substance similar to rubber, being a product
of a certain group of trees (of the N. O. Sapotoceae) which are
chiefly indigenous to the Malay Archipelago, and obtained in the
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
563
form of latex by a method of tapping or ringing the bark. Felling
the trees and ringing the bark is the usual method resorted to;
consequently the trees have become scarce. In recent years, how-
ever, this depletion is reported to have been somewhat obviated by
planting up the trees in forests and reserves. It is computed that
an average yield of 1 6 Ib. of gutta per tree may be obtained from
trees in the wild state. Unlike rubber, gutta softens or melts in
moderate heat. Its principal use is for insulating cable wires, etc.,
but it is also largely employed for making soles for boots and shoes.
The following are the principal gutta-yielding trees: —
Palciquini (Dtchopsis) Gutta, known as "Taban Gutta," or
"Taban Merah;" P. Maingayi ("Gutta-Tabban Simpoo");
P. pisluhita ("Gutta-Taban Puteh"); P. obovata and P. Treubh.
P. gnintiis (" Kiri-hembiliya," 5.), is indigenous to the moist low-
country forests of Ceylon. Payena Lcerii, introduced to Ceylon in
1880, and now established at Peradeniya and Heneratgoda
Gardens, yields the Gutta Sundete, while "Gutta Singgarip" is
obtained from the climber or liane known as Willitghbeia firma.
Balata is a product analagous to gutta-percha, obtained chieHy
from Minnisops globosa or "Bully-tree," belonging to the same
family as Palaqitiiun and found chiefly in Venezuela and British and
Dutch Guiana, whence the article is exported. In the Guianas, the
balata is sun-dried into sheets, while in Venezuela the latex is boiled
and made into block balata, which commands about 6</. per pound
less in the market than sheet balata. The latter usually fetches
about 3s. 6d. per Ib. Balata has considerable powers of wear and
resistance, and is used for belting, water-proofing, etc.
IMPORTANT TIMBER AND CABINET WOODS OF
THE TROPICS
Common and Botanical name.
Natural Order.
Native country, etc.
Black-wattle. Acacia decurrens
var. Molissima.
Black- wood. A. — melanoxylon
LeQimiiiosae
S. Australia.
Billion Eusideroxylon Zxvagerii
Brazilletto-wood. Peltophorum
Linmei
Calamander. Diospyros quaesitaj
Cam-wood. Baphia nitidai
Chittangong-wood. Chickrassia
tabularis
Coffin Tree. Machilus namnu
Dattock.
Detarium guineense
Ltinraceac , Borneo.
Lcgnniinosac ! West Indies.
Ebciiaccnc Ceylon.
Lt&tntiHOsac VVTest Trop. Africa.
Mcliaceac Burma.
Laurticcnc
Lcgnmiiwsac
China. Esteemed for m;ik-
ing coffins.
Tropical Africa.
564
TIMBER AND CABINET WOODS
Common and Botanical name.
Natural Order.
Native country, etc.
* Ebony, Ceylon. Diospyrus Ebenum
Ebeiiaccac
Ceylon.
— .Jamaica; Cocos wood.
Leguminosae
Jamaica and Cuba.
Brya Ehenus
— , Malabar. Diospyrus melanoxylon
Ebenaceae S. India.
Gammalu. S. Pterocarpus
Legiiniinosae Ceylon and India.
marsupium
Green-heart. Nectranda Rodioei
Liiiii'tict'flc
West Indies.
Hal-milla. See Trincomalie-wood
Indian Red-wood. Soymida
Meliaceae
J Central India, etc., said to
febrifuga
1 be immune to termites.
Iron-bark, Australian. Eucalyptus
Myriuceae
Ne\y South, Wales, etc.
Leucoxylon ; several other species
Iron-wood, Ceylon. Mesua ferrea
Gitttifereae
Ceylon.
Jak-wood. Artocarpus integrifolia
Urticaceae
India, Ceylon, etc.
Jarrah. Eucalyptus marginatus
Myrfaccac
West Australia.
Lignum Vitae. Guaicum offiicinalis
Zygoplivllaceae
Tropical America.
Mahogany. Swietenia Mahogani
Legu tiiinosae
Trop. S. America.
, African. Khaya senegalensis
Meliaceae
West Trop. Africa.
— , Australian. See Jarrah
— •
—
— . Bastard. Andira inermis
LegMtrittoseae
Trop. America, etc.
— , Indian. Cedrela Toona
Meliaceae
India, Java. etc.
— , Swamp. Eucalyptus robusta
Myrtaceae
Australia.
Milla. S. Vitex altissima
Verhenaceac
Ceylon and India.
Mirabow. Afzella palembanica
Lt'gnni/nosae
Borneo and Malaya.
Mora. Dimorphandra mora
British Guiana.
Mosquito-wood. Mosquitoxylon
West Indies.
jamaicense
Mountain Mahoe. Hibiscus elatus
Malvaceae
Nedun. S. Pericopsis Mooniana
Lcgtiminosae
Ceylon.
Oak, African. Lophira alata
OcJuiaceae
W. Trop. Africa.
. Ceylon. Schleichera trijuga
Sapindaccae
Ceylon, India, Java.
— , She. - Casuarina equisitifolia
Casitai'ineae
) Queensland
— . Silky. Grevillea robusta
Proteaceae
) and New South Wales.
Padouk. Pterocarpus indicus
Legit ni inosae
Burma.
Palu, S. Mimusop.-j hexandra
Sapotaceae
Ceylon and India.
Pehimbiya, S. Filicium decipiens
Biirscraceae
Ceylon and W. India.
Purple-heart. Copaifera pubiflorai Legnniinosae
British Guiana.
Rosewood. Macherium firmum
M
Brazil.
-, Indian Dalbergia latifolia
Bengal and S. India.
Sal. Shorea robusta
Dipterocarpcac
India, Burma, etc.
Sandalwood. Santalum album
Santalaceac
Central India.
fSatinwood. Chloroxylon Swietenia
Meliaceae
S. India and Ceylon.
Suriya or Tulip Tree. Thespesia
Malvaceae
Ceylon, Trop. Asia.
populnea
Tamarind-wood. Tamarindus indica
Leguntinosae
India.
Teak. Tectona grandis
Verbenaceae
Burma.
— . African. Oldfieldia africana
Etiplwi'biaceae
Sierra Leone
Toona Tree. See Indian Mahogany
—
Trincomalie-wood ; Halmilla, S.
Liliaceae
Ceylon, S. India, Burma.
Berrya Ammonilla
Tulip Tree. See Suriya
—
Tulip-wood, Australian. Harpullia
Saphtdaceae
Queensland.
pendula
Wa» s- Cassia siamea.
Legumtttosac
Ceylon, India, Malaya.
We-warani, S. Alseodaphne
Lanrticeae
Ceylon, dry region.
semecarpi folia
Fetches up to £40 per ton in Colombo, t Worth about R23 <£1M.V4) per squaiv foot in C<.loinb<,
[S.=Sinhalese].
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 565
LAC CULTURE
Lac or Shellac is a resinous substance of an orange-reddish
colour, produced by species of scale insects (chiefly Tachardia lacca)
which live on the tender branches of certain trees, sucking the
juice of the bark and forming a hard secretion known as lac.
These incrustations, termed "stick lac," are removed from the
trees by cutting the twigs or branches upon which they are formed,
the resin being afterwards scraped off, washed and graded for
export. The product is then known as " seed " or " grain " lacrwhich,
after being melted in boiling water and poured on a cold surface,
forms semi-transparent brittle flakes of a deep orange-colour,
called shellac. The Indian word lac signifies 100,000, and refers
to the large number of insects that emerge from the brood.
Shellac burns with a luminous flame, and dissolves in alcohol or
in a solution of borax. It is largely used in the manufacture of
varnishes, French polish, lacquer, sealing wax, paints, lithographic
inks, gramophone records, and in numerous other ways. The
residual water in which lac is washed contains a dye of commercial
importance. This was at one time highly valued, but since the
discovery of synthetic dyes its value has much depreciated.
There is a constant and large demand for lac, and the value
of the quantity produced annually in India is estimated at about
five crores of rupees (=about £667,000). Lac has hitherto been
practically entirely a forest product, being collected by the peasants
from uncultivated trees in the forest or jungles. Its production
under a definite system of cultivation has, however, been recently
advocated, it being claimed that it can thus be produced more
cheaply and in larger quantities than at present. It is asserted
that in a suitable climate the cultivation of lac as a bye-product
may be made remunerative, the inoculating of trees — either culti-
vated for other products or grown on pasture or waste lands as
shade or shelter trees — with the brood lac being easily effected and
requiring but little attention. As a secondary crop for the peasants,
it would seem to offer prospects of a profitable industry. The
work in connection with the crop is light and takes up compar-
atively little time, so that it need interfere but little with the
grower's ordinary occupation. The necessary tools are few and
inexpensive, and very little training is required.
CLIMATE. — A moderate warm climate is considered the
most suitable for lac culture, hot winds and a temperature above
100.° Fah. being injurious to it. Three distinct seasons occur in
566 LAC CULTURE
India where lac is obtained or cultivated, these being cold, hot,
and rainy seasons. At Pusa, says Mr. N. WICKRAMARATNE, where
lac has been grown successfully for the last few years for experi-
mental purposes, the seasons are as follows: — UA cold season
which begins in October and lasts till the middle of March,
a hot season of three months lasting from then until June, and a
rainy season from July till the end of September. The average
annual rainfall is 45 in., and the temperature rarely rises above
100° Fah. Two crops are taken in the year, one called "Kartiki"
in the beginning of October (from inoculation done in June-July)
and the other called "Baisaki in June-July (from inoculation done
in October), these corresponding to the "Yala" and "Maha"
seasons in Ceylon."
LAC PRODUCTION IN CEYLON.— Lac is found on various
indigenous and a few introduced trees in Ceylon, and is collected
and employed by the native lac workers in the ornamentation of
ceremonial staves, native furniture, toys, etc., but the industry is a
small one, and the product is not exported to any extent.
MR. GREEN, late Government Entomologist, stated that the species
of insects producing lac here are Tachardia Albizzia; and T. con-
chiferata, which occur on Albizzia stipulata, Croton arotnaticus,
Filicium decipiens and others. These do not produce so plentiful
an incrustation of lac as the Indian form (T. Jacca). Efforts have
therefore been made to introduce and establish the latter, but so
far without success. (1913).
TREES SUITABLE FOR LAC CULTURE.— Certain trees ap-
pear to offer more attraction to the lac insects than others, and the
quality of the article appears to be affected by the species of tree upon
which it is produced. In India the best lac is said to be obtained
from Schleichera irijuga (known here as the "Ceylon Oak"), which
is also a heavy yielder. Spreading or bushy trees which produce
young branches at frequent intervals, or will stand being pruned or
coppiced so as to encourage fresh tender growth, are the most
adapted. The following are some of the principal lac trees in
India and Ceylon : —
NAME.
Albizzia stipulata. " Kabal-mara ", S.
Anona -palustris. Alligator-apple.
Butea frondosa. " Pulas."
Croton aromaticum. " Wel-keppitiya," S.
Natural Order.
Leguminosae
Anonaceae
Leguminosae
Euphorbiaceae
[S=-Sinhalese ]
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 567
NAME.
.
Natural Order.
C. --lacciferus.
" Keppctiya," S.
Euphorbiaceae
Ficus religiosa.
Peepul or Bo-tree.
Urticaceae
Filicium decipiens.
>% Pehimbiya," S. Burseraceae
Harp illia cupanioides.
" Na-imbul," S.\ Sapindaceae
Mangifera indica.
Mango. Anacardiaceae
Pithecolobium Saman.
Inga-saman, Guango, or
Rain-tree.
Leguminosae
Rhus vernicifera.
Japan lac. Anacardiaceae
Exudation produced by
tanning the stem.
Schleichera trijuga.
Kon, S. Kusmnb, Ind. Sapindaceae
Zizyphus jujuba.
" Mason," S. " Ber," Ind\ Rhamnaceae
RETURNS. — It is estimated that under average conditions a yield
of 4 to 6 Ib. of stick lac per tree may be obtained. 88 Ib. "stick''
will afford i cvvt. "seed lack." Seed or granular lac, produced
on Pithecolobium Saman in India, has been recently valued by
PROFESSOR DUNSTAX, Director of the Imperial Institute, at 55s. to
60s. per cvvt. "Ordinary" shellac is usually quoted in London at
45s. to 50s. per cwt., and "good soluble" or "fair spot" at 60s. to 70s.
SERICULTURE
As is well known, the production of silk is due to the "worms"
(caterpillars) of certain moths, which in some countries, as in
China, parts of Southern Europe and Northern Asia, are cultivated,
or rather bred, in enormous numbers in order to produce their
cocoons, which furnish the silk of commerce. The worms are
reared in light airy sheds, on tiers of trays, and fed by the leaves
of certain plants which they eat voraciously. There are several
species of silk-producing worms, the principal being the Mulberry
silk- worm (Bombyx Mori] which feeds chiefly on the Mulberry
leaves ; the Eri worm (Attacns ricini), which feeds on the Castor-
oil plant; and the Tussar worm (A ntheraea Pernyi), which feeds
chiefly on the Oak. The worm of the Atlas moth (Atlacus atlas),
which is common in Ceylon, also produces a good second-rate
silk and is omnivorous as regards its food. The Mulberry kind is
the most important and is the one grown so extensively in Europe ;
the Eri is much in favour in India, while the Tussar is produced
chiefly in China. The mulberry silk-worm yields the best
quality silk, and its mode of existence, like that of other silk-worms,
is briefly as follows. The moth lays its eggs, often to the number
of 500 or more, on a leaf or twig, to which they adhere by means
568 SERICULTURE
of a gummy substance. These are placed on trays in light airy
sheds to hatch out. The caterpillars resulting, at first blackish
or obscure, become a paler tint in about 10 days, finally becoming
yellow when about 4 weeks old and ready to spin.
SPINNING. Before commencing to spin the caterpillars fast
for 36 hours, void all their excrements, become soft and flaccid and
seek a suitable spot for the construction of their cocoons. Two or
three days are occupied in the operation of spinning the latter, and
the thread of a single cocoon is sometimes 900 yards in length.
The process of spinning is effected by passing the thread through
two small holes (spinerets) in the head of the worm, which by
a combined movement of the mouth and front legs unites the
filament into one, binding it closely together by a gummy liquid.
The cocoon finished, the worm then undergoes metamorphoses,
that is, it changes into the chrysalis or pupa state. In about two
or three weeks the moth, under natural conditions, emerges by
forcing its way through the cocoon. The males appear first,
then the females, the former being comparatively active in their
movements ; they proceed at once to pair, and both live but
a few days, the females meantime laying their eggs and thus
completing the life cycle. Under the artificial conditions of seri-
culture, however, the moth is not permitted to emerge from the
cocoon, as in doing so the latter is seriously damaged, both
by the act of piercing and by the dirt and stain left behind.
Therefore in order to obviate this the pupae are destroyed by
heating the cocoons in an oven or by crushing.
The indispensable conditions for successful sericulture are
cheap labour and a plentiful supply of suitable food for the worms.
In Italy and other silk-producing countries it is essentially a
cottage industry, carried on mainly by women. Efforts have been
made from time to time to establish sericulture as an industry in
Ceylon, it being considered an occupation peculiarly adapted to
the peasants. The question of culture has in itself proved suc-
cessful, and as a result of experiments excellent commercial
samples of both the mulberry and eri cocoons have been produced.
But hitherto the people have not shown much enthusiasm in the
new venture. The chief obstacle in the way is probably the fact
that the destruction of the chrysalis in the cocoon, by whatever
means, constitutes an offence against the Buddhist religion. To
obviate this there are two alternatives : (1) to allow the mulberry
moth to mature and emerge from the cocoon, and dispose of
MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 569
the hitter as silk "waste," an inferior grade ; (2) to cultivate the
eri worm whose cocoon, though an inferior silk, with only a
limited Indian market, is not of the reelable kind and therefore
does not necessarily involve the destruction of the pupa or
chrysalis. Though the product in either case could not compete
with the properly treated mulberry cocoons of other countries,
yet it is thought that this might be compensated for by obtaining
a large outturn, which might be effected by selecting and
rearing multivoltine strains; this latter factor is especially in favour
of sericulture in a tropical country, the silk-worm in Europe being
always univoltine, i.e., producing but one crop annually, the worms
undergoing metamorphoses once a year only.
Both the mulberry and castor-oil plants Hourish in Ceylon
at various elevations, the latter having become naturalised and
is often found in a wild state, especially in the neighbourhood of
villages. The castor-oil plant is readily propagated by seed, and
the mulberry by cuttings. MR. C. DRIEBERG, Secretary to the
Ceylon Agricultural Society, who has done much to foster the
new industry, writes: — "The Ceylon Agricultural Society is
endeavouring to establish the silk industry in Ceylon by every
available means — distributing silk- worm eggs, leaflets of instruc-
tions, seeds of the castor-oil plant and cuttings of mulberry. At
Peradeniya, a demonstration silk farm has been started by the
Society which has recently been given over to the Salvation Army
to work, in view of the facilities which that body possesses for
reaching the people. Work on the farm is progressing satis-
factorily, and excellent samples of silk of the Eri, " Mysore," and
a hybrid " Mysore-Bengal" worm have been reeled. At the farm,
instruction in silk culture is given to teachers and others, and
it is hoped ultimately to push the industry through Government
Vernacular Schools. It is hoped that ultimately silk-culture will
be taken up as a home industry in the villages.
According to CAPTAIN JORGEXSOX, Manager of the Salvation
Army Silk Farm at Peradeniya, if the eri cocoon is obtained
white and free from stain and dirt, it will command a satisfactory
price in the European markets. "In order," he writes, "to
produce the desired article, our plan is to cut open the cocoon
on the fifth day before the chrysalis removes its outer skin, which
often causes a stain. Each cocoon is cut open with a pair of
scissors, and the chrysalis thrown out to the fowls. It is a simple
operation, and can be done by children. This plan, however, may
570 SERICULTURE
offend the prejudice of some. One of the great advantages
of the Eri cocoon is that one can allow the moth to escape without
the necessity for destroying the chrysalis ; where the above plan
causes offence, the chrysalis may be allowed to escape. The
stained cocoon will, however, fetch a lower price. What merchants,
in Europe object to is not so much the stain as the dirt which
always attaches to such cocoons. In some markets the merchants,
usually deduct 5 per cent, for dirt in estimating the value of the
cocoons. One reason why the white cocoons are preferred by
the manufacturers is that they are more easily dyed. The brown
cocoons, however, generally realize a good price. In order to-
secure the whiteness of the cocoons, the best plan is to place
the worms in layers of crumpled newspapers in a basket for
spinning their cocoons. We have found this very effective. We
bale the cocoons according to their quality. Those that are white
and quite clean go in one class, those that are partially clean go.
in another, while those of bad colour go in a third."
CHAPTER XXV
1. PERFUME-YIELDING
PLANTS
2. HONEY PLANTS
3. ORNAMENTAL SEEDS
4. CURIOUS FRUITS
5. POISONOUS PLANTS
6. INSECTIVOROUS AND FLY
CATCHING PLANTS
7. MYRMECOPHILOUS PLANTS
PERFUME-YIELDING PLANTS:—
The extraction of perfume from Howers affords an important
industry in some countries, notably in France, where roses, orange
blossoms, jasmine, violets, tuberoses, etc., are used by the ton
for the purpose. The two principal methods of scent extraction
adopted by perfume manufacturers are distillation and maceration
or enfleurage, and flowers which are adapted for treatment by
either of these methods may be unsuited to the other. The
following notes apply to such perfume-yielding plants as may
be suitable for cultivation in Ceylon or in similar tropical
countries : —
Roses.— Cultivated for their scent, about 5,000 rose plants
may be planted per acre. After the second year an acre may
produce about 6 cwt. of rose petals in the year, these yielding
by distillation about 70 ounces of attar of roses, valued at £,20 to
£30 per Ib.
Bergamot (Citrus bergatniu. Rutaceae). — A kind of bitter
orange yielding a valuable perfume from the rind, known as
"bergamot." 1,000 fruits will yield about 30 oz. of oil, which
when pure is worth from £1 10s. to £2 per Ib. The tree requires
much the same treatment as the sweet orange, and in plantations
is generally planted about 12 feet apart each way. Another
variety of bitter orange called the " Bigardeer" is valued for
its flowers, a kilogramme of which yields, on an average, 2 grammes
of essence, which is worth, according to quality, from £,10
to £18 per Ib.
Cedrat (Citrus medica. Rutaceae). — A highly scented oil
obtained from the rind of the citron, worth about 18s. or more
572 PERFUME-YIELDING PLANTS
per Ib. It is not much used for scenting soaps, being too costly
for that purpose, but enters largely into the composition of
handkerchief perfumes.
Frangipanni. The odour of the white, cream, or crimson
waxy flowers of the Temple Tree (Plumeria spp) closely
resembles the perfume frangipanni, and it is considered that it
would pay to extract the scent by distillation, or by the usual
method of maceration in liquid fat, etc. The Temple-tree is com-
mon at low elevations in Ceylon, especially near Buddhist temples,
and is easily propagated by cuttings.
Geranium (Pelargonium capita turn. Geraniaceae) — This plant,
which may easily be grown up-country, is cultivated extensively
in Northern Africa and Southern Europe for the sake of the
delightful rose-smelling oil obtained from the strongly scented
leaves and stems by distillation. This oil is worth about 4s. per
oz. In plantations 3,000 to 4,000 plants are allowed to the
acre; one planting lasts four years, and three cuttings of leaves
and shoots are obtained from the plants in one season.
Jasmine. (Jasinitiuin spp. Oleaceae). — The perfume or otto
obtained from Jasmine flowers by absorption on clarified fat
is said to be one of the most prized by perfumers, on account
of its sweet and delicate odour and the impossibility of imitating
it, and is said to be worth about £9 per fluid ounce. In France,
about 8,000 Jasmine plants go to the acre ; this number yield
about 5 cwt of blossoms, which in turn will perfume li cwt.
of fat valued at about 12s. per Ib.
Lemon-grass; Verbena-oil (Andropogon citratus. Graminae). —
The oil obtained by distillation from the leaves of Lemon-grass
is generally employed in the perfuming of scented soaps, also
in adulterating u otto of roses" and true "verbena oil." It is sold
in London at about 6d. per ounce.
Patchouili. (Pogostemon Patchouli, Labiateae). — A small her-
baceous plant, about 2 feet high, native of Sylhet, Penang, and
Malacca. By distillation of the leaves and young tops a volatile
oil is obtained, and from this " Essence-of-Patchouli " is prepared.
Patchouli perfume is highly popular in India as well as in Europe,
and is much used in the preparation of other perfumes. With
care, the plant will grow at medium elevations in Ceylon, though
probably not sufficiently well to be profitable. In England,
Patchouli leaves are said to be sold at 9d. to Is. 3d. per Ib.,
and the pure oil at from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 9d. per ounce.
PERFUME-YIELDING PLAXTS 573
Priprioca. (Mespilodaphene (Ocoica) preliosa). — A Brazilian
tree, found in the forests of Amazonia. "The leaves when
bruised give off an agreeable perfume, recalling clove, cinnamon
and bergamot at the same time." Considered to be of possible
value in perfumery and soap-making.
Tonka, Tonkin, or Tonga Bean, Known in Venezuela as
" Serrapia " (Diptcryx odornla. Leguminosai). — A large tree, native
of Tropical America, introduced to Peradeniya in 1881. The
fruit is an oblong, fibrous pod, containing one almond-shaped
black seed. The seeds are fragrant, possessing the odour of
new-mown hay, and are used by perfumers for bouquets, as well
as in the preparation of sachet powders. They are also employed
in scenting soap, snuff, etc., and a "tincture of tonka" is some-
times used by pastry cooks and confectioners as a substitute for
vanilla. The seeds when dried are subjected to a crystallisation
process, being soaked in rum for 24 hours and then slowly dried, when
they become covered with white crystals. Tonka beans fluctuate
greatly in price, according to supply and demand. According
to the Chemist and Druggist the price has varied from 20s. to 7s.
per Ib. in less than 12 months. At the time of writing, it is
quoted at 7s. per Ib.
Tuberose (Poliaiithes tuber osa. Liliaceae). A tuberous her-
baceous plant, much cultivated in the South of France for the
extraction of perfume from its powerfully scented flowers. The
plant grows and flowers freely at medium and high elevations,
in Ceylon.
Ylang-ylang, or Ilang-ilang; " Wana-Sapti " S. (Canangn
Oifortitn. Anonaceae). — A large, quick-growing tree, 60 to 80 feet
high, native of the Philippines, Java, etc. The large greenish-
yellow flowers are strongly scented, and yield by distillation
the popular scent " ylang-ylang " or "Hang-Hang." A full-grown
tree may be considered to yield 100 Ib. to 120 Ib. of fresh
flowers during its flowering season. From 150 to 200 Ib. of
flowers produce about 1 Ib. of the essence, the collection and
distillation of which is said to form an important minor industry in the
Philippines. Here it is estimated that an acre planted with
150 trees may give 3,250 Ib. of flowers, yielding about 16 Ib. of
essence. The main supply, however, is from uncultivated trees.
The Natives collect and sell the flowers from these for 2il. per Ib.
The annual export of ylang-ilang oil from the Philippines is now
valued at about £20.000.
574 HOXEY PLANTS
In addition to the foregoing, the following are also noted for
the fragrance of their Mowers or leaves :
TREES :
Caesalpinia coriaria. "Divi-divi." Murraya exotica. " Etteriya" S.
Cassia nodosa Myristica. Horsfieldii
Citrus Decumana. Pumelo. Nyctanthes Arbor-tristis. "Sepalika," S.
Fagraea fragrans. " Tembusu " or or " Night-flowering Jasmine."
"Tembusi" (Malay.) Ptercorpus marsupium.
Mesua ferrea. Ceylon " Iron-wood ;" Haematoxylon campechianum.
"Na-gaha" S.
Michelia Champaca. Champac ;
" Sapu" S.
Logwood.
Tabernaemontana coronaria. Wax-
flower.
T. — dichotoma. " Divi-kaduru."
SHRUBS:
Brunfelsia bicolor • Lippia citriodora. " Lemon -scented
Oardenia florida Verbena."
Hibiscus Abelmoschus. Musk Mallow. Michelia fuscata. " Mathanakama." T.
Seeds yield musk-like odour, Ocimum basilicum. Sweet Basil.
used in perfumery. Worth O. — sanctum. " Maduru-tala " S.
Is, to Is. 6d. per Ib. Stemmadenia bella.
Jasminum Sambac Talauma mutabilis.
Lawsonia alba. Mignonette Tree. Wrightia zeylanica. " Sudu-idda" S.
CLIMBERS :
Artobotrys zeylanicus. "Petika-wel," S.
Asparagus falcatus. " Hathawariya," S.
A.— racemosus.
Camoensia maxima.
Jasminum flexile.
Lonicera Hilderbrandtii. Giant Honev-
Odontadenia speciosa
Pergularia odoratissima.
Stephanotis floribunda.
suckle.
HONEY PLANTS
Bees have their likes and dislikes in regard to the flowers
they visit for extracting honey from, and the quality of the honey
produced by them largely depends on the kind of flowers which
they frequent. Persons who have taken up bee-keeping in Ceylon
or other tropical countries must have sometimes experienced
a difficulty in providing a sufficient supply of suitable flowering
plants or trees for their bees ; to these the following list of trees
or shrubs especially suited for the purpose may be a guidance.
MR. C. DRIEBERG, who has given the subject much attention,
states that Ceylon bees seem to travel great distances in search
of honey-flowers, apparently preferring trees to shrubs and smaller
plants. In the West Indies, " Logwood " honey is considered
to be about the best, though the flowers of the Pigeon Pea
{u Rata-tora ") and Lime-tree (Citrus) are also considered to yield
honey of excellent quality.
ORNAMENTAL SEEDS
575
SELECTED HONEY-FLOWERS OR BEE PLANTS
[T=-Tree : Cl=Climber : S=Shrub : H. P.=Herbaceous Perennial : A=Annual],
Name.
Acacia dealbata. Silver-wattle
Antigonon Leptopus, & other
species.
Bassia longifolia. " Mi." S.
Caesalpinia coriaria. " Divi-divi "
Cajanus indicus. Pigeon Pea ;
••Rat.i-tora" S.
Canarium commune. Java almond.
Caryota urens.
Kitul or Toddy
Palm".
Horse cassia.
Cassia grandis.
Cassia nodosa.
Ci:rus Limetta. " Lime," also
various other species of Citrus.
Cocos nucifera. Coconut Palm.
Durio zibethinus. Durian Tree
Elaeocarpus serratus. Wild olive
Glycosmis pentaphylla.
Guizotea olifera.
Grevillea robusta Silky Oak.
Humboldtia laurifolia.
Ipomoea carnea
See above.
Cl
T
T
S
T
T
T
T
S or T
T
T
T
S
A
T
S
Cl
Name.
Kleinhovia hospita.
Lantana. Several species
Logwood (Haematoxylon).
Mangifera indica.
Mango
Michel ia Champaca. Sapu
Mignonette (Reseda
odorata).
Murray a exotica
Nasturtium (Tropaeolum.)
Pometia exima.
Porana volubilis
Portulaca oleraceae
Ptercorpus indicus.
Rhus glabra.
Sarcocephalus esculentus
Schleichera trijuga
Strobi!anthes, various
species.
Terminalia Belerica. " Bulu."
S.
Turnera elegans.
See above.
T
S
T
T
T
A
S or T
A. Cl.
T
Cl
A
T
T
Cl. S.
T
T
H. P.
ORNAMENTAL SEEDS
In the tropics there is found a large number of curious or
ornamental seeds suitable for making articles of ornament or
utility, as beads, necklaces, rosaries, mats, buttons, etc. It is note-
worthy that the majority of such seeds are furnished by the
natural orders of Leguminosae and Palmae, although many are
produced also by the orders Euphorbiaceae, Apocynaceae and
Scitamineae. Boring the seeds for necklaces, etc., may be done
by rixing the seed firmly and using a fine drill, or by passing a
red-hot needle through it. No attempt should be made to soften
the seed by soaking in water, which will result in loss of brilliancy
in colour, if not in the swelling and splitting of the seed. The
following are some of the more striking of such seeds : —
Abrus precatorius. "Crab's eyes." Seeds scarlet with a black spot; used for
rosaries, necklaces, goldsmiths' weights, etc.
Adenanthera pavonina. "Bead Tree." Seeds bright scarlet, used for necklaces,
etc., also for jewellers' and apothecaries' weights.
A— bicolor. Seeds smaller than the latter, half-black and half-red, very orna-
mental.
Caesalpinia Eonduc. Nicker seeds. "Kumburu-wel," S. Large ash-grey, polished
and very hard, round or oval.
576 ORNAMENTAL SEEDS
Canna indica. " Indian Shot," Seeds black, round or oval, of the size of small
peas, very hard.
Cocculus macrocarpus. " Atta-tithavel." By depriving the kidney -shaped fruit of
its outer covering (epicarp) the remarkable annular endocarp is ex-
posed.
Coix Lac'iryma— Jobi. "Job's Tears." Very hard, grey, polished seeds; used for
rosaries, bead-work, etc.
Corypha umbraculifera. Talipot Palm. Seeds round, of the size of marbles.
hard and grey, used for buttons and ornaments.
Elaeocarpus Ganitrus. — The round warty brown fruits, when dry, used as heads for
hat pins ; when fresh it is covered by a bright blue skin.
Entada scandens. Elephant Creeper." Remarkable large flat brown seeds.
Erythrina corallodendron. Coral-bean Tree. Seeds scarlet, with a black spot;
strung as beads in chaplets.
Hevea brasiliensis. Para rubber Tree. The large roundish mottled and blotch-
ed seeds make excellent beads for hat-pins,
Manihot Glaziovii. Ceara rubber Tree. Oblong flattened hard seed, mottled
grey and brown.
Melroxylon Sagu. Sago Palm. Round or cone-like reddish fruits, with a rind
formed of hard polished small scales.
Mucuna atropurpurea. Punnakalichi, T. Large roundish and compressed seed.
grey mottled with brownish black.
Mucuna pruriens. " Horse-eye Bean; " Cowhage or Cowitch. The large oval seed
resembles the eye of a horse. Pods of this and above species covered
with brown irritant bristles.
Oroxylon indicum. "Totilla" S. Seeds with curious membranous, flat circular
wing.
Ormosia dasycarpa. "Necklace Tree." Seeds large, oval or roundish, bright
scarlet, blotched with black or brown. Very popular for making but-
tons, necklaces and ornaments.
O. — coccinea. Seeds similar to the preceding species, but smaller.
Poincania regia. Flamboyante. Seeds hard, oblong, and mottled grey.
Phyllanthus cyanosperma. Seeds rather small, wedge-shaped, bright shiny
deep-blue.
Phytelephas macrocarpa. Ivory-nut Palm. The large hard white ivory-like
seeds are used as a substitute for ivory, being employed in the manu-
facture of buttons, etc. Exported from S. America. (See under Vegetable
Ivory.}
Raphia ruffia. Raffia Palm. Round or conical large, brown polished scaly
fruits, suitable as heads for hat pins.
Rhyncosperma cyanosperma. Violet-black seeds, used as ornaments by hill
people in India.
Sapindus saponaria. " Soap Berry." Round black seeds, often strung as beads
or rosaries, sometimes used as buttons.
Thevetia neriifolia. "Lucky-beans," or "Lucky-seeds." In the West Indies
the hard oblong seeds are mounted and used as pendants and charms.
CURIOUS FRUITS 577
REMARKABLE OR CURIOUS FRUITS
Barringtonia speciosa. " Mudilla." (Myrtaccac). A large, curious 4-angled cube-
like fruit. See Flowering Trees.
Cassia Fistula. Pudding Pipe, " Eh-ela." (Legit iiiiuosiie). Long cylindrical
brown pods, up to 3 feet in length. See Flowering Trees.
Castanospermum australe. Morelon Bay Chestnut. (Legnminosae). Stout brown
pods, 5 to 7 inches long, with hard shells and large brown oval seeds.
Citrus Decumana. Pumelo. ( Rntaceae ). Large globular succulent fruits-
yellowish or bright orange-yellow. See Fruit Trees.
Couroupita guianensis. Cannon Ball. (Myrtaceae). Large round brown fruits
of the size of a man's head. See Flou'ering Trees.
Crescentia Cujele. Tree Calabash. (Bignoniaceae). Very quaint large smooth-
shelled fruit, oval in shape. The hard shell is polished and used for orna-
ments.
C. — plectrantha. Tree Calabash (Bignoniaccae) Fruit as above, but round-shaped.
Cucurbita maxima. Pumpkin; Wataka. S. (Cnrcnrbitnccae). A climbing or creep-
ing gourd, bearing immense round smooth fruits, which are generally
flattened at both ends; the seasoned and polished shells last for many
years.
Dillenia indica. " Honda-para " S. (Dilleninceae). Large greenish succulent
fruits. See Fruit Trees.
Lodoicea sechellarum. Double-Coconut; Coco-de-mer; "Mudu-pol," S. (Palnuic).
Immense hard-shelled nuts, usually 2-(sometimes 3-) lobed. Peculiar to
Seychelles. Introduced at Peradeniya in 1850.
Entada scandens. Elephant Creeper; " Pus-well " S. (Legnminosae). An im-
mense jungle climber, bearing enormous flat pods. 4 to 5 ft. long by
3-4. in. broad. Forests of moist low-country. See. p. 576.
Hura crepitans. Sandbox Fruit. (Eitplwrbiaceae). Curious round hard fruit,
flattened at both ends and divided into numerous rounded sections each
containing one seed; dehisces explosively with a loud report.
Hydnocarpus octandra. (Bi\aceae). Round, jet black, velvety, pendulous fruits
of the size of oranges.
Jumping Beans. The maggot of a moth (L'arpocapsa sal titans}, which is hatched
inside the small half-round capsule of certain Euphorbiaceous trees of
Mexico, whence the " bean " is exported as a curiosity. Warmth renders
the maggot active, when the beans begin to roll or jump about.
Kigelia pinnata. Sausage Fruit. (Bignoniaceac}. Stout pod-like fruits, 14 inches
or more in length by 3 in. in diameter, suspended by long thin cords
4 to 6 ft. in length; produced by a spreading medium-si/ed tree.
Lagenaria vulgaris. Bottle Gourd. (Cncnrbitaceae). Variously shaped large
gourds, often bottle-or club-shaped, 1 to 2 ft. or more in length.
Lecythis Ollaria. Monkey Pot. (Lccythidaccac). A large hard woody brown
fruit, furnished with a close-fitting lid at the top.
Martynia diandra. Snake's Head; Tiger's-claw; Naka-tali, T.(Pedaliaccae). Hard
woody oblong fruits with 2 strong curved spines, native of Mexico, natur-
alised in Cevlon.
578 POISONOUS PLAXTS
Ochroma lagopus. Down Tree. (Malvaceae). Curious brown, erect fruit, which
when dehisced resembles a brush of soft greyish down.
Ochrosia acuminata. (Apocynaceae). Bright red, oval fleshy fruits, H to 2 in.
long. Ornamental but poisonous.
Oroxylum indicum. "Totilla." (Bignoiiiaccnc). Immense, slightly curved pods,
resembling cricket bats at a distance.
Pandanus Leram. Nicobar Breadfruit. (Pandanaceae). Huge fleshy fruits
borne at base of leaves; orange yellow when ripe.
Pangium edule. Pangi. (Mai.) (Bixaccae). A large Malayan tree with broad
leaves. The large rusty-brown woody fruits are of the size of small coco-
nuts, said to be poisonous until boiled and macerated in water, when they
become edible.
Parmentiera cereifera. ( Rignoniaceae ). Remarkable candle-like pale yellow
fruits, borne on stem and branches. See Ornamental Foliage Trees.
Sterculia Balanghas. " Nawa " S. (Stercnliaceae). Large yellow shell-like fruit;
when dehisced it exposes black shiny seeds which hang from the
margins like teeth.
Tabernaemontana dichotoma. Forbidden Fruit ; Eve's Apple; "Divi-kaduru,"
S. (Apocynaceae). A small tree of Ceylon and S. India, with pale grey
bark, common at low elevations. The curious pendulous fruit is half-
round, with a clean-cut depression along one side, which has suggested
the popular names, being supposed to resemble a partly eaten fruit.
Some even imagine they see in it Eve's teeth marks !
POISONOUS PLANTS
Certain families of plants are characterized generally by
distinct poisonous characters, while others, as the Cruciferae, are
remarkably free from any poisonous traces. To the former belong
Aroideae, Euphorbiaceae, Apocynacere, Asclepiadeae, Urticaceae,
Solanaceae, Umbelliferae, LoganiacecC, and others. Some of these,
however, as Solanaceae and Umbelliferae, also furnish wholesome
food products. Any plant which possesses a milky juice should be
treated with caution until more is known about it. In former times,
and even till this day in certain uncivilised countries, persons sus-
pected of witchcraft or crime were made to swallow portions of
certain poisonous plants, or confess the alleged offence; if the
persons died from the effects they were considered to be guilty,
while if they vomited the poison they were held to be innocent.
The following are well-known ordeal poisons.
HISTORICAL OR ORDEAL POISONS
Hippomane mancinella; Manchineal Tree. (Enphorbiacecv). A celebrated poison
tree of tropical S. America; it is also indigenous to some W. Indian
islands.
Erythrophloeum guineense; " Sassy Bark " (Legnminoscv). A well-known poi-
sonous tree of Sierra Leone.
GEXERAL POISOXOUS PLANTS 579
Antiaris toxicaria; Upas Tree. (Urticaceac) The celebrated poisonous tree of
Java, at one time supposed to give off poisonous fumes fatal to animal life.
The milky latex contains a virulent poison.
Physostigma veneno^um. (Lcgiiniiiiosac). A large twining climber whose large
oval dark-brown seeds are the famous ordeal-beans of Old Calabar.
Ccrbcra Tanghin ( Apocynaccac). A small tree with a milky juice, whose fruits
are the ordeal poison of Madagascar.
GENERAL POISONOUS PLANTS
Acokanthera spectabilis. Arrow-poison. (Apocynaccac). Root and wood used
by Natives in Africa for poisoning arrows.
Alyxia zcylanica. " Walkaduru " or " Wasakaduru," S. (Apocynaceac). A
shrub found in semi-dry regions; the milky juice is poisonous.
Cerbera Odalam. " Gonkaduru," S. (Apocynaccac). A small tree with acrid
milky juice and white scented flowers; common in low-country, chiefly
near the sea. The seeds are an irritant poison.
Datura fastuosa. ' Attana " S. (Solanaceae). Small shrub, with large leaves and
large white or purple trumpet-shaped flowers; fruit round, with numerous
prickles, poisonous.
Datura suaveolens. Trumpet flower; " Rata-attana." S. (Solanaceae). A shrub
with large white or purple flowers, native of Mexico. The round green
prickly fruits are a well-known poison.
Dieffenbachia, many spp. & varieties (Aroidcac). Herbaceous branchless succu-
lent plants, bearing a crown of large variegated leaves, commonly cultivated
for ornament. The juice is highly acrid and poisonous; the slightest
contact of a portion of it with the tongue will cause the latter to swell.
making speech almost impossible for some time.
Euphorbia antiquorum. " Daluk." S. \Enpliorbiaccac). A spreading leafless tree.
15-30 ft. high, found in rocky places in the low-country; branches
3-winged. very spiny. The acrid milky juice is poisonous.
Euphorbia tortilis. "Sinuk"S. (Eiipltorhiaccac). A small leafless tree, found
in similar places to Daluk; milky juice acrid and poisonous.
Excaecaria Agallocha. " Tala-kiriya," S. Blinding Tree. (Etiphorbiaceae). Small
tree with extremely acrid milky juice, common on the coast of Ceylon
and other Eastern countries.
Girardinia heterophylla. Elephant or Nilgiri Nettle; "Gas-kahambiliya," S.
(Urticaceac). A tall herb, covered with stinging poisonous hairs; found
in forests of montane zone.
Gloriosa superba. " Xiyangala." S. " Ventonti," S. (Liliticcac). A herbaceous
climber with whorled leaves whose tips end in a spiral tendril; the large
fleshy tubers are poisonous.
Hydnocarpus venenata. " Makulu." S. (Bi.\accac). A medium-sized tree with
smooth bark, common in low-country; fruits poisonous, used for poison-
ing fish.
Isotoma longiflora. (L'ainpannlacfac). An annual weed with white flowers,
introduced from Jamaica; has an acrid poisonous milky juice, which has
been considered to be the cause of deaths amongst ponies on the Delft
Island, North of Ceylon.
580 FLY-CATCHING AND ALLIED PLANTS
Laportea crenulata. Fever-or Devil-nettle; " Maussa," S. (Urticaccac). A large
shrub with large oval leaves; whole plant clothed with minute stinging
hairs, which sting severely, the distressing effects often remaining for
many days.
Lobelia nicotianaefolia. " Wild Tobacco;" Rasni, S. (Campannlaceue). A large
herbaceous perennial, 4 to 10 ft. high, with large oblong leaves, found
in open ground at 4,000 to 7,000 ft. The leaves and seeds are acrid and
poisonous.
Mirabilis Jalapa. Jalap Plant; Marvel-of-Peru; Four o'clock Flower; Hand-
rikka. S. (Nyctagineae). An annual, 2 ft. high, with white or pink flowers.
Roots and seeds poisonous.
Modecca pal ma la. " Hondala " or " Potu-hondala," S. (Passifloraceae). Small
perennial climber with large shiny leaves, common in moist low country;
the round scarlet fruit, of the size of an orange, is poisonous and has
been known to cause death.
Nerium oleander. Oleander; " Arali " or " Araliya," S. £ T. (Apocynaceae)
Shrub or small tree, with milky juice and large showy pink or white
flowers. The roots are poisonous.
Ochrosia borbonica. '* Mudu-kaduru." S. (ApocyiMCeac). Small tree with greenish
white flowers, common near the sea-coast; the bright red fruit is con-
sidered poisonous.
Piunbago zeylanica. " Elu-nitul," S. (Pln'mbtigincac). A perennial herb, with
long succulent roots, which are acrid and pungent, being sometimes
used for illegal purposes.
Sapium indicum. " Kiri-makulu." S. (Euphorbiaceac), Small tree with smooth
white bark and willow-like leaves; the acrid milky juice is very poisonous
Solanum verbacifolium. " Hekarilla," S. (Solanaceae). Large shrub, covered
with a dense yellowish-grey tomentum; moist region up to 6,000 ft.
Fruit poisonous.
Streblus asper. " Geta-netul." S; "Pirasu," S. (Urticaccae). A shrub or small.
tree, with scabrous leaves, common in the low-country. The yellow
fruit is edible, but the bark is an irritant poison.
Strychnos Nux-vomica. Nux-vomica; " Goda-kaduru," S. (Logatiiaceae). A fairly
large tree, common in the forests of the dry region; the seeds are the
source of strychnine and are powerfully poisonous
Yucca gloriosa. Adam's Needle. (Liliaccae). A semi-woody branchless plant,
6 to 8 ft. high, with long, rigid, sharply pointed leaves; the roots are
poisonous.
INSECTIVOROUS, FLY-CATCHING AND ALLIED PLANTS
Aldrovanda vesiculosa. Water fly-trap. (Droseraceae). A rootless swimming
water-plant of S. Europe, remarkable for the inflated extremities of the
sensitive leaves, which act as floats and for capturing small water animals,
which the plant digests.
Aristolochia, many species. " Fly catching Plants.'' (Aristolochiaceae). A re-
markable family of plants (mostly climbers), with variously shaped
flowers, which in some species are very large; most have an offensive
odour, which attracts flies. In most species the flowers are adapted to
FLY-CATCHING AXD ALLIED PLANTS 581
entrap the latter which, once inside, are unable to escape owing to the
bend in the middle of the flower tube and the numerous hairs which all
point inward. The Hies are usually essential to the pollination of the
flowers, and once this is effected the hairs collapse and thus often enable
the flies to escape unharmed.
Cephalotus follicularis. Pitcher Plant of Australia (Ccpkalotaceae). A remark-
able marsh plant of YV. Australia, bearing two kinds of leaves, one form
being transformed into pitchers, which capture insects much in the same
way as Nepenthes.
Darlingtonia. several species. California!! Pitcher-plant (Sarracftiiaccae). A
remarkable genus of perennial herbs found inhabiting marshy places
in California. The leaf-petioles, as in Sarracenia, are formed into long
pitchers, with the divided lamina or blade at the top.
Dionoea muscipula. Venus's Fly-trap. (Droscraci'nc). A small remarkable marsh
plant of the S. United States. The spathulate leaves are furnished with
peculiar bristles along the margin; they are extremely irritable and when
touched by an insect close immediately and imprison the intruders; these
are killed and the plant absorbs the product of their decay. The leaves
will close also if touched by any solid substance.
Dischidia Rafflesiana. Leaf Pitcher Plant (Asdepidcac). A climbing plant with
two kinds of leaves, indigenous to Malay and Tropical Australia; the
leaves are formed into closed pockets 3 to 5 in. long, with a small
aperture at one end. into which an adventitious root from the stem is
usually developed.
Drosera, many species. Sundew. (Droscraccac). A genus of small swamp
plants found in most countries. Three species are indigenous to the
montane zone of Ceylon. Leaves thickly set with glandular hairs, which
are slightly irritable, being tipped with a minute drop of viscid fluid.
By means of the latter, insects are caught, when the surrounding hairs
combine to imprison them.
Drosophyllum lusitanicum. Sundew. (Drosei'ticcat'). A striking plant with simi-
lar characters as the above, inhabiting the sandy hills of Portugal.
Nepenthes. Several species. Pitcher Plant. " Bandura-wel," S. (Xepenthaccae)
A genus of semi-climbing plants inhabiting moist swampy places in the
tropics, mostly in Borneo, Sumatra, etc. X. tlistillatoria is indigenous
to Ceylon. A prolongation of the midrib is modified into curious pitcher-
like structures, with a lid at the top. These pitchers are in some species
or varieties as much as 8 to 10 in. long; they usually contain a quantity
of water, in which often a number of dead or dying insects are found,
the product of their decay being assimilated by the plant.
Pinguicula vulgaris. Butterwort. (Lentibulariaccac) A bog plant indigenous
to the British Isles, furnished with radical leaves of a sensitive character,
incurved at the margins ; stimulated by the presence of proteid bodies,
they close over, when the sessile glands secrete a ferment and digest
their prey
Sarracenia, several species: Side-saddle Flower. (Sarraceniaccae). Marsh
plants of North America, the leaf petioles of which are modified into re-
markable erect, often brightly coloured, pitchers, surmounted by a lid
582 MYRMECOPHILOUS PLANTS
formed by the small lamina. These pitchers usually contain water, in
which flies and other insects are drowned.
Utricularia, several species. Bladderwort. (Lentibttlariaceae). Water or bog
plants without roots, found in swamps of most countries. The leaves
are furnished with small bladders, which have a trap-door entrance and
capture small crustacean and other animals.
MYRMECOPHILOUS PLANTS
[i.e., plants with special cavities or other adaptations for
attracting and protecting ants for mutual benefit.]
Acacia Hindsii. ( Lcgmuiiiosae ). Indigenous to Trop. Central America.
The hollow formidable spines are generally inhabited by ants.
Acacia sphaerocephala. (Legirniiiwsat). Bull's Horn Acacia. Similar to above.
Cecropia peltata. (Urticaceac). Trumpet Tree. Hollow stems often inhabited
by ants, also used by Natives for musical instruments.
Coccoloba, several species. (Polygouaccac). S. America and the West Indies'
Hollow stems usually occupied by ants.
Cuviera, several species. W. Trop. Africa. Hollow swellings on stems.
Duroia hirsuta. S. America. Hollow stems, with entrances into which colonies
of ants gain admission.
Humboldtia laurifolia. (Legit niinosae). A shrub indigenous to Ceylon and
S. India, with hollow internodes generally inhabited by ants.
Hydnophytum montanum, and other spp. (Rttbiaceae) Epiphytic plants, native of
Malaya, etc. remarkable for their swollen woody base, which is hollow
and provides a home for ants.
Muehlenbeckia platyclada. (Polygon-accae). A scrambling shrub or climber,
with hollow internodes indigenous to the Solomon Islands.
Myrmecodia Beccari and other spp. (Rnbiaccac). Epiphytic plants, indigenous to
Malaya, with a hollow tuberous base.
Triplaris surinamensis. (Poly 'gon :accac\ A tree of Surinam, with large hollow
stems which harbour ants.
SACRED TREES OF INDIA, CEYLON, ETC.
The worship of certain plants or trees, supposed to possess
supernatural qualities, was at one time practised in many parts of
the world, and the custom has still survived among certain races
in tropical countries. This is more especially the case in India,
where numerous trees or plants are held more or less sacred or
in high esteem for temple offerings. The following are some of
the principal species thus employed :
Ficus religiosa. Bo-tree; Peepul ; Aswatha, S. (Urticaceae). The most sacred
tree of India and Ceylon, being venerated by Hindus, Buddhists and
other races. Devout Buddhists will not injure the smallest seedling or
branch of this tree. The specimen at Anuradhapura, Ceylon, is probably
the oldest historical tree in the world, having been brought from India
in B. C. 288.
SACRED TREES 583
Butea frondosa. Palas or Parasu. (Lcguiniiiosac). A beautiful tree, especially
sacred to Brahmin races in India.
Melia Azedarach. Xeem or Nim Tree ; Persian Lilac ; Bead Tree. (Mt'liucctte).
Nyctanthes Arbor-tristis. Sepala or Sepalika ; " Night-flowering jasmine."
(Oletict'tic). A small tree of Central India; the flowers are much used
in Hindu worship and as votive offerings.
Plumeria acutifolia. Temple Tree. (Apocynaccae). A small tree, commonly
planted near Buddhist temples in Ceylon, the highly-scented flowers
being greatly esteemed as temple offerings.
Ocimum sanctum. Sacred Basil : Tulsi. (Liibiatnc). A herbaceous perennial.
2 to 3 ft. high. This is the most sacred plant in the Hindu religion, and
is consequently found near every- Hindu house throughout India.
Stereospermum xylocarpum. " Padri Tree" of India.
Sterculia colorata. Malaiparutti, T. (Sterculiaceat). A handsome flowering
tree, indigenous to the dry region (Eastern Province) of Ceylon. The
aboriginals (Veddas) sing odes to it.
Prosopis spicigera. Sami Tree. (Leguminosae). A small tree sacred to the
Hindus generally all over India.
Kigelia pinnata. Sausage Tree. (Btgnoninccae). A large spreading tree with
large curious gourd-like fruits, indigenous to tropical Africa, in parts of
which it is held sacred by the Natives. See p. 577, etc.
Nandina domestica. " Sacred Bamboo " of China. (Berberidaccae). An erect
shrub with unbranching stems, bearing tufts of small pinnate leaves at the
top, producing large panicles of creamy flowers, followed by red berries ;
native of S. China, and much esteemed in that country for use at temples.
Nelumbium speciosum. Egyptian Lotus ; Olu, S. (Xynipliiicnccac). A handsome
water-plant with large round leaves, and very large pink or white flowers
borne on erect stalks 2 to 3 ft. above the water. It has been held sacred
by the Egyptians from time immemorial, and is also venerated in parts
of India, China, etc.
CHAPTER XXVI.
1. PASTURE, GRAZING, AND FODDER PLANTS
2. MEDICINAL PLANTS OF CEYLON
3. EDIBLE HERBS USED IN CEYLON
PASTURE, GRAZIXG, ETC.
[S.— SINHALESE; 7'.=TAMiL3.
A striking feature of agriculture in the tropics is the scarcity
of pasture, natural or artificial, for grazing stock. Here we iind
the natural herbage characteristic of cooler climes replaced by
jungle or scrub ; a large portion of the natural grasses grow
coarse and wiry ; what should be herbs are shrubs, and weeds
soon over-run cleared areas unless frequently eradicated. A
contributing factor to the scarcity of pasture is the fact that our
cultivated crops are mainly perennial trees or shrubs, not annuals
as in temperate countries, so that it is impracticable to adopt any
system of crop rotation, which ordinarily includes forage and
grazing crops. Added to these circumstances, there is often
either insufficient or excessive rainfall, or soil which is of a hard
impervious nature and lacking in humus, the latter being one of
the most essential ingredients in good pasture land. It must,
however, be admitted that the absence of conditions which
naturally conduce to good pasturage can to some extent be
overcome, and circumstances demand that the best efforts be made
to that end. Cattle are especially indispensable to the peasants,
either for dairy or draught purposes, yet it is surprising how little
is attempted to provide for their proper sustenance. The average
native owner of cattle (and few who are not) seldom makes any
attempt to provide pasture for them, and they are constantly
allowed to roam and pick up what they can. A few head of
cattle, properly nourished, should be regarded as a useful asset to
every estate, whether in the low-country or at the higher elevations.
In addition to their dairy produce, cattle furnish excellent natural
manure. Some planters maintain that, for most crops, this is the
best of all manures, and in the days of coffee cultivation in Ceylon
PASTURE AND FODDER PLAXTS 585
many kept a herd of cattle on the estate mainly for the sake of
manure, as is still done on in my coftee estates in South India. Good
pasture land, too, may often bring in an appreciable return in
grazing fees. Further, the average butcher's meat in the tropics
is capable of much improvement by more attention being given
to fattening cattle — a matter which at present receives but little
consideration.
Formation of Pastures. — Low-lying Hats or ravines, where
the soil is of a moist sandy or alluvial nature, usually constitutes
the best land for pasture purposes or for growing fodder grasses.
The soil should be well-tilled by trenching or ploughing to a
depth of 15 in. or more, removing the roughest stones, roots or other
obstacles, and leaving a tolerably smooth surface. The latter
should be gone over with a roller, so as to break the clods and
secure a firm and even surface A certain amount of shade is
beneficial, both for the growth ot the grass and for affording
shelter to cattle from the sun. Therefore, existing trees should
be left at suitable distances apart or, where these are wanting,
good shade trees should be planted. Pastures may be formed by
sowing seed or by planting roots or cuttings of suitable grasses at
a few inches apart. When the former method is adopted, a good
seed mixture, including a proportion of herbaceous leguminous or
clover-like plants, should be procured, the seed being sown broad-
cast and afterwards raked or harrowed into the soil. A suitable
mixture has the effect of keeping down weeds in addition to
furnishing the best pasturage. Most perennial grasses are easily
propagated by division of the roots, which, if planted out in wet
weather at distances of 6 to 8 inches apart, should cover the
ground in a short space of time.
Upkeep of Pastures.— For the subsequent maintenance of the
pasturage, care must be taken to keep down coarse weeds or
woody growths which are liable to appear. An occasional surface
dressing with a fertilizer is most beneficial and well repays the
cost and trouble. Irrigation above all things, especially in dry
seasons, may be said to be the secret of success in the upkeep
of green pastures. In Australia, America, South Africa, etc.,
irrigation not only increases the yield, but also improves greatly
the feeding qualities of pasture or fodder.
Pasture among Tree Products. — The growing of pastures bet-
ween certain perennial or tree crops, as on coconut plantations, is
sometimes practicable, and at the same time beneficial to the main
586 SELECTED FODDER GRASSES
crop. A well-tilled condition of the soil between the trees aids the
retention of moisture, while the light filtering shade afforded by
the trees favours the production of tender herbage.
Pasture and Fodder Plants in Ravines, Patanas, Compounds,
etc. — On estates there are often ravines, strips of private roadsides,
unopened forests or jungle, etc., which, though regarded as waste
ground, might be utilized for the growth of pasture or forage
plants. Unopened forests or jungle in many cases need only have
the tangle of undergrowth removed to afford the necessary con-
ditions for good pasturage. Patanas and chena land might also be
reclaimed in many places and utilized for pasturing, while native
compounds or so-called gardens could be much improved by
clearing away the useless undergrowth and encouraging the growth
of fodder or herbage under the shade of coconuts, jak trees, etc.,
— a factor which should also conduce to the improvement of local
sanitation and the reduction of malaria. Under the seapage of
tanks or reservoirs there are often considerable areas which might
well be utilized for grazing purposes or for growing green fodder,
the moisture and nature of the soil in such localities being usually
well adapted to this purpose.
Fallow Rice Fields and Conservation of Fodder. After reap-
ing a harvest of rice, the goiya (Sinhalese farmer) usually leaves
his fields bare for a considerable period, in some cases abandoning
them for several years. If these were re-irrigated and planted
under intercrops of leguminous plants, the latter would not only
provide feed for cattle during the dry season, but would also have
the effect of renovating the soil. In some countries it is customary
to make provision for seasons of scarcity by converting surplus grass
or fodder into hay or ensilage. Ensilage has the advantage of
conserving forage plants in their green nourishing state, and keeps
good for several years. The method of procedure is simple, a pit
(called a silo) sufficient to hold from 25 to 50 tons or more of green
forage being excavated, and the earth so removed placed on top of
the mass so as to act as a covering and a weight at the same time.
SELECTED FODDER GRASSES
The suitability of grasses for fodder purposes depends in many
cases on the extent of care bestowed on their cultivation. It
is well known that the same kinds of grasses do not succeed
equally well in all localities, and that certain species are more
suited to some districts than others. English grasses, it may be
said, are seldom, if ever, a success in the tropics, and even at the
SELECTED FODDER GRASSES
587
higher elevations they invariably become, in course of time,
replaced by local species. The most important fodder grasses
grown in Ceylon are the " Guinea grass" (Pnnicum maxim /////)
and "Mauritius-grass" (P. bnrbinodc) in the low-country, and the
"Golden Crown-grass" (Panicuin dilataium] up-country.
The following selections are given alphabetically : —
Andropogon (Sorghum) halepensis. Johnson-grass or Cuba-
grass. A tall handsome perennial with creeping rhizomes, common all over
India. It is esteemed for green fodder and for hay, and is largely grown in
Field of " Mauritius "- or " Water "-Grass ( Puniciini barbinodc
or P. iiniticiiin), on Experiment Station, Peradeniya, Ceylon.
India. Southern United States, and Australia. In India the seed is collected and
eaten by the poorer classes.
A nth 1st iria austral is (= A. imberbis). The "Kangaroo-grass" of
Australia, common also in Ceylon. India, and East Africa. It is a perennial,
growing about 3 ft. in height, and in Eastern Australia is regarded as perhaps
the most useful of the indigenous grasses. Stock of all kind are fond of it. In
East Africa also it is considered excellent for green forage and for making hay.
Anthistiria Cymbaria. " Karawata manu," S. An abundant grass in the
patanas of upper Dimbula. FKKWSON states : " Often cut and dried for fodder
588
SELECTED FODDER GRASSES
for cattle, being perhaps the best substitute for hay of all the grasses found in
Ceylon."
Astrelba pectinata. " Mitchell Grass." A perennial. 2 to 3 ft. high,
native of Queensland, highly esteemed as a fodder grass.
Cymbopogon (Andropogon) pertusus. A common grass in Ceylon,
from the sea-coast up to about 2,000 feet elevation ; excellent for fodder either
in a green or dry state, and cattle are very fond of it.
Cynodon Dactylon ; " Doob " or " Doub-grass;" "Bahama-grass;"
"Bermuda- grass;" Arugam-pillu, T. A prostrate perennial species, found in all
tropical countries, especially in the drier regions. It resists extreme drought, and
GUINEA GKASS OX K1VHR HANK, PERADEXIYA.
is an important grass for covering bare barren land in dry districts or near
the sea. Excellent for fodder or hay ; in British Guiana it gave a crop, on ex-
periment, of 22 tons green fodder per acre, in 12 monthly mowings. Easily
propagated by cuttings or seed. Specially suited to dry districts. Forms a
good sward, and in India, Egypt, etc., is a favourite lawn grass.
Eragrostis abyssinica. Known as Teff, Jtheff, or Thaff. An Abys-
sinian grass, cultivated for its grain as well as for fodder. It is highly spoken
of as a grass for dry regions.
Euchlaena (Reana) luxurians. Teosinte. A tall annual grass from
Guatemala, and one of the most prolific of fodder plants. Under favourable
SELECTED FODDER GRASSES 589
conditions it grows from 10 to 15 "feet in height and yields very large crops.
At Madras, under irrigation, a single crop gave a yield of about 20 tons per
acre ; the crop for the year may be 50 to 80 tons. Cattle and horses are very
fond of it.
Ischaemum ciliare. " Rat-tana," S; " Nandu-kanni," 7\ A common
perennial grass, found at all elevations in Ceylon. At one time commonly
grown under the shade of coconuts near Colombo and brought into town as a
fodder for cattle.
Ischaemum muticum. A common grass in damp situations near
Colombo, large quantities of it. according to FERGUSON, "being collected by the
grass-women for horse food in Colombo." In the jungle, where it obtains
support, it is a tall grass and grows to several feet in height.
Ischaemum timorense ( Spodiopogon obliquivalvis). A slender
Draggling grass, common in the low-country, usually inhabiting damp and
shady places ; an excellent plant for green fodder. MR. JOWITT has pointed out
that this grass is remarkable for its aerial roots, which become embedded in
gelatinous matter during the monsoon rains.
Panicum Burmanni. Pagister grass, or Scotch grass of the West
Indies. — It is found chiefly in wet land, and so prolific is it that a single acre is
recorded to be " sufficient to maintain five horses for a whole year."
Panicum Crus-galli. Ccckspur-grass, " Wel-marukku," S. An annual
grass, of which there are several varieties, 1£ to 3 ft. high, found in the low-
country of Ceylon and throughout the tropics. An excellent fodder, especially
esteemed in Queensland. WATT describes one variety of this in India as the
quickest growing of all the millets, being harvested in some localities within six
weeks of being sown.
Panicum maximum. Guinea grass, " Rata-tana," S. This well-known
species constitutes one of the best fodder grasses of the tropics. In Ceylon it
holds first place as regards the low country. It has been introduced here from
tropical Africa, and thrives best on deep alluvial moist soil, flourishing from sea-
level to about 3,000 feet or higher. Near Colombo, it may be seen thriving on
almost pure sand, sometimes reaching a height of 4 to 6 feet. Under good cul-
tivation it can be cut four or five times a year, each cutting capable of yielding, it
has been estimated, 20 tons or more per acre. Seldom produces seed here, but
is readily propagated by division.
Panicum barbinode ( =P. muticum). This is known by various
names, as Mauritius-, Para-, Water-, and Buffalo-grass, also " Diya-tanakDla," S.
It is a somewhat coarse, vigorous plant, thriving and spreading rapidly in damp
places, often taking complete possession of the soil. It has rather succulent stems
and leaves, with the nodes distinctly hairy, and roots readily at the joints ; the
latter are said to grow after passing through animals. In Ceylon, where it is
naturalised at the lower elevations, it may be considered as ranking next in im-
portance to the Guinea-grass, whilst it is also much grown in other tropical
countries, as the West Indies, Florida, Mauritius, and Bengal. It is a native of
tropical America, and was introduced to the Eastern tropics about 1850.
Panicum repens. " Et-tora," S. A widely distributed grass, common
in Ceylon from sea-level to 6,000 feet elevation, and thriving equally well in dry
sandy soil as in marshes. On some estates it is a common weed, albeit an ex-
cellent fodder for cattle, and large quantities of it used to be brought into
Colombo for this purpose.
590 SELECTED FODDER GRASSES
Panicum spectabile. " African Wonder Grass;" " Capim-de-Angola."
A valuable fodder plant, long established in Brazil and other parts of tropical
America, supposed to have been first introduced from the west coast of Africa.
It is distinguished by long broad leaves, softly bearded nodes, and grows 5 to
6 feet in height. Readily propagated by division ; prefers moist situations and
spreads rapidly when once established.
Paspalum dilatatum, known as the Hairy -flowered Paspalum, Golden-
crown, etc. A useful perennial grass, indigenous to South America, introduced
into Australia some years ago and into India and Ceylon about 1900; much re-
lished by cattle. Suited only to the higher elevations, say, 3,000 to 6,000 feet.
Flourishes in any good soil, and is estimated to yield 10 tons or more of green
forage per acre. Excellent for binding railway banks and for similar purposes.
It has a tendency to grow in clumps, attains a height of from 18 to 24 inches,
and is easily propagated by roots, cuttings, or seed.
Setaria imberbris. A tall grass of East Africa, where it is considered
a good forage plant.
Setaria verticillata. A perennial grass found in abundance in some
of the hot and dry districts of Ceylon ; also in East Africa, where it is con-
sidered a good forage plant when young. The grass is remarkable for its
power of resisting severe droughts.
Sorghum vulgare (=Audt'opogon sorghum). Guinea-corn, the Indian or
Great millet. A tall handsome grass, extensively cultivated in India and other
tropical countries, chiefly for its grain. Some varieties are specially grown for
green forage, being cut when two-thirds grown. There are several varieties,
some producing in four cuttings from 20 to 30 tons per acre.
Sporobolus indicus. A perennial grass, 2 to 3 feet high, common
throughout Ceylon and other tropical countries. Grows luxuriantly on thin
soil, and in the young state affords good forage.
Stenotaphrum complanatum. A semi-creeping leafy grass, 1 to U ft.
high, with smooth glabrous leaves. Thrives best on moist banks or under the
partial shade of trees.
Tricholaena rosea. Natal red-top Grass. An elegant perennial grass,
H to 2 ft. high, with pinkish flowering panicles, introduced from Natal, where
it is much valued for fodder as well as for pasture. Thrives at medium and
high elevations.
Zea Mays. Maize ; Indian-corn ; " Bada-iringu," S. This quick-grow-
ing crop, though usually cultivated for its grain, is sometimes used for green
forage, being cut when about two-thirds grown. It is a most productive crop,
a well-cultivated patch being known to produce about 60 tons of green fodder
per acre.
OTHER FODDER PLANTS
For feeding, dairying, or fattening purposes it is desirable to
vary the grass diet of cattle by mixing with it other nourishing
herbage in suitable combination. The following plants, though
FODDER PLAXTS 591
unsuitable for close grazing, may be found useful for this
purpose : —
Alyssicarpus vaginalis. "Aswenna," S. A leguminous straggling
perennial, common in the low-country, more especially in the dry region.
Much relished by cattle.
Amarantus gangeticus. "Sudu-tampala," S; Chirukirai, T. A suc-
culent plant, 2 to 3 feet high, common in the low-country and throughout the
tropics, often cultivated in native gardens as a curry vegetable.
Chou Moellier, Chou de Burghley, or Cabbage Broccoli. Consider-
ed to be a cross between the Cabbage and Broccoli ; attains a height of 4 to
6 ft. It possesses to some extent the characteristics of both these, and may be
used either as a vegetable or as feed for stock. It is more specially as a fodder
plant that it is cultivated, the leaves being broken off from the stem from time
to time ; but it is also sometimes grown as a vegetable. MR. DKIEBERG informs
me that it has become a popular vegetable in some school-gardens in the low-
country, growing to a height of 6 ft. or more.
Commelina benghalensis. " Diya-meneriya," S. A slender succulent
herb with creeping stems and bright blue flowers, common at low elevations in
Ceylon and elsewhere in the tropics. Cattle eat it with relish.
Desmodium gyrans. " Chanchala," S. ; also called the " Telegraph
plant " ( from the rotary motion of the two lateral leaflets, resembling sema-
phores ). An i rect leguminous perennial, about 2 ft. high, indigenous to the
moist low-country up to about 3,000 feet.
Glycine hispida. Soya-bean. In sub-tropical countries, where this
annual thrives and grows to several feet in height, it furnishes valuable fodder
either in the green or dry state. See Tropical Vegetables.
Hedysarum coronarium. Soola, or Sulla-cl.<ver. A leguminous
plant, 2 to 3 feet high, much esteemed in Australia for green forage. Said to
give a yield of 40 to 50 tons per acre. Thrives best in moist, deep, calcareous
soil.
Pithecolobium ( Inga ) saman. Rain tree ; Peni-karal, S. The thick
sugary pods of this well-known shade tree are very nutritious and much relish-
ed by cattle. They resemble the Locust-bean of commerce, and in South
America are collected and exported for cattle food, being esteemed in Europe
for fattening purposes.
Ipomoea aquatica. " Kankun." S. A small herbaceous creeper with
succulent stems and leaves, commonly found in the low-country in wet places.
The leaves are used as a curry vegetable by the Natives.
Medicago sativa. Lucerne or Alfalfa. This well-known and much
esteemed leguminous forage plant is not, unfortunately, as a rule suited to the
tropics, except under irrigation ; even in sub-tropical countries irrigation is
generally essential. It has been grown with moderate success at Hakgala
Gardens, Ceylon, where however the cost was out of proportion to the value
of the crop. It should bj sown in drills, thus requiring about 6 to 8 Ib. to sow
an acre.
Mucuna utilis (= Sticilobium deeringianum). Velvet-bean. An
annual, rapidly growing bean, with short, black velvety pods. This and similar
free-growing beans are valuable fodders, and are extensively grown both for
592 PASTURE PLAXTS
this purpose and for renovating the soil in the Southern United States and
elsewhere.
Polygonum. An extensive genus of leafy creeping or erect herbs, some-
times large shrubs, found throughout warm countries, etc., usually inhabiting
wet places. Some ten species are indigenous to Ceylon, several being relished
by cattle.
Trifolium alexandrinum. Berseem, or Egytian clover (Lcgnminosac).
A perennial clover, much esteemed and extensively cultivated in Egypt, es-
pecially in arid salt lands where little or nothing else will thrive. Here it flour-
ishes, and affords the principal green food for cattle, horses, camels and
donkeys ; it is also valued for grazing as well as for reclaiming infertile brack-
ish land.
PASTURE PLANTS.
Grasses are not as a rule equally well adapted for fodder and
pasture, many of the fodder class being unsuited for close grazing
or pasturing. Some of the foregoing species may, however, be
also included under this head.
Bromus unioloides. " Prairie-grass." A good pasture and hay grass
in Australia. Thrives best on moist heavy soils.
Chrysopogon (Andropogon) aciculatus. "Tutteri," S; "Love-
grass." A perennial, very common in Ceylon up to 4,000 ft. Resists drought
well, forms good gra/ing, also a good sward. See under Lawns.
Cynodon Dactylon. Doob-, or doub-grass. See Fodder Gi asses.
Desmodium heterophyllum. " Maha-undupiyali," vS. (Leguminosae).
A perennial prostrate herb, with pale purple flowers, common in the low-coun-
try up to 2,000 feet. Forms an excellent constituent of pastures and grows in
shade or in the open.
Desmodium triflorum. " Hin-undupiyali," S. A very small perennial
herb, similar to the latter species, but with finer foliage and bright purple
flowers. Very common in the low-country ; forms a beautiful close sward.
Eleusine indica. " Wal-mal-kurakkan," S. An annual grass, forming
good pasture, common in most districts in Ceylon.
Eragrostis tenella. A slender annual spreading grass, of which there
are many forms. Found all over the low-country.
Ischaemum ciliare. " Rat-tana," S. See Fodder Grasses.
Justicia procumbens. "Mayani," S. (Acanthaceae). A prostrate
spreading herb, commonly found among grass in the moist region, at all
elevations.
Oplismenus (Panicum) compositus. A slender creeping grass com-
mon in the low-country, flourishing especially under the shade of trees. Of
this there are several varieties.
Panicum curvatum. An elegant slender grass, common in the low-
country of Ceylon, also in South India, Madagascar, etc. It is a good pasture
or forage plant and. according to FERGUSON, used to form a large proportion of
the fodder collected near Colombo for horses.
Panicum prostratum. " Samay-pillu," 7\ A slender creeping grass,
common in the hotter parts of Ceylon and much relished by cattle.
FODDER PLANTS 593
Panicum repens. " Et-tora," S. See Fodder Grasses.
Panicum scrobiculatum. Of this grass there are several forms, many
with distinct Sinhalese names. It is common from sea level to 6,000 feet,
resists drought well and cattle are fond of it.
Paspalum conjugatum. Known in Ceylon as the "Barbados sour-
Grass," and in the Philippines as "Bitter" or "Buffalo" Grass. A slender
leafy grass, introduced from the West Indies, now common in the low-country
along roadsides and in moist situations. It is specially adapted to shady places,
spreads rapidly, and frequently takes complete possession of the ground. Suited
up to 3,000 feet.
Paspalum dilatatum. See Fodder Grasses.
Paspalum (Digitaria) longiflorum (=P. filiculme). A very slen-
der perennial creeping grass, common from the sea shore up to 3,000 feet or
more. Resists drought well, and is often the first grass to become established
on new clearings in the low-country ; it forms a large proportion of the swards
about Colombo. At Peradeniya it is an excellent lawn grass.
Paspalum sanguinale. "Gurwal," S. One of the most common
grasses in Ceylon, forming excellent pasture ; much relished by cattle.
Paspalum obtusifolium. A perennial grass, introduced from Mexico,
naturalised in Ceylon and very common about Peradeniya under the shade of
trees, often to the exclusion of all other grasses ; distinct by its broad sinuate
leaves ; excellent for gra/ing.
Pennisetum cencrhotdes. Congayam grass. A perennial, 10 to 12 in.
high, specially suited to dry districts. Said to afford good fodder and
pasture in South India.
Sporobolus diander. A modeiate-sized grass, common throughout
Ceylon and the Eastern tropics generally.
Ruellia ringens. "Nil-puruk," S.(Acanthaceac). A perennial straggling
herb, commonly found among grass in the low-country .
BROWSE (OR FAMINE) FODDER PLANTS
In times of scarcity of food, as during a prolonged and severe
drought, cattle or stock will eat almost anything that is green or
juicy. Thus even the gorse, the prickly-pear, rubber trees, tea
bushes and palm leaves may be consumed with relish. The
following may be mentioned as among the principal plants which
are of importance in such circumstances : —
Atriplex nummularia. Salt-bush (Cticnopodiaceae). This and other
species of Atriplex, which are perennial bushy plants and thrive in arid districts
or on sandy soil near the seacoast, form an important food for stock in
Australia and elsewhere in periods of drought.
Atriplex repens. " Elechivi," T. A small prostrate succulent shrub,
common on the sandy shores in the dry region of Ceylon and South India.
The Tamils of Jaffna eat the leaves as a vegetable.
Cytisus proliferus. Tree-lucerne ; Tagasaste. A small leguminous
tree, indigenous to the mountains of the Canary Islands, where the leafy
branches are used largely as food for cattle. Suitable to a dry climate and
loose sandy soil.
594
MEDICINAL PLANTS OF CEYLON
Mikania scandens (Compositae). This annual herbaceous climber,
introduced from Malay and now commonly naturalised in the low-country of
Ceylon, yields a quantity of green fodder which is relished by cattle at all
times, especially in the dry season when food is scarce.
Opuntia Dillenii. Prickly-pear. (Cactaccae). This and other species
of Opuntia, which have become a serious pest in certain countries, notably in
Queensland, are often turned into a palatable food for stock in times of scarcity.
It is best when boiled or crushed and used with ensilage or other fodder, and in
this way is said to have a fattening effect on cattle. A spineless form, raised by
the late MR. BURBANK in California, is highly spoken of by some.
Prosopis juliflora. Mesquit-tree ; Cashaw, or Algaroba Bean. A
leguminous tree of tropical America, the leaves, shoots, and pods of which are
used to feed cattle. In dry weather the pods are said to be as nutritious as
corn.
Prosopis pubescens is the " Screw mesquit," a tree of similar value
to the above, found in Texas and Mexico.
PRINCIPAL PLANTS USED IN NATIVE MEDICINE
IN CEYLON.
Botanical and Native Name.
Natural Order.
Purposes for which used.
Abrus precatorius. Olinda-
Legiuiiinosac
Juice of green leaves used for purifying
wel, S. Indian liquorice.
the blood ; root taken for sore throat
and rheumatism.
Abutilon asiaticum.
Malvaceae
Root a tonic, also used for piles.
Anoda, S.
Acalypha indica.
EiipJiorbi-
Vermifugal and carminative, also exter-
Kuppamenya, S.
aceae
nally applied to sores.
Achyranthes aspera.
Amaran-
Juice of leaves used for dysentery.
Karalsebo, S.
taceae
Acorus Calamus.
A raccae
Used in bowel complaints of children.
Wada-kaha, S.
Adhatoda vasica.
Acantliaccnc
Whole plant used in diseases caused by
Adatoda, S.
excessive phlegm ; also in menorrha-
gia.
Aegle Marmelos. Beli, S.
Rntaceac
Root, bark and leaves used in flatulency.
The unripe fruit boiled, and then
baked under hot ashes, checks
diarrhoea and dysentery ; also boiled
and juice taken for chronic diarrhoea.
Ripe fruit cooling and laxative, taken
for piles.
Aerva lanata. Pol-
A mar a n-
Much employed in coughs and as a
kudupala, S.
taccae
vermifuge for children.
Aloe vera. Green aloes.
Liliaccac
Fresh juice of leaves cathartic and cool-
ing; used in fever, spleen and liver
troubles, also in eye diseases.
Alternanthera triandra.
Amaran-
A local cooling application for giddiness
Mukunuwenna, S.
iaceae
Areca Catechu. Puwak, S.
Palmae
Applied externally to ulcers and for
strengthening the gums, also given
for worms in animals.
.S.=Sinhalese ; 2'.=Tamil.
MEDICINAL PLANTS OF CEYLON
595
Botanical and Native Name. Natural Order.
Asparagus falcatus.
Hathawariya, S,
Azadirachta indica.
Kohomba, S.
Brassica juncea. Aba, S.
Mustard
Brucea sumatrana.
Caesalpinia Bonduc.
Kumburu-\vel. S.
Calophyllum Inophyllum.
Domba, vS.
Calotropis gigantea.
Wara, S.
Cardiospermum Halica-
cabum. Penela-wel. S.
Muda-cottam, T.
Caryota urens. Kitul. S.
Cassia auriculata. Rana-
\vara, S; Matara Tea.
Cassia Fistula. Ehela, S;
Pudding-pipe.
Celastrus paniculata.
Duhudu, 5.
Cannabis sativa. Causa, S;
Ganja; Bhang: Indian
hemp.
Cissampelos Pareira.
Diyamitta. S.
Cocos nucifera. Pol, S.
Coconut.
Coleus aromaticus. Kappra-
walliya. S.
Cratoeva Roxburghii.
Lunu-warana. .S.
CrotonTJglium. Jayapala, S;
Croton-oil plant.
Curcuma Longa. Kaha. S.
Cyperus rotundus.
Kalanduru, S.
Daemia extensa. M e d a -
hangu, S. Veliparatti. T.
Liliaceac
Meliacetie
Crncifcrae
Siinarn-
baccac
Li'gnniiitostic
Gntti ferae
Asclcpiadcac
Sapindaceac
Palmac
Legnnn'iiosne
Purposes for which used.
Tuberous roots commonly used in cool-
ing medicines, also for venereal dis-
eases, etc.
Juice of leaves for injuries to the eyes
and for intestinal worms. Fruit a
vermifuge and purgative ; oil from
seed for rheumatism.
Seeds pungent, used as poultice in gout
and inflammation ; leaves promote
appetite.
Decoction of leaves taken for dysentery.
An introduced plant, naturalised in
Ceylon.
jTender leaves for toothache; also for
worms in children.
: Kernel of fruit for ulcers and hoof
I disease of cattle ; root and bark for
j rheumatic pains.
Green leaves applied locally to dispel
swellings Root a tonic. Milk of the
plant taken internally for leprosy.
Roots and leaves used as an aperient,
also as hair wash.
Bark and root applied to cuts and
wounds.
Bark and root used as an alterative ;
! dried leaves used as tea.
„ . [Tender leaves as a mild purgative in
rheumatic fever ; bark astringent, used
with other medicines for rheumatism.
Cflastraccac Bark considered to strengthen the brain
and purify the blood ; cures sores, etc.
Juice of the leaves in composition with
other medicine given as a vermifuge.
Powerfully narcotic; leaves smoked,
but now prohibited. Cultivation of
the plant also prohibited in Ceylon.
Roots used in fever and diarrhoea.
Menisper-
nunt-iu
Pa I mac
Oil applied to head for cooling. Pulp
of young trait given in sjn-stroke.
Roots for strengthening the gums. etc.
Used in asthma, chronic coughs, etc.
Leaves for gouty swellings. Bark to
Labiati'at'
Capparidae
sharpen the appetite.
Enphorbi- Seeds a powerful purgative ; poisonous.
accac Source of Croton-oil.
Scitantiiicac Tsed in skin diseases, also in ophthalmia.
Cypcraccae Tubers given in fever, diarrhoea, dyspep-
sia and stomach complaints.
Asclepia- Emetic, given as an expectorant in bron-
daccnc chitis.
.S.=Sinhalese ; I'.=-Tamil.
596
MEDICINAL PLANTS OF CEYLON
Botanical and Native Name.
Natural Order.
Purposes for which used.
Datura fastuosa. Attana, S.
Solanaceae
Roots used in bites from mad dogs ;
supposed to cure insanity ; whole
plant dried and smoked as tobacco for
asthma. Poisonous.
Eclipta erecta.
Coinpositac
Used to purify the blood.
Kikirindia, S.
Embelia Ribes.
Myrsincac
Bark and leaves acid and astringent,
Wal-embilla, S.
taken for boils and skin diseases.
Emilia sonchifolia.
Coinpositac
Used for cuts and wounds.
Kadupara, S.
Erythoxylon lucidum.
Litmceae
Leaves chewed to expel worms, also to
Bata-kirilla, S.
appease hunger.
Evolvulus alsinoides.
Convtth'iil-
Bitter tonic and febrifuge.
Visnukranti, S. Vichnu-
aceae
kiranti, 7"
Feronia elephantum.
Rutaccae
Green fruit checks diarrhoea ; ripe fruit
Diwul. S.
taken for kidney and throat affections.
Ficus religiosa. Bo-gaha, S.
Urticaceae
Juice of bark as a mouth-wash for tooth-
ache and for strengthening the gums.
Garcinia gambogia.
G it tti ferae
Bark and leaves for constipation ; also
Goraka, .S.
used to heal cuts and wounds.
Gynandropsis pentaphvlla.
Capparideae
Reputed cure for cobra-bite ; also used
Wela, S.
for earache, toothache, etc.
Gynura pseudo-China.
Coinpositac
Tuberous roots largely used in cooling
Ala-beth, Chena-ala,
medicines, also for leprosy.
Mul-beth, S.
Hemidesmus indicus.
Asclcpidcae
Root to purify the blood.
" Iramusu." S: Indian
Sarsaparilla.
Herpestis Monnieria.
Whole plant used as a mild purgative
Lunuvila, S
for children ; also as fomentation for
erysipelas and elephantiasis.
Hibiscus micranthus.
Malvaceae
A valuable febrifuge. ( TRIMEN ).
Perumaddi, 7.
Hydrocotyle asiatica.
Umbelli ferae
A good tonic, chiefly for children. Puri-
Gotu-kola. S.
fies the blood, promotes digestion,
and cures nervousness; also used for
dysentery.
Hygrophila spinosa.
Acanthaccac
Whole plant used in diabetes.
Katu-ikiri, S.
Ipomoea Turpethum.
Convnlvnl-
Roots used in fever, drops}', etc.
Trastavvalu, S.
aceae
Ixora coccinea. Ratmal or
Rnbiaccac
Flowers and bark used for bloodshot
Ratambala, S.
eyes ; leaves for sores, ulcers, etc.
Justicia Betonica.
Acanthaccac
Leaves used as a poultice to boils.
Sudhu-puruk
Lasia spinosa. Kohila, S.
A raceae
A common remedy for piles.
Lasiosiphon eriocephalus.
Thymelac-
Bark used externally.
Naha, S.
accae
Limonia alata.
Rutaccac
Leaves and bark used in fomentations
Tumpat-kurundu, S.
for rheumatic pains.
Mimusops Elengi.
Sapotaceae
Bark used for decaying gums ; also for
M unamal, S.
snake bite.
Modecca palmata.
Passi-
Juice of the leaves and roots used exter-
Hondala, S.
floraceac
nally for skin diseases. Fruit poison-
ous.
[S. —Sinhalese; 7'.=Tamil].
MEDICINAL PLANTS OF CEYLON
597
Botanical and Native N'aire.
Natural Order.
Purposes for which used.
Moringa pterygosperma. Moriugnc
Murunga. .S; Horse-
radish Tree.
Munronia pumila. Mt'liticcac
Bin-Kohamba. S.
Musa Plantain or Banana Scitainiiieaf
Nelumbium speciosum. i Xymplnii'-
Xelun, S.\ aceae
Ocimum sanctum.
Maduru-tala, S.
Oroxylum indicum.
Totilla, S
Oxystelma esculentum.
Kulappalai, T.
Phyllanthus Emblica.
Labiatae
Bignoniaceae
Asclepiaileae
Enpliorbi-
PiperBetle. Bulat-wel, S;
Betel-leaf.
Plectranthus zeylanicus.
Iri-variya, S.
Plumbago rosea. Rat-
nitul, S.
P. — zeylanica. Ela-
nitul, 5.
Piper longum. Tippili, S.
Nelli, S.' accac
Piperaceae
Labiatae
PI it ui •
bagiueac
Bark, leaves and root acrid and pungent:
juice taken internally to promote appe-
tite and help digestion ; used externally
as a rubefacient.
Whole plant very bitter, used in cases
of debility and remittent fever A
good substitute for the tonic "chiretta."
Juice taken as an antidote for snake-
poison.
Stem used in intermittent fever and
dysentery. Stamens for bleeding piles
and in parturition.
Fragrant and aromatic, used in decoc-
tions for cough and catarrh, sometimes
chewed as a substitute for betel.
Bark a bitter tonic ; checks fever, diar-
rhoea, etc
As a cure for hydrophobia.
Fruits a cooling laxative, used in dys-
pepsia.
Carminative and stimulant ; a common
masticatory.
Whole plant aromatic; used as a car-
minative, blood-purifier, etc.
Roots commonly used for illegal pur-
poses.
Piperaceae
Leguminosae
Pongamia glabra.
Magul-karanda, S.
Punica granatum. Delun, S; Lytliraceac
Pomegranate.
Randia dumetorum.
Kukuruman, S.
Ricinus communis. Tel-
endaru S. (Castor Oil)
Saccharum officinarum.
Sugar-cane.
Sesamum indicum. Ella, 1 .
Tel-tala or \Val-tala, S.
Solanum indicum.
Tibbatu, S.
S. — xanthocarpum.
Ela-batu, S.
Spilanthus Acmella.
Akmella, S.
Strychnos Nux-vomica.
Nux-vomica ; Goda-
kaduru, S.
Rnbiaceae
Enphorbi-
aceae
Gramincac
Pedaliaceae
Solaiiaceai
Compositae
Logan iaccae
Roots and dried flower-spikes used in
cough, hoarseness and dyspepsia.
Root used as a tooth-brush. Juice of
root-bark for sores, etc.
Fruit-rind used for diarrhoea. Leaves
boiled and used as eye-wash.
Root used for diarrhcea and biliousness.
Oil commonly used as a purgative.
Juice commonly used in decoctions.
Oil used for cooling the body. Seeds
pounded with jaggery to purify the
blood.
Used for catarrhal fever, asthma, etc.
Leaves and flowers used for toothache
and sore throat, also to check diarr-
hoea of women at child-birth.
Bark and seeds used as tonic in nervous
debility, rheumatism, etc. Poisonous.
S=Sinhalese ; r=Tamil.
598
EDIBLE HERBS OF CEYLOX
Botanical and Native Name. Natural Order.
Purposes for which used.
S. — potatorum. Ingini, S. Loganiaccae
Tamarindus indica. Tama-tLcgiiniinosac
rind. Siyambala, S.
Tephrosia purpurea. Pila, S;
Kavilai, 1.
Terminalia Chebula. Cowbretnccat
Aralu, S
T.— belerica. Bulu, S.
Tinosperma cordifolia. Mems-
Rasa-kinda, S.j pertnaccac
Trichadenia zeylanica. Bixacecic
Tolol or Titta. S.
Trichosanthes Cucumerina. Ciicur-
Dummella, S. bitaceae
Seeds not poisonous; rubbed on inside
of vessels, they have the effect of
I clearing muddy water.
Tender leaves used as poultices for boils,,
also as fomentations; seeds used for
| chronic diarrhoea.
Common village medicine for children.
( TRIMEX ).
Bark of nut good for fever, asthma,
chronic diarrhoea, heart and skin dis-
eases.
Nuts very astringent, used in eye dis-
eases, etc.
Stem used in fever, skin diseases, jaun-
dice, and syphilitic affections.
Oil from seed used in skin diseases, and
for burning.
Roots used for expelling intestinal
worms, leaves and stems for bilious
disorders, cutaneous diseases, and as
an emmenagogue.
Vernonift aruhelmintica.
Coitipositac Used in fever with convulsions, etc.
Sanni-nayan, S.
V. — cinera. Monara- ,,
Wounds and sores ; taken internally to
kudumbia, S .
promote perspiration.
Vitex Negundo. Nika. S.
V.erbenaceae
Leaves, bark and root used in toothache
and rheumatism, in eye diseases, and
as a tonic; carminative and vermifuge.
Withania somnifera.
Solan aceae
Used for cough and asthma.
Amukkara, S.
Zingiber officinale. Ginger. Scitamiiieae
A well-known stimulant stomachic and
Inguru, S.
aromatic ; used in indigestion and
fever, etc.
EDIBLE HERBS, ETC., COMMONLY USED AS FOOD
IN CEYLON BY THE
POORER NATIVES, BUT NOT CULTIVATED
Botanical and Common Name.
Natural Order.
Parts Used.
Acalypha indica.
Kuppamaniya, S.
EitpJtorbi-
Leaves
Achyranthes aspera.
Gas-karal-heba, S.
Amaran-
taceae
Acrostichum aureum.
Kere-koku, S.
Filiccac
Tender fronds
Aerva lanata.
Pol-kudupala, S.
Ainaran-
Stems and leaves
t ace at
Allmania nodi flora.
Kumatiya, S.
Leaves
Alternanthera triandra.
Mukunu-wenna, S.
Tender stems and leaves
Amarantus gangeticus.
Sudu-tampala, S.
M
A . — polygonoides .
Kura-tampala, S.
••
"
S.— Sinhalese. T.=Tamil.
EDIBLE HERKS OF CEYLOX
599
Botanical and Common Name.
Natural Order
Parts Used.
A. — spinosus. Katu-tampala. S.
A 111 ara ii-
Tender stems and leaves
taccac
Aponogeton crispum. Kekatiya, S.
\aiadeae
Tuberous roots
Argyreia populifolia. Giritilla, 5".
Com'olvul-
Tender leaves
aceae
Asparagus falcatus. Hathawariya, S.
Liliaceac
Young shoots and roots
Asplenium esculentum. Mi\vana-kola, S.
Filiccae
Tender fronds
Boerhaavia diffusa. Peta-sudupala. S.
Xyctagineae
Leaves
Casoia occidentalis. Pelli-tora, S.
Caesalpineae
Leaves and flowers
C . — tomentosa.
,,
L. and fl's commonly eaten
up-country
C.— Tora. Peti-tora, S.
M
Leaves and flowers
Celosia argentea. Kirihenda, S.
A ma rait -
Stem and leaves
taceae
Ceratopteris thalictroides. Kudamahu-
Filiceae
Succulent fronds
weralla, S.
Commehna benghalensis.
Com in el i-
Stems and leaves
Diya-meneriya S.
naccae
C. — clavata. Girapala, S.
M
f|
Costus speciosus. Tebu, S.
Scitamineae
Tuberous roots
Cycas circinalis. Madu, S.
Cycadeae
Sago from seeds
Dregia volubilis. Kiri-anghuna, S.
Asclcpiadcae
Leaves
Gynandropsis pentaphylla. Wela, S.
Capparideae
M
Hibiscus furcatus. Napiritta, S.
Malvaceae
Tender leaves
Hydrocotyle javanica. Maha-gotukola, S
Umbelliferae
Stalks and leaves
Impatiens flaccida. Kudalu. S.
Geraniaceae
Stem and leaves
Ipomoea acquatica. Kankun, S.
Convolvul-
M
And other species of Ipomoea.
accae
Klugia notoniana. Diya-nilla, S.
Gesneraceae
Leaves
Lasia spinosa. Kohila, S.
A raccae
Tender leaves
Leucas zeylanica. Geta-tumba, S.
La hi a tea c
Leaves
Lippia nudiflora. Herimenakola. S.
Verbetiaceae
w
Marsilea quadnfolia.
Rhizocarp-
Stalks and leaves
Diya-embulembeliya, S.
cac
Monochoria hastaefolia. Diya-habarala, S.
Pontcdcri-
Tender stalks and leaves
accac
Nasturtium officinale. Kakutu-pala, S
L'nici ferae
Stems and leaves
Nelumbium speciosum. Nelun. S.
XyiupJiae-
Seeds
aceae
Nymphoea Lotus. Olu, S.
M
Oxal:s cornicul ita. Hin-embul-
Geraniaceae
Stalks and leaves
embiliya, S.
Pandanus odoratissima. Rumpi, S.
Pa n da n-
Young leaves for flavour-
aceae
ing
Polypodium quercifolium. Baindaru, S.
Filiccae
Young fronds in bud
Portulaca oleracea. Genda-kola, S.
Portitlac-
Stems and leaves
aceac
P.— quadrifida. Hin-genda-kola, S.
M
M
P. — tuberosa. Urugenda-kola, S.
M
Solanum indicum. Tibbatu, S.
Solaiiaceac
Tender fruits
S. — mgrum. Kalukanweriya, S.
Stalks and leaves
S. — xanthocarpum. Ela-batu, S',
M
Yellow fruits
Kandan-kathrikai, T.
Rivea ornata. Muchuddai, T.
Convolvnl-
Fleshy flowers (Jaffna).
accae
Typhonium tnlobatum. Panu-ala, S.
A raccae
Tender leaves
S.=Sinhalese; T.— Tamil.
600 EDIBLE FLOWERS
EDIBLE FLOWERS IN THE TROPICS
Various flowers are edible and relished in different countries,
either for flavouring or as an article of food. In Europe violets,
primroses, pot-marigolds and other flowers are eaten as salads or
in preserves, while in other countries rose-buds are esteemed in
similar preparations. The following are some of the principal
flowers used for food in tropical or sub-tropical countries : —
Abutilon esculentum. — Flowers commonly eaten as a vegetable in Brazil.
Banana. — Young flower heads commonly eaten as a vegetable in Ceylon, etc.;
used in China for pickling.
/In India the fleshy flowers of both
Bassia latifolia. Illipi ; Mahwa ; Butter-tree. «Pecies, produced in February, are
D ..... 4 - dried and eaten by the Natives ;
B.— longitoha. Mee, -S. the average annual yield per tree in
vlndia is estimated at about 200 Ib.
Bombax malabaricum.— Red cotton-tree ; Katu-imbul, S. The fleshy calyces of
the large red flowers, collected as they drop in January and February,
are much relished as a curry vegetable by the Burmese.
Calligonum polygonoides. Phogalli. — Flowers eaten in Northern India, being
made into bread or cooked with butter.
Hibiscus Sabdariffa. Ro/elle — Cultivated for the fleshy persistent enlarged
calyces, which are used for flavouring, also for making jelly.
Lilium Thunbergi. — The flowers form a choice culinary delicacy in China.
Rivea ornata. (Convolvulaceae). The fleshy flowers are eaten in the North
of Ceylon.
Sesbania (Agati) grandiflora. — In Ceylon the flowers are much relished when
boiled or fried. See Tropical Vegetables.
CHAPTER XXVII.
ENEMIES AND FRIENDS OF GARDENS AND
ESTATES
GARDEX AXD ESTATE EXEMIES:-
Besides destructive insects, there are numerous animal pests
which the cultivator of the soil has to contend with in the
tropics. The following are the principal enemies in Ceylon which
come under this head.
Squirrels.— These are sometimes very destructive in the low-
country to fruits and edible seeds. They do considerable damage
to cacao pods, mango fruits, pine- apples, etc., also to rubber
nurseries by picking out and cracking the seed. Shooting, or
driving them away is about the only practical remedy, unless
recourse is had to poisoned baits.
Rats are very destructive, especially to coconuts and root-
crops. Baits poisoned with arsenic is perhaps the best way of
extirpating them. They may be prevented from climbing coconut
palms and other trees by nailing a piece of tin, about 10 to 12
inches wide, on to the trunk of the tree.
Hares.— These, where they abound, do considerable damage
in a garden. A fence of wire-netting is the best protection against
them.
Civet- and palm-cats.— These are sometimes destructive to
fruits, especially pine-apples. Watching for them at night and
shooting them is perhaps the most practical remedy. The native
watcher lures these animals by means of a light carried on his head ;
the light dazzles the cats and enables the watcher with his gun to
come close up to his game.
Deer or elk.— In the hill districts these sometimes do a great
deal of damage by browsing on all tender plants that come within
their reach. A substantial wire-fence of about six strands serves
as a barrier against them.
Porcupines.— These constitute perhaps the worst animal pest
at Hakgala and other up-country gardens. They root up bulbs
602
GARDEN AND ESTATE EX EM IBS
and tubers of every description, doing serious damage in a single
night. Poisoning and entrapping are the usual methods adopted
for their destruction, but these appear to be seldom effectual.
Spring-guns are apparently more effective, and MR. GREEN, late
Government Entomologist, informed me that, one beast which
defied all his efforts for months fell a victim to a spring-gun the
very first night it was set.
Wild-pig .-A very destructive animal in some districts, es-
pecially in Malay, to young rubber plantations and to food crops, as
FLYING FOXES,
as seen suspended from every branch, have completely defoliated the tree.
Cassava. Barbed-wire fencing around the Held or shooting the
animals are about the only remedies.
Cattle.— Trespassing cattle in many places in the low-country,
are a most troublesome nuisance. Nothing short of a bajcbed-
wire fence or a solid wall forms an effective barrier against them.
Impounding when caught trespassing may tend to greater vigilance
on the part of their owner.
GARDEX A\l) ESTATE EXEMIES
603
Elephants sometimes commit serious depredations on estates
or gardens, especially on young clearings or plantations, either by
pulling up or trampling down the plants. A barbed-wire fence is
the best protection.
Flying foxes (Ptcropus Edwanisii}. — These are often an annoy-
ance in the low-country. They commit their depredations on ripen-
ing or fleshy fruits by night, and usually do a considerable amount
of damage to the foliage of trees which they inhabit, sometimes
V ^ ^ ' ^
FLYING FOXKS ON" THK WING. I'ERADENIYA GARDENS.
entirely stripping and killing these. A net is the only safeguard
against them. Frequent tiring at them with a gun scares them
away for a time.
Crows are sometimes formidable enemies to bulbs and
certain young plants. The usual protective means is to shoot one
occasionally, and hang it up where it is desired to scare others.
It' may sometimes be necess:iry to protect the plants or seeds with
a net. A method adopted in California to prevent crows from
604 GARDEN AND ESTATE FRIENDS
attacking corn or maize seed is to dip the seed in tar before sow-
ing. (See Journal of Economic Entomology, Aug. 1909).
Sparrows and other birds.— Where these abound in great
numbers they are a most destructive pest. They have a special
fondness for tender annuals, and in a short time will do consider-
able damage by clearing off young seedlings. Stringing the seed-
beds or rows with black cotton has often the effect of scaring them
off, but nets are about the only reliable protection against them. In
the case of seed-beds, it is recommended to dress the seeds, before
sowing, with red-lead made into a thin paste with water. Among
other grain-feeding birds, MR. GREEN gives the following as the
principal ones for Ceylon : — Weaver Bird (Ploceus philippinus),
Black-bellied Mania (Mnnia Malacca], Spotted Munia (Munia
pnnclata], White-backed Munia (Munia striata], Brown Munia
(Munia nialabarica}, Ceylonese Lorikeet (Loriculus indicus),
Alexandrine Parakeet (Palceornis eupatnns}, Rose-ringed Parakeet
(Pala'ornis torqualus).
Thieves. — These form a pest against which constant watch has
to be kept. Unlike the other pests named, their depredations are not
confined to edible products, but include anything movable. Catch-
ing them in the act and the infliction of a suitable punishment is
not, unfortunately, always an effectual deterrent. Fruit crops
especially, such as coconuts, cocoa, etc., are liable to attack by
night thieves, and the employment of night-watchers is therefore
indispensable. Dried coconut leaves tied round the stems of the
trees (as often adopted in the low-country), give a loud rustling
noise if a person attempt to climb the latter, and so give a warning
of the presence of pilferers.
GARDEN AND ESTATE FRIENDS
Injurious insects, fortunately, have natural enemies which
usually keep them in check, thus maintaining a balance in Nature.
These should be encouraged, and may sometimes be introduced
with success when not already present. The following are
among the worst enemies of insects, and are therefore the best
friends of gardens and estates. (See Carnivorous insects}.
Insectivorous birds. — These play an important part in the
prevention of insect pests by feeding on grubs, caterpillars, etc.
It has been estimated that one bird, on an average, will consume at
least fifty caterpillars a day, so that a family of five would account
GARDEX AXD ESTATE FRIENDS 605
for 250. MR. GREEN, late Government Entomologist for Ceylon,
gives the following as among the more useful insectivorous birds in
Ceylon : (1) The Common Hawk Cuckoo (Hierococcyx varius), (2)
Blue-Tailed Bee-Eater (Merops philippinus), (3) Black Drongo (Buch-
anga atra], (4) Ceylonese White-bellied Drongo (Bttchanga leucopy-
gialis), (5) Grey-Headed Fly-catcher (Culidcapa ceylonensis], (6)
Magpie Robin (Copyschns sanlaris], (7) Grey-backed Titmouse (Pants
alriccps), (8) Common White-eye (Zoster ops palpcbrosa), (9) Cey-
lonese White-eye (Zoster ops ceylonensis], (10) Ceylon Myna (Acrid-
otheres melanosternus], (11) Black Crow (Corrus macrorhyncha).
Number 1 feeds principally upon caterpillars. No. 2 to 9 are
generally insectivorous. The large species may often be observed
taking toll of the winged termites when these are in flight. No. 10
and 11 frequent cattle and help to rid them of biting flies and
ticks. The scarcity of bird-life in the higher districts of Ceylon
has often been commented upon, and has been attributed, among
other causes, to the felling of extensive tracts of forest land for
growing tea. etc. One of the best means of encouraging the birds
to increase is to extend the growth of trees or shrubs which
produce fruit for bird-food, such as Aberici or Ceylon Gooseberry
(Ket-embilla), Antidesum* Briddia, Duranln, Eugenia (different
species), Ficus (several species), Guava, Lovi-lovi, Mulberry,
Debregeasia (Gas-dul) with orange-red berries, Wampi, Lantana,etc.
Carnivorous insects. — In maintaining the balance of insect
life in Nature, there occur in various countries various insects of
carnivorous habits, and these may as a rule be regarded as the
friends of the cultivator. Amongst the most beneficial check-
insects are the lady-bird beetles (Vedelia), which subsist on scale-
bugs, etc.
Pollinating insects.— In the cultivation of fruits, flowers and
vegetables, bees play an important part ; they carry the pollen
from one tree to another, thus ensuring the fertilisation or cross-
fertilisation of the plants, thereby making fruit and seed more
plentiful than would otherwise be the case. A large number of
plants are wholly dependent on insects for the fertilisation of their
flowers. Thus the successful introduction and cultivation of
the Symrna Fig, which is dependent on the Fig insect (Blasiophaga)
for the fertilisation of its flowers, in the United States, is due to the
artificial introduction of this insect, the cultivation having pre-
viously proved a failure.
606 NOXIOUS WEEDS
Frogs and Toads.— These are most useful creatures in the
garden, for they destroy many injurious insects. In Europe and
America toads are often specially protected and encouraged to
multiply for the purpose of consuming beetles, snails, wire-worms,
weevils, and other destructive insects. It is said that in England
the value of toads in gardens is now so well recognised that a high
price is sometimes paid for them for colonising purposes.
Lizards of all sorts are beneficial as wrell as interesting
creatures in a garden. They feed mainly on beetles, grubs, etc.,
and therefore should be encouraged to multiply.
Rat-snakes are somewhat of a mixed blessing, most people
having a repulsive feeling against all snakes. Yet rat-snakes in
particular, which are harmless, are very destructive against rats.
NOXIOUS WEEDS AND MEANS FOR THEIR
DESTRUCTION
Weeding, or the destruction of weeds, enters largely into the
economy of garden and estate work in the tropics. A weed is
generally defined as a plant out of place ; thus a plant which may
be otherwise useful may become a weed. Any plant deemed a
\veed, in a garden, should of course be suppressed as far as practi-
cable ; but on estates the proper degree of weeding and the best
system of carrying it out are sometimes disputed points. Most
planters believe in continuous clean-weeding, while others prefer
periodical or annual weeding combined with tillage of the soil.
Not only do weeds compete with the cultivated plants for light,
air, and the soluble constituents of the soil, but they may also
harbour insect pests and parasitic fungi. Weeds are usually
provided with rapid means of natural distribution, their seeds being
readily carried by the wind or by animals, or their tuberous roots
may be of a persistent character, rapidly multiplying underground.
Vacant ground soon becomes occupied by \veeds, and may thus
become a harbour of pestilential growth to the danger of neighbour-
ing plantations. Weeding becomes less necessary as crops cover
the ground, and in the case of rubber or other trees \vhich almost
entirely cover the ground it may become nearly dispensable. The
growing of intercrops between perennial crops, as Rubber and
Coconuts, during the earlier years of their growth has the bene-
ficial effect of economising weeding as well as providing an interim
return. Where this is not adopted it is necessary to maintain a
clear space of about 6 feet in diameter free of weeds, around each tree.
XOXIOUS WEEDS 607
Those who maintain that clean-weeding is not essential or
advisable are supported by the fact that weeds act as a ground-
cover, preventing excessive surface wash, while the operation of
digging in a crop of weeds ensures tillage and aeration of the soil,
and provides useful mulch or green-manure. That weeds in some
cases have a redeeming feature is obvious ; thus the Oxalis
(Manickwattie weed) serves to bind the soil on steep slopes, while
the Lantana occupies waste and impoverished land which in
course of time it enriches considerably with humus.
On estates in Ceylon, the usual system of performing the
weeding is to lease out certain areas on contract to the kanganies
(headmen of the labour force). The amount paid depends on
local conditions and the nature of the crop; thus Rs. 1 to Rs. 2
per acre is about the usual contract price for weeding established
Tea fields, but on new clearings
the cost of keeping down weeds
may vary from Rs. 3 to Rs. 6
per acre. It is estimated that the
average cost of weeding Tea in
Cevlon ranges from 2 to 3 cents
A USEFUL WEEDING FORK.
per Ib. of made tea.
An excellent method which may in many cases be applied for
killing out or preventing pernicious weeds, is to grow upon the
affected area a crop of some annual plant that forms a dense
ground-cover, the weeds thus becoming choked out. Any close
and quick-growing plant that is obtainable in sufficient quantity
will answer the purpose, though it should by preference belong to
the Leguminous family, which have the effect of restoring fertility
in the soil. (See under Green Manuring). The following plants
have been more or less successfully used in Ceylon as a ground-
cover for checking and destroying weeds : Passiflora fceiida
(creeper), Mikania sea miens (creeper), Ipomcca spp. (creepers),
CoMiiielimi uudijlora, or " Girapala," S. (creeping annual), Crotnlaria
spp, etc. See Green-manuring.
The first principle in destroying weeds is to prevent their
seeding, but this is not effective with kinds which are not
dependent upon seed for their reproduction, as the Lalang grass
(so troublesome in Malay), and the Oxalis in up-country districts
in Ceylon, which is reproduced chiefly by small tubers. Therefore
recourse must be had to starving out the roots by persistently
cutting down the leaves ; this also, of course, prevents the plants
608 NOXIOUS WEEDS
from seeding. Persistent cutting down of the leaves and stems has
been found effectual in Ceylon in exterminating such pestiferous
weeds as the Sensitive Plant and the Tithonia (Mexican Sun-flower),
which is so troublesome along the Railway. The same effect may
be obtained by placing a layer of mana-grass or other covering
over the affected ground. An old maxim which shows the im-
portance of preventing weeds from seeding is that,
One year's seeding,
Is seven years' weeding.
In some cases, as in Coconut cultivation, it is possible to keep
down weeds by means of grazing cattle, which also benefit the
land by their manure.
Poison weed-killers. — Destroying weeds by means of poisons
or weed-killers is not practicable amcng crops, except perhaps on
young clearings. BAMBER recommends arsenate of soda for killing
out weeds on young Rubber clearings, when it is impossible to
eradicate these by ordinary means. For roads, paths, railway
tracts, tennis-courts, compounds, etc., poison weecl-killers can,
however, be effectually applied. Of commercial weed-killers,
there are various kinds, some in powder form, others in liquid.
Those consisting of compounds of carbolic or arsenic are the most
effective, but other substances, as sulphate of copper, kerosene,
common salt, etc., are also sometimes used for the purpose with
more or less success. Arsenate of soda has in some cases been
found effectual in destroying troublesome weeds, and MR. BAMBER,
Government Chemist, has recommended it against "link"
(Imperata arundinacea) and u Nut-grass" or " Kori grass," (Cypenis
rotundus), two of the most noxious weed-pests in Ceylon. Where
a commercial weed-killer is not available, any of the following
simple mixtures may be employed : — (i) Mix 1 oz. carbolic acid with
one gallon water, and apply through the rose of an ordinary water-
ing can. (2) Take one part kerosene to three of boiling water, and
emulsify with soap. (3) Dissolve one pound common salt in one
gallon of boiling water, and apply as hot as possible through the
rose of a watering pot, at the rate of one gallon to every two
square yards of weedy surface. (4) Take 9 Ib. white arsenic and
3 Ib. washing soda, boil in one gallon of water till dissolved. For
use, add half pint of solution to one gallon of water. In using
poisonous weed-killers, gloves should be worn to prevent contact
with the skin ; care should be taken to keep the solution clear
of clothes and boots, whilst going too near grass verges, plant-
edgings, etc., must also be avoided.
PRINCIPAL WEEDS OF CEYLON
609
Water weeds, scum on ponds, etc. — The question of dealing
with aquatic weeds frequently confronts one in the tropics, and in
some cases involves very large expenditure of money. For sub-
merged weeds, removal by hand or mechanical means is the only
effectual way of dealing with them. Certain floating weeds may,
however, be destroyed by spraying with a solution of sulphate of
copper, say 1 Ib. sulphate to a gallon of water. The Bordeaux
mixture has been used with good results on weeds of this nature,
the solution being sprayed on the surface, if necessary repeated at
intervals of a few days or weeks. It has been found that if the
solution is not used very strong, it will not injure any fish that may
be in the water. A small quantity of copper sulphate placed in a
sack, and dragged back and fore on the surface, is sometimes success-
ful in destroying certain water-weeds, but experiments with this
method at Peradeniya did not prove effectual for such submerged
weeds as Hydrilhi and Limnanthemum.
TABULAR LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL NOXIOUS
WEEDS OF CEYLON.
('Indigenous to Ceylon ; t worst weeds amongst crops, etc.)
Botanical Name.
Common Name (if any).
Locality where chiefly troublesome.
Adiantum cuneatum
Maiden-hair fern.
4,000 to 5,000 ft., among Tea.
tAgeratum conyzoides
Hulantala, S. Pum-
1,000 to 4,000 feet.
pullu, T. Goat-weed.
Aloe vera, var. littoralis
Katalai, T.
Dry region, sea-coast.
*Amarantus spinosus
Kalu-tampala, S.
Semi-dry region.
*Artemisia vulgaris
Wal-kolundu, S.
1,000 to 4,000 feet.
*Bidens pilosa.
Wal-te-kola, S.
Throughout moist region,
Spanish-needle.
cultivated ground.
*Blumea membranacea
Annual composite :
Up to 4,000 feet.
5 to 6 ft. high.
Cardamine hirsuta
Kadavi, T.
Up-country generally.
* Cassia mimosoides
Bin-siyambala, S.
Low-country.
Chenopodium ambros-ioides
(Introduced)
3,000 to 5,000 ft., wet districts
"Cyperus rotundus
Kalanduru, S ;
Moist low-country up to 2,000
Kori, 7". ; Nut-grass.
feet.
"Elephant opus scaber
Et-adi,S.,Elephant's
Low-country, lawns and pasture
foot
tErigeron linifolius
Alavanga-weed.
2,000 to 6,000 feet.
Eryngium foetid urn
Fit-weed
Peradeniva and Kandv
Galinsoga parviflora
(Introduced)
2,000 to 5,000 ft., cult'd ground.
tGnaphalium multicaule
Wild-mignonette.
5,000 to 6,000 feet.
*Halopyrum mucronatum
Couch-grass
4,000 to 6,000 feet.
*Hydrillaovalifolia.
Colombo Lake-weed
Up to 2,000 feet, in ponds, etc.
*Imperata arundinacea
Illuk, Lalang
Moist low-country under 2,000
feet.
S.=Sinhalese; r.=Tamil
610
PRINCIPAL WEEDS OF CEYLON
B tanical Name.
C.,mmon Name.
Locality where chiefly trou' ksome.
Lagascea mollis
(Introduced)
About Kandv, Teldeniya. etc.
Lantana aculeata.
Katu-hinguru, S.
Low-country up to 3,000 feet.
Lantana-weed.
*Leucas zeylanica
Tumba, S.
Low-country, waste-ground.
*Limnanthemum indicum.
Olu, or Maha-
Ponds and streams up to 1,500
ambalu, S.
feet.
"1 Semi-parasites
like mistletoe.
i found on most fa-
*Loranthus, 6 species.
*I 3
Pilali, S.
Kuruvichai, T.
T milies of \voodv
Low-country. -
Dry region. ^Distributed b
Montane zone. birds Qn1y rtf.
!_•* f J f
*L. , 7 „
medy is to lop
the affected
j branches off.
Mikania scandens. (Climber]
Mikania- weed.
Low-country generally.
fMimosa pudica
Sensitive-plant.
»1 M
Opuntia Dillenii
Katu-patuk S ;
Dry region.
Prickly Fear ; in-
troduced.
*Oxalis corniculatus.
Hin-embul-
2,000 to 5,000 ft., wet region.
embiliya, S.
fO. — violacea
Manick-wattie
3,000 to 5,000 ft., moist region
weed.
*Polygonum punctatum.
Snake-weed.
Hilly districts up to 6,000 ft.
*Portulaca oleracea
Genda-kola, S.
Low-country, cultivated ground.
Pulik-kirai, T.
*Solanum indicum.
Tibbatu, S.
Up to 5,000 ft., waste-ground.
S^nchus aspera [
Sow-thistle ; intro-
Medium elevations, cult, ground.
S. — oleracea j
duced.
Synedrella nodiflora.
(Introduced)
Bentota, Peradeniya, etc.
Tridex procumbens
n
About Kandv and Peradeniva,
1,600 feet.
SOME NOXIOUS WEEDS IN OTHER WARM OR
TROPICAL COUNTRIES.
Botanical Name.
Common Name (if any.)
Name of country.
Carduus arvensis
California!! or
United States, etc.
" Canadian Thistle."
Cryptostemma calendulaceum
Datura Stramonium
Cape-weed
Trumpet Flower
New South \Vales.
Eichornea (Pontederia)
Water Hyacinth
Florida, Queensland, etc.
crassipes
Erigeron canadense
Cobblers' Pegs
New South Wales.
Nasturtium officinale
Water-cress
New Zealand
Opuntia Dillenii
Prickly Pear
Queensland, Northern India, etc.
Panicum Curtissii
Maiden Cane
Florida, etc.
Phytolacca sp.
Poke-weed
New South Wales, etc.
Polygonum tomentosum
—
Ootacamund, ttc.
S,=--Sinhalese; 7'.=Tamil
XOXIOUS WEEDS I\r TROPICAL COUNTRIES 611
Botanical Name.
Pteris aquilina
Sida retusa
Sorghum halapense
Tagetes minuta
Vittadenia australis
Xanthium spinosum
X. — strumarium
Common Name (if any.)
Name of country.
South Wales, etc
Sorghum-weed |West Indies, Central India, etc.
Mexican Marigold [South Africa
Australian Daisy 'Ootacamund, etc.
Bathurst-burr New South Wales, Queensland,
Cockle-burr etc.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
INSECT PESTS
The extent of the destruction to crops by various insect pests
in different countries is incalculable. According to a recent return
issued by the United States Agricultural Department, the direct and
indirect yearly losses caused by insects, in that country alone,
amount in the aggregate to the enormous total of over 700,000,000
dollars (£ 140,000,000). The loss to tobacco crops is put down as
5,000,000, to cotton 30,000,000, and to apple crops 20,000,000
dollars. Though Ceylon possesses a large variety of insect life, it
has practically no insect-pest of an alarming nature as compared
with some other countries. Spasmodic outbreaks are, however,
liable to occur here as elsewhere, and it should always be remem-
bered that prevention is better than cure. There are many simple
precautions which are sufficiently obvious to anyone who practises
agriculture or horticulture intelligently, and the following hints,
briefly stated, may afford a guidance, being more or less adaptable
according to the nature of the crops or local circumstances. It
should not be forgotten that proper rotation of crops, a system of
intercrops, green-manuring, good cultivation or the application of
certain fertilisers (as kainit, nitrate of soda, etc.), all have a most
beneficial effect in the suppression of insect pests. In other
words, to maintain a vigorous condition of the plants or crops
cultivated is one of the most important safeguards against insect
pests or fungus diseases. Thus in reference to shot-hole borer
(perhaps the most troublesome pest of Tea in Ceylon), MR. GREEN,
late Government Entomologist, has stated : " I have repeatedly
observed that a vigorous condition of the plant results in a ten-
dency to choke out the insects. The mouth of the tunnel is
invaded by an ingrowth from the active cambial tissues. New
wood is then formed, covering up the old wound, and the plant
is able to carry on all its functions without interruption. The
object of the planter, therefore, should be to induce by proper
priming and cultivation such a vigorous condition that the damage
is automatically and continuously repaired."
REMEDIAL MEASURES 613
PREVENTIVE OR REMEDIAL MEASURES
Handpicking of insects is recommended wherever practicable,
as in the case of borers, large caterpillars, etc.; these may be killed
when collected by dropping them into diluted kerosene oil, boiling
water, or in a pot of tar.
Light Traps and Smoke.— Lights are useful traps for certain
insect pests, especially such as fly at night. Acetylene Lamps
are thus used with good effect in the vineyards of Europe as a
means of catching moths and other injurious insects. The method
adopted is to set the lamps out at night (preferably on dark
nights) at distances of about 500 yards apart. The insects are
attracted in swarms by the flame, and are killed in a weak solution
of kerosene which is placed in a shallow basin adjusted a few inches
below the burner. In a similar way an ordinary Kesroseue Lamp
with reflectors, hung over a broad tray containing jaggery and
water, or water with a film of kerosene, may be used for catching
cockchafers, moths, ants and other insects. Smoke from Fires
is a deterrent to some insects, and is sometimes recommended for
such as attack Rice and other dense crops.
Rolling Pasture-land, net-dragging, etc. — For caterpillar pests
in rice fields and such like, it is recommended to draw wooden
rollers over the pasture land in the neighbourhood, if practicable.
The use of a bag or a net dragged over the ground is advised by
the Imperial Entomologist of India, thus : — "A bag can be made
to suit all circumstances ; with a width of about 12 ft. and an
opening 3 ft. high or less, it may be attached to a frame of bamboos,
and a single man draws it between the rows of crops, along grass
strips, or in any narrow places. The simplest pattern has only two
upright bamboos to hold open the sides ; a better one has four
bamboos, the two cross ones with projecting handles, and this
pattern closes up automatically at the end of each sweep. In some
cases it is desirable to smear the inside of the bag with oil or tar
to catch the insects as they fly in."
Entomogenous or Parasitic Fungi.— Locusts or grasshoppers
and beetles are reputed to be successfully destroyed by means of
a parasitic or entomogenous fungus disease; this is distributed
either by spraying spores on the trees or by inoculating live locusts
or beetles, which on being let loose spread the disease amongst
their fellows with, it is supposed, fatal effect. The actual results,
however, under average conditions appear to be a moot point.
614 REMEDIAL MEASURES
Trap-crops, vegetation belts, etc.— A successful way of ward-
ing off an attack by insects of an omnivorous nature, is to sow a
quick-growing crop intermixed with the main crop ; thus the
former, furnishing food for the insects, will attract their attention
from the latter. Locusts are sometimes destroyed in large masses
by planting belts of quick-growing shrubs (such as the Castor-oil
plant), which at the season of the locust attack are heavily poisoned
by a strong insecticide, such as arsenic compounds.
Insect traps.— Trenches or holes cut in the earth are sometimes
found to be successful as traps for caterpillars, which, falling into
these at night, are unable to climb out again, and at daylight may
be collected and destroyed. Empty jam tins sunk level with the
surface soil will form good pitfalls. Also large leaves or pieces
of cut vegetation laid on the ground act as useful traps, as many
injurious insects will hide under these during part of the day,
especially in the early morning, when they should be looked for
and destroyed.
Mechanical protection against insect pests. In spite of all
precautionary measures it is often necessary, especially in up-
country gardens, to protect young tender seedlings by placing a tin
cylinder around each plant until it has outgrown its liability to be
attacked by grubs, etc. These tin "collars" may be obtained
locally at about Rs. 2 per hundred. Empty jam and condensed-
milk tins, or even a roll of stout paper, may also be used for
the purpose.
Plants as insect-preventives.— Certain plants have the re-
putation of possessing properties which are obnoxious to insects,
and of having the effect of driving the latter away. Thus tomato
leaves are, in some countries, spread around tender plants, and by
reason of their strong odour are supposed to afford protection
from injurious insects. Acorus calamus ("Wada-kaha ") and several
species of Alocasia (" Habarala") are considered to be effective
against termites (white ants). Thus MR. RIDLEY, late Director of
Botanic Gardens, Singapore, states that the roots of the former
plant l are pounded to powder, spread around the base of trees
attacked by white-ants, when all the latter will die." (See Straits
Agricultural Bulletin for 1904). Cultivators of market gardens
up-country use the chopped-up leaves of the " Wild Lobelia " or
Kiri-bamboo " (Lobelia nicotianifolia) as a protection from the
destructive black-grub, while in the low-country tobacco leaves
are considered by some to have a deterrent effect on certain
insects.
REMEDIAL MEASURES 615
Palm Beetles.— The crown or "cabbage" of coconut and
other palms often become attacked by large beetles, more es-
pecially the " black beetle," which disfigure the fronds and some-
times permanently injure the tree. These beetles may be har-
pooned or extracted by a stiff piece of sharp wire (or a long
hat-pin) with a barb at the end, the hole being then filled with
very fine dry sand. The latter is itself a remedy as well as a
preventive, and may be copiously applied to the cavities at the
junction of the leaves; it will prevent fresh attacks by more
beetles, while it disables any that may already be in their crevices
by getting into the joints of their bodies. Red beetles are the
most serious, as they attack in enormous numbers, and breed
rapidly inside their host; so that if a tree becomes infested with
this pest, it must at once be cut down and destroyed.
Eelworms & Nematodes. — A microscopic group of translu-
cent animals which often cause considerable injury, or even death,
to plants before their presence is detected. They live in the soil,
first attacking the roots and rootlets, which in time become knotty,
bearing small wart-like excrescences. Plants that are badly
affected should be removed and destroyed by fire ; the soil should
be opened up and treated with vaporite or a dilute disinfectant;
liming the soil, change of plants or rotation of crops are also
measures to be advised for the elimination of the pest.
Wireworms,— the larvae of various kinds of beetles, seldom
reaching 1 in. in length. They are often a troublesome pest,
gnawing the stems and roots of plants just below the surface.
An application of vaporite is one of the best remedies.
Mosquito preventives. — The conditions which favour the
breeding of the larvae of mosquitoes — which are the recognised
medium of conveying malaria to human beings — are stagnant
water, as is frequently found in drains, root-gutterings, discarded
tins, broken vessels, bamboo stumps, etc., also damp shade, as
under heavy foliage. Plants with water-collecting adaptations,
as sheathing leaves or floral receptacles, likewise offer similar
facilities for the pest. In addition to guarding against these
sources as far as possible, free use should be made of dilute disin-
fectants, especially such as leave a film on the surface of the water,
as kerosene oil, Jeye's, Cyllin, Phenyl, and Izal disinfectants.
USEFUL INSECTICIDES.
Insecticides act in two ways, viz. as a Stomach Poison,
when taken internally by the insect with its food; or as a Contact
616 USEFUL INSECTICIDES
Poison, as in the case of insects which obtain their food by suck-
ing, as bugs in general. Some contact poisons also kill by
Asphyxiation, i.e., by forming a coating around the insects, thus
preventing their breathing; scale insects are affected chiefly in
this way. Generally speaking, the remedies for aphis (green-fly,
etc.) are in the nature of a contact poison, as emulsions, tobacco-
juice, etc., while for beetles, caterpillars and grasshoppers, stomach
poison, such as " Paris Green/' " London Purple," etc., are
more effectual. Insecticides in liquid form (with water) may be
applied by a fluid sprayer or a syringe capable of emitting a line
spray or mist, distributing the liquid evenly over the whole
plant; while those in the form of powder, mixed with lime, dust,
flour, etc., may be dusted from a powder-sprayer or bellows.
Arsenate of Lead. (Sugar-of-lead). — This compound is con-
sidered to have special advantages over " Paris green;" it is much
lighter than the latter, does not scorch the foliage, and can
therefore be used more freely. Satisfactory results have been
obtained by using from 1 to 2 Ib. of arsenate of lead to
150 gallons of water. The following formula is recommended : —
Acetate of lead 2\ oz., arsenate -of soda 1 oz., water to make up to
10 gallons. Place the materials in the water and stir till dissolved,
when it is ready for use. One pound of treacle may be added
to render the mixture adhesive.
Arsenate of Lime. — As a substitute for the above the follow-
ing may be used: — 1 Ib. arsenic, 4 Ib. washing soda, and 2 gallons
water. Boil till dissolved. Make up to 4 gallons with water.
Add one pint of the mixture to 4 gallons of water, and add to
this 4 oz. unslaked lime.
Borer Wash.— 1 pint crude carbolic or phenol; 2 Ib. soft soap
or hard soap 2i Ib.) ; 1 gallon hot water. Dissolve the soap in hot
\vater, and add enough clay to thicken it.
Carbon Bisulphide. — A highly volatile and inflammable clear
liquid, the vapour of which is given off at a low temperature and
is fatal to insect life. It is used successfully in the destruction
of ground-insect pests, where these are numerous or in colonies,
as in the case of termites. The poison is best applied to termites'
nests by saturating bolls of cotton wool with it, and dropping one
of these in each burrow, the latter being then quickly closed up.
The vapour, being heavier than air, sinks to the bottom of the
crevices and permeates the whole " nest."
Caustic Soda.— A white solid substance, very soluble in water,
acts as a caustic, is powerfully alkaline, and is deliquescent on
USEFUL IXSECTICIDES 617
exposure to the air. In temperate countries it is generally used
in conjunction with potash as a spray fluid on dormant trees and
bushes, when, in addition to cleansing the trees, it proves
destructive to many forms of insect life. The solution is made
as follows: — Caustic soda, 1 lb.; soft soap, i lb.; carbonate of
potash, 1 lb; water, 10 gallons. Dissolve the soft soap in hot
water, and add to cask or vessel containing 10 gallons of water
in which the soda and potash have been dissolved.
Emulsions. — Kerosene, paraffin, petroleum, etc., in the form
of emulsion afford one of the most effective insecticides known
for sucking-insects. Many formulas have been devised, but the
following will serve all practical purposes: — Kerosene (paraffin or
petroleum), 1 gallon; soft soap, 1 lb.; boiling water, 1 gallon.
Dissolve soap in boiling water, and add, boiling hot, to the
kerosene. Churn the mixture thoroughly until a cream-like
emulsion is formed. This should thicken to a jelly on cooling,
and adhere without oiliness to the surface of glass. The hotter
the mixture, the easier the emulsion is formed. For use, add
1 part emulsion to 10 parts water. No form of emulsion should be
applied to foliage during sunshine.
Gondal-fluid. — 1^ oz. gum, 8 oz. asafoetida, 8 oz. bazaar aloes,
3 oz. castor-cake. Mix well with water, add clay to thicken, and
paint on the base of trees which are liable to be attacked by
white-ants or other insects. Gondal fluid is an Indian pre-
paration and has been specially recommended by SIR GEORGE
WATT for applying to Tea bushes as a preventive against white-ants.
Hot water as an insecticide.— Up to a temperature of 170 or
200 degrees (Fah.) of heat, hot water will destroy many de-
structive insects without injuring their host plants. Even boiling
water applied by a syringe will usually cool sufficiently between
the syringe and plant to avoid injury to the latter, while it is still
hot enough to kill the insects.
London Purple. — A fine powder arsenical preparation, of
similar use to " Paris Green," but generally considered to be less
safe than the latter. It is a by-product obtained in the manu-
facture of aniline dyes.
Paris Green.— Also known as "Emerald Green," "Mitis Green,"
and "French Green." A powerful irritant and poisonous com-
pound of arsenic, copper and sulphuric acid, which has the
appearance of fine po\vder with a clear green colour. For use take
one ounce of the powder and mix in 12 gallons of water. Like
618 USEFUL INSECTICIDES
other arsenite compounds, it should be applied in the form of a
fine spray, the liquid being meantime kept constantly stirred,
and regulated in strength according to the nature of the plants
sprayed.
Quassia, or Bitterwood.— A vegetable insecticide, -consisting
of the bitter principle of the tree Picrcvua cxceha, which is fatal
to may forms of sucking-insects, particularly aphides. For use take
1 Ib. quassia chips, 1 Ib. soft-soap, 10 gallons water. Boil the
quassia with half the soap and half the water for one hour, strain
off the liquid and boil the residue for another hour with the
remaining soap and water- Mix the whole together, and make
up to 10 gallons with water. Never spray trees or plants bearing
edible fruit or leaves with quassia, as it imparts a bitter taste not
easily got rid of. According to the Jamaica Bulletin, nothing
has been so successful in driving black-ants away as Bitterwood
solution.
Resin or Rosin.— This enters into the composition of several
valuable spray-fluids which destroy different forms of scale-insects,
being especially suited to deciduous trees. It acts by depositing a
covering over the insect, thus killing the latter by preventing its
breathing. The following formula is recommended : — Resin, 4 Ib. ;
fresh oil (seal or train oil), 2 pints; caustic soda, l| Ib.; water,
10 gallons. Boil the first 3 ingredients mixed with the water until
the resin is dissolved, then make up to 15 gallons of water.
Before using the solution it should be diluted with nine times its
quantity of clear water. This solution is recommendecl in America
for use against the "sooty-mould" on Orange and other Citrus
trees.
Tobacco juice. — An efficacious insecticide (also a fungicide)
for aphides, used largely in Europe, America, etc., more particu-
larly in plant-houses. The juice when of the standard strength is
diluted with 100 parts of water for spraying purposes. The plants
should be sprayed after sunset, and syringed with clear water on
the following morning. The juice may be prepared by soaking
i Ib. common tobacco leaf to a gallon of hot water.
Tobacco-smoke is chiefly used for fumigating plants in glass-
houses, being a powerful insecticide for certain insects. It is
obtained by burning tobacco, or paper steeped in tobacco juice.
More effective, however, than tobacco-smoke, and less harmful to
tender plants, is the vapour caused by the heating of the newer
Nicotine Vaporisers, such as the "XL. All Vaporiser" and
USEFUL INSECTICIDES 619
others, which are probably compounds of nicotine obtained from
tobacco and alcohol. These are proprietary remedies, and direc-
tions for their use are issued by the manufacturers.
Vaporitc.— A grey powdered preparation, called " vaporite,"
made by the Vaporite Co. in London. It is one of the most
efficacious of insecticides that are adapted for applying to
the ground, giving off when mixed with the moist soil an insect-
killing vapour. It destroys grubs, eelworms, millepedes, cock-
chafers, etc. in the soil, without apparently injuring the roots, and
may be applied by mixing with the surface soil, or by inserting
in holes several inches apart made with a crowbar. For pot-plants
it should be applied in a weak solution with water. Vaporite may
be obtained locally from MESSRS. E. B. CREASY & Co., Colombo,
and every one who grows plants, either for use or ornament, should
have some always at hand.
Quicklime.— Fresh-slaked pure lime, especially coral lime, is of
great value as an insecticide when dusted over the ground or
mixed in with the soil. It also serves as a useful diluent of
poisonous powders, being used to a large extent in the preparation
of some of the more active insecticides and fungicides to avert their
caustic action on foliage. When quick-lime is applied in the form
of a wash or spray, it leaves a coating over the part so treated, and
thus prevents fungi from obtaining a footing on the leaves, etc.
MEANS FOR DESTROYING TERMITES OR
WHITE- ANTS.
The "Ant-Exterminator." — Of the various devices as yet
adopted for destroying termites, this is probably the best. It
consists of a small charcoal furnace in connection with an air-pump.
Some glowing charcoal is placed in the furnace ; a spoonful of the
mixture (composed of white arsenic 85% and sulphur \S%) is
thrown on the charcoal and the lid firmly clamped into position.
A flexible nozzle (A in the figure) is pushed into the main entrance
of the nest, and all supplementary holes are plugged with clay.
The pump (H) is then worked, and drives the vapour into the nest,
forcing it into all the ramifications of the galleries. Little jets of
smoke will soon arise from crevices and unsuspected openings for
several yards round the main entrance. These should be imme-
diately stopped with clay or pounded earth. After a few minutes of
pumping, the nozzle may be withdrawn and the hole plugged with
clay. The nest should remain undisturbed for a week, when the
620
DESTROYING TERMITES OR WHITE- ANTS
mound may be levelled. If opened immediately after the appli-
cation some of the insects will revive. In some few cases there
may be feeble signs of renewed activity, in which case a second
application will complete the work of destruction ; but this is
seldom necessary.
Exploding Termites' nests.— The Government Entomologist
in New South Wales recommends as follows : — " Pour a little
bisulphide of carbon down each hole, and throw a wet bag over
the nest immediately afterwards. Remove it in a couple of
minutes, and apply a lighted stick over each opening. The fumes
THE " UNIVERSAL ANT EXTERMINATOR." See page 619.
will explode, wreck the nest, and burn all the ants beneath. The
lighted stick should be 5 or 6 feet long to enable the operator to
stand out ot danger."
Poisonous baits for ants.— Destroying termites and other ants
by laying down poisonous baits has often been recommended. A
mixture of arsenic, sugar, flour, tallow, etc., made into a paste and
strewn about in small pellets where the ants are troublesome is
found to have a good effect in destroying these. Where it is
dangerous to use arsenic, a syrup of borax may answer the purpose
to some extent. A stiff dough made of " Paris Green," (1 oz.),
flour (3 lb.), and sugar (3 oz.), being formed into pellets and placed
in holes near the plants attacked, has been found effective.
DESTROYIXG TERMITES OR WHITE- ANTS
621
Preventives against white-ants, etc.— It is always advisable
when sowing seed, planting out or transplanting plants in a locality
which is subject to white-ants, to fork in with the soil a mixture
which will act as a preventive against this destructive pest, Lime
and sulphur, or lime alone, are recommended for the purpose, while
vaporite or carbolic disinfectant-powder are found efficacious at
Peradeniya. Watering the ground with a disinfectant solution
SECTION OF TERMITES OR WHITE ANTS NEST.
A.—" Royal " cell ; B— Queen Ant.
also acts as an excellent preventive, which is often adopted at
Peradeniya in the case of rose-beds and Mower borders. The smell
of tar is obnoxious to insect life of all kinds, and water impregnated
with tar may sometimes be applied to the ground with good effect.
For painting on the base of trees as a preventive against termites,
diluted tar and "Gondal Fluid" (see Insecticides) are used with
good results.
622 FUMIGATING
Black-ants.— These are sometimes very troublesome in a
garden, undermining roads, lawns, etc. According to the "Jamaica
Bulletin" nothing has been so successful in expelling these as a
solution of bitterwood (See quassia under Insecticides).
FUMIGATING
Destroying insect-pests by means of fumes of poisonous gas,
tobacco smoke, etc., is commonly adopted wherever plants are
grown in closed structures, and also in the fields where fruit-grow-
ing is practised on systematic lines. For cheapness, efficiency and
facility of application, the hydrocyanic gas process of fumigating
has been found to be the most satisfactory yet discovered. It is
extensively practised in America for orchards as well as for general
nursery stock, more especially against scale-insects, which are
difficult to destroy by other means. The gas is a deadly poison,
and the greatest care is needed in using it. It is generated from
cyanide of potassium (or sometimes sodium cyanide) and sulphuric
acid, and is fatal to insect or animal life by inhalation. When
applied to trees or shrubs in the open, special collapsible tents are
used for the purpose of enclosing these. Small or movable plants
may be treated in any enclosure, provided it is sufficiently air-
tight. An ordinary wardian case with a capacity of about 1\ cubic
feet is used for the purpose at Peradeniya, the proportions recom-
mended being: \ oz. cyanide of potassium (90%), J oz. sulphuric
acid, and \ oz. water. Place the water in a small earthenware
bowl; add the acid; drop in the cyanide, and close the case imme-
diately, stopping up all crevices with wet clay to prevent the gas
escaping. After the expiration of half an hour, open the case and
leave it for several hours. The principle is the same when the
process is applied on a larger scale. When fumigating plant-
houses, the cyanide is usually \vrapped in a small suspended paper
bag, which is dropped into the acid and water by means of a string
passing through a trap-door and released from outside. The pro-
per amount of cyanide to be used varies according to the nature
of the pest and plants to be treated, but the proportions, as above
stated, should always be approximately the same. Experienced
men recommend four- fifths of a grain of cyanide for every cubic
foot of free space. It is considered by some that the water should
be boiling when the acid is added (the cyanide being then dropped
into it), but this does not appear to be necessary. An essential
condition in any method of fumigating is that, contrary to
COMMOX IX SECT PESTS OF CEYLON
623
spraying, the foliage be dry; otherwise the plants Tire very liable to
be injured. The latter should not be watered immediately before
fumigation, neither should they be exposed to the sun for several
hours after treatment. Fumigation should always be carried out
only after sunset, unless the plants are in the shade under cover.
Spraying.— See Fungus Diseases of Plants.
TABULAR LIST OF COMMON INSECT PESTS OF
CEYLON.
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE CROPS OR PLANTS ATTACKED.
ESTATE PRODUCTS:-
"Only brief and provisional remedies can be given here ; these are omitted where more
complicated treatment is required.
Host Plant.
Xame of Insect.
Parts attacked.
"Brief remedies or preventive
measures.
/Case-or Cadis-worms
Leaves
—
Albi/zia
1 (Psyche spp).
I Caterpillar (Terias
\ svlhctana).
»»
—
Annatto " Mosquito Blight" (Bug)
Young shoots
Emulsion spray.
(Hclopcltis antonii).
Borer (Arbcla qnadri-
JStem
Plug holes in bark with tar
( notatu).
Fruit and
Emulsion spray.
I Bug (Hclopcltis an ton it).
young
Collect and destroy affec-
Cacao Pot-borer (Dichocrocis
foliage
ted fruits.
punctiferalis)
\^ White stem-borer
(Monohanncs fistnlator).
Stem
Cut out and destroy at-
tacked parts, and applv
tar.
{Caterpillar (Papilio
Leaves
Spray with lead arsenate.
Camphor
clytia}.
Shot-hole Borer
Stem and
Cut and destroy affected
(Scolytid sp).
branches
parts.
Bug (Isclinodeniiis
Foliage
Emulsion spray.
tioctnlns).
Pod-borer (Lanipidcs
Fruit
Cardamom
elpis).
Root-borer (Hilarogra-
Rhi/omes
Apply Vaporite to soil.
phia canii nodes).
Stem-borer (Dtchocrocis Stem
Cut and destroy affected
evaxalis).
stems.
Castilloa- Mealy-bug (Dactytepius
Young bran-
Emulsion spray.
rubber crotonis).
ches
Castor-oil J Bug (Alcurodes sp.} Foliage
Plant I [Caterpillar (Arctin ricini).
Emulsion spray.
Lead arsenate.
Cinnamon Gall-mite (Eriophyses hoist)
Sulphur spray.
Citronella Scale-bug (Chionnxpis
»»
Emulsion spray.
Grass
gramims)
624
COMMON INSECT PESTS OF CEYLON
Host Plant.
Name of Insect.
Parts attacked.
*Brief remedies or preventive
measures.
Collect and destroy, or
1 Red-weevil (Rhyncho-
Stem and
harpoon with pointed
pJwnts sigiuiticollis).
crown
wire.
Coconut
Black-beetle (Oryctes
Tender part
(See Palm-beetles).
Palm
rhinoccrns).
of crown
Black-headed caterpillar
Foliage Cut and burn infested
(Nephtintis serinopa).
fronds.
/Green-bug (Lecaninm
Foliage
Emulsion spray
j vi ride).
Coffee,
1 Brown coffee-bug (Lcca-
n
Arabian
j ninm hemisphcericum).
and other
\ Coffee-borer (Zcnzera
Stem and
Cut out and destroy in-
kinds.
coffee^.
branches
fested parts.
1 Cockchafer-grubs,
Roots
Vaporite
(various species).
f Black-bug (Lecaninm
Branches
Emulsion spray
nignnn).
Cotton Sttantr*(Disdercus
^
Cotton
ciiigiilatns, Sennetha
augur, Oxycaracnns
Ingnbi'is).
[ Lint
Spread lint in sun
Pink Boll-worm
Pods
Destroy infested bolls
(Gelechia gossypiella).
Mealy-bug
r-'oliage and
Emulsion spray
(Doclylopins virga tus).
young
branches
Croton-oil
Defoliator (Amyna
Foliage
Lead arsenate
Plant
selenampha).
/Pod-borer (Dorylus
Fruit
Vaporite
Ground-nut
orientalis).
j Leaf-miner
Foliage
Emulsion spray
\ (Awacampis nertaria).
Hevea
See Para Rubber
Lagos-
Leaf -roller (Capriuia
Foliage
Lead arsenate
rubber
conchylalis).
(Funtumia]
Mahogany
Caterpillar (Attacus atlas).
(1
Mulberry
Scale-bug (Aspidiotus
Branches
Emulsion spray
aitrantii).
Nutmeg
Flat-bug (Lecaninm
Foliage
,,
expansum).
/Cockchafer-grub
Roots
Vaporite
Para Rubber
(Lepidiota pingnis).
1 Black-bug
Foliage and
Emulsion spray
v Lecaninm nigrnm)
young
branches
(Scale-bug (Lecaninm
Foliage
t
Pepper
marsnpiale)
( „ (L. Peradeniyense)
M
M
Rhea or
Leaf-roller (Sylepta
M
Lead arsenate
Ramie
sabinnsalis)
COMMON INSECT PESTS OF CEYLON
625
Host Plant.
Name of Insect
Parts attacked.
"Brief remedies or preventive
measures.
f Arrakkodian worm
Foliage
Burn grass, etc., in vicinity;
(Spodoptcror manrittia).
smoke drives insects
away
Rice (Paddy)
Paddy-bug, or rice Sapper
(Lcptocorisa acitta).
Flower
Catch by hand, or trap by
screens smeared with
gum
| Paddy-weevil
Grain
Napthalin
(Calandra oryzac).
• Shot hole-borer
Branches
Cut out and destroy affect-
(Xyl chorus fornicatns).
ed stems ; burn prunings
on fields
White-ant or Termite
Live or
See under Insecticides
(Calotcnncs militaris).
dead
stems.
Tea-bug or " Mosquito
Foliage
—
Blight" (Hdopcltis
TVi
antonii).
i ea
Tea-mites (various spp).
»»
Dust with sulphur
•
Nettle-grubs
Hand-pick
(Limacodidac spp).
Case-worms
M
»»
(Psychidae spp).
Tea-tortrix
M
Collect and destroy eg
(Capua coffcaria).
masses
Lobster Caterpillar
,,
Hand-pick
(Stauropns alternns).
Thrips (Physopns
t,
Sulphur spray
L rubrocinata).
Teak
Leaf-eater (Hyblcea pnera).
M
Lead arsenate spray
Tobacco
Stem-borer
Stem base
Cut out grub; destroy badly
(Gnorimoschcma hcliopa).
attacked plants
FRUITS :—
Host Plant.
Name of Insect.
Parts attacked
'Brief remedies or preventive
measures.
Cherimoya,
1"
Custard-
apple and
Black scale-bug
Branches
Emulsion spray.
other spp.
(Lecaninm nigrnm)
of Anona-
Jambu, Rose-
Gall-fly (Psylla sp).
Foliage
—
apple, etc.
1 Fruit-fly
Fruit
^
(Dacns fcrrnginens).
(Collect and destroy in-
Mango.
Mango-weevil(Cry/>/0r/ry"-
chns mangiferae).
»1
f fested fruits.
Scale-bug (Lecaninm
Foliage
Emulsion spray.
wangiferae).
Orange,
Limes,
Lemons, etc.
Scale, or Sooty-mould bug
(Lecaninm viridc)
| (Mytilaspis citricola. and
\ Pulvinaria psidii).
f Foliage
Emulsion spray.
626
COMMON INSECT PESTS OF CEYLON
VEGETABLES :—
Host Plant.
Name of Insect.
Parts attacked.
*Brief remedies or preventive
measures.
Tomatoes
Gall-worm (Hdtrodere
Root
Vapor ite, which see.
radicicola).
Bandakka
( Hibiscus
csculentns)
{ Leaf -roller
j (Sylcpta multilinealis).
Foliage
Lead arsenate.
/Fly-maggot (Agromyza
Stem and
Sprinkle vaporite on
Beans (Phase-
1 7 i * i' \
phascoli).
< Sucking-bugs (Coptosonia
foliage
ground about the plants.
01 US )
cribarinm and
Foliage
Hand-pick.
\ Rcptortus fuse us).
{Stem-borer (Lend nodes
Young
Cut off. and destroy in-
Brinjal
orbonalis}.
shoots
fested shoots.
(Sol a 11 1 mi)
Sucking-bug (Urcntins
M
Syringe with emulsion
cell in us).
{Caterpillar (PI it Ml a
Foliage
\
Cabbages
( Rmssica
niaculipeiinis}.
,, (Croccdolomia
> Hand-pick.
family)
binotalis}.
j
Black-grub (Agrotis segctis)
,,
Hand-pick; sprinkle vapor-
ite about the plants.
ISuckmg-buj (Lcptoglossiis
Vaporite or lead arsenate.
niembranaccus)
Gourds,
Pumpkins,
fi^
Leaf-beetle (Several spe-
cies of Chrysomclidae}.
"
Arsenic spray.
etc.
Fruit-fly (Dticns
Fruit
Hand-pick. Collect and
ferrngincus).
destroy infested fruits.
Potato
Bulb-borer
Tuber
Vaporite.
(Dorylns orientalis).
ORNAMENTAL PLANTS:—
Host Plant.
Name of Insect-
Parts attacked.
*Brief remedies or preventive
measures.
Amaryllis
Caterpillar (Polytchi
Foliage
Lead arsenate.
gloriosae).
( Scale-bug ( Aster oleca ilium
Stem
Syringe with emulsion.
Bamboos
bambusae).
( Aphis (Orcgma bambusae}
Stem
/Caterpillar
Foliage
\
Cycas
(Cyan iris puspa).
j ,, (Catachrysops
Young
j~Lead arsenate.
pandava}.
foliage
)
Dahlia
Bulb-borer (Dorylus
Tuber
Vaporite.
orientalis).
/ Flea-beetle (Hypnophylla
Foliage
Lead arsenate.
Ferns
1 flavipennis).
j Scale-bug (Lecanium
Foliage
Syringe with vermisap
hemisphacricu m).
(1 Ib. to 40 gal. water) or
other emulsion.
COMMON IX SECT PESTS OF CEYLON
627
Host Plants
Name of Insect.
Hibiscus
Ipomoea.
different
spp.
Jasminuin
pubescens
Palm in pots
Pergularia
(Perennial
climber)
Portlandia
(Shrub)
Roses
Sal via, Thun-
bergia and
other A can -
tliaccac
plants.
(Lc\l-ro\\er (Sylcpta
iiinltiliiictilis).
Parts attacked
Foliage
Flower
Flower-beetle (Mylahris
Pusfalaris).
Hairy-caterpillar Foliage
(Ettchromia poly me na)
Bud-borer (Hcnilccasis Flower buds
duplifascialis)
IFringed-bug (Ccrataphis Foliage
lantaiiiae).
Caterpillar (Elyninias ,,
fraterna).
Scale-bug (Lccauinni „
hetiiispJiacriciun).
Sole-bug (Lfcatiium ,,
cattdatitm).
0 Brief remedies or preventive
measures.
Caterpillar (Caprinia „
conchylalis)\
le-bug (Aspidiotus Stem and
a n ran tii). foliage
, (Iccrya aegyptiaea).. ,,
Rose-beetle, several Fl's and
species, young
foliage
Lantana-bug (Orthczia Foliage and
insignis). stems.
Lead arsenate. Destroy
infested flower buds.
Syringe with emulsion.
Hand-pick, or lead arsen-
ate.
v Syringe with an emul-
j sion. The old brown
scales are dead, but re-
main adhered to the
surface and shelter
numerous eggs under-
neath.
"Paris Green." or arsenate.
Syringe with emulsion.
[Hand-pick. Sprinkle
I vaporite about bushes.
Emulsion spray.
CHAPTER XXIX.
FUNGUS AND OTHER DISEASES OF PLANTS
Fungi differ from plants possessing green leaves in not being
able to obtain their food from the soil; they can only derive
nourishment from the bodies of plants or animals, either living or
dead. Those fungi that live on dead vegetable matter, as humus,
decaying wood, roots, etc., are called saprophytes; these do not
injure living plants, unless they alter their mode of obtaining nutri-
tion, as they sometimes dQ, and become parasitic. Fungi which
grow on living plants are known as parasites; the greater number
of these are very minute, and are only visible to the naked eye
when present in great numbers. All parasites cause disease,
important or not, according to the extent to which they occur and
the harm they do to plants or crops.
Preventing the spread of diseases. — The methods available
for combating diseases are more or less regulated by the life
history of the fungi concerned, and may be grouped under the
following heads: (1) by destroying the plant tissues that contain
the vegetative forms or the reproductive spores of the fungus; (2) by
spraying with a fungicide to prevent the germination of spores
deposited on leaves, stems, or fruits; (3) by avoiding conditions
that are known to be favourable to the spread of the disease; (4) by
raising disease-resistant varieties; (5) by prohibiting the impor-
tation or transport of plants or seeds from diseased -infected coun-
tries or localities.
Destroying plant tissues. — The most certain means of eradi-
cating a disease is to burn the affected plants, or cut and burn the
diseased portions of these. When the latter course is adopted,
the cut surfaces of the living plant should always be painted with
tar or other substance that will prevent the germination of fresh
spores which may fall on them. When burning is not practicable,
.as through excessive moisture, the diseased parts should be buried
-with lime. Lime not only hastens decay, but also prevents local
souring of the soil by the addition of large quantities of decaying
DISEASES OF PLANTS 629
matter, and thereby discourage conditions which predispose plants
to disease. Thus the burial with lime of all diseased cacao pods,
as well as the husks of healthy pods, left after the beans have been
extracted, has been found to have an important effect in preventing
the spread of the pod-disease of Cacao.
Conditions favourable to infection. — In damp, warm weather
and in shady situations, spores of fungi stand the best chance of
germination. Conditions of the soil which are unfavourable to
plants, as defective drainage, etc., are sometimes conducive to the
rapid spread of a root disease. Crowding together plants of the
same kind also favours the spread of disease, or an epidemic or
extensive wave of disease can only occur where large numbers of
the same kind of plant are growing in close proximity, as in the
exclusive cultivation of single crops.
Wounds a cause of disease.— A large number of fungi can
bring about infection of their host-plants only through wounds or
breaks in the bark. Canker is generally formed by a wound
parasite, and in order to avoid conditions likely to bring about
infection by it, careful attention should be given to the operations
of pruning, fruit-picking, etc., as well as the tarring of all wounds.
Isolation of affected areas. — The spread of a root disease may
sometimes be effectually arrested by means of cutting a trench
round the affected area, the progress of the mycelium through the
soil being thus confined to certain limits. This prevents healthy
plants being attacked, and enables the affected areas to be cleared
and treated with large quantities of lime.
Effects of rotation of crops. — A fungus disease may often be
starved out by rotation of crops. This, however, is only possible
in the case of annual or temporary crops, like root products, etc.
In the case of permanent crops, as Cacao, Tea, Rubber, etc., when
a tree has died from a root disease, the diseased roots should be
carefully extracted from the ground and destroyed, the soil being
opened up and treated with lime, the cavity being allowed to
remain open for some time before the vacancy is supplied.
Disease-resisting varieties. — Some varieties or species of
plants are more or less immune from disease, while others, culti-
vated under the same conditions, are specially susceptible to it.
Therefore varieties which are the least susceptible, consistent with
other desirable qualities, should be selected for cultivation. The
raising or selection of disease-resisting varieties is now recognised
630 USEFUL FUNGICIDES
as a matter of considerable importance in horticulture and agri-
culture.
Good cultivation a preventive of disease. — The remarks ap-
plied in the case of insect pests with regard to the importance of
maintaining a vigorous condition of the plants or crops grown,
are equally applicable in the case of fungus diseases, for plants in
vigorous growth are often capable of combating the parasitic
effects of a disease, while those of a weaker constitution succumb
to it. Therefore, good cultivation, as secured by proper draining,
manuring, careful priming, etc., should be considered an effective
measure towards the suppression of a fungus disease.
Importation of plants from infected areas. — This has often re-
sulted in the introduction of new diseases, and many countries
have now formulated laws to prevent such an occurrence. The
importation or transference of seeds or plants from countries or
localities affected with fungus diseases should, therefore, be
allowed only where quarantine measures for disinfection are
adopted.
USEFUL FUNGICIDES
Bordeaux Mixture. — This is one of the most useful and
effective fungicides for application to plants attacked with mildew
or other fungus disease. There are various formulas for making
it, all of somewhat varying degrees of strength. The following
proportions represent a standard formula and may be recom-
mended for general use in the tropics : Copper sulphate ( 98 per
cent.) 5 Ib. ; lime (freshly burnt) 5 Ib. ; acid water to make up to
50 gallons. Dissolve the copper sulphate in a small quantity of
water, using a wooden tub for the purpose, slake the lime to a
paste, mix it with the remaining water and pour into the copper
solution. Treacle is sometimes added to render the mixture more
adhesive. When being applied, the mixture should be kept
thoroughly stirred.
Sulphur. — This is used for the destruction of mildews, whose
mycelium is superficial and forms a whitish down on the surface
of living leaves, fruit, etc. It is applied as a powder in the
familiar form known as " flowers of sulphur," preferably when
the affected leaves are damp. Various appliances are in use for
blowing the powder on to the leaves, such as sulphur-sprayer,
sulphur-bellows, etc. Quicklime is sometimes added to the
sulphur, but it should not exceed one third of the whole.
USEFUL FUNGICIDES 631
Occasionally sulphur is mixed with water, the solution being
applied by a syringe. In glass-houses, sulphur-paste is sometimes
painted on the hot water pipes to create sulphurous fumes.
Ammoniacal copper fungicide. — This is a useful fungicide,
which has properties similar to those of Bordeaux mixture. It is
prepared as follows : —
Copper Milphate (98 pei cent) 1£ uz. Ammonia solutio i (strongest) 12 fl. ox..
Carbonate of soda (98 per cent.) 1| oz. Water to make 12 gallons
Dissolve the copper sulphate and soda separately, each in
half a gallon of water, pour the soda into the copper solution and
stir well. When the precipitate has settled, pour off the clear
liquid ; give the precipitate a second washing, and when again
settled pour off the supernatant clear liquid. Then introduce
sufficient liquid ammonia to the precipitated copper carbonate to
dissolve it, care being taken not to use any unnecessary excess of
ammonia. To this add water to make up to 10 gallons, when the
liquid is ready for use. This preparation is specially recommended
for surface moulds and for the Rose mildew.
Potassium sulphide. — This powerful and useful fungicide
must be kept in well-corked bottles or air-tight vessels, as it
rapidly decomposes when exposed to the air. Care must be taken
to adjust the strength of the solution to the nature and hardiness
of the plants under treatment ; a quarter of an ounce to one
gallon of water will generally answer for slight attacks, and from
4 oz. to 6 oz. in 10 gallons of water is considered strong enough
to suit all requirements.
Potassium permanganate. (Permanganate of potash). — A
simple but effectual fungicide may be prepared by dissolving about
30 to 40 grains of permanganate of potash in a gallon of water.
The solution resembles Condy's fluid, being of a pale claret colour,
and may be used for herbaceous and bulbous plants with good
effect.
Condy's Fluid, Jeye's Fluid, etc. — These are useful fungi-
cides, and are sometimes employed for sterilising soil, the latter
being allowed to remain a week after treatment before anything is
planted or sown. The proportions should be about 1 oz. of the
fluid to 1 gallon of water.
Corrosive sublimate. — For disinfecting seed, preserving
books, dried specimens of plants, etc., nothing is better than a
solution of corrosive sublimate. This is a powerful poison and
kills bacteria, fungus spores and similar organisms by contact.
632 COMMON DISEASES OF PLANTS
It may be used in a water solution, at a strength of about 1 oz. to
6 gallons of water. For books, specimens, etc., the following
proportions are recommended : corrosive sublimate i oz., carbolic
acid i oz., methylated spirits 1 pint ; apply with a soft brush.
SOME COMMON DISEASES OF PLANTS
Club-root or Slime Fungus. — This disastrous fungus disease
attacks the roots of all plants of the Cabbage family (see under
Cabbage), and does a great deal of damage in up-country gardens,
rendering them in many cases unprofitable for cultivation ; it
produces large nodules on the roots and, the leaves becoming
yellowish, the plants suddenly die. The disease spreads readily
by means of spores carried on implements or with plants trans-
ferred from an infected area, and once established it is impossible
to eradicate it, except by giving up the cultivation of Cruciferous
plants for two or three years. Fresh unslaked lime, applied at the
rate of 75 bushels to the acre, or about 15 Ib. to 100 sq. feet, will,
however, check the disease considerably for a time. Rotation of
crops also minimises its effects.
Sooty Mould. — Orange trees and other members of the Citrus
family are peculiarly liable to this fungus disease, which forms a
black crust on the foliage, sometimes covering the entire leaf, and
occasionally blackening the fruits also. It is, however, a super-
ficial growth and does not penetrate the tissues of the plant. Its
presence is due to scale-insects (species of Lecaniiini), which must
be got rid off in order to effectually dispose of the mould. Spray-
ing with petroleum emulsion or a resin wash, followed by syringing
with clean water, is the best remedy. The scale-bug (Lccanium
hemisphcericum) is a very common pest on ferns and other
pot-plants, while Lecanium viride or green-bug is often trouble-
some on oranges, coffee plants, etc.
Gumming, or Gummosis. — This condition, which sometimes
occurs on fruit trees, especially on Oranges and other Citrus trees,
is usually induced by badly drained soils or external injury, as
through improper pruning. Experts are not, however, agreed
upon the actual cause of the disease, which has been attributed to
fungi or bacteria: but it is a common result of injury to the cam-
bium. The best way of preventing its occurrence consists in
affording the trees proper cultivation, and preventing as far as
possible any rupture of the bark. A remedy that sometimes proves
COMMON DISEASES OF PLANTS 633
effectual is cutting out the affected part, and tarring the area or
covering it with cow-dung and clay. An application of Bordeaux-
paste (2 Ib. copper sulphate, 2 Ib. unslaked lime in i gallon water),
applied by a brush, is also recommended.
Damping-off disease. — The common malady known as
"damping-off " is due to a fungus (Pythium), which affects young
and small tender plants, especially seedlings from thickly sown
seed. It usually attacks the plants at a joint just above the ground
level and, the tissues becoming destroyed, the plants fall over from
that point. Excessive dampness, absence of light or ventilation,
and imperfect drainage are conditions which are conducive to the
disease.
Dry-rot fungus. — The disease known as "dry rot" (Merulius
lacrynians) frequently attacks timber in bungalows or other buildings
in the tropics. Soaking or spraying the wood with a solution of
formalin or other fungicide, at intervals of a few days, is said to be
the best preventive.
Chlorosis in Plants. — The disease called Chlorosis, which
means pallor or "green sickness," is not caused by a fungus or
insect pest, but by a deficiency of iron in the food of the plant.
It is noticeable by the foliage or other actively growing
part assuming a blanched appearance, the usual green colouring
matter (chlorophyll) being lacking; for without iron no chlorophyll
can be formed. It is not a serious or very common disease, and
can usually be cured by adding a weak solution of iron salt
to the soil.
Fasciation (from "fasciculus," a little bundle). — The primary
cause of the phenomenon known as fasciation which affects many
families of plants, is largely a matter of conjecture. It may occur
in the stem (as often seen in young Hevea stems), as a flat-
tened growth instead of the normal cylindrical stem; or in the
flowers, as in the Cockscomb and often in Roses; or in the fruit, as
frequently in Pine-apples. Some genera are more liable to it than
others, and in some cases it is hereditary, as in the Cockscomb
(Cclosia cristata). Fasciation is believed to be usually the result of
either of two causes, viz: (1) local injury to the plant whether
caused mechanically or by insects (gall mites being a frequent
cause), and (2) excessive nourishment (hypertrophy), i.e. overfeeding
of certain parts of the plant, which disturbs the equilibrium of
growth.
634 COMMON DISEASES OF PLANTS IN CEYLON
TABULAR LIST OF COMMON FUNGUS DISEASES
OF PLANTS IN CEYLON,
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO CROPS ATTACKED
Host plant.
Albizzia
Bean, Broad and
French
Bread-fruit
Cabbage
Cacao
Camphor
Castilloa
Castor-oil Plant
Citrus family
Cinnamon
Clove
Coconut
Coffee
Colocasia
Cotton
Crotalaria
Dioscorea
Guava
Hevea
Mango
Mulberry
Nutmeg
Pea
Peeper
Strawberry
Name of disease and fungus.
Root-disease (Ustnlina z junta}.
Rust ( Uromyccs fabae).
Pliytoplitliora sp.
Club-root (Plastnodiopliora brassicae).
/Canker (? Nectn'a stn'atospora).
! Brown root-disease.
1 Pliytoplitliora sp.
\Diplodia cacaoicolu.
j Brown Root-disease.
{ Rosdlinia botliriua.
Collar-rot (F lisa ri inn sp).
Rust (Mdampsorclla ricini).
(Scab (Cladosporiiim sp).
-J Ustnliua sonata.
(Black rust (Mcliola sp).
Ccphalcnros parasitica (Algae).
Grey Blight (Pcstalozzia palniannn).
Wi'ches* Broom (Exobasidhnn cinita-
uionii).
J Ponies sitbstygins.
{ Red Spot (Ccplialcni'os parasitica).
/Grey Blight (Pcstalozzia palniannn).
I Stem Bleeding-dissase (Thidai'iopsis
paradoxa)
Foiucs liicidns.
Bud-rot (Bacterial).
Coffee-leaf disease (Hcniilcia vastntrix).
Sderocvstis corciuioidcs.
Rust (If redo gossypii).
( Leaf-disease (Pai'odit'Ha pcrisporioidcs).
I Pink-disease (Coi'Hciuni j avail icuni).
Rust (Aecidiniii dioscorcac).
Glocosporitt m psidii.
{ Foiucs scinitostiis.
j Spliacrostilbc rcpcns.
\ Brown Root disease.
i Pink disease (Corticinm jaranicnm).
Die-back (Glocosporinni albontbi'itin).
Botryodiplodia dasticac.
\ Canker.
! Leaf-spot (HdniiiitJiospot'inni liei'ca).
J Fruit-rot (Glocosporiuni niatigae).
} Root-disease (Ponies lucid us).
Rust (Urcdo moricola).
Thread Blight (Marasntins rotalis).
Leaf-spot (Ascodivta pisi).
Wilt.
Leaf spot (SpJiaerdla fragartae).
Parts attacked.
Root
Leaf
Fruit
Root
Stem
Root
Pod
Stem
Root
Stem
Leaf
Leaf and fruit
Root
Leaf and fruit
Leaf
Stem
Leaf
Stem
Root
Apex
Leaf
Stem
Leaf
Stem
Leaf and stem
Fruit
Root
Stem
Leaf
Fruit
Leaf and stem
Leaf
Root
Leaf
KXAPSACK AUTOMATIC SPRAYING MACHINE.
SULPHUR OK KINK LIQUID SPRAYKR.
636
SPRA YING
Host plant.
Name of disease and fungus.
Parts attacked.
Tea
Tobacco
Tomato
Vine
f Grey Blight (Pcstalozzia palniarnni).
j Brown Blight (Collctotrichnm
caniclliac}.
\ White-spot (Ccrcospora tlicac)
j Horse-hair Blight (Marasmiiis rota I is).
I Massaria t lie i col a.
•{ Brown Root-disease (Hynicnochactc
noxia).
Root-disease (Ustnlina zonata).
Poria hypolatcritia.
Diplodia sp.
Pink-disease (Corticinin javauicnm).
L Roscllinia bothrina.
(Mildew (Oid in in sp).
•j Wilt (F lisa rin m sp).
( Mosaic-disease.
f Pimply Rot (PJiytoplitliora sp)
} Bacterial-wilt.
Mildew (Oidinm tnckcri).
Leaf
Stem and leaf
Stem
Root
Branches
Root
Leaf
Root
Leaf
Fruit
Stem
Leif
SPRAYING
The object of spraying is to distribute a poisonous fluid in a
finely divided form over plants, either for the purpose of ridding
them of injurious insects, or for checking the spread of fungus
disease. It is carried out by means of hand-pump sprayers,
knapsack sprayers, or with compressed air and spraying machines
of various designs. Where only a limited number of plants are
treated, a garden syringe will answer the purpose. In the case of
fungus diseases, it should be remembered that spraying is essentially
a preventive, which, to be successful, should be applied at the first
signs of the disease. Spraying operations are generally best carried
out when the foliage is in a moist condition. Emulsions containing
kerosene in any form should be used in cloudy weather only, or
after sunset.
Dangers of spraying. — As all insecticides and fungicides are
necessarily of a poisonous character, discretion must be used in
applying them over fruits or vegetables that will be consumed for
food. As the fruits ripen, the spray-fluid should be further diluted,
withholding it altogether when it is judged to be desirable to do
so. On quick-maturing vegetables or salads, as Lettuce, etc., which
are eaten in an uncooked state, it is obviously unsafe to apply any
poisonous sprays. Fruit trees should not be sprayed when in
blossom, as apart from any possible danger of the poison lodging
in the ovary it may seriously affect the setting of the fruit.
CHAPTER XXX.
TRANSPORT OF PLANTS, SEEDS, FLOWERS,
SPECIMENS, ETC.; STORING OF SEEDS
The conveyance of plants or seeds over long journeys, or
from one country to another, is a question which not unfrequently
confronts one in the tropics, and upon it may depend the beginning
or development of a new planting industry. In cases where seeds
are not procurable, or are of a particularly perishable nature,
recourse must be had to plants to meet requirements. Unquestion-
ably the best means so far invented for transmitting plants over
long journeys, especially by sea, is in wardian cases, by the aid of
which the exchange of live plants between widely separated
countries has been greatly facilitated. Thus the introduction of
Rubber, Cacao, and other useful plants from the Western to the
Eastern tropics, and others vice versa, is due largely to the
excellent wardian cases (and equally perfect packing) which for
many years past have been sent out from the great emporium,
Kew Gardens, London. A wardian case consists of a large box,
with two sloping glazed sides which meet at the top to form a
ridge, the two ends being carried up like a "V" inverted, thus A
The sides are movable, and the glass panes fitted in grooves with
putty, being protected on the outside with narrow thin strips of
wood, nailed on about an inch apart. A small circular hole,
covered by a piece of perforated zinc or other metal, is made in
each end near the top for ventilation, and over each of these
(inside) is nailed a small box, which is open at the top, so as to
catch any sea spray that may get in. Therefore a wardian case
when travelling, is nearly airtight, so that very little evaporation
or change of air can take place within. The bottom of the case is
tilled with soil, in which the plants are packed closely together ;
these are held in position by narrow strips of wood placed
transversely, which are firmly secured in position by means of a
longitudinal strip of wood placed along on both ends of the latter,
being nailed to either side of the case inside. Wardian cases may
638 TRANSPORTING PLANTS, SEEDS, ETC.
be made of any size to suit large or small plants. They have
been of the greatest service at Peradeniya in despatching Cacao,
Rubber and other plants to different parts of the tropics, more
especially when seeds are either unobtainable or are of too perish-
able a nature to withstand a long journey. When transporting
Cacao and other seedling plants in wardian cases, the best way of
establishing them so as to stand the journey is to sow the seed in
the case, a sufficient depth of good light soil being placed in the
bottom for this purpose, so that the seedlings may grow en route.
When the seedlings are well above ground, thin bamboo twigs may
WAKDIAX CASES WITH PLANTS READY FOR TRANSPORT FROM CEYLON TO SOUTH
AMERICA.
be placed, across the case, between them over the soil, these being
held down by longitudinal strips of wood as explained. The case
is then ready for despatch, a liberal watering being given to the
contents before the sides are closed down.
PLANT-CASES IN TRANSIT
The success of any method of packing plants will largely
depend upon the position assigned to these on board-ship.
Obviously they must have access to light and air, but must be
PLANT-CASES IX TRAXS/T 639
under shade or cover ; they should not be placed on the lower
main deck if on a long voyage, as they would thus be liable to be
injured or killed by the sea spray or breakers. The best part of a
ship for plants is, as a rule, the upper or boat-deck, but not too
near the engines. Plants in an active state of growth will be
benefited by an occasional watering, if this can be given by an
intelligent hand. Much also depends on the season. Tropical or
hot- house plants can only be transported safely over long journeys
during the summer months ; while deciduous plants, or those of
temperate countries, travel best when in a dormant state, as in the
autumn or spring.
Wardian cases. — The following are brief instructions for the
guidance of persons sending wardian cases of plants from the
tropics. The cases should bs kept on deck, under awning and away
from the engines ; direct exposure to the sun, especially if the
cases are closed, will injure the plants. A wardian case is easily
opened by unscrewing one or both of the glass sides. In tropical
seas during fine weather, one of the glazed sides may with
advantage be left partly or fully open during the day. The plants
may be lightly watered or sprinkled with fresh tepid water at
least once in three days. In cool latitudes less watering is
required, and the cases should then be protected at night with
tarpaulins or additional covering.
PACKING AND TRANSPORTING SEEDS
In regard to imported seeds of annuals, \egetables, etc., of
temperate countries, it has been found that, provided the seed is
properly dried, the best way of transporting them is in airtight
tins. Seedsmen who make a speciality of sending such seeds on
long journeys pack them in hermetically sealed tins, in a dry
atmosphere, so that the seeds are not affected by heat and sweat
on the voyage. No packing material of a preserving kind is thus
required. A similar method will suit certain tropical seeds ; but
these are often of a fleshy non-driable character, naturally
unadapted to a dormant period, and require to be packed with a
dry (or very slightly moist) absorbent material ; the tins or boxes
containing them should not be hermetically sealed, as otherwise
fermentation will set in and destroy the seed. Thus, seeds of Para
rubber (Hei'ca brasiliensis) which are normally of short vitality,
packed in ordinary biscuit tins, with a mixture of dry powdered
charcoal and fine soil or coir-dust, have been transported over
journeys of six to eight weeks, and at destination gave germinative
640 PACKING AND TRANSPORTING SEEDS
results of seventy to eighty per cent. Seeds which are surrounded
by a mucilaginous substance should have the latter washed off,
then be rapidly dried in the sun, after which they should be
packed with a dry preservative material as described above, and
despatched without delay. To this class of seed belong Castilloa,
species of Garcinia, Nephelium, etc. The writer has found in the
case of such as these that if the seeds, while moist and after being
washed, are mixed with dry charcoal powder, the latter upon
drying forms an effective preservative coating around them.
DR. VAN HALL, late Director of Agriculture for the Dutch West
Indies, states that he had success in sending Cacao pods in
paraffin wax to Java, a voyage of over six weeks, and describes his
method thus : "The pods were first thoroughly washed with a
tooth-brush and soapy water, then placed in 70% alcohol for a
minute, and afterwards in a 5 % solution of corrosive sublimate for
a few minutes, so as to kill the germs on the surface. A piece of
string being then attached to the stalk end of the pocl, the latter
was dipped in the liquid paraffin (70%)\ it was taken out imme-
diately and hung carefully by the string so as not to break the
thin coating of the wax. When cold, each pod was again
dipped in the paraffin, making the coating more secure. The
fruits were then packed in fine sawdust and despatched."
Cacao seeds, when shelled, rapidly lose their germinating
power, but for journeys not exceeding a fortnight pods may be
transported in open crates ; the fruits being placed vertically in
layers of a dozen each, and separated and held in position by thin
strips of wood or bamboo, a convenient-sized crate would hold
four dozen pods.
Seeds of a very perishable nature should be packed only in
small quantities, and in such tin boxes as do not effectually prevent
the escape of moisture. If transmitted by post, stout canvas
should be used as an outside covering, or if sent as steamer-
freight they should be placed in wooden cases. Coir-dust when
leached and intermixed with a proportion of powdered charcoal
forms an excellent packing material for many short-lived seeds,
such as those of Para rubber. Burnt rice and saw-dust are also
used with good results. As a rule, any such packing material
should have only the slightest trace of moisture left in it. On
the other hand, seeds of certain water-plants, as Victoria regia, are
best transported in small tubes or vials filled with water ; these
being made water-tight with wax may easily be packed with straw
PACKING AND TRANSPORTING SEEDS 641
or shavings in a section of bamboo, and despatched by post. Palm
seeds and most fruit tree seeds are best packed with slightly
moistened sphagnum moss, in tins, or well-wrapped in oil-paper.
Cuttings or Scions may often be safely sent by post if prepared
and packed in the following manner. They should be approxi-
mately 9 to 10 in. long and furnished with about 3 or more eyes
(buds) ; they must not be too slender, never under the size of a
lead pencil in thickness, but preferably a little larger than this in the
case of soft-wooded kinds. See that each cutting, etc., is not
affected with any insect-pest or fungus disease. About 3 cuttings
may be placed together and wrapped in slightly moistened sphagnum
moss and surrounded with oil-paper ; these may be placed in bundles
in a close-fitting tin tube and despatched. In the absence of
sphagnum, a slightly damped wrapper of lint or cotton will answer
the purpose. Closing up of the ends of the cuttings with sealing-wax
to prevent the evaporation of moisture, or fixing the ends in a
potato or other tuber, are both useful methods in an emergency,
but not to be preferred to the mode described above.
Transport of bulbs or tubers. — These are always best trans-
ported when the plants are in a dormant or resting state. In the
tropics, however, this is not usually practicable, as the plants may
be said to be seldom in that condition. In this case the bulbs or
tubers should be gradually dried until all the leaves have thoroughly
withered, when they should be cut away. The bulbs may then be
packed in dry sawdust or coir-dust for export. Small quantities
may thus be placed in ordinary biscuit boxes, and sent by Parcels
Post. If packed in a larger box for shipment, it is well to bore a
few ventilation holes in the sides of the box.
SENDING FLOWERS BY TOST, ETC.
The flowers should preferably be cut with a sharp knife, not
broken off ; cutting with scissors is apt to squeeze and close the
tubes of certain flower-stalks, thereby preventing the absorption of
moisture when placed in water. Flowers should be cut in the
early morning, when they are full of moisture ; do not sprinkle
water on them, and if wet shake them gently. In packing, the
box should be lined with glazed paper, moss or fresh leaves ; no
cotton-wool or other absorbent substance should be used as a
packing, the best material for the purpose being fresh leaves or
fern fronds. The flowers should be packed quite closely, for they
will shake down, and if loose the jolting will bruise them ; they
642 STORING OF SEEDS
are best not tied in bunches, except in the case of small flowers, as
violets. A tin box, rather shallow, or, if deep, provided with
movable trays, is the best receptacle for sending flowers long dis-
tances either by rail or post, but a card- board box may answer if
strong enough.
SENDING SPECIMENS BY POST OR RAIL
Parcels should always contain the name of the sender. It is
important that specimens of plants or fungi for identification,
plants attacked by disease, economic products, etc., should arrive
in as fresh a condition. as possible. They should be packed in a
closely-fitting tin or wooden box, without air holes, both to keep
them fresh and to prevent the escape of dangerous insects or
fungus spores. Plants for simple identification may be packed
flat. Ample material should be sent to allow of full examination,
and when flowers or fruit are available these should accompany
the specimen. In most cases it is impossible to determine the
identity of a specimen with certainty unless accompanied by
flowers or fruit. Full notes of the locality from which the specimen
comes, with elevation, should be given.
DESPATCHING INSECT PESTS, ETC.
Small insects may be enclosed and despatched in empty
match boxes, if on short journeys only. A few pieces of crumpled
soft paper should be included in the box to prevent damage by
shaking during transit. Larger insects, or such as are likely to
eat their way through a match box, should be packed either in
tin or wooden boxes. Loose pieces of wood or earth should not
be put in a box with insects, as, by rattling about during transport,
they would be liable to injure the specimens. It is unnecessary
to punch holes in the box for ventilation. The address and
postage stamp should be on a separate label to be attached to the
box or package, and the sender's name should always be written
on the label.
STORING OF SEEDS
Except for convenience, it is perhaps never advisable to keep
seeds for a long time,* as most, if not all, seeds germinate best
when fresh, provided they are perfectly matured. All seeds may
be divided into dryable and non-dryable classes. To the latter
belong a large proportion of seeds of tropical species, and these
0 Seeds of Ceara Rubber are often kept for about two years before sowing, as they are
considered to germinate best at about that age.
STORIXG OF SEEDS 643
are best sown as soon as possible after they are ripe. Their
vitality may, however, be usually prolonged for a limited period by
placing them in a dry porous mixture, such as charcoal, burnt
paddy husk, coir-dust, sawdust, finely sifted dry soil, etc. Small
dryable seeds, having been thoroughly dried, are best kept in
stoppered bottles or air-tight tins, which afford protection from
weevils and other destructive insects, as well as from the baneful
effects of damp and mould. Imported seeds, especially those of
annuals and vegetables, which are not sown immediately after
arrival, should always be stored away in air-tight tins or stoppered
jars, and kept in a cool place until required ; otherwise they will
soon become useless. Where this is impracticable, as in the case
of paddy and other grains, naphthalene is an excellent preventive
against weevils and other insects.
CHAPTER XXXI.
1. RECIPES FOR MAKING JAMS, PRESERVES, ETC.
2. USEFUL REFERENCES
3. WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND COINAGE
RECIPES:—
Billing Jam. — Prick the fruit well over with a fork ; let it soak in a
basin of water for a night. Then squeeze the fruit slightly to get rid of some
of the acid juice, throw away the liquid, and boil the fruit with its weight of
sugar until it is of the proper consistency. See preserves, etc.
Cape Gooseberry or Tippari jam. Wash the fruit and put in a
pan with sugar, allowing a cupful of sugar to every cupful of fruit ; add a tea-
cupful of cold water and boil till done. See jellies.
Melon Jam : To every 18 Ib. of fruit allow 12 Ib. of sugar, 6 Ib. lemons,
i Ib. bruised ginger tied in a muslin bag. Peel fruit over night and cut into
small blocks ; put into a large basin (after weighing), and sprinkle over a little
of the sugar. Next morning put into the preserving pan with the remainder of
the sugar, and while it is boiling pare the lemons and squeeze out the juice,
which strain and add to the melon. Put the lemon rinds on to boil in plenty
of water, and when they are soft cut into strips with a sharp knife and add
to above. Boil for four hours, and remove the ginger bag. The jam should be
transparent and of a golden brown colour.
Papaw jam : Choose fruit three-quarters ripe ; remove all skin and
seeds ; chop up the fruit into small pieces. Weigh, add equal weight of sugar,
also some green ginger (cut into small slices), 2 o/. of the latter being sufficient
for 6 Ib. of fruit. Cover up the fruit and sugar, and let the latter melt during
the night. Boil up next morning until done.
Passion-fruit jam : Have two basins ready ; cut the fruit in halves,
scoop out all the juice and seeds into one basin, putting the shells in the other ;
cover the latter with cold water and a very little salt, and leave in water for
twelve hours ; then boil in the same water for three-quarter of an hour, scoop
out the inside of the shells, throwing away the outside skins and the water they
were boiled in. Squeeze out the juice from the seeds. Mix all together and
boil for half an hour. Allow 1 Ib. sugar to 1^ Ib. fruit.
Peach jam : Pare and stone the fruit, after which weigh it, allowing
10 Ib. of sugar to every 12 Ib. of fruit. Put the fruit in a preserving pan and
barely cover with water ; allow this to cook slowly for U hours, at the end of
which time add the sugar, and cook for an hour longer.
Pine-apple jam : Peel the pine-apples and chop them up ( not taking
cores); weigh the fruit, and allow 1£ Ib. sugar to 1 Ib. fruit ; boil until of the
desired consistency. A piece of cinnamon added will improve the flavour.
JELLIES 645
Orange marmalade. — Ingredients : 1 Ib. orange, 3 pints water, 3 Ib.
sugar. Mode : Halve and quarter the oranges, take out core and seeds, then
slice very thinly and let stand in water for 24 hours ; boil in that water until
marmalade is as clear as amber. When it has boiled for twenty minutes, add
the sugar and let boiling continue till it jellies.
JELLIES :—
Cape Gooseberry or Tippari jelly : Boil and strain the fruit, put
the juice on tire to simmer; skim it and add sugar in the proportion of three
or four parts to one part juice ( or to taste ), and cook till it jellies. See also
under jams.
Guava jelly: After thoroughly washing the fruit, put in an ena-
melled saucepan with sufficient water just to cover it ; boil until all the fruit is
broken, then strain ; to one breakfast cupful of juice add the same quantity of
sugar or slightly more ( say 6 cupfuls juice to 6£ of sugar ), and boil very slow-
ly. A little lime-juice may be added after the sugar is put in.
Lovi-lovi jelly : Boil the fruits thoroughly and take off the scum as it
comes up. Then strain, and boil with refined sugar (two to one) till it forms a
jelly.
Nutmeg jelly : Take 3 Ib. nutmeg skins and 4 Ib. sugar. Peel the skins
and put into water for 12 hours; then take them out and place in enough-water
just to cover them and boil until quite mashed : strain off the juice, add the
sugar, and boil slowly till it jellies.
Another recipe : Put the rinds of ripe nutmegs into a preserving pan,
with just enough water to cover them ; boil until the fruit is almost a pulp or
very soft ; then strain through a flannel jelly bag. To every pint of juice add
1 Ib. sugar, and boil until jelly is formed.
Rozelle jelly : Place the roxelle sepals in a basin and barely cover with
water ; let them soak all night, and in the morning slightly squeeze them : put
the whole (sepals and water) into a preserving pan and boil until quite soft and
pulpy. Then let the juice drip slowly through a jelly bag. Allow 1 Ib. sugar
to 1 pint juice; boil all slowly for 15 or 20 minutes, or until a jelly is formed.
PRESERVES, FRUIT SALADS, ETC:—
Billing preserve : Prick the fruits with a fork and put them in water
for a few hours ; then squeeze out the fruits, wash them with hot water and
dry with a clean towel. Sugar ( in the proportion of H Ib. to 1 Ib. fruit ) should
be boiled separately and refined as for nelli preserve; add the fruits to the sugar
and boil till the latter comes to a thick syrup. See Jams.
Camaranga preserve : Cut off the ends and sharp ridges of the fruit ;
prick with a fork and put in cold water for a few hours. Squeeze out and pass
through hot water before putting the fruits in the sugar syrup, and boil as other
preserves. Proportion of sugar, two parts to one of fruit.
Cashew-nut toffee : Take 2 Ib. sugar, 150 cashew-nuts (skin these like
almonds, in hot water), and chop up with a knife or mincing machine. Make
a syrup first of the sugar with 2 tumblers of water, then add nuts and cook till
it crystalizes; put on to a buttered plate, and when set cut into squares or dia-
mond shapes.
646 PRESERVES
Mango preserve: Take fruits which are three-quarter ripe, peel off
skin, cut into slices, discarding the seed. Prick the fruit with a silver fork, and
soak in cold water for a few hours. Prepare sugar (1 or 1£ Ib. to 1 Ib. fruit) as
for nelli, and boil till the fruit is cooked.
Nelli preserve : Prick fruits when half-ripe, wash and prick all over
with a silver fork. Squeeze the juice out by hand, and soak in cold water for
about 12 hours ; put the fruits in boiling water for a little while, and again
squeeze out the juice. Add sugar in the proportion of 2 Ib. to 1 Ib. of fruits ;
boil sugar separately, then add the fruits and boil till all becomes a thick syrup.
Pine-apple preserve: Slice the fruit, prick it or chop in pieces, but do
not squeeze out the juice. Then boil with refined sugar (one to one) as for
nelli; add a small piece of cinnamon and a few cloves to flavour.
Pumpkin toffee: This is made like cashew-nut toffee, allowing 1 Ib.
sugar for 1 Ib. of pumpkin, grated like coconut; add | Ib. of flour and, when it
is inclined to crystalize, a table-spoonful of butter. When set, cut into squares.
Mango chutney: Take 1 Ib. unripe mangoes, 1 Ib. Demerara sugar,
£ Ib. sultanas, 2 oz. almonds, 2 oz. garlic, 2 oz dried ginger, 2 or 3 oz. dry
chillies, and salt to taste. Peel the mango, slice from the seed and cut into
small pieces, chop the sultanas and almonds; grind the garlic, ginger and
chillies on a curry stone. Mix all with half-bottle of malt vinegar and boil for
twenty minutes, stirring all the time.
Devilled Bananas : Melt 1 table-spoonful of butter, add £ tea-spoonful
of chopped red chillies, 2 tea-spoonfuls chopped pickles, 1 tea-spoonful Worces-
ter sauce, and i tea-spoonful of salt. Add four bananas cut in four equal parts.
Cook five minutes.
Banana Sauce: Ingredients: j pint water, ^ Ib. sugar, 3 bananas
pulped, 3 table-spoonfuls lemon juice, 2 eggs, and a pinch of salt. Boil sugar
and water ten minutes. Mix remaining ingredients, and pour hot syrup on to
them. Beat well, and serve hot.
Banana compote: Ingredients: Sound ripe bananas, f pint white
syrup, £ liqueur-glassful maraschino, chopped almonds, and a few grapes.
Peel the bananas, remove the white fibres in core or centre, plunge the fruit
into boiling water for two seconds. Drain at once and transfer the fruit into
boiling syrup, kept ready for the purpose in a saucepan or basin. Cover with
a plate and leave to cool, then add the liqueur. Take out the bananas, dish up
in a pyramid garnished with large grapes (which have been cut in halves and
had the stones removed). Pour the syrup over and serve.
Fruit Salad : Peel and clean with a silver knife any fruit available, as
pine-apple, mangoes, plantains, oranges, papaws. etc. Slice the fruit, cut into
neat squares, and place in a glass dish. Sprinkle with castor sugar; mix wel/
and. if liked, add one pint of hock or sherry. Fresh whipped cream, Russell's
tinned cream mixed with sugar and vanilla, or a good custard, should be served
with this salad, which improves by being kept in a cool place. ( " Hausfrau "
in Ceylon Observer).
Vegetable curry : Take 3 carrots, 3 turnips, 3 potatoes, I onion, 2 table-
spoonfuls curry powder, 1 apple and some boiled rice. Scrape the carrots and
cut in slices ; peel the turnips, potatoes, onions and apple, cut in slices, and
SWEET-POTATO RECIPES 647
fry in dripping until a nice brown ; put all in a d.ep pie dish ; mix the curry
powder with a \ pint of stock and pour over the vegetables; cover the dish with
a plate, and simmer in the oven for one hour.
SWEET-POTATO RECIPES :—
"Biscuit" — Mash thoroughly four medium-sized cold, boiled potatoes,
after removing the skin; stir in 4 table-spoonfuls of flour with a piece of butter
the size of a small egg, and add milk to make the consistency of biscuit
dough. Roll, cut, place in a well-greased pan, and bake in an oven with
moderate heat.
"Waffles." — Add to two heaping table-spoonfuls of boiled potatoes,
rubbed through a cullender, a table-spoonful of melted butter, a table-spoonful of
sugar, a pint of milk, four table-spoonfuls of flour, one egg well-beaten, a little
salt, two tea-spoonfuls of baking powder. Grease the irons thoroughly, fill, and
bake brown. Serve with a sauce of half tea-cupful of honey beaten with a
tea-cupful of cream.
" Pudding." — Remove the skins of and mash finely six potatoes ; beat
with yelks of four eggs a tea-cupful of white sugar and four level tea-spoonfuls of
butter. Beat the whites of two eggs as for icing, add grated rind and juice
of a small lemon, a little salt, and two tea-cupfuls of cream; stir, then add to
other mixture. Put into a buttered dish, and bake an hour and a half. Beat
whites of eggs with three table-spoonfuls of sugar, pour over the top. and brown.
USEFUL REFERENCES :-
[S.=SIXHALESE; 7'.=TAMIL].
To make Charcoal. Cut the wood in lengths of 2 to 3 feet, and split
the stout pieces 2 or 3 inches in thickness. Heap these into a wide pit, com-
mencing by making a square chimney in the centre wit'i sticks about 15 inches
long laid across each other; pile the wood around this, one piece upon another,
laid as closely as possible. Cover the whole with turf or adhesive earth, except
the top of the chimney; start the fire in the chimney at the base with dry kind-
ling. Carefully stop all outbursts of smoke with soil, and close or open the
draught holes (left at the base) according as the fire burns. When the fire is
completely extinguished allow the mass to gradually cool.
Woods for making Charcoal. The following are some of the best
charcoal-making woods in Ceylon: — Acrotiychia laurifolia ("Ankenda" S. ),
Aiienantheni pavonina (" Madatiya" S.), Artocarons uobilis ("Del" S.), Bassia
longifolia ("Me"S.), Caryota nrens (" Kitul " S.), Croton laccifcrnm (" Keppi-
tiya" S. ), Doona zeylanica ("Dun" S. ), Hcmicyclia scpiaria ( " Vira " S;
" Viyarai " 7'.), Trcma orientalis ("Gedumba" S. or "Charcoal-tree"), \Vcndlan-
dia notiiniiina (" Rawan-idella" S.)
Measuring the Height of Trees. Take a staff six feet long, pointed
for pressing into the ground. To the centre of the staff fix with screws a piece
of board twelve inches wide and exactly square. Fix to this a diagonal strip of
straight lath. A plumb line is attached to the board of staff to enable the per-
pendicular being obtained; this is indispensable. In measuring a tree the
staff is placed at a distance from it, so that with the plumb exactly perpendicular
the diagonal lath points to the top of the tree, the person taking the "sight"
resting on one knee or reclining to bring the eye to the lower end of the lath.
648
USEFUL REFERENCES
The sight line is then extended to the ground by means of a string. From the
point where this touches the ground (C in the figure) to the centre of the trunk
will represent the actual height of the tree; that is, the horizontal line A C is
equal to the vertical A B. If the tree were blown or cut down its top would
follow the course showed by the curve line and rest at C.
Another method. Make two lines on the ground exactly three feet
apart. On one of the lines drive a stake in the ground so that the top of the
stake will be exactly three feet from the ground; when the shadow of the stake
will have reached the other line, the shadow cast by the tree will be precisely
the length of the height of the tree, and by measuring the length of the shadow
at that moment you will obtain the exact height of the tree. The measurements
should be taken on level ground. If the tree is leaning, incline the stake at as
nearly the same angle as possible at which the tree inclines.
A C
MEASURING THE HEIGHT OF TREES
110 yds. long and 44 yds. wide
88' „ „ 55 „
69i „ „ 70 „
Measuring land. The following lengths multiplied by the correspond-
ing breadths equal an acre : —
988 yds. long and 5 yds. wide.
484 „ „ 10 „
220 „ , 22 „
121 „ „ 40 „
A yard is a good long stride, and few men step a yard in their natural
stride.
To measure Timber. Take the girth in inches in the middle, divide it
by 4, and square the result, which gives the mean sectional area of the trunk ;
multiply the product by the length of the tree in feet, divide by 144 and the
quotient is the contents in cubic feet. Where there is bark, an allowance must
be made for this. The usual allowance varying from £ inch to li inch to every
foot of quarter girth ; thus, the total quarter girth being 24 inches, and the bark
being thick, a deduction of 5 inches or 3 inches would be necessary, the quarter
USEFUL REFERENCES 649
girth being taken at 21 or 22 indies. The height of standing trees may be
judged by using a 20-foot rod. and the girth by taking a girth-strap 12 feet in
length and about f inch wide, on which every fourth inch is numbered from
one to thirty-six. Thus a tree having a circumference of 120 inches would read
30 inches on the strap.
Weight or measurement of Straw or Hay Stacks. To measure an
oblong stack, multiply the length in feet by the width below the eaves, and the
product by the height from the ground to the eaves. For the top, multiply the
length in feet by the width at the eaves, and the product by half the length to
the ridge. A cubic foot of hay weighs approximately from 7 Ib. to 9 Ib. For
general purposes the weight of a stack may be ascertained by actually measur-
ing the cubic contents of the truss, and calculating from this the weight of a
cubic foot. Stacks of straw are estimated at from 18 to 20 cubic yards to a ton.
To estimate Grain crops per acre. Frame together four light
sticks, measuring exactly a foot square inside, and with this in one hand walk
into the field and select a spot of fair average yield ; lower the square frame
over as many heads as it will enclose, shell out carefully the heads thus
enclosed, and weigh the grain. To make the result more reliable, make ten or
twenty similar calculations, and estimate by the mean of the whole number of
results.
Approximate cost per acre of bringing crops to maturity in
Ceylon. — Coconuts, £25 up to 6th year ; Tea, £30 to £35 up to 4th
year ; Cocoa, £25 to £30 up to 5th year ; Rubber. £30 up to 6th year-
These figures include the necessary factory or store, but not the cost of land.
From £5 to £10 more per acre may be allowed, under average conditions, for
the Straits Settlements and F.M.S.
Road-making and Concreting.— A cube of broken metal is 18 feet
long at base, 5 feet broad, 2£ feet high in centre and 14 feet long along top
ridge. It contains 60 bushels of metal which, when spread, is sufficient for
metalling about 500 sq. feet of road surface. Usual cost at quarry, about
Rs. 8. Concrete metal is 50% finer (= road metal broken in half); cost
per cube at quarry. Rs. 12 50. The usual charge for concreting, 4 inches thick,
varies from 25 cts. per sq. foot according to locality.
Average day's work per cooly :
Holing 18 in. x 12 in. (as for Tea) ... 100 to 120
Planting (Tea) ... 200 to 250
Drains 18 in. x 15 in. ... ... 50 to 60 ft.
Pruning { Tea ) ... 180 to 300 trees
Tea-box woods. The following Ceylon woods are among the most
suitable for making tea-chests. Katu-imbul ( Bonibn.v nuiliibiin'cum); Mango
< Miiugifcni indica): Hal (Vatcria ticiintinntn): Katuboda (Cnllcnia cxcclsa);
Kekuna (Canariitm zcylanicntn); Ruk-attana (Alstonnt scholaris); Malaboda or
Wild-nutmeg (MyristUM lanrifolia), Telambu (Stercttlia foctida).
Moss on Lawns.— The best way to get rid of moss on lawns is first to
afford efficient drainage, and afterwards enrich the soil. The moss should be
eradicated by scarifying the surface with an iron-toothed rake in order to detach
it. afterwards raking it off. When this has been done, top-dress the lawn with
a rich compost of good soil, decayed manure and wood ashes. Use two parts
of soil and one part each of the other ingredients, passing them through a fine
650 USEFUL REFERENCES
screen, and applying at the rate of one cartload to every forty square
rods. Should the soil be of a dry nature, add 7 Ib of bone-meal to each square
rod. If moist, use a similar amount of basic slag. Once a year apply £ Ib. of
nitrate of soda to each square rod in the case of dry soils, and a similar quantity
of sulphate of ammonia in that of a moist one. Where the grass is very thin,
sow a mixture of grass seeds.
Rainfall. — Th-; depth of rainfall in inches multiplied by 3,630 equals
number of cubic feet per square acre ; multiplied by 22,623, equals number of
gallons per square acre.
Thus: —
Inches. Cubic feet per acre. Gallons per acre. Tons per acre
3,630 = 22,635 = lOl'l
7,260 = 42,270 -•= 202'2
10,890 = 67,905 = 303'3
18,150 = 113,174 = 505'5
Material for (and cost of) Cart wheels. The most generally used
woods in Ceylon for making cart wheels are " Hal-milla " ( Bcrrya ammonilla ),
" Suriya " (Thcspesia popnlnca) and " Ratu-wa " (Cassia marginata). The
usual quantity of two ordinary cart wheels of 4i feet diameter are: 12 pieces for
rims @ 50 cents each ; 24 spokes @ 18 cents, two hubs @ Rs. 3, total for two
wheels Rs. 16'32. Iron tyres and bushes, about Rs. 10 extra. To this must be
added the cost of labour (carpentry), viz., about Rs. 14, in all say Rs. 40.
To revive flowers, Rinse the stalks in fresh water and put into warm
salt-water, to which has been added a few drops of sulphate of ammonia. As.
each flower is ready to be placed in the vase of fresh water, snipp off a small
portion of the stalk with a sharp pair of scissors. To keep a spray of arranged
flowers fresh, place them on damp cotton-wool under a basin. This keeps the
air away, and preserves their freshness. It is specially recommended for
maiden-hair fern.
To prepare Skeleton leaves. Mix about one drachm chloride of
lime with one pint water, adding sufficient acetic acid to liberate the chlorine.
Steep the leaves in this until they are whitened ( about 10 minutes should
suffice ), taking care not to leave them in too long. Then put them into clean water
and float them out on pieces of paper. Lastly remove the fronds from the
paper before they are quite dry, and place them in a book or press. They look
best when mounted on black velvet or paper.
To preserve fern fronds. Reject very young fronds, as they will
lose their colour in drying. Place the selected fronds between several sheets
of blotting paper, and pass over a moderately heated flat iron for several min-
utes. Use only, however, will determine how long to continue the ironing, as
ferns vary in the thickness of their fronds. Then place separately in a book,
and lay aside for a day or two previous to mounting. To do this, smear the
sheet of paper over with liquid gum, lay the reverse side of the frond on the
gummed surface, press gently, remove, and place carefully on the paper where
you intend it to remain. Finally pass over a piece of blotting paper to remove
creases.
To drive away sparrows from bungalows, etc.— Smear a few
thin twigs with any sticky substance, as bird-lime, seccotine, or the resinous
USEFUL REFEREXCES
651
gum from jak-fruit ; place these af intervals where the sparrows collect, and
they will soon disappear.
To make Bird lime. Boil •} pint linseed oil, and while boiling add a
lump of resin about the size of a hen's egg. Add two tea-spoonfuls of treacle
and stir frequently while cooling.
A simple fly-trap. Pour some water into a finger-bowl, or other
wide-mouthed vessel, till the surface of the liquid is about an inch from the
brim. Add a small quantity of oil (coconut or castor) to make a superficial film.
In the centre of a piece of card-board, sufficiently large to cover the vessel, cut
a small hole about i inch in diameter. Smear some condensed milk or honey
on one side of the card- board round the central nperture, and place the card-
board over the vessel so that the smeared side is below. The flies will creep
into the enclosed space and meet with an oily grave. A tap on the card will at
once precipitate all those resting on its under surface. The oil-film is necessary,
as flies are not easily wetted by water alone, from which they often succeed in
saving themselves.
Book preservative. I have found the following an excellent preser-
vative for books, as well as a preventive against insects and moulds, which are
so destructive to books in the tropics: Dissolve Canada balsam in turpentine, say
2 oz. of the former to 4 oz. of the latter, so as to make a weak solution; paint
this over the covers or bindings of the books, and let them stand a few hours
to dry.
Another recipe. Paint the books lightly over both outside and inside
the cover (and especially along the backs, where paste has been used), with the
following mixture, using a soft brush for the purpose: 1 oz. corrosive sublimate;
1 oz. carbolic acid; 2 pints methylated spirit. No harm will be done to the
books, and after the mixture has dried they may be handled with perfect safety.
USEFUL FERTILISING MIXTURES.
No. 1
Nitro-
gen.
Phos.
Acid.
Potash.
Approximate proportion of
plant food.
450 Ib.
Groundnut Cake
lo/o
_
250 ,.
Fish Guano
8%
S%
—
Nitrogen
61 1
150 „
Steamed Bone-dust
3%
22^>
— -
Phos. acid
53t
100 „
Sulphate of Potash
—
—
50%
Potash
67':
50 „
Nitrate of Potash
10%
~
35%
.000 Ib. Cost F.O.R. Colombo,
Rs. 154 per ton.
200 Ib.
150 .,
100 „
Nitrolim
Basic Slag
Sulphate of
Potash
1S%
2Qo/0
50%
Nitrogen
Phos. acid
Potash
450 Ib.
Cost F.O.R
. Colombo,
Rs
. 146 per ton
36-0
30'0
50-0
652 DRY GRAINS
Quantity : For small plants or shrubs, 2 oz. of each mixture.
„ large shrubs or medium trees, 1 Ib. of each mixture.
„ „ trees or palms, 3 to 4 Ib. „ „
Either of these mixtures may be applied annually, or they can be alter-
nated with advantage, or if necessary mixed just before application and applied
in one dressing.
Apply the manure in a shallow channel round the base of the trees or
plants, at a certain distance from the stem, varying from a few inches in the
case of small plants to 2-4 ft. in the cas- of medium or large sized trees or
palms; fork well into the ground, or cover with a spi inkling of soil; if the
weather be dry or the plants are under cover, water the ground afterwards
through a rose.
DRY GRAINS CULTIVATED IN CEYLON
Andropogon Sorghum. Indian millet; Karal Irungu, S; Arise-
cholum, T.
Coix Lachryma-jobi. Job's tears. A robust grass with broad leaves,
3-5 ft. high, common in Ceylon and cultivated in some hill parts of India for
its grain.
Eleusine coracana. Kurakkan, S ; Nacheri, T. A stout grass with
crowded spikelets and round seed, extensively cultivated for its grain in Ceylon
and throughout India.
Panicum Crus-galli, var. frumentaceum. Mondy, T; Wal-maruk-
ku, S. Annual, 1-3 ft. high; grain consumed by the poorer classes.
Panicum miliare. " Heen-meneri," S; Chamai, T. Annual, with tufted
stems, 1-2 ft. high, cultivated in Ceylon, India, etc.
Panicum miliaceum. Millet; Meneri, or Wal-meneri, S; Karattasamy
or Pani-Chami, T. Annual, 2-4 ft. high, stout tufted stems. Cultivated in Ceylon
and all warm countries.
Pas pal um scrobiculatum. Amu or Karal-amu, S; Waraku, T. Peren-
nial, 2-3 ft. high, leafy from the base; several varieties cultivated for grain.
Pennisetum typhoideum. Bulrush millet; Pull-paddy; Polu, S; Kumba
or Kani-pun-pillu, T. Annual 3-6 ft. high, cultivated in warm regions.
Setaria glauca. Kawalu, S. Stems 1-2 ft. high, spikes reddish brown.
Common all over Ceylon.
Setaria italica. Italian millet; Tana-Thani or Tanakal, S ; Tinai or
Tinai-Chamai, T. Cultivated in India and Ceylon and considered one of the
most delicious of dry grains.
Zea Mays. Maize, Indian corn; Bada Irungu, S; Muttu Cholam, 7".
See under Vegetables.
PLANTS OR TREES SUITED TO SWAMPY SITUATIONS
FOR LOW ELEVATIONS :
Anacardium occidentale. Cashew-nut Fodder grasses, which see
Barringtonia speciosa. Mudilla, .S Hevea brasiliensis. Para rubber
Boehmeria nivea. Khea or Ramie- Heritiera littoralis. Etuna, S.
r , , • , "re Ni fruticans. Water Coconut
Carludovica palmata. Panamahat _. \ .. .
plant Ochrosia borbonica. Mudu-kaduru, S.
Cerbera Odollam. Gon-kaduru, S. Saccharum arundinaceum. Rambuk, S.
Cyperus Papyrus. Papyrus-grass Scaevola Koenigii. Taccada, S.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
FOR UP-COUNTRY :
653
Acacia dealbata. Silver-wattle
Eucalyptus globulus. Blue-gum
E. — Leucoxylon. Iron-bark
E. — marginata. Jarrah and other
species
Fatsia papyrifera. Rice-paper plant
Fodder grasses, which see
Hedychium coronarium. Klam.il, S.
Recommended for paper-making
H. — flavescens. ,, ,,
Phormium tenax. New-Zealand hemp
(3). SOME WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
CEYLON :
1 Manawa = i nelli or 2
chundus
1 Nelli = } kuruni or laha
1 Kuruni = j Bera ( drum )
1 Bera = i pela ( bushel )
1 Pela = 1 bushel
1 Amuna = 4 bushels
1 Hundua = i sarua (measure)
32 Measures — 1 bushel
1 Sarua = g kartua
1 Kartua = | bushel
I Thulama = 26| rathals
( pounds )
1 Thukku = 56 rathals
1 Parama = 20 thulam or
5 cwt.
1 Candy = 560 Ib. or 5 cwt.
4 Candies = 1 ton
WEIGHTS USED BY SINHA-
LESE APOTHECARIES :
1 Thala-eta ( gingelly seed )
= £ Amu-eta
1 Amu-eta = £ Vee-eta (paddy)
1 Vee-eta = £ Madatiya-eta
( Adcnanthera pavoiiiiui )
I Madatiya-eta = 1/20 kalanda
1 Kalanda = 1/12 palama
1 Palama = y rathala ( pound )
INDIA:
1 Tola = 180 grains
1 Seer = 14 o/..
1 Maund = 80 Ib.
1 Lac = 100,000
1 Crore = 1,000,000
1 Bigha (Nepali)=90 x 90 yds.
1 „ (Brit. Indian)=40x40
yds.
3 „ (Nepali)=about 5 acres.
MALAY :
1 Tahil = ^ ox.
1 Kati = £ Ib.
1 Picul ( 100 katties ) = 133llb-
1 Picul (Java) = 136 Ib.
1 Koyan = 5,333 £ Ib
DUTCH :
1 Bau ( botiw ) = 1 j acres
1 Picul (Java) = 136 Ib.
FRANCE. GERMANY, ETC. :
1 Millimetre = '039 inches
75 Millimetres = 1 in. (about)
1 Centimetre = "393 inches
30'5 Centimetres = 12 inches
1 Metre = 1 yard 3 inches —
1 Kilometre = 1,093 yds.
1 ft. 10 in.
1 Litre = If pints
1 Kilogram = 2\ Ib. (nearly)
10 Kilograms = 22 Ib Of oz.
50} Kilograms = 1 cwt.
1 Hectare = 2£ acres *-—-•' -
1 Orlong = 1 sV acres
1 Estrada =150 Para trees
LOCAL AND FOREIGN MONEY
ARGENTINE :
1 Peso (paper )= 100 centi-
simos or Is. 9«f.
1 Peso (gold) = 100 centi-
simos or 3s. \\\d.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY :
1 Krone = 100 heller or 10</.
BRAZIL:
1 Milreis ( paper) = 1,000
reis or about Is. 3d.
CEYLON :
1 Sallie = i cent
1 Thuttu = 3 sallies or
cents
Pan am (anna )
(4 thuttus.
J i
6 cents, oi-
l/I 6 Rupee
4 Pannams = 25 cents
100 Cents = 1 rupee
1 Rupee = Is. 4J.
654
LOCAL AND FOREIGN MONEY
INDIA & MAURITIUS :
3 Pies = 1 pice.
4 pice = 1 anna or Id.
16 Annas = 1 rupee
1 Rupee = Is. 4d.
MALAY :
100 Cents = 1 dollar
1 Dollar = 2s. 4d.
DUTCH :
1 Guilder or Florin = Is. Sd.
\2k Guilders = £1
1 Stiver = \d.
FRANCE, BELGIUM, AND SWIT-
ZERLAND :
1 Sou = \d.
10 Centimes = Id.
1 Franc = 9hd.
20 Francs = 16s.
25 Francs = £1
RUSSIA :
1 Rouble = 3s. 2d. or 100 copeks
ITALY :
1 Lira = lOrf. or 100 centesimi
26 Lira = £1
MEXICO:
I Dollar ( gold) = 100 cent-
avos or 2s. Q$d.
GERMANY :
1 Mark = Is. or 100 pfennige
20 Marks = £1
1 Prussian thaler = 2
1 Rix dollar = 3s. 6rf.
SPAIN :
1 Reala = 2\d.
1 Peseta = lOd.
25 Pesetas = £1
1 Eseudo = 2s.
1 Dollar = 4s.
PORTUGAL :
25 Reis = U d.
1 Cruzada = 2s. 3d.
1 Milreis = 4s. 5%d.
UNITED STATES & CANADA :
I Cent = \d.
1 Dime = 5d.
100 Cents = 1 dollar
1 Dollar = 4s. 2d.
4-87 Dollars = £1
CHINA :
1 Tael = 6s. 6K
JAPAN :
100 Sens = 1 yen
(4s. 2d. or
1 Yen (gold) =\ I gold dollar
( of U. S. A
ROUMANIA :
1 Ley = 100 banis or lOrf.
SIAM:
1 Tical (silver coin ) = Is. Id.
or 50 dollar cents of U. S. A.
TURKEY :
100 Piastres = 18s.
URUGUAY:
1 Peso ( gold ) = 100 centimos
or 4s. 2d
EGYPT :
975 Milliemes or 97i piastres
= £1
GREECE :
1 Drachme (paper) = 100
lepta or 9d.
CHAPTER XXXII.
CALENDARS FOR CEYLON
FOR JAFFNA AND NORTHERN PROVINCE :-
BY S. CHELLIAH, AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTOR, JAFFNA.
January. — Average rainfall 2'I5 in. Gather in the crop of different
kinds of yams. Plant tobacco seedlings, also chillies and brinjals. Plan-
tains are generally planted out this month, also the Betel creeper. The
latter is the staple cultivation in the west of Jaffna.
February. —Average rainfall 1*31 in. Gather in paddy crops. Sow
dry grains, such as gingelly, kurrakan, peas, kollu, etc., soon after the main
crops are gathered. Lift Palmyra kilangu (germinated seedlings), which are
used as a vegetable. Water tobacco gardens and disbud ("sucker") the
plants.
March. — Average rainfall "93 in. Gather paddy crops and plough
vacant paddy fields. The season for extracting the juice from Palmyra palms
is from now to the end of May. This cultivation forms an important industry
among the lower classes of the people. Manioc (cassava) roots are now
lifted and dried to be used as food stuff.
April. — Average rainfall 2'35 in. Brinjals and chillies are now planted.
This is the time for planting out coconut plants. Gather dry grains sown in
February. Gather and cure tobacco crops all over the North. Gathering and
drying of chillies must be done now ; also ploughing and manuring paddy
fields. Planting out Betel is also done this month.
May.— Average rainfall 2X)I in. This is the time for sowing the dry
grain called "Tennai" (Italian millet), after the harvest of tobacco, also for
planting manioc (cassava) cuttings and different kinds of yams.
June. — Average rainfall 79 in. Watering dry-grain plants in gardens
will now be necessary, this being the dry season ; it is also the fruit season in
Jaffna. Plucking arecanuts will be continued to the end of December. This
is the time land owners make arrangements to have their garden lands
cultivated with tobacco on lease.
July. — Average rainfall '87 in. Reaping of dry grains sown in May will
now proceed, also planting of betel, onions, etc. Palmyra fruit season begins,
and continues to the end of September, during which time this forms a great
relief to the poor as an article of food.
August. Average rainfall 1*44 in. Sowing of paddy in fields, also
sowing and transplanting of kurrakan in gardens may be done this month
656 CALENDAR FOR COLOMBO DISTRICT
September.— Average rainfall 2'8o in. This is generally a slack month
and very little is done, except the sowing of dry grains, as " Varaku " and
" Kattusamy " in Palmyra gardens. Palmyra nuts are put in for kilangu.
October — Average rainfall 6'66 in. Weeding of paddy fields, also
transplanting and filling vacancies in paddy fields, should now be seen to.
Paddy seedlings are bought at Rs. 2 to Rs. 3 a hundred bundles. Some
people sow paddy thickly for the purpose of selling thinned out seedlings at
this time. Till and manure fields for tobacco. Tobacco seed is sown in
nurseries. Fruit trees may be planted at this season. Planting of areca-nuts
may now be done. This palm is commonly planted around wells.
November.^Average rainfall 13*38 in. Generally a busy month for
collecting green manure, etc., for tobacco gardens.
December. — Average rainfall 11*34 in- Planting tobacco all over the
North should now commence. Onions are planted this month.
CALENDAR FOR COLOMBO DISTRICT
[ Average annual rainfall 88 inches ]
[ Mean annual temperature 80 deg. Fah. ]
By C. DRIEBERG, Superintendent of Low-country Products and
Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society.
January. — Average rainfall for the month 3*54 in. A fairly dry and
cool month, during which little planting is done. A good season for vegetable
produce, the result of previous October and November planting. Yams and
gourds plentiful. Annual flowers in bloom.
February. —Average rainfall 2'08 in. A particularly dry month when
no planting can be done. Seeds should be gathered and the soil worked up as
crops go out. Where plants are growing the surface should be stirred to
prevent loss of moisture, and beds copiously watered and, when necessary,
shaded.
March.— Average rainfall 4'8o in. This is the month for cleaning,
digging, and manuring the soil. Occasional showers may be expected.
Nurseries, where necessary, should be started.
April.— Average rainfall 1 1 '03 in. Planting begins with this month,
when the rainfall is usually plentiful. All varieties of vegetables and flowers
may be planted with good prospects of favourable growing weather.
May.— Average rainfall I2'04 in. South-west monsoon rains begin
towards end of month, when planting may be continued. Fruits (such as
mangoes, oranges, pine-apples, mangosteens, etc.) begin to come in. Many
flowering trees in blossom.
June.— Average rainfall 8'2/ in. This is the last month of the South-
west monsoon for planting generally. Weather fairly wet and hot. Fruits
well in season.
July.— Average rainfall 4'6l in. Fruits begin to go out of season;
vegetables of April to May planting begin to come in.
August.— Average rainfall 3*67 in. Slack month ; weather hot and dry.
Vegetables fairly plentiful. Fruits go out of season.
CALENDAR FOR UP-COUXTRY 657
September.— Average rainfall 5*03 in. Weather still dry. All crops
fall off. Seeds should be collected, and land worked up for planting again.
Nurseries should be started.
October.- Average rainfall I4'6/ in. Second planting season begins
with the North-east monsoon rains, which are now more or less general
throughout the Island. All kinds of crops may be now started, and fruit
trees also planted.
November. Average rainfall 12*38 in. Planting may be continued.
The best month for planting tomatoes and gourds in the low-country.
December. -Average rainfall 6'03 in. General vegetable produce
begins to come in, also annual flowers. Weather generally cool.
CALENDAR FOR UP-COUNTRY.
[TAKING HAKGALA GARDENS AS A STANDARD,]
[Elevation 5,500 feet ; average rainfall 90'86 inches on 203 days ; average
mean temperature 62D Fah. ]
By the late J. K. NOCK,* Curator, Hakgala Gardens.
January. —Weather wet, with foggy mornings; latter half of the month
often fine. Average rainfall 8'22 inches on 1 6 days. Mean temp. 58 deg. Fah.
The month during which the finishing touches should be given to a garden.
Drives, paths, etc., should be attended to. All general planting should be
finished early in the month. Fork up frequently the surface of the ground
around all young plants; afford mulching with leaf mould or well-rotted
cattle manure ; a top dressing of artificial manures mixed with fine soil should
be given when possible. Liquid manure may be applied to pot-plants once a
week, especially to flowering kinds. Phloxes, Verbenas, Petunias, etc., need
pegging down as their growth advances. Remove superfluous buds from
roses if fine blooms are required. Afford protection to tender plants against
frost (as stated for December) during the nights of this and the next two
months. Vegetable seeds of all kinds may be sown for- keeping up a
succession.
February.— Weather dry, with cold nights and mornings, and hot bright
days. Average rainfall 3*05 in. on 9 days. Mean temp. 60 deg. Fah. Much
watering is usually necessary. Liquid manure may with benefit be applied
to bed and border plants. Supply vacancies where necessary. Weed and
point over beds and borders frequently. Stake plants needing supports, e.g.,
Carnations, Antirrhinums, etc. Collect cattle dung for potting work, and cut
and stack turf-clods ; the latter should be placed grass-side down, with
manure between each layer. Pot on flowering plants. Remove fruit cap-
sules from rose bushes. Place clean straw under the Strawberries before
they begin to ripen. Vegetables of all kinds, especially those of the cabbage
tribe, may now be sown.
March.— Weather dry. Average rainfall 4*54 on 9 days. Mean
temp. 62 deg. This should be the brightest month in the flower garden up-
country. Routine work as last month, — collect seeds as they ripen. If a
cSee preface.
658 CALENDAR FOR UP-COUNTRY
lawn is to be made, prepare the ground early in the month for sowing in
April, or for turfing in May or later.
April.— Weather showery. Average rainfall 7'62 in. on 16 days. Mean
temp. 64 deg. Sow seeds collected last month, and continue collecting.
Cut away dead stems, leaves, etc., from annuals, and pull out unsightly
plants that have finished flowering, Keep drains and culverts clean in case
of heavy plumps of rain. This is the best month for sowing lawn grass seed.
Owing to the approaching monsoon rains, it is not advisable to put down
vegetables, as potatoes, peas, beans, and onions until at least the end of July.
May. — Weather showery with strong wind after the arrival of the
South-west monsoon about end of month. Average rainfall 6*90 in. on 15
days. Mean temp. 65 deg. At the commencement of the month stake all tall
plants in exposed positions. Continue to collect and sow seeds. Where
annuals have finished flowering, the ground should be dug up, manured
lightly and prepared for planting out with seedlings in June or July. Advan-
tage should be taken of the wet weather for planting pockets in banks,
rockeries, etc. Repair turf of lawns where necessary. Except potatoes,
onions, and peas, a few vegetables may be put down, although they are liable
to be damaged by the strong wind and rain. These remarks apply also to
June and July.
June. — Weather generally wet and always windy. Average rainfall
8'13 in. on 19 days. Mean temp. 62 deg. Plant up vacant corners and banks.
Put in cuttings of all kinds, especially such as Verbenas and Petunias, which
have finished flowering. Stack manure ; where necessary lay down turf and
repair verges. Prune shrubs and shape trees during this or the next month.
Order foreign seeds so as to arrive by the end of August.
July. —Weather moderately wet, but still very windy. Average rainfall
6'02 in. on 19 days. Mean temp. 62 deg. The most difficult month in which
to keep a garden tidy, owing to the prevailing strong winds. Clean up all
rubbish, and place the leaves in pits to rot and form leaf-mould. Continue
planting banks, rockeries, etc. Divide and re-plant violets in sheds. Prune
fruit trees generally. Prick out seedlings, and plant out when large enough.
Plant-shed roofs should be made rain-proof. Most pot-plants will now require
re-potting or top-dressing. When the weather is too wet for out-door work,
all pots, pans, boxes, etc., should be thoroughly washed inside and out, and
then put away to dry and be ready for the foreign seeds which are due to
arrive at the end of next month. Collect good soil, and store away leaf-mould
and dried cattle dung. Cuttings of all kinds do well if put in during this
month. This is one of the best flowering months for Amaryllids and
Liliaceous plants.
August. — Weather fairly dry and pleasant, though often windy. Average
rainfall 4-43 in. on 17 days. Mean temp. 62 deg. The foreign seeds ordered
in June should now have arrived, but must not be open until everything is
ready for sowing them, as most kinds deteriorate rapidly when exposed to the
air. Whether pots, boxes, or sheds are used, the soil for sowing in must be
fine, light and rich; a sprinkling of sand should be added to render it porous,
dung should be rubbed fine before mixing with the soil. Sow such seeds as
Begonias, Campanulas, Carnations, Cyclamens, Gloxinias, Golden Feather,
Petunias, Salpiglossis, Stocks, Sweet Peas, etc. Sow small quantities at
intervals rather than all at once, keeping the balance in air-tight tins or
CALENDAR FOR CP-COUXTRY 659
bottles. Sweet-peas and Nasturtiums may be sown at once where they are
intended to remain. Cuttings of Verbenas, Petunias, etc., should be put in
early in the month to be ready for December planting. Supply vacancies in
beds and borders. Prune shrubs and trees where necessary. Fork up the soil
among shrubberies, burying any decayed refuse. Top-dress or re-pot orchids.
Vegetables of all kinds, except potatoes, may be planted out early in the
month.
September.— Weather mild and pleasant. Average rainfall 578 in. on
18 days. Mean temp. 62 deg. Mulch annuals which have been planted out
in June and July, especially those in un-manured beds. Continue supplying
vacancies where they occur. Prick out seedlings as they become large
enough to handle into boxes or beds under cover. Where the sowings in
sheds have been too thick the seedlings must be thinned out, or all the plants
will become weak and useless. More sowings should now be made of such
seeds as Pansies, Phlox, Dianthus, Nemesia, etc. Keep an eye on young
Cinerarias and Stocks for a green caterpillar generally found on the under-
side of the leaves, also for green-fly; hand-pick the former, and smoke or
syringe with soapy water for the latter. Dahlias should be taken up and
stored in a dry place for a six weeks' rest before being re-planted in
November. Stock manure. Sow vegetables of all kinds, except potatoes,
which would suffer from the rains that may be expected during the next few
months.
October.— Weather usually wet in the afternoons with the advent of
the North-east monsoon. Average rainfall 1 1 '95 in. on 23 days. Mean
temp. 62 deg. One of the most suitable months for general planting. Piant
up pockets in banks. Re-pot any plants that need it. Prune back Geraniums,
Pelargoniums, etc. ; water sparingly until new growth has commenced, then
re-pot. Insert cuttings of all kinds. Put into small-sized pots Cinerarias,
tuberous-rooted Begonias, Gloxinias, etc., increasing the size of pots each
time of potting. Where annuals are wanted to be in bloom during the
"season" (middle of January to end of May), these should be sown in
succession from the middle of November to middle of February. Rose
bushes here take two months to come into bloom from the time of pruning, so
the latter operation should be carried out according to one's requirements.
Vegetables as last month.
November. -Weather wet and dull, often with heavy plumps of rain.
Average rainfall 1 1 '29 in. on 21 days. Mean temp. 60 deg. Watch for pests,
especially black-grub; the early morning is the best time to catch these.
Slugs and insect pests are liable to be troublesome this month. Unslaked
lime will destroy them. Green caterpillars are liable to attack Cinerarias and
Stocks. The general planting up of beds and borders should be commenced
as soon as the seedlings are large enough. Plant out roses, pruning them two
or three weeks later. The weather during this and next month is generally
suitable for budding and grafting. Put down vegetables of all kinds from
now onwards.
December. — Weather often excessively wet and misty. Average rain-
fall 12-84 in. on 21 days. Mean temp. 58 deg. Weather conditions are
generally against plant-growth, the days being sunless and misty, with an
almost continual drizzle and heavy plumps at intervals. " Damping off" and
660 CALENDAR FOR LOW-COUNTRY
pests are prevalent. Constant attention must be directed to the destruction
of pests and the supplying of vacancies. Weeds are apt to become trouble-
some this month. The surface of the soil should be frequently pointed o\er,
as the continuous rain tends to cake it. Attend to potting of plants generally ;
this should be about the last shift for flowering plants for the season. Re-
plant strawberries. Cadjans or some similar material should be obtained for
covering all plants that are susceptible to frost, which is now liable to occur
at night at the higher elevations. Sow vegetables of all kinds.
CALENDAR FOR THE MOIST LOW-COUNTRY
BY THE AUTHOR.
The following general remarks may need modification accord-
ing to weather, local circumstances and elevation. For average
rainfall in principal towns in Ceylon, see page 5.
January. — Weather generally dry, with strong North-east wind. Plant-
ing operations in the open should now cease. Collect fallen leaves on lawns,
etc., and place in a deep trench to form leaf-mould. Order plants of roses,
etc., from abroad, so as to receive them in April or May. Cloves are now in
season. These should be collected before the buds open, and spread out on
mats to dry in the sun. Tamarinds, pine-apples, and Cochin-goraka are fruits
in season. Congea lomentosa well in flower.
February.— Usually the driest month of the year, with dry parching
winds. The surface soil should be stirred up frequently so as to check the
evaporation of moisture. Much watering will be necessary for pot-plants,
shrubberies, beds and borders. Overhaul pots and seed-pans, and ; order new
stock if required ; these cannot be made so well in rainy weather as now.
Syringe pot-plants frequently, at least twice a day in hot dry weather. Repair
drives and paths. Mulch surface soil among crops of all kinds. Where
practicable, all plants with delicate leaves should be afforded partial shade.
Do not water bulbous plants which may now be in a resting state. Flower
seeds may be ordered from Europe. Star-apple, pine-apple, and lovi-lovi in
season. Bombax, Jacaranda, Bignonia venusta, Gliricidia and Tabebuia in
flower.
March.— Weather dry and hot, and most trees, crops and tender plants
suffer from drought. Towards end of month plant out yams, sweet-potatoes,
and similar root-crops. Watering, shading and mulching should be the order
of the day. Loosen the surface soil frequently where artificial watering is
carried on. Syringe pot-plants morning and evening with clean water. Re-
potting of plants should be carried out now. Fruits in season : Pine-apple,
pomegranate, cannonball tree, velvet-apple and Madagascar clove. In
flower : — Jacaranda, Gliricidia, Spalhodea campanulata, Bignonia venusta, Saraca
declinata, Amherstia nobilis, Tabebuia, etc.
April.— Weather hot and muggy, often with thunderstorms. Keep
drains, water-channels and culverts clear of leaves and rubbish, and provide
means of escape for excessive rain water. Plant out yams and native
vegetables of all sorts. Overhaul banana clumps, cutting out barren stems
and dried leaves, and burying these round the plants. Orange, jak-fruit, star-
apple and bullock-heart in season. Cassia grandis, Schizolobium, Bignonia
CALENDAR FOR LOM'-COt'\TRY 661
unguis,Jacaranda, Poinciana, (Flamboyant), dliricidia, Slerctilia colorata, Hippe-
astrutns, Zephyranthes, etc., in flower.
May.— The hottest month of the year. Prepare ground for all kinds of
vegetable seeds. Procure sticks for supporting peas, beans, etc. Collect
potting soil and store away as much manure and leaf-mould as possible
before the South-west monsoon rains begin. Re-planting of flower beds
and borders should be put in hand, the ground being first well trenched and
manured. Fertilise vanilla flowers now in season. Mangoes, cashewnut,
pine-apples, etc. in season. Dendrobium Miu-ArthiiH- < " \Vesak-mal"), Michdia
Champaca ( Sapu ), La) gerstroemia Flos-re.n ///.-/<. Cniiiinga odorata (Ilang-ilang)
in flower.
June.— If not already arrived, the South-west monsoon is due early in
the month. As soon as rainy weather begins sow English vegetables and
flower seeds of all kinds. Mow lawns and dig out white-ants' nests. Renovate
rockeries and ferneries, applying fresh soil it necessary. Principal fruits in
season:— Mango, mangosteen, kamaranga, jambu, breadfruit, cashewnut,
Java-almond, nam-nam, sandoricum, soursop. Flowers in season :—Lager-
stroemia flos-reginae, Cassia nodosa, Peltopho.'nii fcmigincum, Klcinlurcia, itc.
July. — Weather usually cool, with moderate rainfall. Plant out fruit,
shade, and other useful or showy trees, also general ornamental plants.
Attend to propagating work of all kind. Keep down weeds. Earth up root-
crops, and stake peas, beans, etc. Mow and roll lawns. Budding and grafting
work may now be undertaken. Prune roses which are finished flowering.
Flower seeds may be ordered from Europe for sowing in September.
Fruits in season : —Mangosteen, mamme -apple, durian, Cochin-goraka.
Flowers in season : Pometia eximea, Parana voluhilis. Fagnva frtigntus, Ipomoea
Brigsii, etc.
August. — Weather moderately dry. Gardens in the low country should
be at their best during this month. Attend to general weeding of vegetable
and flower garden, also mowing of lawns. Fork up surface soil between
crops, also of beds and borders generally. Attend to the lopping of shade
trees which have exceeded their proper limit. Principal fruits in season : —
Avocado-pear, mangosteen, durian, sapodilla. guava, coco-plum, goraka, also
Hevea or Para-rubber. In flower: Cassid Fislnla, Solninun macranthum,
Teak, etc.
September.— Usually a fairly dry month. Renovate flower-beds and
borders, affording mulch to the surface; tie up tender stems or heavy flowers
to neat supports. Fresh sowing of English vegetables and annuals should
now be made. Repair drives and paths. Fruits in season : Ceylon-goose-
berry, nelli, lovi-lovi, soursop. In flower: Cdssiti tniiltiju^i, Spathodctt
campanulata, Gloxinia maculata, etc.
October. — Usually the wettest month of the year. See to the planting
of shade, fruit, and wind-belt trees; also of ornamental plants generally.
This is a good month for transplanting work. Prune shrubberies, fruit trees,
etc. Attend to propagating work of all kinds, also to the re-potting of
ornamental plants. Principal fruits in season : Yoa-vanga, j*>ursop, custard-
apple, bullock's-heart, papaw, and nutmeg (second crop). Principal flowers:
Vanda spathulata, Spathodea.
662 CALENDAR FOR LOW-COUXTRY
November. — Weather usually wet and fairly cool. All general planting
work should be completed this month. Pruning or thinning out of shrubs,
trees, etc., should now be attended to. Sow peas, beans, beet and other
vegetables. Yams are now ripe and should be lifted and stored in sand, in a
cool shed. Attend to pollinating Vanilla flowers, now in season. Prune
roses that have finished flowering. See to drainage and soil requirements of
pot plants. Principal fruits in season : Bullock's-heart, pine-apple, soursop.
Flowers : Aristolochia (several spp.), Palicourea, Acalypaya sanderina, etc.
December. — Generally a moderately wet month, with fairly strong,
winds. Support all tender plants and young trees in exposed situations, fixing
a stout stick in the ground close to the plant, and tying the latter to it.
Afford shade to such plants as require it. Collect seeds of flowering plants,
annuals, etc., and store when dry in stoppered jars. Collect fallen leaves, and
place them in a pit or trench to form leaf-mould. Principal fruits in season :
Custard-apple, wood-apple, Dillenia indica, and Elaeocarpus edulis. Flowers:
Wagatea spicata, Naiavelia zeylanica, Pachira insignis, Wonnia Burbidgei
Humboldtia laurifolia, Alstonia macrophylla, etc.
THE END
FUINTKD BY H. W. CAVE & CO., CQLOMUO.
INDEX
A
PAGE
A
PACK
Abaca fibre, see Manila-hemp
Achimenes 343,
348, 433
Abelia
401
Achras
133.558
Aberia caffra
190
Achyranthes
594. 598
— Gardner!
132
Acokanthera
317,579
Abronia
407
Acorus 351,
594, 614
Abroma augusta
550
Acridocarpus
328
— lastuosa
324
Acrocarpus - 39,
398. 454
Abrus precatorius
- 575. 594
Acroclinium
413,416
Abutilon asiaticun.
- 391,594
Acrocomia
355
— esculentum -
600
Acrostichum
598
— , selection of -
402
Actinella
494. 495
- Thomson}
405
Actinorrhytis
355
Acacia arabica -
559
Adam's needle, Agave or Yucca
— Baileyana
395
Adansonia
440
— , Bull's horn -
118
Adenanthera pavonina, 39.
440,451
- Catechu
554
575
-• cultifrons
395
— bicolor
575
— dealbata - 395.
454, 553, 575
Adenocalymna -
328
— decurrens, 39, 395,
398, 454, 553,
Adhatoda cydoniaefolia
317
563
— vasica
40. 594
— Hindsii
583
Adiantum
376
— leucophloea -
440
— weed
609
- longifolia
396
Adornments, garden
84
— Melanoxylon, 398,
453, 454, 553.
Aechmea
378, 388
563
Aegle Marmelos
134.594
— molissima
454. 553. 563
Aerides cylindricum
373
— pycnantha
- 396. 453
— lineare
373
— sphaerocephala
- 118.582
— odoratum
371
Acaju, see Cashew-nut
Aerva
594, 598
Acalypha varieties
118
Aeschynanthus -
388, 391
— godseffiana -
324. 378
Aeschynomene aspera
552
— illustris
324
— indica
38
— indica
594,598
Afzelia
565
— m trginata
1 19, 324, 405
Agapanthus
405, 427
Acalypha obovata
324
Agati (Sesbania)
231
— Sanderi
317
Agathis
302
— Sanderiana -
343, 388
Agave americana 518,
352. 405
— tricolor
324
— Sisalana
547. 548
— triumphans -
324
— , selection ot -
352
Willinckii
324
Ageratum
343,413
— \Vilkesiana -
325
— weed
609
Acanthophippium
373
Aglaonema
378
Acanthophcenix
355
Ailantus
302, 398
Acanthorixa
355
Akee -
145
Acanthus
405
Akmella, see Spilatithes
Acclimatised seed
55
Ala (Yam or tuber)
Ala (Dioscorea) - 220
Ala-beth, Gvnura pseudo-China
Alanga 230
Albizzia Lebbek 452
— , disease of - 634
- moluccana - 39, 451 453, 454
— stipulata 451
--, pests of 623
Albuca 427
Alchornea 325
Aldrovanda - 580
Aleurites 540
Alfalfa, see Medicago
Algaroba Bean - 184
Allaeanthus - - • 550
Allamanda cathartica - 328
- Hendersonii, 328, 407, 441, 443
- Schottii 317, 402, 441
- violacea 3 1 7
- Wardleana - 328
Alligator-apple, Anona pallnstris
— pear, Perse a gratissiina
Alliuin
Alhnania
Alloplectus
Allspice
— , Carolina
— , lemon-scented
— , Japan
Almond, ground
— , Java
— , Country or Indian - 186,
Alocasia, edible
— macrorhi/a variegata - 379,
— , selection of - - 378 —
Aloe, American, (Fnrcroea) 118,
— Hanburvana
— saponana
— vera - 594,
Alonsoa
Aloysia (Lippia)
Alpinia reftlesiana
— nutans
Alseodaphne (Persea) - 441,
Alsophila
Alstonia macrophylla
— scholaris
— sericea
Alstromeria
Alternanthera - 343, 415, 594,
Althea
Alu-puhul see Bcnincasa
Alyssi carpus
Alyssum, sweet
Alyxia - 391,
Amarantus caudatus
— gangeticus
— oleraceus
427
598
378
259
261
261
261
220
146
315
227
391
380
544
402
354
609
413
405
325
391
564
378
495
495
317
427
598
402
38
415
579
415
598
228
Amarantus polygonoides -
— spinosa - 599,
— tricolor
Amaryllis, Belladona
— "Mrs. Garfield" - 120,
— , pest of
— reticulatum -
— , Rose
Amba, see Mango
Ambarella
Amherstia
Ammobium
Amomum hemisphaericum
— magnificum -
— Melegueta
Amoora
Amorphophallus
Ampelopsis
Amphicosmea
Amu
Amydrium
Anacardium - - 134,
Amectochilus - - 375,
Anagallis
Ananas sativus - - 135,
— sativus variegatus 343,
Anasie, Pine-apple
Anchovy Pear -
Andira
Andiroba Tree -
Andropogon, see Cynibopogon
— halapensis
Angeleen Tree, Andira iiieniiis
Angelonia
Angraecum
Angostura bark, Cnsparia
Aniseed
Annatto
— , pests of
Annuals for low elevations
— for Up-country 41 3, 657,
— , when to import - 657,
Anoda
Anodendron - 332, 495,
Anona cherimolia
— muricata - 137,
— , pest of
— reticulata
— squamosa
A n then cum
Anthistiria
Antholyza
Anthurium andreanum
— bogotense
— crystal linum -
— digitatum
— Fitzeri
— Harrisii
137, 139,
120,405,
- 381
PAC1E
598
609
415
429
348
626
348
120
185
291
415
325
325
272
540
348
407
378
652
388
540
379
415
550
379
135
167
564
305
587
343
371
282
503
623
343
660
660
137
551
190
138
625
551
138
429
364
429
381
381
384
381
381
381
Ill
Anthurium longifolium
— macrolohum -
— pandulifolium
radiatus
— . flowering, selection of-
— . foliage, selection of
Vcitchii
— \Varrocqueanum
Antiaris innoxia-
--toxicaria
Antigoiion insigne
— guatamalensis
— Lcptopus
- L alba
Antirrhinum
Ants
Ant-exterminator
Aphelandra Fascinator
— niu-ns
— tetragona
Apoii'-gelum -
AppK
— . Alligator. Anona patustr is
— . Bell
Apple Custard -
— . Ek-phant, Fcrouin
381.
381
381
382
381
388
381
381
- 380, 38 1
- 549. 55 1
579
328
443
328,441.575
328
415
- 619—622
- 619,620
317
389
317
- 351.
599
204
179
138
190
. M.ilay. (Eugenia)
161
. Mexican
192
— . Otaheite
185
— . Star, Chrysophylltim
- , Sugar, (Anona)
138
— , Thorn, Datura
Apricot
201
Aracacha
234
Arachis 38,
228. 540
Aralia Balfourii -
381
— coi data
255
ek-gantissima
381
— rilkifolia - 325.
381,442
— Guiifoylei
1 1 8, 325
— maculata
325
— papyrifera
552
— quinquilolia -
533
- triloba
325, 381
— Yeitchii
381
Araluk
225
Araucaria Bidwillii
302. 398
— Cookii
303
— Cunninghamii
304, 399
— excelsa
399
Arauja
328
Arbours
85
Arbour- vine. Imponiiv tnbcrosa
Arbor- vit.'t-. Thuja orieutalis
Archontophoenix 355
Arctotis - 417,423
Ardisia crenata - - 317
Ardisia Missionis 391
Areca Catechu. 355, 360. 503, 504,
554, 594, 655
— concinna, - - 355, 360
- -nut. see Arcca Catechu
— triandra 355
Amiga - 355,531,540.551
Argania 540
Argemone 417
Argyreia • 339, 444 599
Arisaema 348
Aristoea 429
Aristolochia - 580
— elegans 328
— gigas, var. Sturtevantii 329, 331
— hians 329
— labiosa 329
— leuconeura - 339
— ridicula 329
— ringens 329
— saccata 329
— trilobata 339
Arnatto, see Annatto
Arracacia 234
Arrow-head. Sagittan'a
Arrow-poison - - 317, 579
Arrow -root, Queensland - 218
— , West Indian or Bermuda 225
Artemisia 609
Arthropodium - 429
Artichoke. Chinese, 235
— , Globe 235
— , Jerusalem - 235
Artillery Plant (Pilca), a small
green moss-like plant
Artobotrys 574
Artocarpus Canoni 304
— incisa 139, 304, 441
— integrifolia 141 452, 562, 564
— laciniatus=A. Canoni
— nobilis 142. 143. 304
Arum-lily (Richaniia), 431
Arundina - 373
Arundinacea - 381
Arundinaria - 366
Arundo 325, 343, 364, 442, 554
Asarum 381
Asclepias 317,537,551
Ashes 30
Asparagus, edible 236
— falcatus - 329, 574, 595. 599
— plumosus - 339
— racemosus - - 329. 574
- Sprengeri 339
Asperula 417
Aspidistra 433
Asplenium 599
Assimilation - 19
IV
Aster, annual, - - 344,417
— , China (Callistcphns) 344,417
— eminens, - 344
Astrocaryum - 355
Asystasia 317
Athanasia 417
Atriplex 593
Attalea 355,551,558
Attana, Datura fastnosa
Averrhoa Bilimbing 143
— Carambola, - 143
Avocado Pear (Pcrsca) • 180, 181
Avvara 207
Axinandra 304
Axadirachta. 40, 440, 452, 540, 595
Azalea - 402, 433
Azolla - - 351
B
PAGE
Baccharis
Bachelor's button, Goniphrcua
317
Bacteria, Soil
Bactris
Bada-iringu
Baeli, see Bael-fruit
Bael-fruit
Balata
Balsam
— of Copaiba
- of Peru
— of Tolu
Bambarra Ground-nut
Bamboo, dwarf
Bamboos, selection
— pests of
Bambusa aurea
— Fortune!
— Madake
globosa
20,21
355
233
563
344,417
559
559
309, 451
232
118
366
626
366, 405
405
366
— nana 118
— nigra 366
— Siamensis - 366
— vulgaris 366
Banana - 174—176
— , Abyssinian, Mnsa Eusetc
— , Chinese flowering - 176
- flowers, edible 600
— , recipes for - 647
Bandakka . - 230
— , pest of 626
Banisteria 317
Banks or double-cuttings - 106
Baobab Tree, Adansonia digttata
Barbadoes cherry, Malpigltia glabra
Barbecue, an open area, usually con-
creted, in front of estate store or
factory for sun-drying crops
Barberry (Berberis)
Bark
Bark-bound trees
Barleria cristati alba
— c. bicolor
— c. rosea
— Gibsoni
— involucrata -
— mysorensis -
— Prionitis
— strigosa
Barringtonia,
Bartonia
Basella
Basic slag
Basil
Basket plants
391
17
81
317,441
317
317
317
391
391
391
317
304, 441, 445, 577
- 344.417
228
32
- 283, 574
53
Bass, African, Raphia viuifera
Bassia latifolia - 540, 600
- longifolia - 540, 575, 600
Bast, Cuba 551
— , Raffia 552
Batala (Sweet Potato) - 222
Batticaloa Orchid, Saccolabinni
giittatunt
Bauhinia 292
— anguina 333
-Candida 317
- diphylla 339
— purpurea 292
— racemosa - 551
— tomentosa - - 292, 440
— triandra - 292
Bay Laurel, see La urns
Bay -tree 261
Bead-tree Adeuautliera pavoniua
Bean, Algaroba 184
--, Bengal. Mucurta pruricus
— , Barbuda, Phaseolns luitatus Tar.
— , broad 237
— , cashaw 184
— , climbing or runner - 211
— , cluster 207
— , Congo 207
— , Goa 212
— , Guar 207
— , Haricot, Phaseolus lunatus var.
— , Horse, Canavalia ensiformis
— , Kidney or French - 237
— , disease of 634
— ., pests of 626
— , Lima 210
— , Lyon 210
— , Manila 212
- , Princess - 212
— , Sacred, of Egypt, Nelumbiutn
spcctosii in
— , Sova - - 208
H
I'.UiK
Bean, sword - 207
— , Tongo 210
— , velvet 210
— , winged 212
— yam 210
-. yard-long - 212
Beaucharnea - - 325,405
Beaumontia - 329
Bedding 103
Bee-or Honey-plants 574
beef-wood, Casuarina spp.
Beet-root 238
Begonia, fibrous-rooted - 344, 405
— , fuchsioides - 402, 407, 433
-.Rex 381,433,436
— , selection - - 381
— tuberous-rooted - 429, 433
Belamcanda - - 348, 429
Belladona Lily - - 429
Bellis - 402
Beloperone nemerosa - 317
— oblongata - - 317, 402
Bengal Quince, see Bael -fruit
Benincasa 213
Bentinckia 355
Benzoin tree, Styrax Benzoin
Berberis aristata 391
— cristata 402
— Fortunei - - 402
— variegata 406
— leschenaultii - 402
Bergamot 571
Bermuda grass, Cynodon Dnctvlon
Berrya - 440, 564
Berseem 592
Bertholletia - 144
Bertolonia 381
Betel-leaf Piper Belle 504, 655, 656
— nut Palm, Areca Catechu
Bhang. Cannabis sativa
Biao-nut. Alen rites triloba
Bidens - 609
Bigha or beega - 653
Bignonia argyreo-violescens 339
— capreolata - • 407
- magnifica - 330
— unguis-cati - 330.441.444
venusta - 330. 407
Bilbergia 381
Billing or Biling 143
Billion 563
Bird-of- Paradise Flower,
Streiitzia angnsta
Bird-lime - 651
Birds, destructive 604
— . insectivorous or beneficial 604
Birds' nests, edible 299
— Fern, Aspleniinn nidus
B
Bismarckia 360
Bissy-nuts, see Kola-nuts
Bitter grass, Pnspalnni coiijiifrttniii
- wood, Picraena cvcelsa
Bixa 503
Black-currant
— wattle - 553, 563
— wood Tree - - 553, 563
Bladder- wort, see rtricnlaria
Blechnum 376
Bleekrodea 495
Blighia 145
Blimbing 143
Blinding tree, see Excaecurin
Blue-gum, Eucalyptus globnlns
Blumea - 509, 609
Bocconia 406
Boehmeria nivea - 546, 652
— . pest of 624
— tenacissima - 547
— pulchra 325. 547
Boerhaavia - - 599
Bo-gaha, Fiats religiosa
Boga-medelloa - 39,40
Bois Immortelle, Erythrina iiinbrosa
Bolo-bolo, Honckcniya fici folia
Bomarea 407
Bombax - 519, 600
Bonchi (Beans) - 211
Book preservatives 651
Borage 283
Borassus - 359,360,522.551
Bordeaux mixture 630
Borders, ribbon 105
Borecole 238
Bo-tree, Ficns religiosa
Bottle-brush, Callistenioii lanceolata
Bottle-gourd - 214
Bougainvillea glabra - 330. 441
— g. Sanderiana 330
— spectabilis var. laterita - 330. 407
Bowenia 383
Bowstring-hemp 542
Boxwood - 120.406
— , Queensland, Tristan in confer ta
— , Ceylon. Ehrctia bit v/ folia
Brachycome - 417
Brahea 360
Brassica (Cabbage family) 238—240
- Juncea (Mustard) - 540—595
Brayera 537
Brazil Cherry - ;61
Bra/.illetto wood 563
Bra/.il-nut 144
Bread-fruit 139
— . disease of - - 634
— , African, Trcculia africaua
— . Xicobar - - 310, 327
VI
B
Bread- Fruit, Wild 142, 143, 304
Bridal bouquet, Porana paiiicnlata
Brinjal - 231, 655
— , pests of 626
Broccoli 238
Bromelia 354
Broom -corn - 542
— . Butcher's, Rnscus aculcatns
— . Spanish, Spariium junceum
Broussonetia - 551
Browallia 344, 417, 437
Brownea 292
Browse plants - 593
Brucea, or " Kaputu-gedi " 595
Brugmansia - 318
Brunfelsia americana - 118,317
— uniflora - 317,402
Brussels-sprouts 239
Buchanania - 145
Bucklandia 399
Budding 66
Buddleia 339
Bud-grafting - 68
Bulbophyllum 373
Bulbous plants for low elevations 348
— for Up-country 427
Bulbs, transport of 641
BullocVs Heart - 137
Bull's horn Acacia 582
Bulrush 352
Bully tree 133,563
Bulu - - 315,451
Bunya-bunya pine 302
Burmannia 391
Burning bush, Embothrinm cocci-
nca, or Streptosolen Jamcsonii
Butea - - 293, 583
But-sarana (Caiina ednlis) 218
Butterfly orchid, Oncidium papilio
Butter-nut 149, 150
— , Soldier's, Avocado-pear
— tree, see Shea Butter
— of India, Bassia la'titoliti
— wort, Pinguicula
Butyrospermum 539
Buxus 406
Bvrsonima - - 318
Cabbage 239
— , disease of - 634
— , pests of 626
— . Shantung 240
Cabinet woods, selected - 564
Cacalia -, 417
C:icao or Cocoa - - 469—476
-, diseases of - - 634
Cacao, pes'.s of -
— seeds
Cactus plants
— , night-flowering
Caesalpinia Bonduc
PAGE
623
640
352
331
575, 595
— coriaria - 440, 553, 574. 575
— pulcherrima - - 318, 443
Caesalpinia Sappan 523
— sepiaria 119
Cadjans; dried plaited leaves of
Coconut palm
Caffein; active principle of coffee,
kola-nut, etc.
Cajanus 38, 207, 575
Caju 134
Caladium argyrea - 120, 348
— bicolor 120
-- Humboldtii 120, 344, 348
— varieties 348
Calamander-wood 563
Calamus - 16, 355
— •, Ceylon species 361
Calandrinia - 417
Calanthe 373
Calathea allouya 216
— , selection - - 383, 433
Calceolaria 417
Calendars of work for different dis-
tricts - 655—662
Calendula - 344,417
Calla, Richard ia
Calliandra Guildingii 402
— haematocephala 318
- Tweedii 318
Cnllichroa 417
Caligonum 600
Calliopsis, see Coreopsis
Callistemon brachyandrus 402
- lanceolata - " - 396, 402
Callistephus, China Aster
Callitris, see Frcnela
Callypsiche - 348
Calophylluvn inophyllum - 540
- Walkeri 396, 454, 595
Calophanes - 391
Calotropis 40,444,551,595
Calycanthus - 261
Calyptrocalyx - 355
Calyx
Cambium 17
Camellia 402
- Thea 496
Camoensia - 331,574
Campanula 402
Camph >r - 506—509
— . diseases of - 634
- , pests of 623
Cam-wood - 563
Canaigre - 555
Cananga 573
Canarium commune 146, 450. 575
— strictum 559
— x.eylanicum - - 540. 559
Canary creeper, Tropticolinii cnim-
riensis
Canavalia 38, 207, 444
Candellila-wax - 555
Candle-nut, Alcn rites triloba
Candle tree - 311*578
Candytuft 344. 414, 417
Caneila Bark, Canclla nlbn
Canna 344
— edulis 218
— indica 576
— . selection of - 348
Canna his - 551,595
Cannon-hall Tree, see Conwnpitn
Cansa, L\i nimbi's sntivn
Cape-weed. Cryptostemma
Capparis - 318,391
Capsicum - 229, 267
Caraguata 383
Carallia 442
Caralluma - 120.354
Car a pa 305
Caraway 283
Cardamine 609
Cardamoms - - 257. 261
— , wild or Ceylon 268
— . pests of 623
Carduus 610
Caricature-plant, Graptophyttum
Jwrtense
Cardiospermum - 340, 595
Cai doon 240
Carey.i. 554
Carex 364
Carica candamarcensis - 191,192
— Papaya. 146
Carilla fruit - 215
Carissa 119,149,442
Carludovica Jamaicensis 546
- palmata 325, 327, 350, 383, 545
— Plumerii • 283
Carnauba wax-palm 555
Carnations - 657—659
Carnivorous plants 580
Caroh-hean - 193
Carpodinus - •- 495
Carrion-flower. A inorphopluillns
spp. & Aristolochiii spf>.
Carrots 240
Carthamus - 562
Cart-wheels, materials for 650
Carum 536
Carva 191
VJ PA(JK
Caryocar 149. 150
Caryota, selection 355
— urens, 362, 520. 551. 575, 595
Casahanana - 215
Cascara sagracla, see Rliamnns
Cascaril la-bark. Croton
Cashaw. see Prosopis
Cashew -nut - 134.540
Cassava 222, 655, 656
Cassia alata - 3 18
— angustifolia - 536
— auriculata, 318, 392, 445, 554, 595
— , Chinese - 266
— corymbosa - 318
- Fistula, 293, 440, 532. 577, 595
— grandis - 294, 575
— javanica (=C. mnrginata), 294
— marginata - 294, 440
— mimosoides - 38, 609
— multijuga - 294. 440
— nodosa 294. 574. 575
— obovata 536
— occidental - - 392,599
— siamea 452. 564
— tomentosa - 599
-Tora - 599
— viminea 407
Cassia-bark - 266
Cassimoroa - 192
Castania 192
Castanospermum 399, 453. 577
Castilloa 491
— . disease of - 634
— , pests of 623
Castor-oil plant - 537, 597
— , disease of - 634
— , pests of 623
Casuarina equisitifolia, 118, 304, 441,
452
— torulosa 399
Catch -crops - 41
Catha 526
Catoblastus 355
Cats, civet and palm 601
Cattle trespass - 602
Cattleya, selection 371
Cauliflower - 241
Ce'ira rubber - 576
Cecropia 582
Cedar. Bermuda or pencil, Jiiuipt'nis
Beniiiidititm
— , Japanese, Crvptomcria Jnponicii
Cedrat 571
Cedrela serrata - - 453. 454
- Toona 399, 453. 564
Ceiba 518
Celastrus 595
Celeriac .- .- 241
Yin
Celery 241
Ceibsia - 344. 599
Cenftteries, selections for- 464
Centalirea - 417,424
Centradenia - 383
Ccntranthus - 417
Centropogon - 389
Century plant, Agave
Cephaelus, see Psyclwtria
Cephalotus 581
Cerasus - 193, 406
Ceratonia 193
Ceratopteris - - 351, 599
Cerbera borbonica 442
— Odalam 579
- Tanghin - 579
Cereus 331
— , selection of - 354
Ceriops 555
Ceroxylon - 355,556
Cestrum aurantiaca 402
— elegans 402
— fasciculatum - 119,318
Ceylon Gooseberry, Aberia Ganinei
Ceylon plants - 391 — 394
Chamaecyparis - 399
Chamaedorea - 355
Chamaeranthemum - 325, 3S3
Chamaerops - 360
Champak. Michdia chain paca
Charcoal, how to make - 647
— Tree, Trciua oi'ientalis
— , woods for - 647
Chaya-root, see Oldeulandia
Chayote (Cho-cho) Sccliiiini
Cheilanthus - 376
Chelone 417
Chena cultivation 47
Chenopodium - 609
Cherimoyer - 190
— , pest of 625
Cheronjee 145
Cherry, Bra/il 161
— , English 193
— , Peruvian 201
Chervil 283
Chestnut, Chinese 192
Chestnut, Spanish 193
— . Tahiti 167
— , water 186
Chick Pea 207
Chickle gum - - 133, 558
Chicku 133
Chickrassia - 563
Chillies 229, 267, 655, 656
Chillie-pepper (Capsicum), 267
Chimonanthus - 261
China-grass. Boclnucria uivca
China-grass, root, Gymtra t>seiulo-Cliinn
Chinese lime - 187
Chiococca 318
Chittagong-wood 563
Chirita - 349, 392
Chives 283
Chlorophora • 562
Chlorosis 633
Chlorophyll - 19
Chloroxylon - 564
Cho-cho 242
Chocolate tree, see Cacao
Choisya 402
Cholum (Guinea-corn), - 232, 233
Chou-Moellier - 591
Chrysalidocarpus 355
Chrysanthemum, annual - 344, 417
— , Chinese - 344. 402
— , Japanese - 435
— leucanthemum 433
Chrysobalanus - 150
Chrysoglossum - 373
Chrysophyllum Cainito - 150
— monopyrenum 151
Chrysopo^on - 592
Chutney 646
Chysis 371
Cicer - 38, 207
Cidran (Citron) 194
Cigar-flower, Cn plica platycentra.
Cinchona 506
Cineraria 406, 435, 659
Cinnamomum Camphora - 506 — 508
- Cassia 266
— zeylanicum - - 267, 540
Cinnamon • 257, 267
— , diseases of - 634
— , pests of 623
Cirrhopetalum - 373
Cissampelos - 595
Cissus - 340, 390
Citron 194
Citronella-grass 510
— , pests of 623
Citrullus 151
Citrus acida 155
— aurantium 151
--, diseases of - 634
-- Decumana 154. 574, 577
- Limetta - 155, 575
— Limoiuim 193
— medica 194
— nobilis 154
Civet-cat 601
Clarkia 414,417,419
Clary 283
Clausena 1 56
Clavija 318
IX
Clearing seeds, Strvcliuos potntornm
Cleisostoma - " 373
Clematis 407
Clerodenclron aculeatum - 118
- fragrans - 318
— innerme • 318, 443
Clerodendron infortunatum 318
— macrosiphon - - 318,389
— Minahasse - 318
- nutans - 318, 443
— paniculatum - 318
— serratum - - 318,392
— siphonanthus - 318,443
— speciosum - 331
- squamatum - 318
- Thomsonae - - 331,444
Climate 1
— , local influences on 3
— in Ceylon - - 655, 662
Climbers, ornamental-leaved 339
— , flowering - 328
— for pots 390
— for Up-country 407
Climbing plants 16
Clinogyne 387
Clintonia 413
Clitandra - 495
Clitoria cajanaefolia 318
-ternatea - 331,392
Clove 257, 269, 270
— , Brazil 271
— , diseases of - 634
— , Madagascar - 271
- oil 541
— , wild - - 261
Clover, Egyptian 592
Club-root 632
Cobaea 408
Coca, or Cocaine plant - 511
Cocculus 576
Cochin goraka - 166
Cochineal Cactus 562
Cochliostema - 389
Cochlospermum 294
Cocoa - - 469—476
Coco-de-mer, see Lodoicca
Cocoes 226
Coccoloba 582
Coconut, double, see Lodoiccn
-palm 476—481,540
— , diseases of - 634
— , pests, of - - 615, 624
— , water-, Xipti ft nt leans
Coco-plum 150
Cocos nucifera - 362—476, 481
540, 551,575, 595
— , selection - - 355
Codiaeum (Croton) - 118.325
Coelogyne asperata
— Dayana
— odoratissima -
Coffee (Coffca) -
— . Arabian
— , Congo
— , disease of
— , Hybrid
— , Liberian
— , Mocha
- -, Maragogipe -
— . pests of
— , robusta
I'ACE
- 370, 371
371
373
- 513—517
513
516
- 514. 634
517
516
517
516
624
516
— , Sierra Leone or Upland 516
— , Wild, Clerodendron uctileatinn
Coffin-Tree - 563
Cohune-nut, Attalea cohnuc
Coir-dust for potting - 28.125
Coix Lachryma - - 576, 652
Coia - 520
Coleus 344, 435, 595
Colletia 119
Collinsia 417
Commelina • - 591,599
Colocasia 227
— , disease of - 634
Colombo Agent, Pothos anren
Columbia 305
Col vi I lea 294
Combretum . • . 537
Composts & mixtures - 35
Concreting 649
Condiments - - 282—288
Conessi bark, Holarrhcna
Con gay am grass 593
Congea - 331,333
Conocephalus - 383
Conservatories - 121
Convolvulus - 408
Cookia - 156
Copaifera - 599, 564
Copal. Indian, Vateria imlicii
— resin, Hymcimcn verrncosu
Copernicia 555
Copper-leaf, see Acalyphn
Coppicing 82
Coquil la-nut - 558
Coquito-palm. Jnbaca spec tti hi I is
Coral-bean 576
Corchorus 542
Cordyline (Dracaena) australis 383
— cannaefolia - 325
- Duffii 325
— Fraseri 325
-- indivisa 383
— magnifica - 325
— terminalis - 325, 383
Coreopsis - 344.417
C PAGE
G
PAGE
Coriander 284
Crotalaria striata
38
Cork-wood, Ochrotna lagopus
-- Walked
392
Cork-tree, Indian 298
Croton, see Codiacuiu
Corn, Indian, Zea Mays
— aromaticum -
566
Corn-flower, Ccntaurea Cvanns
— lacciferum
567
Corolla 17
- oil
519, 595
Coro/o-nut, Phytclephas macrocarpa
- Tiglium
519, 595
Corvpha - 362, 552, 558, 576
— , pests of
624
Cosmos - 344,419
Crows
603
Costus afer 383
Cryptomeria
.119
— elegans 383
Cryptostegia - 332
, 444, 495
- igneus - 383, 389
Cryptanthus
383
— musaicus - 383
Cryptostemma -
610
— pictus 383
Cuba- bast, Hibiscus clntns
— speciosus - 318,392,599
Cubebs
532
Cortex 1 7
Cucumber, English
243
Cotoneaster - 402
— , native
213
Cotton 5 1 7
- Tree
143
— , disease of - 634
Cucumis maxima
213
— , pests of 624
— sativus 156
. 213, 243
— Tree, red (Hombax) - 519
Curcubita maxima
577
— , silk- 519
— Melo-pepo -
214
— lavender 120, 406, 407
Curcubita moschata
214
Cottonia 375
— vulgaris
214
Cotyledons 18
Culleriia
453
Couch-grass, Halopynun •mncroua-
Culverts
102
t u in
Cummin
284
Couroupita - 295, 577
Cupania
145
Co wage or Cowitch, Mncnna
Cuphea
402, 417
pniricns
Cupressus funebris (see En
-atta) 464
Cow-plant, Gymuema Icctifcrum
— Knightiana -
399, 454
- Tree. Brosiiiium galactodendron
— Lawsoniana -
1 19, 399
— pea, Vignci un&uiculata
— macrocarpa -
399, 454
Crab's-eyes, Abrns precatoi'ius
— pyramidalis - ,,
399
Crataeva 595
— sempervirens
400
Crattock. Ficns gloiuerata; used as a
Curculigo 383
384. 392
shade tree for coffee in S. India
Curcuma
278. 595
Creepers 342
Curious fruits
577
Crepe Myrtle, Lagerstroemia indica
Curly-greens
238
Crescentia 577
Curmeria, see Hoiuhiiuciid
Cress, Garden - 243
Curry-leaf (Murray a]
286
— , Indian 243
— , recipe for
646
— , water - 243, 610
Cus-cus grass
541
Crinum asiaticum - 349, 429
Custard-apple -
138
— augustum - 349
— , pest of
625
— giganteum - 429
Cutch, Acacia Catechu
- Mooreii 429
Cuviera
582
— Powelli 349
Cyamopsis
207
— , selection of - 349
Cyanotis
389, 392
— speciosissimum 349
Cyathea
378
— /eylanicum - 349
Cycas 325, 383, 392
530, 599
Crops, cost per acre 649
— , pests of
626
Crossandra - 318, 392
Cyathocalyx
306
Crotalaria 38
Cyclamen
435
— , diseases of - 634
Cydonia, see Photiiiia
— juncea 549
Cyclanthus
325
— laburnifolia - 318
Cymbidium bicolor
373
— semperflorens 408
— ensifolium
373
XI
n
PACK
372
511.541
541
510,541
541
235. 240
115
392
156
364. 384
220
351, 364. 385
595. 608, 609
194
402
392
351
Cymbidium Lowianum
Cymbopogon citratus
— irjuricatus
— nardus
— schoenanthus
Cynara
Cynodon
Cynoglossum
Cynometra
Cyperus alternilolius
— esculentus
- Papyrus
- rotundus -
Cvphomandra betacea
— tragrans
Cyphostigma
Cypress, Funeral or weeping,
Citpn'ssns fnnebris
— , Monterey, Cnpressns macrocarpa
Cvrtanthus " - - 120,429
Cyrtosperma - 385
Cyrtostachys - - 355, 385
Cystacanthus - 318
Cytisus - 593
Dadap. Ervthriua lithosperma
Daedalacaiithus - 318, 392
Daemia 595
Daesikai, Lime-fruit
Daffodil orchid. Ipsca spccioxii
Dahlia - 16. 344. 429. 656
— , pest of 626
Dalbergia 564
Daisy 402
. Australian - 405
— . Ox eye. Annual Chrysanthemum
. Shasta 433
Dalechampia - 389
Daluk, Euphorbia niiiiijiionini
Dambala, see Phascolus
Dammara 302
Damping-off disease 633
Dara-dambala, Psophocarpus 212
Dara-veta-kolu. Liiffa - 215
Darlingtonia - 581
Date-palm - 151.181
. wild - - 531
-plum - 195
Dattock 563
Datura chlorantha - 318.402
cocci nea - 402
fastuosa - 318.392.579.596
Knightii 402
Stramonium - 318.419.610
suave. >lens - 3 IS. 443. 57«>
Davallia - - 376
Davidsonia • -. • 157
Day's work for coolies 649
Debregeasia - 551
Deer 601
Dehi 155
Del, artocnrpns nobilis
— , Kata-, A. incisa
Delphinium - 402,403,417
Delun, Pnnica t*nunitnni
Dendrobium aureum 373
cruminatum - 373
- Macarthize - 573
— macrostachyum 373
-, selection - 372
Dendrocalamus giganteus, 365, 367
— Hamiltonii - 367
— strictus - 367
Desmodium Wightii 38
— gyrans 591
— triflorum - - 592
Desmoncus - 355
Detarium - 563
Devil-nettle. Luportca crcinilatd
Dewberry, American - 205
Dhal or dhol. Cnjauns iudiais
Dambala, see Dolichos
Dhaincha. Scsbauia acnlcata
Dhol or dhal, Cajanns iudiais
Diacalpe 378
Dialium 157
Dianella 392
Diauthus barbatus - 418,419
— Heddewiggii 418
— chinensis - - 344.421
Dicentra, see Diclytni
Dichopsis
Dichorisandra mosaica
thyrsi flora
— undata
- vittata
Dichrostachys -
Dicksonia
Dicotyledon
Dictyosperma -
Didymocarpus -
Didymochlaena
Didymosperma
Dieffenbachia -
Dielytra
Digit tlis
Dill
Dillenia
Dimorphandra. -
Dioncea
Dioscorea argyrea
— , diseases of -
- -. edible
-- multicolor
563
385
385, 389, 390
385
385
119
378
16
355
392
376
356
579
434
402
2S4
577
564
581
394
630
209
302
- 376,
- 355.
- 385,
- 406,
157.306.
- 306.
Xll
Dioscorea, varieties of - . 221
Diospyros discolor 157
— Ebenum 564
— Embryopteris - 452, 554
- Kaki 195
— melanoxylon 564
— quaesita 563
Dipladenia 332
Diplothemium - 355
Dipterocarpus - 541
Dipteryx 573
Dischidia 581
Diseases of plants - 628 — 636
Divi-divi. Caesalpinia cor i aria
Divi-kaduru, Tabernainoutana
dichotoma
Diwol 162
Diya-labu 214
Diya-bambara, see Cucumis
Dodan, see Orange
Dolichos for green manure 38
— as a vegetable 208
— , varieties of - 208
Dombeya Mastersii 318
— natalensis - 319
Doob-, or doub-grass - 115,588
Dooka or Duku, see Lansiinn
Domba, Calophyllum Iiiopliyllnni
Doona 559
Dorstenia 385
Doryanthes • 406
Doum-palm 360
Dove-orchid, Dendrobium
cnuneuatnni
Down-tree, Ochroma lagopus
Dracaena - 385, 435
Dracontium - - 349, 385
Drainage 49
Drains and culverts 102
Drawing-room plants - 126
Dregia 599
Drimiopsis 349
Drimys 282
Drosera 581
Drosophyllum - 581
Drugs 532
Drumsticks 230
Dry-farming - 49
Drymophlaeus - - 355
Dryobalanops - 508
Dry region, plants suited for 440
rot disease - 633
Duabanga 307
Duku, see Lansium 168
Dumasia 408
Dumb-cane, Dieffenbachia
Duranta Ellisii - 402
Duranta Plumieri 118, 119, 319
Durian - 158, 307
— , wild, Ciillenia excel sa
Durio - 158, 307
Duroia 582
Dyckia 354
Dye-plants 560
Dyera 495
Dypsis 355
Ebony, Diospyros Ebciintn
Ebony, hastard, Diospyros Gardner!
— , Indian, D. Melanoxylon
— , amaica, Brya Ebenus
— , Malabar. Diospyros Melanoxylon
— , Mountain, Banliinia triandra
Ecbolium 319
Ecdysanthera - 495
Echeveria - 120,406
Echinocactus - 354
Echinopsis 354
Echites 340
Eclipta 596
Economic products, Miscellaneous
526
Eddoes (Colocasia) 226
Edging plants - 120
Edible herbs - 598
Eel worms - 125, 615
Egyptian Clover, see Berseeni
Egg-plant 231
Eh-ela, Cassia Fistula
Ehretia buxifolia 118
Eichhornea - 351,610
Elzeis 355, 538, 540
Eloeocarpus edulis 160
— Ganitrus - 576
— glandulifera - - 396, 400
— serratus - 160,575
Elatostema 385
Elephants, destructive - 603
Elephantopus - - 115,609
Elephant-apple - 162
— ear, Argyreia speciosa
— , Actinodaphne speciosa
— creeper, Entada scaudens
— foot, Elepliantopns scaber
— grass, Saccharum arnudinaceum
Eleusine 652
Elevation, influence of on climate 1
— of towns etc. in Ceylon 5
Elk 601
Elk's horn fern, Platycerimn
Elm, Indian - 440
Embelia 596
Embothrium coccinea,
" Burning-bush "
Xlll
B
Emilia - 5%
Embrella or ambarella. see Spomiias
Encephalartos - - 325, 326
Endaru, see Ricinns
Endive 244
Endosperm 18
Enemies of gardens and estates 601
Ensal - 261
Enterolobium - 307
Entada - 576, 577
Epidendrum - 362
Epidermis 17
Epiphyllum - - 354. 435
Epipremnum
Episcea
Eranthemum cinnabarinum
— muculatum -
— , selection of -
Eria bicolor
Erigeron
Eriodendron
Ervum
Eryngium
Erysimum
Erythea
Erythrina corallodendron
— irdica
— lithosperma -
— Parcelli
— umbrosa
— velutina
Erythrochiton •
Erythrophloeum
Erythroxylon
Escholt/ia
Et-pera (Persea)
Euadenia
Eucalyptus alba
citriodora
ficifolia
— globulus
- Leucoxylon •
- marginata
— -oil
— robusta
Eucharis
Euchlaena
Encomia
Eugenia caryophyllata
— Jambos
— Javanica
— malaccensis -
Micheli
Eulophia
Eupatorium
, selection of.
343
385
319
118
385
373
609.610
518
209
609
421
360
576
39
40.451,454
- 307, 326
451
- 451
319
578
- 511.596
- 420,421
180
389
307. 440. 442. 452
400. 442, 452
396
- 400. 541
453. 454. 564
- 454. 564
541
454. 564
349
- 364, 588
495
541
452
161
161
161
373. 375
526
161.
PAGK
Euphorbia heterophylla - 319
— pulcherrima - - 319,344
-f splendens - •-- 402
Tirucalli - 118,119
•- tortilis 579
— rhipsaloides - 495
Euryale 351
Eurycles 349
Eusideroxylon - 563
Euterpe 355
Eve's apple, Tabeniaemonlana
dichotoma
Evolvulus • 596
Exacuin - 344. 392
Excaecaria - 326 579
Exhorrhi/a • 355
Explosives, use of in tilling, 45
Fagraea 574
Fallowing • 45
Fasciation 633
Fatsia 552
Feijoa 196
Fennel 285
Fennel-flower - - 425
Fern-like plants 376
Ferns, cultivation of 375
— . pests of 626
— , pressing - - 650
— , selection for Low-country 376
— . Up-country - 378
— . Tree 378
Feronia - 162, 596
Fertilisation - 18
Fertilisers - 28—36, 651
— . mixtures of - 651
Fever nettle, Luporteti crcnnhitu
- 542,552
307.
343,
582,
402
Euphorbia antiquorum,! 18 — 1 19. 579
— antisiphyllitica 585
Fibre plants
Ficus Benjamina
— Carica
Cunninghamii
— elastica
— macrophylla -
pumila
— regia
— religiosa
- Yogelii
Fig
— . Smyrna, insect pollination of,
Filicium decipiens, 308. 392. 450.
452.
Fire-tree. Steuocarpits siuinitiis.
Fit-weed. ErvnRiitm.
Fittonia
Flacourtia cataphracta.
— inermis
307
197
307
493
400
408
307
596
495
197
605
564
385
163
164
XIV
Flaniboyante, Poinciana rcgia.
Flame-tree, Eucalyptus ficifolia.
— , Sterculia aceri folia.
— flower, Streptosolen Jamcsoni.
Flax, New Zealand, 544, 545
Flower-garden - - 97. 120
Flowering trees for low-country 290
— up-country 395
— climbers for low-country, 328
— shrubs for low-country 317
— upcountry ' - 401—405
Flowers, how to revive - 650
— , component parts of, 17
— , edible 600
— , sending by post 641
-- seeds, directions for sowing
657—660
Fly-catching plants 580
Flying-foxes - 603
Fly-trap 651
— — , water, Aldrovauda
— , Venus, Dioiiaea muscipnla
Fodder plants - - 586, 593
Foliage climbers 339
- plants - 324, 378
— shrubs for low-country 324
— trees for low-country - 302, 451
— trees for up-country - 398, 454
Food of plants - 19
Forbidden-fruit - - 154, 578
Forests, influence of on climate 3
Forget-me-not, Myosotis
F'orsteronia - 495
Fountains 85
Fox-tail Orchid, Saccolabiutn
gut tn turn
Fragrant flowers 574
Fragaria 197
Frames, propagating 123
Francisea 119,319,402
Francoa 437
Frangi-pani - 572
Freesia - - 429, 437
French gardening 128
Frenela 1 19, 400. 454
Frogs and toads 606
Frost in Ceylon - 657 — 660
Fruit cultivation 129
Fruits, curious - 577
— for low or medium elevations 129
— , pests of 625
— , tropical, selection of - 131
— subtropical or temperate 190
— salads 645
- -, season of - 656, 660
Fuchsia 437
- arborescens - 403
— corymbosa 403
Fuchsia radicans 408
Fuel & Windbelts, trees for 453—454
Fumigating - 622
Funeral Cypress, Cnpresstis funebris
Fungicides 630
Fungus diseases - 628 — 636
— in Ceylon 634
Funtumia - 493, 494
— , pests of 624
Furcraea 119,354,406,544
Furze 119
Fustic, Chlorophora tinctoria 562
Galinsoga 609
Gaillardia - 420, 421
Gall-nuts, Terminalia CJiebnla
Gal-mora 312
Galphimia 319
Gal-siyambala (Veli-et Tamarind] 157
Gambier 553
Gamboge Tree, Garcinia morella
Gammiris 275
Gammalu 564
Gamolepis 421
Ganja, Cannabts saliva
Garandilla (Granadilla) - 180, 231
Garandi-kidaran (Tacca) - 226
Garcinia Cambogia - 164, 596
— echinocarpa - 541
— Mangostana - 164
— morella 559
— Xanthochymus 166
Garden adornments 84
— designing - 97 — 117, 455
— , laying out of - 97, 455
Gardenia 319, 441, 574
Garlic 285
Garnotia 385
Gasteria 354
Gaura 421
Geitonoplesium - 340-
Genista - 404, 437
Geodorum 37S
Geonoma 355
Geranium 438, 572, 659-
— grass, Cytubopogon Schoenanthus
Germination of seeds - 55>
Gesnera - 349,438.
Gigantochloa • 367
Gilia 421
Gingelly oil - 538
Ginep 172'
Ginger 271.598
— , variegated 388-
Ginseng 533
Girardinia - - 579»
XV
^ PAGE
Gladiolus 429
Gleichenia 376
Gliricidia 295, 442, 451
Gloriosa Rothschildiana. 332, 334. 349
- superba 332. 349, 390. 392, 579
— virescens 332
Glossocarya - 392
Gloxinia - 349. 438
— . wild - 350, 659
Glycine 38, 208, 591
Glycosmis 575
Gnaphalium - 609
Goat-weed, Ageratum coiivzoides
Gobba 230
Godetia 421
Godwinia 349
Goethia 319
Golden-feather - - 120,425
— fern - - 375, 376
— wattle, Accncia Pycnantha
Goldfussia - 319,326
Gomphia 319
Gomphrena - 344
Gomuti pal ui. Amiga saccharifera
Gooseberry. Cape 201
— . Ceylon 132
— . English 204
— . Hill 204
— Otaheite or Star 183
Gootee layering - 59. 60
Goraka. Cochin - 166
— , Ceylon 164, 596
— Jambo 161
Gordonia 400
Gorze 1 19
Gossypium 541
Gourd, Bottle - - 214. 577
— , Snake 216
— . White - 213
Gourds, pests of 626
— . seasons of - 657
Gowara-grass, A ndropogon
zeylaiiiitts
Grafting 64
— clay 69
- wax 69
Grains-of-Paradise 272
— crops, measuring 649
— . dry, in Ceylon 652. 655, 656
Gram, Bengal - 207
(iram. Green - 211
— . Horse 208
— . Madras 208
Grammatophyllum - 369, 372
Granadilla - 180, 231
Grape-fruit - 154
Grape vine - 79, 188
-. varieties of - - 189
Graptophyllum -
Grasses for lawns
— , ornamental -
— , pasture or fodder
Grazing
Green-heart
— bug
— houses
— manuring
326
115
364
- 58-1—593
584
564
- 625,632
121
37
— , selected plants for 38—40
Grevillea, 400. 451. 453, 454. 564, 575
Grewia 551
Grias 167
Grimnia - 349, 389
Ground-nut - - 228,540
— . pests of 624
— , Bambarra or Madagascar 232
Grouping 103
Gru-gru palm, Acrocomia sclcrocarpa
Guaicum - - 559, 564
Guano
Guango, Pithecolobinm Saman
Guar-bean 207
Guava 183
— . disease of - - 634
— , "Calcutta," Purple," or "China."
703
— . Hill - 204
— , varieties of - 184
Guinea-corn - - 232, 590
— grains 272
— grass, PiitticHin maximum
Guizotia - - 541.575
Gum-arabic, Acacia arabica
Gumming or gummosis - 632
Gums, resins. &c. 555
Gunny-fibre (Jute) 542
Gu'.ta or gutta-percha •= 562
Gymnogramme - 375 376
Gymnostichyum - 385, 392
Gynandropsis 344, 345, 596. 599
Gyneri im 367
Gynocardia 541
Gynura 596
Gypsophila 421
Gypsum 29
Gyrinops 551
H
375
Habenaria
Habrothamnus, see Centrum
Haemanthus - - 349
Heamatoxylon - 118,561,574
Hal - - 315.560
Hal-milla, Berrya atnmonilla
Halopyrum 609
Hana. Crotalaria jniiccii
XVI
H
Hancornia
Hardenbergia -
Hares
Harpullia
Haworthia
Hedera
Hedges & boundaries
— , selected plants for
PAGE
495
408
601
564
354
408
- 116—120
- 118—119
Hedychium a ngusti folium 319
— coronarium - 351
— gardnerianum 351
Hedyotis - - 392,562
Hedysarum - 591
Hedyscepe 356
Hecria 319
Height of trees, measuring 647
Helianthus - 235,344,421,539
Helichrysum - 421
Heliconia •• 326, 386
Helicteres - 319, 551
Heliotrope 404
Hemerocallis - • - 429
Hemidesmus - - 536, 596
Hemitelia - 378
Hemp, Bombay, Hibiscus catmabinus
, Bowstring - 542
— , Indian, Cantiabis sativa
— , Manila - 543
— , Mauritius - - 543, 544
— , New Zealand - 544, 545
— , Sisal 547
— , Sunn or San - 549
Henna, see Lawsonia
Herb of Grace, see Rue
Herbs edible - 598
— , pot or seasoning - 282 — 289
Hermaphrodite 18
Herminiera - 552
Herpestis - 596
Heterospathe - 356
Hevea - 487, 576
— , diseases of - - 634
— , pests of 624
-seeds - 489,639
Hibbertia 408
Hibiscus abelmoschus - 574
— alatus 551
— angulosus var. grandi flora 392
--- cannabinus - - 551
— esculentus - - 230
— furcatus 599
— micranthus - - 596
— mutabilis - 319
— , pests of - 626, 627
— rosa-sinensis 118, 319, 404, 562
— Sabdariffa - -167,600
— schizopetalus - 319
— syriacus - - 404
H
PAGE
Hibiscus tiliaceus 351
Hide-bound Trees 81
Higginsia - 386
Hippeastrum - 344, 349, 429
Hippomane - - 578
Hoffmannia - - 386
Hog-plum, see Spoiidias
Holarrhena - - 319
Holing - 74, 649
Holmskioldia - 319
Holoptelea 440
Holy-ghost orchid, Pcn'stcria data
Homalomena - 386
Honckenya - - 344. 551
Hondapara - 157. 306
Honeysuckle - - 408
Honey-berry - - 1 72
Honey- or Bee-plants - 574
Honolulu creeper, see Aiitigoiion
Horehound 285
Horse-eye bean - 576
- radish 285
— tree, see Moringa
— tail creeper. Parana
Howea 356
Hoya - 332, 390, -108
Humboldtia - 319, 392, 575, 582
Humus 7, 9, 11, 26
Hura - 577
Hyacinth-orchid, Satyrinni tiepalcnse
Hydnocarpus - - 577, 579
Hydnophytum - 582
Hydrangea 404
Hydriastele 356
Hydrilla 609
Hydrocotyle - - 596, 599
Hygrophila - 596
Hymenaea 559
Hymenocallis - 349
Hymenosporum 396
Hyophorbe 356
Hy peri cum • 392. 404
Hyphaene 360
Hyssop - 286
Icaco - 150
Ikilia - 186
Ilang-ilang 573
Ilex - - 526.528
Illicium 278
Illipi. Bassia lat if alia
Iluk, Imperata anindinacca
Imantophyllum 429
Imbul-gaha, Eriodendron
— , katu, Bombax
Impatiens acaulis 392
XV11
I PAGE
' PAGE
Impatitns cuspidata bipartita 392
Iron-wood tree, Cevlon,
- elongata - - 393. 404
297, 309, 564, 574
- fasciculata - 439
Iron-bark 453, 454, 564
flaccida - 389. 393. 599
Irrigation - - . 48
- Holstii - 439
— , its influence on climate, 4
- Hookeriana - - 393, 404
Ismene 429
mirabilis - - 389
Isolepis - - 364
- repens - 389. 393
Isoloma 349, 389. 429
- Sultani 344, 389, 439
Isonandra 541
- Walker i - 393. 404
Isotoma 579
Iinperata - 608. 609
Ivy. Hcdcra Hcli.\
Imphee, Andropof^on Sordini ni
Ivorv-nut - - 557, 558
Implements - - 91
Ixia" - 429,436
Inarching 66
Ixora coccinea - 319.393441,596
India- rubber - - 307, 308
— Fraseri 319
Indian-corn - - 233. 590
-- javanica 319
- Shot— 54. 218, 576
— jucunda 393
— Liquorice, Ahnts prccatorins
— macrothyrsa - 319
Indigo 560
— odorata 319
Indigofera - 39, 560
- Pilgrimii - 319
Inga laurina - 451
— rosea - - 319, 441
- Saman 312, 441, 442. 451. 453. 591
lya-vaki (Peltophumm) 299. 451, 452
Inguru - - 271
Innala 226
J
Ink for labels - 90
Inocarpus 167
Jacaranda filicifolia 386
Insecticides - 615
— mimosiefolia - - 297
Insectivorous plants 580
Jacobiea, see Senecio.
Insect pests - - 612,659
Jacobinia coccinea 319
— . remedial measures for 613
— magnifica - 319
Insects, tabular list of - 623
Jacquemontia - - 334
— , carnivorous or beneficial 605
Jacquinia - 320
— , specimens, how to send 642
Jadoo, or Jadoo fibre 27
— , pollinating - 605
Jaggery, palm-sugar obtained from
Intensive gardening 128
Palmvra, Coconut. Carvota, etc.
Intercrops 41
Jak 14K562. 564
Ipecacuanha - - 533, 534
Jalap, ipoiiioea Pnrga.
— , wild or Jamaica - 537. 551
Jamaica sorrel - 167
Ipomoea aquatica - 230, 599
Jambo. "Veli"-." Pini "-, " Wax-."
- Batatas 222
etc. 161
— biloba 444
— , pest of 625
- Bona-nox - - 230, 393
Jambola, Citrus Dcciunana.
Briggsii 334, 441, 444
Jambu or Jambo, Eugenia Jam bos.
-carnea - 332.444
Jams, recipes for - 644
- Learii 334
Japana-ala (Jaffna yam).
- palmata - 334,393
Japanese medlar. Pliotiiiia jiiponica.
— Purga 537
Jarrah - 564
— , pest of 627
Jasmine. Arabian, Jtisininiini Stiinhtic
Quamoclit - 334
— , Cape. Gardenia florida.
— rubro-coerulea - 408,421
— , night-flowering - 562, 574
— sinuata - 340
Jasminum flexile - 334, 574
— tuberosa - 334.441
— , pest of 627
- Turpethum - 596
- pubescens 334. 404. 408. 441
— vitifolia 444
- revolutum - 320. 335. 404
Ipomopsis 421
- Sambac - 320, 335. 404. 574
Ipsea 373
Jatropha Curcas 118, 119, 541
Iresine 406
— panduraefolia 320
Iris - 429.432
— podagrica - 320
XX
Lycoris
Lvsidice
431
297
M
Macadam ia 168
Macassar-oil - 541
Macaw-palm, Acrocoiuia sclerocarpa.
Mace 273
Macherium - 564
Macrosphyra - 335
Macro/amia - 326
— , selection - 386
Madar-fibre, see Calotropis.
Madder, Indian, see Oldenlandia.
Madol 541
Madras Thorn, Pithecolobinm dulce.
- 118 —119
Mad re Gliricidia macnlata.
Madu, Cycas circinalis.
Magnolia fuscata 404
— grandiflora 404
— sphaenocarpa 308
Maha-karamba - 1 49
Mahoe, Mountain, Hibiscus clutits.
Mahogany 564
— , African 564
— , Australian 564
— , Bastard 564
— , Honduras 315
— , Indian 564
— , pest of 624
— , Swamp 564
Mahvva tree, Bassia latifolia.
Maiden-hair Fern, Adiautitiu.
Maize 233, 590
Makanje, Triphasia.
Malay-apple (Eugenia) 161
Malcomia 421
Malope 421
Malpighia coccifera 57, 120
-glabra 118
Malu-miris 229
Malvaviscus 320
Mammea 169
Mammee-apple - 169
Mamme-sapota (Luc n ma] - 168
Mammillaria 354
Mamoncillo 172
Mana, pangiri 511
Manchineal Tree 578
Mandevilla 408
Manettia 390
Mangifera 169
Mango, cultivation, etc. 169
— , diseases of 634
— , pests of 625
-, selection of - 171, 172
M
Mangosteen 164-
Mangrove 555
Mangus 164
Manicaria 354
Manick-vvattie weed, Oxnlis riolacea.
Manihot Aipi 224
— dichotoma 490=
— Glaziovii - 54. 489, 576
- heptaphylla - 491
— piauhyensis - 491
— utilissima - - 222, 655
Manioc or manyoka - 222. 655
Manures
— , inorganic - 28
— -, organic 24
— , liquid 34
Manuring, green 37
Manyoka or manioc 222
Mapania, see Pandanophyllum
Maranta arundinacea 225
— , selection - 386
Marcgravia 390*
Margosa, Azadiradita indica
Marica • , 431
Marigold, African 344, 421, 422"
— , French 344, 421
— , pot 286-
Marjorum, pot - 287
— , sweet 286
Marking- nut, Scniccarpns
Anacardinnr
Marmalade -fruit 168
Marsilea - 351, 599-
Martinezia 356, 358
Martynia 577
Marvel-of-Peru, Mirabilis Jalapa
Masan (Zizyphus jiijnba), 189*
Mascarenhasia - 496
Massoia 27>
Mastic, Pistacia Lciitiscus
Mate - - 526, 528
Mathiola 421
Maurandya 408
Mauritius grass - - 587, 589*
Maximilliana 358
Mealies, see Maize
Measuring grain crops per acre, 649*
- heights of trees - 647, 648
- land - 648, 653
— timber 648
Medicago 591
Medicinal plants 532
— — of Ceylon 594
Medinilla magnifica 320
— speciosa 320*
- Teysmannii - 321
Medlar, Japanese 18>
Mee or mi, Bassia Ion gi foil a
XXI
M
Me-karal 212
Melaleuca 400, 541
Melastoma 321,393
Melia Azedarach 583
— dubia 452
Melianthus 407
Meliosma 396
Melicocca 172
Melocoton 215
Melloca (Ulluciis), 248
Melon, musk-, 156
— , water-, 151
Memecylon 320,321,
393
Memorial trees, selection for, 463
Mendelism 71
Mentha 287, 535
Menthol 535
Mesembryanthemum 421
Mesophyll 17
Mesquit-bean 184.594
Mesua 297, 309, 452. 564, 574
Metal for road or Concreting 649
Metroxylon Kumphii 358
— Sagu 358, 528, 529, 576
Mi or Mee, Bassia loiigifolia.
Michel ia Champaca 452, 454, 574
— fuscata 574
— nilagirica 454
Miconia 326
Mignonette - 421,575
— , Tree-, Lawsonia alba
— , wild, Gnaphaliiun innlticanlc
Mikania 594,610
Milk hedge (Euphorbia Tirncalli),
118
Mi Ha 564
Millet (Pa n /c n in iniliaccnin), 652
— , Bulrush 652
— , Great or Turkish 232
— . Indian, Andropogon Sorghum
— , Italian (Sctaria italica), 652
Millets 652
Millingtonia 298,440
Mimosa argentea 340
-pudica 445.610
Mimulus 423
Mimusops Bojeri 173
— Elengi 596
— globosa 563
— hexandra 555. 564
Mina lobata 408
Mint 287
Mirabilis 423. 580
Miraculous Berry. Sittero.vvloii
Miris 267
— , Gas-, 267
Mischodon - 440. 452
M
Mistletoe. Ceylon. RhipsalisCassytha
Mixtures, fertilizing 35,651
Mock orange 404
Modecea 580. 596
Momordica 215
Moneys, local & foreign - 653
Monkey-nut 228
— flower, Mimnlns macnlosa
— pot, see Lfcythis
— puzzle, Arancaria Bi thrill ii
Monocharia 351.599
Monocotyledon 16
Monodora 275
Monsoons 3, 656 — 662
Monstera 173.343
Montanoa bipinnatifida 321.404
— tomentosa 321
Montbretia 431
Moon-flower (Iponw.a Rona-nox] 230
Moorva-or Murva -fibre 552
Moraea 404. 431
Mora tree 306, 564
Morinda 442
Moringa 230, 285, 597
Morning Glory, Iponwca, annual
var's
Morus 198
Mosquitoes, preventives against 615
Mosquito-wood - 564
Mountain Mahoe 564
Mucuna 39, 210. 576
— utilis 210,591
Mudilla (Barriiigfonia), 304
Muehlenbeckia 326, 582
Mulberry 198
— , disease of 634
— . pest of 624
— paper 551
Mulching 12
Mundulea 393
Mun-eta (Phaseolus Mungo) 211
Munronia
Murraya exotica 1 18. 321 . 441 , 574
— koenigii 286
Murunga (Moringa) 230
Murutu (Lagerstroemia)
Murva or Moorva fibre 552
Musa Cavendishii 176
-coccinea - 389,404
- Ensete 407
— sapientum 1/4—176, 597
- textilis 543, 552
Mushroom
Musk-melon 156
Mussaenda 321
Mustard 287,595
— tree. Salt-adorn per ska
423
XX11
M
JVlyrialepes
Myriocarpa
Myriophyllum
Myristica fragrans
— Horsfieldii
— laurifolia
Myrmecodia
Myrmecophilous plants
Myrobolans, Tcnninalia
Myroxylon Balsamum
— Pereirae
— toluiferum
Myrtle
— , Ceylon
Myrtus communis
— tomentosa
N
PAGE
358
326
351
273
574
452
582
582
belcricn
309
559
451, 452
- 321, 407
118, 321
- 321, 407
321
Na-gaha, Mcstia f err en
Nam-nam 1 56
Nandina 326, 404, 583
Naran-kai (orange) 151
Naravelia 335
Naseberry 133
Nasturtium ofticinale 243, 599, 610
— (Tropaeolum) 243, 344, 409,
427, 575
Natran 1 93
Necklace tree, Ormosia
Nectandra 564
Nedun 564
Neem tree, Melia Azedarach
Negro peach 1 85
Nella-kadala, see Ground-nuts
Nelli, Phyllanthns Emblica
Nelumbium 351, 583, 597, 599
Nelun, see Nelituibiiini
Nematanthus 389
Nematodes 615
Nemesia - 423, 424
Nemophila 423
Nepenthes 340, 393, 581
Xephelium ohryseum 176
— lappaceum 176
— Litchi 177
— mutabile 176
Nephrodium - 376, 378
Ncphrospermum 358
Nephthytis 386
Nerine 431
Nerium 322. 443, 580
Nettle, Devil or Fever, Laportea
crenulata
Nettle, elephant, or Nilgiri,
Girardinia heteroplivlla.
Nicker seeds, Caesalpitn'a Ronduc.
Nicotiana, flowering 345, 425
N
Nicotiana, Tabaccum 500
Nidi-kumba, Sensitive-plant
Nierembergia 404, 425
Nigella, 415,425
Night-shade, Malabar 228
Nile Pith tree 552
Nim or Neemiree,Azadirachta indica
Nipa 352, 358, 364
Nitragin 21
Nitrate of Soda - 31
— of potash 31
Nitrates 20
Nitrification 20
Nitrites 20
Nitro-bacterine - 21
Nitrogin - 19, 20, 36
Nitrolim 33
Niviti 228
Niyangala, Gloriosa snperba.
Niyan-vetakolu - 215
Nolana 425
Nolina, see Beaiicaruea.
Nopalea 354, 562
Notelaea 404
Notonia 322
Nurseries 69
Nursing leaves - 18
Nut, Brazil 144
— , ground, see Arachis
— , monkey-, ,,
— , Para = Brazil-nut
— . pecan 191
— , pili, Canarium edule - 146
— , Pistachio - 201
— , Queensland 168
— , sapucaia 168
— , souari 149, 150
— , tiger 220
Nut-grass, Cypcrns rotundas.
Nutmeg 273
— , disease of 634
— . pest of 624
— , Calabash or Jamaica 274, 275
— , Wild 275
Nutrition of plants 19
Nux-vomica 521, 580, 597
Nyctanthes 562, 574, 583
Nyctocalos 335
Nycterinia 425
Nymphcea 55, 352, 599
Oak, Ceylon 564
— , Patana, Cany a arborea.
— , She, Casuarinia spp.
— , Silky-, Grcvillea robust a.
Oca-quina or Oca-quira 248
XX111
Ochlandra
Ochna
Ochroma
Ochrosia
Ocimum
Odina
Odontadenia
Oeiiothera
Oil of Ben (Moringa)
— . Cajuput
— Candle-nut
— . Chaulmugra -
— , Citronella
— , Cotton
— . Geranium
367
322
578
442. 578, 580
574, 583, 597
559
335,574
425
231
541
540
541
510, 541
541
54
— , Gingelly, Sesammii indicum.
— , Ginger-grass 54
— , Groundnut - 540
— Lemon grass 510, 541
— , Macassar 541
— . Margosa 540
— , Niger or Rantil 541
— . Olive 198, 541
- Palm (Elacis) 538, 540
— , Rusa or palmarosa 541
— , Sunflower 569
— , Verbena, Cvmbopogon citratns
- yielding plants 510, 519. 537—541
Oils, essential or volatile; obtained
by distillation, as distinguished
from fixed oils obtained by pres-
sure or boiling.
Oka 225
Okra 230
Ola; tender leaves of palmyra and
talipot palms, used for writing
upon by an iron stylus.
Oldenlandia 562
Oldfieldia 564
Olea 198. 541
Oleander, see Xerinni Oleander
Olive 198
— . wild, or Ceylon 160, 575
Olu, Nympkoca Lotus
— , LimiiaiithcwHM
Oncidium luridum 372
— papilio 372
Oncoba 298
Oncosperma fasciculatum, 358. 364
— filamentosum 358
Onion 248
— . Egyptian 249
— , potato 249
— , small 249. 655
— , Welsh 249
Ophioglossum - 376
Ophiopogon intermedius, 120.386.
393
Ophiopogon japonicus
— j. variegatus
Opium
Oplismenus
Opuntia coccinellifera
— Dillenii
— , selection of
Orange, cultivation of
— , mock
— , pests of
— , sweet
— , varieties of
Oranin
Orbignya
Orchella weed -
Orchids, cultivation of
— , Cevlon
386
386
535
364
562
354. 594. 610
354
152
404
625
151
153
358
358
522
368
373
Orchid. Batticaloa, Saccolabium
gnttatiun
— , Butterfly, Oncidium papilio
— . Daffodil, Ipsea speciosa
— , Fox-tail, Saccolabium git flat it in
— , Giant 369
— . Lily-of-the-Valley, Eria bicolor.
— . Pigeon or Dove. Dendrobium
criniicnattini
— , - — , See Habeiian'a
— -. Primrose, Deiid robin in anrenni.
— , Scorpion or Spider. Arachnanthe.
Ordeal poisons 578
Oreodoxa 357. 358
Organs of nutrition 1 7
— reproduction 17
Ormosia 576
Ornamental plants - 317 — U9
— , pests of 626
— seeds 575
Ornithogalum 431
Oroxylon 576. 578, 597
Osbeckia aspera 323
— buxifolia 393
— rubicunda 393
Osmunda 378
Ostodes 309
Otaheite apple (Spondias). 185
— gooseberry 1 83
Oudo or udo 255
Ouviranda 352
Ovary 18
Oxalis corniculatus 610
— crenata 225
— bupleurifolia 386
— corniculata 599
— violacea f -^ 225. .610
Oxera 336
Oxyanthus 323
Oxystelma 352, 393. 597
Oxvtenanthera - . 367
XXIV
13 PAGE
Oyster-plant 252
Pachyrrhizus 210
Packing plants, seeds, etc. 637—640
Paddy - 480—484, 655, 656
— , pests of 625
— , Hill, Oryza latifolia
— , Swamp, 0 sativa
Padouk, Ptcrocarpns indicns
Padri tree, see Stereospenmtm
Pagoda tree (Plumeria) 299
Pakal, Monwrdica Charantia
Palaquim 563
Palay rubber. Cryptostcgia
Palicourea 323
Pallu, Mini n sops hexniidra
Palms, Ceylon - 360
— , fan-leaved - 360
— , pinnate 355
— , pests of 627
Palm beetles 615
Palmyra palm 522, 655, 656
Panama-hat plant 325, 327, 545
Panax crispum - 386
— elegans 386
- fruticosum 1 18, 326, 443
— multifidum 386
— quinquefolia - 533
Pancratium 350
Pandanus iurcatus 310
- Leram 310,327,578
— odoratissimus 443, 445, 599
~ Sanderi 326, 386
— utilis 552
— variegatus 326
— Veitchii 387
— zeylanicus - . 119
Pandanophyllum 387
Pangi, Pangi urn cdnle
Pangiri, Lena-batu 511
— , maha 511
Pangium 310,578
Panicum 588, 592, 593
— curtissii 610
— muticum 587.589
— plicatum 364, 387
— pulchrum 364
Pansy 425
Papaine 147
Papaver 425, 535
Papavv, Papeta or Papaya 146
— , Mountain 191, 192
Paper Mulberry 551
Papeta, see Papaw
Papyrus 351
Pardanthus (Belamcanda) 348. 429
311,
496
144
624
576
207
451
119
311,578
287
378
249
234
493, 494
Parameria
Para-nut
Para-rubber, see Hevea
— , pests of
— , seeds
Paripu (Cajanus)
Parkia Roxburghii
Parkinsonia aculeata
Parmentiera
Parsley
— fern (Stenoloma)
Parsnips
— , Peruvian
Parthenium
Pasali, see Basella.
Paslia, see Mountain Papaw.
Paspalum conjtigatinn 1 15, 593
— dilatatum 590
— spectabile 590
Passiflora coerulea 336
— edulis 199, 408
— Jenmani 336
-laurifolia 121.178,336.340
— quadrangularis 180,231
— racemosa 336
- trifasciata 341
— violacea 336
Passion-fruit 199
Pasture, making and upkeep 584
— , plants for 592
Patchouli 541,572
Paths 101
Patola 216
Paullinia 341
Paulwilhelmia - 323
Pavetta 323, 393, 441, 443
Peach 202
— , negro 185
Peacock-flower, Poinciana
pnlcherrimn.
Pear 203
— , Anchovy 167
— , Avocado or alligator 180
Pea-nut, see Ground-nut
Pea, perennial, Latliynts Ititifionis.
— , pigeon 207
Peas 250
— , disease of 634
— , chick, or Bengal-gram 207
— , cow 212
Peat 9, 15
Pecan-nut 19 !_
Pedilanthus Pavonis 555
- tithymaloides 1 18, 328, 355
Pehimbiya, Filicinnt decipicns.
Pelargonium 439, 572, 659
Peliosanthes 387
Pellionia 343,387
XXV
Yeltophorum ferrugineum
209. 442, 451. 452
— Linnae 563
Pencil cedar. Juni perns Bcnnndiana
Penni-dhodan 151
— koinadu 151
Pennisetum 364
Pentas 323. 345
Pepol 146
Peperomia 387
Pepeta or pepol 146
Pepper. Ashantee 278
— . black 257. 275
— . Cayenne 277
— , disease of 634
— . Jamaica 259
— . Japan 278
. Long 277
— . Melegueta
— mint 535
. Negro 278
- . pests of 624
— pot of West Indies 224
- Tree. Schiiius mollc.
Pei a 183
Perennials for low elevations 343
up-country 401, 405
Perfume-yielding plants - 571
Pergolas 84
Pergularia 336, 574
— . pest of 627
Perianth 17
Pericopsis 564
Peristeria 372
Peri strophe 323
Periwinkle, Madagascar, Vinca rosca
Persea gratissima 180
— semecarpifolia 441.564
Persimmon 195
Peruvian-bark, see Cinchona
Pests, animal 601
—.insect 612-627
Petals 17
Petraea 336
Petunia 345. 425, 439
Phaedranassa 431
Phaceha 425
Phaius bicolor - 373
- - luridus 373
— . selection 372
Phalaenopsis 372
Phalaris 120, 387
Phaseolus 39, 189
- lunatus 210
- Mungo 21 1
- . pests of 626
— vulgaris 211,237
Philadelphia 404
PAttH
Philodendron andreanum 343, 387
— carderi 391
— erubescens 343
gloriosum 387
Mamei 387
— Selloum 387
— squamiferum 343. 390
Philydrium 425
Phloem or bast - 17
Phlogocanthus - 323
Phlomis 404
Phlox
Phoenicophorium
Phoenix dactyl if era
- selection of -
— . Ceylon species
— sylvestris
Pholidocarpus -
Pholidota
Phormium
Phosphate of lime
345. 422, 425
360
181
358
364
531
358
373
407. 544. 545
32
— , Thomas', see Basic slag
Phosphorous 19, 20
Phosphoric-acid 36
Photinia 183
Photosynthesis - 19
Phrynium 345, 387
Phyllanthus cyanospermum 576
— distichus 183
— Emblica 200, 555, 597
— myrtifolius 118, 328. 393
— nivosus 387
Phyllocactus 355
Phyllotaenium - 387
Physalis 201
Physic-nut, Jtitroplui Curcaa
Physostigma 579
Phytelephas - 358. 576
Phytolacca 610
Piasaba-fibre, Attalca fnniffra
Piassava (Raphia) 546
Picraena 536, 618
Pigeon orchid, Dcndrobiiun
crnnit'iiiilnni
— pea, Cajuniis indicia.
Pig. wild 602
Pila, Tcphrosia
Pili-nut, (C a nar iu in cdnlc], 146
Pillakai (Jak) 141
Pilocarpus
Pimenta acris 261
— citrifolia 261
— officinal is 259, 261
— oil 261
Pimento 259
Pimpinella 282
Pinanga 385
Pine-apple 135
XXVI
Pine-apple, variegated 343
Pine, Bunya-bunya 304
— , Canary Island 400
— . Moreton Bay 304, 399
— , Norfolk Island 399
— , Kauri 302
Pinguicula 581
Pink, sea-or water-
Pinus canariensis 400
— insignis 401
— longifolia 401
- Montezumoe - - 401
Piper Betle
- Clusii
- Cubeba
— nigrum
Pipingha
Pisonia
Pistacia
Pistachio-nut
Pistia
Pistil
Pitcairnea
Pitcher plants
Pith plants
— tree
Pithecolobium dulce,
— Saman,
504—505, 597
278
532
275
213
312—328,442
201,559
201
352
18
389
581
552
552
117, 118, 119
442
312,441, 442, 451,453.
591
Pitti-kekiri 156
Pittosporum 397
Plantain 174—176, 597
Planting distances, table of 77
— operations 74
— , cost per acre 649
Plant-breeding - 70
- life 16
-sheds 121
Plants, nutrition-of 19
Platycerium 376
Platystemon 425
Plectocomia 358
Plectranthus 226, 597
Pleroma 404
Ploughs 94
Ploughing 44
Plum 202
— , Bokhara 202
Plumbago capensis 323. 345, 404
-rosea 323,597
— zeylanica 323, 393, 580, 597
Plumeria acutifolia 299, 323, 442,
496, 572 583
- rubra 299, 323, 442, 496
Plumule 18
Podalangai, Tricosaiitlies
Podocarpus alata
Podocarpus cupressina 312
— macrophylla - 407
Pogostemon 541,572
Poinciana 300, 442, 453, 576
Poinsettia, Euphorbia pnlcherrima
Pois-doux, Inga laurina
Poisonous plants 578-
Poisons, ordeal - 578-
Polianthes 350, 573-
Pollarding 82
Pollen 18-
Polyalthia 441,442
Polygonum 592
— chinense 404
— punctatum 610
— tomentosum - 610
Polypodium 376, 599
Pomegranate, Pntiica granatnui
Pometia 312,451,575
Pongamia 39, 597
Pontederia, see Eichhornea
Poppy, flowering 425
— , opium 535
Porana paniculata 338
— volubilis 338, 441 , 444, 575
Porcupines 601
Portlandia 325
— , pest of 627
Portulaca 345, 425, 599, 610-
Posoqueria 300
Potash 31
Potassium 19, 20-
Potato 250, 657, 659
- — , pest of 626
— creeper, Giant, Solatium We i id-
land ii
Potato, sweet 222
— tree, Solanum macranthum
Pothos argenteus 343, 391
— aurea 345
Pot-plants, cultivation of 123, 368, 660
— for low elevations- 378, 388
— , flowering 388-
— , foliage - 378-
— , for up-country 431, 657 — 660
— , soils for 124-
— , watering of 126, 660-
Pots, tubs, etc. - 86
Potting plants - 123—125,657—660
Poudrette 25
Preserves recipes for 645
Prestoea 358
Prickly-pear, see Opmitia
Pride-of-India - 297
Primrose, evening, Ocuoihcni
— orchid, Deiidrobiinn atirciuu
Primula 439
Priproca 573
XXVI 1
Pritchardia 360
Privet, Ceylon - 297
Products, minor (Ceylon) 503
— , standard ( „ ) 469
Propagating frames 123
— sheds 76
Propagation 51 — 70
— by bulbs, tubers, etc. 62
— „ cuttings 56 — 58
- ., eyes 61
- „ gootee 59—60
— .. layers - 58
— ,. leaves - 61
- .. roots 61
— „ seed 51 — 56
- „ suckers 61
Prosopis dulcis - 184
- julifera 184
•- pubescens 184,594
— spicigera 184, 583
Pruning 78—82
— , root 80
— . thumb-nail - 80
Primus 201,407
Psidium cattleyanum 203
— Guineense - 184
-Guyava 183
Psophocarpus 212
Psoralea 39
Psycotria - 533, 534
Pteris aquilina - 611
Pterocarpus echinatus 300
-indicus 312,442,451.564,575
— longiflora 300
— marsupium 452, 453, 559, 564. 574
— santalimus 562
Ptychandra 358
Ptychococcus - 358
Ptychoraphis 360
Ptychosperma 360
Pudding-pipe. Cassia Fistula.
Pulassan (Xephelium) 176
Purslane, Portnlaca olcraccn.
Pusani-kai, Benincasa.
Pumelo 1 54
Pumpkin 213, 577
— , ash 213
Punica granatum 1 18, 184, 597
Punnai-nuts, Calophylliun liiophylliun
Purple-heart 564
Pu\vak. Arcca Catechu.
Pyrethrum 120.425
Pyrus 203
Queensland-nut
Quisqualis
168
338,441, 444
Quillaja
Quassia
541
323.536,618
R
Radish 252
Railway gardens 455
— — , selections for - 461 — *63
Rainfall averages in Ceylon 5
— , Ceylon - 656—662
— , equivalents of 650
Rain tree, Pithecolobinm Saman.
Rambong rubber 307, 308
Rambutan 1 76
Ramie-fibre, Bochmcria nivea.
Ramsita, Anoua reticulata.
Randia dumetorum 441,597
— macrantha 323
— maculata 323
— Mussaenda 323
Radicle 18
Rangoon creeper, Qnisqnalis
Raphia Hookeri 360
— ruffia • 360. 552. 559, 576
— vinifera 546
Raphidophora - - 343, 393
Kaphionacme - 493, 494
Raphistemma - 338
Raspberry 205
— , Mauritius 205
— , Ceylon 204
Rata-bakmi 185
Rata-bilincha (Hibiscus) - 167
Rata-del 139
Rata-goraka 166
Rata-kaju 228
Rata-karapincha 156
Rata-kekuna (Canarium) - 146
Rata-lawulu 150
Rata-mi
Rata-nelli 183
Rata-tora, Cajanus iuiliitis
Rata-uguressa - 1 63
Rat-snakes 606
Rats 601
Ratu-\va, Cassia niarginatn
Ravenala 312, 327, 328
Ravenia
Reana 588
Recipes - 644—647
Red-sanders, Pterocarpus santalintis
Red-wood, Indian 564
References, useful 647
Reinwardtia 323, 404, 441
Rcnanthera 372
Reseda
Resins, gums, etc. 555
Respiration 19
XXV111
Resthouse gardens - 455 — 463
— , selections for - 461 — 463
Rhamnus 537
Rhapis - 352, 360
Rhea, Boelnneria uivea
— , Wild, Debregcasia vclnthia
Rhipsalis 355
Rhizomes 63
Rhizophora 555
Rhodanthe 425
Rhodochiton 338
Rhododendron - 394, 397, 404
Rhodomyrtus 323
Rhodoleia 401
Rhoea 387
Rhopaloblaste 360
Rhubarb
Rhus glabra 575
— succedana - 559
Rhynchosperma - 408, 576
Ribbon borders 105
Ribes - 204
Rice - - 480—484
— , pests of 625
Rice-paper plant 552
Richardia 431
Ricinus 40, 537, 597
Rind - 17
Ring-barking, or ringing - 82
Rivea - 394, 599, 600
Road-making - 649
Roccella 522
Rondeletia 323
Root-crops, 47, 216—233, 234—255
Roots, aerial - 16, 63
— , functions of 16
Root-stock 64
Roscheria 360
Rose amaryllis, Zephyranthes
carinata
Rose-apple 161
Rosemary 287
Rosewood 564
— , Indian 564
Roses, cultivation of, 409-41 1-657-660
— in perfumery 571
•*-, pests of 627
— , selection of - - 412 — 413
— , varieties 401
Rotation of crops 46, 629
Roupellia 339
Rozelle 167, 600
Rubber, Castilloa or Panama 491
-, Ceara 489
— , coagulation of 486
— , Ecanda 493
— , Guayule 493
— , Jequie 490
PAUK
Rubber, Lagos - 493
— , Manicoba
— , miscellaneous sorts - 494—496
— , Para 487
— , Rambong or Assam 493
— , tapping of - - 484—487
Rubus 204, 408
Rudgea 328
Rue 288
Ruellia colorata 387
— formosa 345
— macrantha - 345
— ringens 593
— tuberosa 345
Rumex Acetosa 254
— hymenocephala 555
Riiscus 408
Russelia juncea 323
— sarmentosa - - 323
S
Sabal
Saccharum
Saccolabium guttatum
— ochraceum
— roseum
— Wightianum
Sacred Bamboo, see Nandina
— trees
Sack Tree, Antiaris innoxia
Safflower, CartJiamus tinctorius
Sage
Sagittaria
Sago, Ceylon
- palm 528, 529
Saintpaulia
Sal, Shorca robusta.
Salacia
Salads, fruit
Salpiglossus
Salsafy or salsify
Salt-bush, see Atriplcx.
Salt as a manure
Salvia coceinea -
— coelestina
— farinacea
• — , pest of
— splendens
— , "Scarlet Queen,"
Sami tree, Prosopis spicigera
Samphire
Sanchezia glaucophylla
— longiflora
— nobilis
Sandlevvood, Sautnlinn album
Sandbox Tree, see Hnra
Sand-binding plants
323
360
597
375
373
373
373
582
288
352
530
576
389
341
645
425
252
33
323
323
345
627
323
345
288
328
323
328
444
XXIX
Sandpaper \caf=Ficns asperrima &•
Strt'blns tispcra
Sandoricum 185,314
Sandy situations, plants suited for
440—445
Sansevieria cylindrica 387
— guineensis 387, 552
— Koxburghiana 552
— zeylanica 387, 394, 542
Santalum 541,564
Santol. see Sandoricnm
Santolina 120,407
Sapindus 541,576
Sapium 494, 496
— indicum 580
— sebiferum 556
Sapodilla plum - 133,558
Saponaria 425
Sapota or Sapote 168
Sappan-wood 523
Sapucaia nut 168
Saraca declinata 300
— indica 300
Sarcocephalus 185.575
Sarcochilus 373
Sarracenia 581
Sarsaparilla 536
— , Indian 536, 596
Satimvood 564
Sausage-tree, Kigclia pinnnta
Savory, summer 288
— , winter 288
Sayra (Lemon-grass), 286,511,572
Scabiosa 425
Scaevola 443, 444, 552
Scale -bug 625, 626, 627, 632
Scarlet-runner - 238
Scent plants, selection of - 574
Scheela 360
Schinus 401,453,454
Schismatoglottis 387
Schizanthus - - 416.425
Schizocasia - 352. 387
Schizolobium - 300,315
Schleichera 541,564,575
Schmidia 408
School gardens 455
— , selections for 461
Schubertia, see Aratija
Scindapsus 343
Scion - 64, 641
Scorpion-orchid, Arachiianthe spp _
Scorzonera 253
Screw-pine, Pandanus spp
Scutellaria 389
Sea-coast, plants specially suited for,
441
Sea-kale •-- -' 253
Sea-pink, Spinifex squarrosus
Sea-weed, edible 229
— — manure - 27
Seaforthia elegans 355
Sealing-wax palm, see CyrtiKtnclrys
Seasoning herbs - 282—289
Seasons 2, 656 — 662
Seats, garden - - 83
Sebestens, Cordia myxa
Sechium - - 242
Sedum - 347, 425
Seed, acclimatised 55
— boxes 87
— , foreign, when to import, 658, 659
— , germination of - 53
— , ornamental & curious 575
— , packing & transporting 639
— pans 87
— , physiology of 1 8
— , selection and saving of 51
— , sowing - - 657 — 660
— , storing of - 642
— , testing vitality of 54
Selaginella 376
Semaphore or Telegraph plant,
Dcsmodimn gyrans
Semecarpus 562
Semcle, see Rnscus
Sending specimens by post 642
Senecio elegans 425
— hederaefolia - 339
Senna 536
Sensitive plant, Mimosa pttdica
Sepalika, see Nyctantlies
Sepals 17
Serenoa 360
Sericulture 567
Sesamum - 538. 597
Sesbania aculeata 552
— aegyptiaca 328
— grandiflora - -321,600
Seyra, see Lemon grass
Shade trees 446
— for field crops - 449, 451
- — low-country 450
— parks, etc., 451
— — semi-dry region 452
— medium elevations 453
— — up-country 454
Shading plant-sheds, etc., 121, 123
— plants 75, 76
Shaddock 154
Shallots 253
Shasta-daisy 433
Shea-butter - 539
She- oak, Cayitirina spp
Sheds, plant 70, 121
Shelters for visitors 85
xxx
s
Shoe-flower, see Hibiscus
Shola pith, Aeschynomene aspera
Shorea 564
Shows, Agri-horticultural 465
— , judging at 467
Shrubs, flowering, for low eleva-
tions 317
— , foliage — do 324
— , flowering for Up-country 401
— , foliage, — do. — 405
Sicania 215
Sida - 551,611
Side-saddle flower, Sarraceuia
Silene - 425, 432
Silk-cotton Tree 518
Silky-oak, Grwillea robnsta
Silver-leaf, Lencadendron argcntinin
— fern, Gymnogramme
— wattle, Acacia dealbata
Sinningia - 347, 350
Sinuk, Euphorbia tortilis.
Siphocamphylus 347, 389
Sisal hemp 547
. Siyambala 185
Skeleton leaves, preparation of 650
Slime-fungus 632
Smilax argyraea 341, 391, 408
— officinalis 536
— ornata 408
Snake's head, see Martyuia.
Snake-gourd 216,217
Snakes, rat 606
Snake-weed, Polygonum pitiictatttin.
— wood, Ophioxylon serpentinum.
Soap-Jaark 541
— berry 541, 576
— suds as a manure 35
— wort, Saponaria.
Soils, analysis of 15
— , capillary action of 12
— , Ceylon 15
— , classification of 8
— , constituents of 6
— , effects on climate 4
— , examination of 10
— , exhaustion of 14
— fertility of 13
— for pot plants 124
— , sterilisation of 13
— , toxic effects of plants on 14
Soil operations - 43
Solandra 408
Solanum commersoni - 253
— indicum 597, 599, 610
— jasminoides - 408
— macranthum 301
— Melongena 231
— nigrum 599
S
PAGE
Solanum tuberosum 250
— verbacifolium 580
- Wendlandii - 337, 339
— xanthocarpum 597, 599
Soldier's butter.
Sonchus 610
Soola, or sulla, see Hedvsanim.
Soot 36
Sooty-mould 632
Sophora tomentosa 328, 394, 443
- violacea 323, 394
Sorakai, Lagenaria.
Sorghum, Sugar 531
— saccharatum 531
— halapense 611
- vulgare 232, 542, 590
Sorindeia 185
Sorrel, English - 254
— , Jamaica 167
Souari-nut 149, 150
Sour-grass, Paniciiin coiijitgiitnin.
Soursop 137
Sowing seeds, directions for
51—56, 657—660
Sow-thistle, Sonchns spp.
Soya-bean 208, 591
Soymida 564
Spanish-bayonet, Yucca.
— broom, Spartinin,
— , lime 172
— nectarine 150
— needle, Bidens pilosa.
Sparaxis 431
Sparrows 604,651
Spartium 425
Spathiphyllum - • 389,390
Spathodea 301,442
Spear-grass, Andropogon coiitortns.
Specimens, how to send - 642
Sphagnum 369. 641
Sphenogyne 425
Spices - 257-289
Spider flower, see Gyiiandropsis.
Spider orchid, Arachnanthe.
Spilanthes 597
Spinach, Ceylon 228
— , English 254
— , New Zealand 254
Spinifex 444
Spiraea japoncia 434, 439
— media 405
— peruviana 1 19, 405
Spironema 390
Spondias 185
Sporangium 55
Spores, fern 55
Spraying 636
Sprayers - 635, 636
XXXI
Sprekclia 350,431
Squash 214
Squirrels 601
Stacks, weight and measurement 649
Stachys 235
Stachytarpheta - 394
Stag's horn moss, Lycopodinm spp.
Stamens - 18
Standard products of Ceylon 469
Stangeria "- 387
Stanhopea - 372
Stapelia - 120,355
Star-anise - 278
-apple 150
— gooseberry 1 83
Statice 427
Station gardens - - 455 — 463
Stemmadenia - 324, 574
Stems, different kinds of - 16
Stenandrium 388
Stenocarpus 301, 397, 398
Stenoloma 378
Stephanotis 339. 391 , 574
Stercuiia acerifolia 398
— Balanghas - 552, 578
— colorata 301,583
Stereospermum - 301,583
Steudnera - 388
Stevensonia 360
Stevia 405
Sticolobium - 210,591
Stifftia 324
Stigmaphyllon - - 317,339
Stocks - 427,659
Stomata 1 7
Stonecrop, see Sctliiw
Strawberry 197,657,660
— , disease of - 634
Streblus 580
Strelit/ia 390
Streptocarpus 405,439
Streptosolen 405
Strobilanthes coloratus - 324, 388
--gossypinus 405,406,407
— helicoides - - 394
- Hookerii 394
— pulcherrimus 394
Stromanthe - 324
Strophanthus 324
Strychnos Xux-vomica 521. 580, 597
— potatorum 598
Stump extractor- 91 . 95
Style 18
Succulent plants 325
Sudu duru (Cuminum) 284
Sugar-cane • 523, 597
— palm of India 531
— — of Java - 53 1
Sugar sorghum - 531
Sulphate of ammonia 30
— potash 32
Sundew. Droscra spp. 581
Sunflower 427, 539
Sun-hemp, Crotalaria juncca
Suriya. TJiespesui popnlnca
Susum 352
Swampy land, plants suited for 652
Sweet-cup 199
— flag. Acorns Calamus
- peas 426, 427, 658
- -potato 222
— , recipes for 647
— sop 138
— sultan, see Ccntanrca
— william 418, 419, 427
Swietenia macrophylla • 315, 453
— Mahogani 315. 564
Sword-bean 207
Syncarpia 401
Synecanthus 360
Synedrella 610
Syngonium 388
Sj-ringing 127
Syzygium, see Eugenia.
Tabebuia 301
Tabernaemontana coronaria, 324. 574
— Crassa 496
— dichotoma 574, 578
Tacca 226, 350, 390
Tacsonia 409
Tagasaste, Cytisns proli ferns
Tastes 611
Tahiti Chestnut 167
Tainia 373
Takkali 254
Tala-tel 538
Talauma 574
Talipot-palm 362, 552, 558, 576
Tallow Tree 556
Tamarind 185, 441, 564, 598
— velvet 157
Tamarindus, 39, 40, 185, 441. 453,
564
Tanga-poo, Bignoiiia vennsta
Tannias 226
Tannin plants 553
Tapioca 222
Taroes 226
Tarragon 288
Tea 496—500, 528
— , Arabian 526
— , Ayapana - 526. 527
— boxes, woods for 649'
XXX11
Tea, brick 499
— , Ceylon, Eloeodendrou glancum
— , diseases of 636
— , green 499
— , Leppet 500
— , Matara, Cassia anrictilata
— , Paraguay - 526, 528
— -,-pests of 625
— , soluble 500
— tree, see Melalcuca
— , wild, Eurya acnminata
Teak, Tectona grandis
— , African, see Oldfieldia
— , pest of 625
Tecoma capensis 119,405
— jasminoides - 409
— Smithiana 405
— Stans - 324, 405
— velutina 324
Tectona 564
Tee-ambara 213
Teff or jtheff 588
Telegraph plant, Desmodium gy raits
Telfairea 186
Tembusu or Tembusi, Fagrtea
fragrans
Temperature, averages in Ceylon, 5
Temple Tree, Plumeria
Teosinte, see Enchlaena
Tephrosia Candida 39
— grandiflora - 324
Tephrosia maxima 394
— purpurea • 445, 598
Terminalia belerica 315, 451, 598
— Catappa - 186, 315
— Chebula - 555, 598
Termites - 619—621
Terra japonica - 553
Teysmannia 360
Thalassia 41
Thampala 228
Theine, active principle of tea
Theobroma Cacao 469
— angustifolia - 476
— pentagona - 476
Theobromine, active principle
of cacao
Thespesia Lampas 394
- populnea, 41 , 441, 442, 453, 564
— tomentosa 324
Thevetia - 324, 576
Thieves 604
Thistle, Canadian, Cardum.
— , Sow, Sonchns spp.
Thorn apple, Datura Stramonium.
Threshing rice - 482
Thrinax 360
Thunbergia affinis 324
Thunbergia bicolor 408
— erecta 324, 441
— fragrans 409
— grandiflora - 338, 339, 441
— — alba - 339
— Kirkii 328
— laurifolia=T. grandiflora
— , pest of 627
Thyme 288
Thymol 536
Thyrsacanthus - 324
Thyrsanolaena - 367
Tibbatu, Sola mini indicum.
Tiger's claw, Martvnia diandra.
Tiger-lily, Tigridia.
— nuts 220
Tillage 43—45
Tillandsia, 388, 390
Timber trees 452
Timbers, selected - 563 — 564
Timbiri, Diospyros Embryopteris.
Tinospora 598
Tithonia 324
Tobacco - 500—502, 655, 656
— , diseases of 636
— juice 618
— , pest of 625
— smoke 618
— , wild, Lobelia nicotianaefolia.
Tococa 328
Toddy palm, Caryota urens.
Tolol 315
Tomato 254
— , diseases of - 636
— , pest of 626
— , Tree- 194
Tonga creeper - 343
Tonka-bean 573
Tonkin-rubber tree 495
Tools and implements 91 — 96
Toon, Cedrela Toon a.
Toothache Plant, Spilautltes
A cm ell a.
Toothbrush Tree, Streblus aspera.
Topee-tamboo 216
Toquilla palm 545
Torch-lily, see Kniphofia.
Torenia asiatica 394
- Bailloni 347, 427
— Fournieri 347, 427
Totilla, Oroxylon indicum.
Tous-les-mois - 218
Trachelium - 427
Trachycarpus 360, 552
Trachymene 427
Tradescantia 388
Transpiration 19
Transplanting 75
xxxiii
Transport of plants, seeds, etc., 637,
643
Trapa 186
Traveller's Tree 312,327
Tree calabash 577
Tree-daisy 321,322
— guards & supports 76
-melon 146
- Mignonette - 393, 560
of Heaven 302
— tomato 194
Trees, flowering, for low elevations,
290
— , up-country 395
— , street-planting, 290
Trevesia 3 1 5
Trichadenia 315,598
Tricholaena 364, 590
Trichosanthes 216, 598
Tridex 610
Tri folium 39.592
Trincomalie-wt od, Bcrrya
Ainnioiiilla
Triphasia 187
Triplaris 582
Tristania 401
Tristillateia 339, 444
Tritoma, see Kuiphofia
Tritonia 431
Triumfetta 552
Tropaeolum, 347, 409, 427, 575
Trumpet-flower, Datura
suaveoletis
— , Nepaul, Beattnwtitia
— tree, Cccropia peltata
Tuberose • 350, 573
Tuberous plants for low elevations
348
— , for Up-country - 427
Tubers 62, 641
Tubs for plants 86
Tulbaghia 350
Tulip-tree, Thcspesia popnlnea
— of Queensland, Stenocarpus
— — , Australian, Harpnllia
Tumba-karawila 215
Turfing 108
Turf-grafting 109
Turmeric 278
Turnera elegans 346, 347, 575
— ulmifolia 441
Turnip 255
Turpentine Tree 401,559
Tutteri, Chrysopogon aciculatns
Tydaea 349
Typha 352
Typhonium 599
Udo or Oudo 255
Ugures-a, Kata, - 163
Ullucus 248
Ulex 119
Umbrella-grass - 351
— -tree, Acacia planifrous
Uncaria 553
Unisexual 18
Upas tree, Antiaris toxicana
Urceola 496
Urena 552
Uroskinnera - 324, 347
Useful references - 647—653
Utricularia 582
Vaccinium
Vallota
Vanda coerulea -
— Hookeriana -
— Roxburghii -
— spathulata
— teres
— tricolor
Vandzon
Vangueria
Vanilla
Vanillon
- 205, 394
431
372
372
372,375
372.375
372
372
232
187
257, 279, 282
282
Vani, Caesalpinia coriaria
Vaporite 115,619
Vascular-bundles 17
Vases 85
Vateria 315, 560
Vatica 560
Vegetable-ivory - 557, 558
— marrow 256
— mercury, Cyphoniandra betacca
— tallow, Sapiiun scbifernin
— waxes 555
Vegetables, tropical 206
— , sub-tropical or temperate 234
— , pests of 626
— , seasons of - 656,657
— , when to sow - 657 — 660
Veitchia 360
Vel-ala 220
Velvet-apple 157
— bean 591
— tamarind 157
Veralu 160
Verandah gardening 125, 126
Verbena 347, 427, 659
— oil, Cynibopogon citratns
— , sweet-scented, Lippia citriodora
Vernonia - 328, 598
Verschaffeltia 360
Veta-kolu - - 215
XXXI V
Viburnum 405
Victoria 55, 352
— , seeds of 640
Vigna 212
Vila or villati - 162
Villebrunea 552
Vine, grape, Vitis via if era 188
Viola 427
Violets 439
Vinca 347, 407, 409, 443
Virginian creeper 407
Vitex 441,564
— Negundo 598
Vitis incisa 341
— quadrangularia 355
— vinifera 188
— , disease of 634
— voinerriana - 341
Vittadenia 405,611
Voa-vanga 187
Voandzeia 232
Vriesia (Tillandsia rccnrvifolia), 563
W
Wa, Cassia siamca 452, 564
Wagatea 339
Wal-kekuna 309
Wal-lunu, Pancratium zcvlaniciini
Walks and paths 101
Wallichia 360
Walnut 198
Wal-sapu, Michdia nilagirica
Wambotu 231
Warn pee 156
WaJia-sapu Cananga odorata
Wanduru-me 210
Wara, Calotropis gigantea
Wardian cases - - 637, 639
Water in relation to plant food 21
— chestnut 186
— cress - 243, 610
— fern, Ccratopteris
— grass, Panicnm mnticnm
— hyacinth - 351, 610
— lemon 178
— lettuce, Pistia Stratiotes
— lily, Nymphcea
— , giant, Victoria regia
— melon (Citrnlliis vulgaris 151
— . ornamental - 107
— palm 352
— pink, Spinifex squarrosns
- plants 351
— Poppy, Limnocharis Humboldtii
— snow-flake 351
— supply 99
Watering 76
W
Watering pot-plants 126
Watsonia 431
\Vattabanga-kola 312
Wattakka 213
— , polong 214
Wattle-bark - 553
Wattles (Acacia) 553
Wax-flower, Hoya
Wax, Japan, Rhns succedana
— palms - 355, 356
— , vegetable 555
Weeding 606
Weed-killers 608
Weeds 606
— of Ceylon 609
— , water- 609
Weights and measures 653
Wela, see Gynandropsis
Wesak-mal, Deiidrobinm Macarthiac
We-warani - 441, 564
White-ants - 619—621
White-weed, Ageratiun conyzoidcs
Whitlavia 427
Wigandia 405
Willughbcia 494, 496, 563
Wind-breaks 4
— , selection for - 453 — 454
Winter's Bark - 282
— grass 51 1
Winter-cherry, Physalis Alkckcugi
Wire worms 615
Wistaria 409
Withania 598
Wood-apple 162
Woodfordia - 324, 394
Woods for tea-chests 649
Woolly-pyrol, Phaseohis Mm/go
Work, day's, per cooly 649
Wormia 324
Worms 125
Worm-casts - 115
Wrightia 324, 394, 443, 574
Xanthium
Xanthosoma
Xanthoxylon
Xeranthemum -
Xerophytic plants
Xylopia
611
226
278
427
T
278
Yams (Dioscorea), 16,220,655,
656, 662
Yautias 226
Yerba-de-Mate - 526, 528
XXXV
Ylang-ylang
Yucca
Zalacca
Zamioculcas
Zapote
Zea
Zebra-plant, Cnlatlica zcbritin.
PAGE
Z
PACK
573
Zebrina
388
443 580
Zephyranthes aurea
350
— Candida
431
— carinata
120, 350,431
— tubispatha
120, 350,431
Zeuxine
- 375, 388
360
Zingiber D'arceyi
388
388
— officinale
- 271,598
133,558
Zinnia
- 347,427
233, 590
Zizyphus jujuba
189
riiiti.
— vulgaris
189
Station, Post and Telegraph :
Kalutara South, .} mile.
Telegraphic Address :
Constantine, Kalutara, Ceylon.
Code used, A.B C. 5th Edition.
H. D. Constantine & Sons
Export Merchants
and
Dealers in Tropical Seeds and Plants.
Tea
Rubber
Coconut
Coconut Oil
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Cocoa
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Tobacco
and all Commercial Products
Different Varieties of
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Seed Paddy
Seed Coconuts
Cocoa Seeds
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By reason of our increasing business we can afford to
offer our Services to stand equal to any House for
Economy, Quality, and Honest Value.
Specially Packed to any
parts of the World.
William & Richard
Florists, Seedsmen, and Plant Merchants
"Alexandra Gardens/' Horton Place, Colombo,
Ceylon.
Tropical Seeds and Plants of all
kinds Supplied at short notice
Hevea Stumps shipped at short notice to all
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— and Descriptive Catalogue. -
Telegraphic Address : —
"BOUQUET, Colombo."
Code Used, A.B.C. 4th &- 5th Editions.
I
F. H. SEARL
R. F. SEARL
W. D. SEARL
F. H. SEARL, Jr.
Cable A d dress
"MYOSOTIS"
A.B.C. Code 5th Edn.
Established 1868
General Manager
F. W. ROSS.
Searl &- Sons
Nurserymen, Seedsmen,
Florists & Bulb Growers,
NURSERIES
BOTANY-ASHFIELD
CROYDON-EXETER
N.S.W.
86 King Street,
Sydney, N.S.W.,
Australia.
Thos, Cook & Son,
Managers of Tours and Excursions.
Forwarding Agents, Bankers, etc.
Victoria Arcade,
COLOMBO.
Thos. Cook & Son have at all their offices a trained and competent staff,
conversant through the experience of years, with all the details of
Travel through India, Burma, and Ceylon, and they respectfully
invite all visitors to Ceylon to call at their offices and make
arrangements for their Indian Tours.
Railway Tickets issued over all Railways of India, Burma, and
Ceylon and throughout the World.
Steamship Tickets issued on all Lines around India and throughout
the world.
Packages of every description slored and shipped as Cargo to all parts
of the world, at lowest rates.
Passengers' Baggage shipped on steamers at lowest rates.
Letters of Credit and Circular Notes issued and cashed.
SEED PLANTS
FORWARDED TO
ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD.
. . j4LL KINDS OF . .
COFFEE.
VIGNA.
LITCHl,
PALMS,
TEA.
GROUND NUTS.
RAMOOTANS.
FERNS.
COCOA.
RUBBER.
CINNAMON,
GREVILLEA.
ALBIZZIA.
LOQUAT,
ORANGE.
CYC ADS.
ORCHIDS.
CARDAMOM.
&c.. &c..
LIME.
LILLIES
PEPPER.
CINCHONA.
COCA.
COLA.
CLOVE.
NUTMEG.
COTTON
of Fruit Tree*
MANGO.
DURIAN,
MANGOSTEEN.
SAPODILLA.
LEMON.
Custard Apple.
ALMOND.
JAMBOS.
PAPAYA.
GRAN ADI LLA.
CROTONS.
HIBISCUS.
ANTHURIUMS.
MARANTAS,
&c.. &c.
CROTOLARIA.
Avocado Pear.
&c , &c..
'PRfCF LIST ON /JPPflCATinN
J. P. 1
1 ~R~P A TT A "M" Nurseryman and
i±3±l A±l A1V1, Seed Merchant,
MUTWAL, COLOMBO, CEYLON.
SOLE AGENTS FOR
Marshall Sons & Co., Ltd., & Francis Shaw & Go.
The Largest
Makers of
Tea and Rubber
Machinery in the
World
Tea and Rubber
Factories Built
and Completely
Equipped . wit h
. . Modern . .
Machinery
WRITE FOR FULL CATALOGUE
COLOMBO: Walker Sons & Co., Ltd.: KANDY.
From
E.S.Townsend,Esq.,B.A.
Personal Assistant to the
Raja of Kalakankar, Kal-
akankar, U.P.
" I have used seeds from
all parts of the world, and
unhesitatingly declare
that I have found Messrs.
Sutton & Sons' seeds the
best. I have never known
them fail to germinate.
The Raja's garden at Kal-
akankar is now in first-
class condition, better
than it has ever been du-
ring the last 50 years, and
Sutton's seeds are now
almost exclusively used."
SUTTON'S SEEDS
IN USE THROUGHOUT THE WORLD.
412 GOLD, SILVER & other MEDALS, etc.,
have been awarded to Suiton's Seeds.
SUTTON'S VE6ETABLE SEEDS,
SUTTON'S FLOWER SEEDS,
specially packed for the Tropics by a
process which insures their being in good
condition when required for use.
Sutton & Sons, ™™NS
READING, ENGLAND.
SEEDS and > -
- * PLANTS.
Hevea Brasiliensi».
CULLODEN ESTATE,
Kalutara District,
CEYLON.
Seed carefully selected and specially packed for export.
For quotations,
Apply Manager, Culloden Estate> Neboda, Ceylon.
^\\i;iraiiiuiiii:iiiiiii»iiiiiiiiiiiraiiiij'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii.iiiiiii!iiiiii»
The
London & Colombo
Forwarding Agency
The Foreign Parcels Express.
Goods, Packages, and
Luggage received from
abroad or rail, cleared from
Customs, and delivered in
Ceylon or shipped to any
part of the World.
Agencies and Correspondents in
almost every important Port.
E, B, Creasy & Co.,
12, Bail lie Street, Colombo.
Estate Requisites of
every Description.
Japan Momi Tea
Chests
Tea Lead
Hoop Iron
Nails
Solder
Hessians
Tools
Cement
Water Tubes
Fuel Tanks
Olsina Water Paint
Jeyes1 Disinfectants.
Correspondence on
every subject invited.
%niiiiiiiiiiiiiii«iwiWHfl:niiiiii^
To Rubber Planters
The India Rubber Journal.
Edited by HERBERT WRIGHT,
Assoc. R.G.S., F.L.S.
Published Weekly.
Subscription for the Colonies: 16s per annum
post free and prepaid.
"The India Rubber Journal" is the only
technical organ of the rubber industry pub-
lished in Great Britain. It numbers amongst
its contributors the leading experts in all
branches of the rubber industry.
Planters who desire to keep themselves posted
on the Rubber industry at home should
subscribe to the journal.
Specimen copy will be
sent on application
PUBLISHERS :
MAGLAREN & SONS, LTD.,
i 37 & 38, Shoe Lane, London, E.G.
Large dark leaf Manipuri Jat from
cultivated seed oearers over
twenty years old. Care-
fully packed in lead-
lined cases .with
charcoal for
export.
Price on . .
application to
The Manager,
Kanapediwattie,
Ulapane, Ceylon.
PLATE, LTD.,
THE LEADING FIRM IN CEYLON FOR
Studio Portraiture, Out-door
Photography, Enlargements.
Views of Ceylon and India
Developing and Printing for Amateurs.
Kodaks and all Kodak Goods,
Picture Frames, Albums, Illustrated Post Cards,
Souvenir Books, and All Photographic Materials
PLATE, Ltd.,
COLOM BO ( Colpetty I and
NUWARA ELIYA.
CANT'S
World=renowned
C HAM P ION
ROSES
Direct from the Original Firm.
Established 1765.
THE FINEST STOCK OF ROSES
IN THE KINGDOM
Exported to all parts
Full Descriptive Catalogue free on Application
Benjamin R. Cant & Sons,
THE OLD ROSE GARDENS,
Colchester, ENGLAND.
Attention is Directed
TO THE SUPERIOR QUALITY OF OUR
Agricultural Tools and Implements,
Cultivators,
Specially Designed to
Suit Local Requirements
Only the best and most Reliable Stocked.
Satisfaction in every Detail
— fully Guaranteed
New Illustrated Catalogue
With Prices and full Particulars
sent Post free on Application to
BROWN & Co., limited,
General Merchants, Engineers
— and Ironmongers. —
Office &• Showrooms:
CHATHAM St.,
FORT, COLOMBO.
Branches:
HATTON and
NAWALAPIT1YA.
Freudenbergs'
Manures
Agents :
Potash Syndicate
MILLERS, KANDY,
. . IS . .
THE MOST CONVENIENT CENTRE
FOR
Up-country Planters' supplies of Bush's
— Latex-coagulating powder—
Acetic Acid
Formaline
Muslin (for straining latex.)
You get the special advantage of Whole-
sale Rates for these lines. Our prompt
handling of Estate Orders, has won
— for us an enviable reputation.
MILLERS, KANDY.
Tested West Australian Vege-
table and Flower Seeds.
From MESSRS. DAWSOX & HARRISON, PERTH.
These Seeds, grown in the semi-tropical climate of
Western Australia, are most suitable for
cultivation in Ceylon.
Used in the Royal Botanical Gardens, Pera-
deniya, where the seeds gave satisfaction.
Price list POST FREE on application.
Aid to successful cultivation, Canary Guano.
Price. -/66 cents and Rs. 1/11 per tin.
Gardo a non-poisonous insecticide. Price per
1 gallon drum, Rs. 10/- Full directions with
each preparation.
Tropical Seeds & Plants
Economical and Industrial Seeds, Rubber Seeds and Stumps,
Tea, Coffee, Indigo, Cotton and Jute Seeds ;
Medicinal Plants and Seeds ;
Fruit Trees and Grafts from Choicest Stocks ;
Ornamental and Flowering Shrubs, Palms, Ferns and
ORCHIDS; Flower and Vegetable Seeds.
Catalogues Free on Application.
Robert Seth & Co.,
Feronia Nursery, 62-5, Beadon St., CALCUTTA (India).
Telegraphic Address:—" Flora, Calcutta."
Barnard & Co.,
Hindustan Nursery, CALCUTTA, INDIA.
Cable Address :— "BARNARDCO," Calcutta.
Largest Exporters of Tropical Seeds and Plants in the East.
PLANTS and Seeds grown and nursed exclusively for shipping
to ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD.— Large scientific and
Up-to-date Packing Establishments for the Exportation of
Tropical Plants and Seeds.
TROPICAL FRUIT TREES : Very large and healthy stock
of Grafted Mango and Lichee Trees, Limes, Lemons, Guavas,
Sapotas, Mangosteens, Pumeloes, Durian, Bananas, Betel
Nuts, Coconuts. &c.
ORCHIDS : The finest, largest and up-to-date complete collection
of Tropical Species in the World.
UNRIVALLED COLLECTION of Crotons. Dracaenas, Hib-
iscus, Palms. Ferns, Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, Water Lilies,
&c.
SEEDS of Every Description for Culture in the Tropics.
Largest Catalogue of Tropical Seeds and Plants for Export Free!
The Tropical Agriculturist
[ Journal of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. 1
PUBLISHED MONTHLY.
Subscription, Ceylon : Rs. 10 per annum
Subscription Foreign :
£ti, Rs. 15, or 85 per annum post free.
Obtainable from The Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society,
Peradeniya; the Publishers Messrs. H. W. CAVE & Co.,
Chatham Street, Colombo, or Messrs. Maclaren & Sons, Ltd.,
( Ceylon Department ) 37 & 38, Shoe Lane, LONDON, E.G.,
ALSO FROM
BATAVIA G. KOLFF & Co., MADRAS HIGOINBOTHAMS, LTD.
CALCUTTA THACKEU SPINK&CO.. PAPUA \V KITTEN BROS, LTD.,
JAPAN MARUZEN-KAHUSHIKI POKT MORESBY.
KAISHA, 11-16 NIHON- PKNANG PKITCHARD & Co.,
H ASH i, TOKT.TAM- SAMARANG G.C.T. YANDOHP&CO.,
CHOME, JAPAN. SINGAPORE KELLY &WALSH, LTD.,
KUALA LAM PUH CHAS. GREMKU & j SURABAYA G.C.T. VAV DORP & Co.,
SON. I SYDNEY GORDON & GOTCH.
ADVERTISEMENTS IN THE "T. A."
Per Line Is. or 75 Cents.
SINGLE INSERTIONS.
£ s. d.
ONE PAGE Rs. 30*00 200
HALF „ „ 17*00 I 2 6
Q'RT. „ „ 8*50 0 12 6
TWELVE INSERTIONS.
£ s. d. Net per insertion.
ONE PAGE Rs. 22*50 I 10 o
HALF „ „ 13*50 o 17 6
Q'RT. „ „ 8*00 o 10 6 „ „
£ PAGE „ 5*00 066 „
Special Positions are Charged from 25% to 75 # Extra.
INSERTION OR CIRCULATION OF LEAFLETS, &c.
LEAVES of coloured paper are inserted, if supplied, for £2 per
leaf per month or £18 per year, per page, 2 leaves for £2 I OS. per
month or £24 per year.
Full particulars re Advertisements on application to
Messrs. Maclaren & Sons, Ltd., 37 & 38, Shoe Lane,
London, E.G. or to the
'•SECRETARY, C. A. S., " PERADENIYA.
Aerial Ropeway.
Top Terminal.
By
Eastern
Produce
and
Estates
Company,
Limited,
Colombo.
Completed
Since
1909.
Marrattenne
Hopewell
Hapugastenne
Halgolla
Catteratenne
Pambagama
Lunugalla
Hemingford
Moneragalla
Harmony
Cannavarella
Mariesland
Poonagalla
Ingoya
Bottom Terminal.
Rough Estimates Free.
Do You Know?
What plays the
most important
part in the
making of a
beautiful garden
which is joy and
a pleasure to'
you and your family? It is the
QUALITY of the seeds you sow.
No matter how good your soil,
how clever your malee, if you use
cheap, inferior seeds, you are bound
to be disappointed with the results.
Why not try our " QUALIYU " seeds
the next time you are buying your seeds.
Our thirty years' experience and organisa-
tion is at your service.
Our large illustrated
catalogue is yours for the
asking. It is sent post free
to any one —any where.
Write for it NOW before
you forget it.
PESTONJEE P. POCHA A SONS,
Seed and Bulb Merchants,
POONA. Bombay Press, India.
The Colombo
Apothecaries •»
Company, Limited.
Suppliers of
Estate and Dispensary
Drugs, and Medical
Equipment.
1 1 • Quotation and Price List on Application. • |
The Colombo
Apothecaries
Company, Limited.
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LIPTON LTD.,
= COLOMBO. =
Tea, Rubber, and
Coffee Planters.
Importers of the following Estate requisites
which are supplied to Estates at lowest
market rates : —
Momi Packages, Venalders, (patent packages),
sizes 24 x 22 x 22 and 24 x 20 x 20, Quirk
Barton's best English Tea Lead, Nails,
Hoop Iron, Solder, Block Tin, etc., etc.
Sole Agents for Dahootea Tea Seed, the
most popular Assam Seed imported — over
1 ,000 maunds sold last year — 70% guaranteed
sound on arrival in Colombo, which is always
considerably exceeded.
For Quotations apply to: —
LIPTON LTD.,
= COLOMBO. -
P. 0. Box, 86.
Telephone No. 328.
Telegraphic Address,
UPTONS, Colombo.
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GARDEN REQUISITES
SHANKS
"BRITISHER"
LAWN MOWER
SEND FOR OUR PRICE
LIST OF LAWN MOWERS
ALL OUR GOODS ARE
TESTED BEFORE SENDING
THEM TO CUSTOMERS
WALKER & GREIG, Ltd.,
LINDULA, DIGKOYA, HAPUTALE, BADULJ.A
Colombo Commercial Co.,
LIMITED.
FERTILISERS
r . . FOR . . .
ALL CROPS
WORKS
. AT .
Hunupitiya Station
Special Notice to the
Rubber Planting World
Para, Castilloa, Ceara, Funtumia (True), Manihot Dichotoma,
Piauhyensis, Heptaphylla (New Varieties of Manicoba),
Mimusops globosa (Balata), Landolphia Kirki. &c. -
Seeds, Plants and Stumps forwarded to all parts of the World.
Tea. Manipuri Indigenous Dark Leaf approved Jats. 1913
crop sold to Mexico. South India. Java. &c. Orders being booked
for 1914 crop and onwards.
Tea Seeds for Mexico.— London, 2nd September, 1910: — " On
receipt of this letter please carefully prepare 10 ruaunds picked
seed Thea Viridis at £ per maund, 10 maunds Thea Assamica at
£ -per maund."
Para Seeds and Stumps.— Orders being booked for 1914
session and onwards ; stumps ready for shipment in closed cases
and in Wardian cases.
Wardian Cases of Para Stumps. — On shipping 75,000 recently
the following wire order has been received : — •' Duplicate last order
Wardian Stumps": also 25.000 Para seed by Parcel Post and
225,000 by freight have been forwarded to the same address.
For Dutch Guiana. — The Director of an Agricultural Depart-
ment writes: — ''The Agricultural Department has ordered in all
560,000 Para seeds."
Thf India Rubber Journal quotes from the •' Tropenpflanzer,"
touching one of our Para stump shipments: — "The writer saw
100,000 of these stumps which had just been planted out, none were
dead, and many were putting out new roots. The Ceylon consignors.
J. P. William & Bros., Henaratgoda. guarantee a mortality not
exceeding 25 per cent., and the Manager of the Upola Company
estimated the loss on this batch at 2 per cent only. This is decided-
ly the best method of transporting Heveas."
Sample Para Stumps, forwarded by sample pest to intending
purchasers in all countries. Post free.
PARA STUMPS IN CLOSED CASES.
Demerara. — Secretary of Agricultural Estates Ltd., of British
Guiana, writes: — ''The enclosed copy of our letter of even date to
your London Agents will show you that they have advised us by
telegraph of the shipping arrangements in regard to the order for
seventy thousand (70,000) stumps placed with you through our
London representatives. We shall most likely require something
like 20,000 seeds." The cost of Para stumps in closed cases is
about half when compared with Wardian cases.
Philippine Islands. — Manager of an extension Rubber Planta-
tion in ordering 75,000 Para stumps' writes : " Your first consign-
ment of Para seed were a great success."
Glasgow. — Secretaries of a Rubber Estates Co., Ltd.. of Mexico,
writes: — We have pleasure in informing you that our Directors are
satisfied with the result obtained from the ten thousand Hevea seeds
got from you last year, and they desire this year to plant another
thirty-thousand seeds."
Trinidad. — A Planter writes : — "I duly received the 50,000
Hevea seeds. I am about forming a syndicate of the planters to
order 250,000 Hevea seeds.11
Mango Grafts. — Over 75 varieties, including twice-bearing
and all the year round bearing. Litchi Grafts. — 12 varieties,
including seedless. Sapodilla Grafts all the year round.
Seeds and Plants of numerous Commercial Products, sup-
plied, including Tea, Celebrated Caravonica, Mamara, Baing and
S pence Cotton, Arabian Liberian Hybrid Coffee, Coffee Robusta,
Coffee Congensis var Chaloti, proved to be absolutely resisting
Hemileia Vestatrix, Soya Bean, Green Samarow extremely
early and prolific, Giant Yellow Santa Margarita of enormous
growth, beans very large extremely prolific, Cocoa, Kola, Sisal,
and other Fibres, &c.
For Green Manuring— Crotolaria Striata, Vigna, Albizzia
Moluccana, Passiflora Foetida, Cassia Mimosoides, Tephrosia
Candida, Tephrosia Purpurea Seeds.
Six Descriptive Catalogues with Circulars and Special Offers
post free to Foreign Countries.
Separate Price List for Ceylon.
"SOUTH AFRICA," the great authority on South African affairs,
says: — uAn interesting Catalogue reaches us from the East. It is
issued by WILLIAM BROTHERS, Tropical Seed Merchants of Hena-
ratgoda, Ceylon, and schedules all the useful and beautiful plants
which will thrive in tropical and semi-tropical regions. We recom-
mend the great Powers and Concessionaries under them to go to
William Bros.
Awarded Gold, Silver, Commemorative, and other Medals,
Diplomas, Merits, and Certificates at various International
Exhibitions, including St. Louis, 1904.
Awarded Bronze Medal with Diploma for Para and
Castilloa Rubbers at St. Louis Exhibition, 1904.
Agents in London:— MESSRS. P. W. WOOLEY & Co., 90, Lower
Thames Street.
Agents in Colombo, Ceylon :— Messrs. E. B. CREASY & Co.
No Sole Agents Anywhere.
J. P. WILLIAM <& BROTHERS,
Tropical Seeds and Plants Merchant*.
HENARATGODA, CEYLON.
Telegraphic Address:
WILLIAM, HENARATGODA, CEYLON.
.Lieber's, A. I, and A. B. C. Codes (4th and 5th Editions) used.
Also Private Codes.
The First Newspaper independent of Government, ever pub-
lished in Ceylon, having been commenced in February, 1834.
The " Ceylon Observer."
COMMERCIAL ADVERTISER
and AGRICULTURAL RECORD.
The Oldest and Largest Paper in the Colony.
THE CEYLON OBSERVER is the only Ceylon paper which has
continuously supplied its readers with European news by Telegraph since the Indian
Cable was first laid.
Devotes special attention to Political and Planting matters, while giving all the
Local and General news of the day. Specially written articles on interesting topics are
supplied by correspondents in different parts of the world, in addition to the London.
Political. Ladies Social. Commercial, and General News Letters. Supplements with
summary for home. Report of Commercial. Produce Market. Exports and other
Statistical Intelligence. Full Report of all important public meetings in the Island.
Special Tea news and Rubber news by cable.
Subscription in advance Rs. 32 ( without postage ) ; Rs. 36 (with local postage
or to India, > per annum, including all Extras.
Price of single copies— 10 cents each.
THE
Weekly "Ceylon Observer."
(OVERLAND EDITION.)
A GENERAL SUMMARY of the daily Ceylon Observer published weekly
•**• on the day upon which the Overland Mail is despatched and contains
an Epitome of Occurrences in Ceylon.
A special feature of the Weekly Ceylon Observer is the veiy full and
complete Commercial Intelligence given, enabling Proprietors, Investors.
Brokers, and Dealers at home to ascertain the condition and prospects of
Ceylon Produce and Estate Crops.
Planters in India, Burma. Malay Peninsula, Straits Settlements. Java
etc.. would find this paper of great aid as matters of importance to tropical
planters and information regarding agriculture is a special feature
Extracts and Reviews from the world's agricultural press add much to
the value of the Weekly Ceylon Observer, and New Products ai-e always
fully treated. A large portion of the paper is each week devoted to
-rubber" news. An F. M. S. Agricultural expert tells us he finds the
paper most useful to him.
SUBSCRIPTION RATES.
Ceylon Currency. CREDIT. ADVANCK.
( Inclusive of Postage. )
To the United Kingdom, Australian Colonies, Rs. Cts. Rs. Cts.
South Africa, West Indies. America, China.
Japan, Straits, Mauritius, Aden, &c. ... 24 00 20 00
To India (by dak) ... . 20 00 16 uO
With Local Postage ... ... 20 00 16 00
Without Postage ... 18 00 14 00
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52, Gracechurch St., London, E. C.
PRINTING
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i Send for QUOTATIONS before Placing Your Orders,
To Manager,
"CEYLON OBSERVER."
ESTATE WORK A SPECIALITY.
Books for Planters.
Hevea Brasilienses ... By Herbert Wright
All about Coconuts ... By John Ferguson
Coffee Planter's Manual ... „ „ $
Cotton Cultivation ... By W. S. de Silva
The Fertilisation of Tea ... By A. Cowie, M.A., B. Sc. $
Theobroma Cacao or Cocoa ... By Herbert Wright
Books on Tamil and Sinhalese for Planters.
Send for Our Latest Catalogue of Publications,
Sent Post Free on Application.
A. M. &J. FERGUSON,
No. 19, Baillie St., Colombo (
The Yokohama
Nursery Co., Ltd.
21-35, NAK4MURA, YOKOHAMA, JAPAN.
BRANCH OFFICES:
New York- 31 , Barclay Street. London Craven House, Kingsway, W. C.
The L-irgest Exporters, & Grower? of
Lily Bulbs, Fern Balls, Fancy
Designs, Porcelain Pots, Cycas
Revoluta, Bamboos, Peonies,
Iris, Rare Dwarf Plants,
Seed*, Trees, Shrubs, Stone
- Lanterns, &c., &c.
Descriptive Catalogue
sent on application.
The BOOK of CEYLON
Being a Guide to its Railway System and an Account
of its varied Attractions for the Visitor and Tourist
HY
HENRY W. GAVE
M.A. (Oxon.), F.R.G.S.
MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, AUTHOR OP' ' (JOLDEN TIPS."
"THE RUINED CITIES OF CEYLON," "COLOMBO AND THE KELANI VALLEY."
"KANDY AND PERADEXIYA." "NUWARA ELIYA AND ADAM'S PEAK "
ILLUSTRATED FROM PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE AUTHOR
In Sections.- Section I. Containing Colombo, the South -West Coast, and the Kelani
Valley. Rupees 3.
Section II. Kandy and the Highlands, including Nuwara Eliya, Bandara-
wela and Badulla. Rupees 4*50.
Section HI. The Northern Provinces, including Anuradhapura, Jaffna.
Trincomali. the Pearl Fishery, and Ramcseram. Rupees 3.
The whole work in one volume, Rupees 9.
H. W. GAVE & Co., Colombo, Ceylon.
Ransomes Sims & Jefferies, Ltd.
WorBd-Famed Lawn Mowers
Supplied to Leading CBubs throughout the World
Recognized as the best made.
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"Lion"
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Best and most reliable on the market.
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Length of cut 13 15 inch.
Rs. 27-90 31-50
R. S. & J. This famed English
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strongest simplest and
best Light Roller Machines
ever brought out.
Length of cut, 14 inch.
Rs. 99-OO
Garden Tools at Gargills
Superior Quality.
Garden Trowel Blued
and Bright,
Beech Handle. Rs. 1"25.
Garden Spade,
9 by 5 n£ by ;
Rs. 1'58 2'OO
sixes
12 by 7
2'7O each.
Garden Weeding Fork Cts. 68 each.
Gardeu Sets, Ladies' or Gentlemen's
Spade, Fork, Rake, Hoe. Rs. 5*85
Garden Syringe 19 by i£ with Rose and
.let. Rs. 3-85
Lowest Prices.
Watering Cans, best quality galvanized
with Copper Front Rose
ith Copper Front Rose
Size 2. 3 gallons.
Rs. 2*95 ;"i.i 3'6O each.
Galvanized Iron Buckets ri vetted sides.
Very strong.
diameter 12. 14 inch.
Rs. 9'5O Rs.lSdoxcu.
Garden Rake, Wrought Iron.
8 Teeth Cts. 4O each.
10 .. ,, 5O „
12 „ 65 „
H .. ,, 8O
1« Re. 1'OQ
Above prices are for Gash or Monthly Account.
CARGILLS LIMITED, COLOMBO.
For Seeds
and Plants
You cannot do better than place your orders
— either for local delivery or export — with me.
I have every facility to supply the very best,
and my name is a password for reliability and
high class quality.
My nursery stock is the largest and best kept
in the East, strong well grown plants can be
supplied promptly, and at rates to suit you.
Write for lists of Tropical products, Green
manures and shade trees, Fruit, vegetable &
flower seeds and plants; they are sure to
interest you.
A. Van Starrex, r«ns.
Estate Seeds Specialist,
Crystal Hill Estate,
Matale Ceylon.
!
Telegraphic Address: —
Starrex, Matale.
a
To Ensure Success and good prices for your
Rubber use Bush's
Coagulating Powder
This preparation acts simultaneously as a Coagulating and
Bleaching medium. Its addition to rubber latex produces ready
coagulation and at the same time renders the Rubber very light
in colour without affecting its texture or physical properties, and
it is claimed that there are no objectionable effects, as is some-
times asserted by rubber experts regarding the use of acetic
acid.
Price: Rs. 38'75 per one cwt. cash.
9*75 per 38 Ibs.
Sample on application to
MILLER & Co., Colombo & Kandy,
Sole Agents for Ceylon.
Journal D'Agriculture Tropicale
fonde par J. VILBOUCHEVITCH
164, RUE JtANNE D'ARC PROIONGEE - PARIS (Xllh'i
Abonnements partant du ler Janvier { Recommande, » ^
Le JOURNAL D'AGRICULTURE TROPJCALE, mensuel. illustre. soccupe de t,,utes les ques-
tion d'actualite qui peuvent interesser les agriculteurs des pays chauds.
II donne tons les mois une quin/.aine d'artic'es ine'dits et une revue complete des publi-
cations nouvelles (trois pages de petit-texte). La partie comnierciale. tres developpee, est
intelligible pour tout le nv>nde et toujours interessante. Xombreux collaborateurs dans les
Colonies francaise«, anglaises et hollandaises. ainsi qu'en Australia et dans les deux
Ameriques. Articles inedits sur les cultures potageres et les fruiis, dans chaque numero.
Collaboration speciale sur les insectes nuisibles.
Sir D. Morris, Co««taai«ln,piri,l de rAgri- j () rll*
culture rdes Antil esanglaiscs. a la Barbade: notre C0nahoi-ateur commercial- ...I
The Journal d Agriculture Tropicale ' is \ write for no one so steadily as you, for I
the Leading French publication de- | like your paper, you seem to be genuinely
voted to agriculture in the tropics." interested in tropical matters."- ler septem-
" Indian Planting and Gardening." Calcutta.! bre 1904
1901: " Planters with a know'edge of R°Val Botanic Gardens Annals, Ceylon,
the French language, desiring of having Decembre 1901 : " ....The "J. d'A. T." aims
a world-wide view of agricultural and ?1 ft'!1^ t?rl?pf Practl^al information,
economic affairs, shou.d read the Journal | ^iffi^ ^SC" 'inVtituS 'in all
d' Agriculture Tropicale." parts of the world."
— NUMERO SPECIMEN GRATIS SUR DEMANDE.
BOOKS TO BUY.
Coco- Nuts: The Consols of the East, by H. HAMEL SMITH
(Editor of "Tropical Life") and F. A. G. PAPE, F.R.G.S.,
&c., with Foreword by Sir W. H. LEVER, Bt. 500 pp., many
illustrations. The first edifion is completely exhausted but
a Second and Enlarged edition is now ready. In this, the
new Foreword by Sir W. H. LEVER, constitutes the most
important pronouncement yet made on coconut planting
and finance. Price IDs. net. Us. post free.
The Fermentation of Cacao (also comparative notes on
Tea, Coffee, Tobacco, &c.) Edited by H. HAMEL
SMITH. Foreword by Sir GEORGE WATT, C.I.E., &c., for-
merly Reporter on Economic Products to the Government
of India. Over 400 pp., 35 illustrations. Price, 10s. net.
I Is. post free.
"I have read every word of your book on ' THE FERMENTATION
OF CACAO,' " writes Sir GEORGE WATT in the Foreword,
"with absorbing interest, and must congratulate you on
being able to bring out a book that will become a classic on
the subject it deals with so ably. You have brought
together the opinions of several experts of scientific eminence
and practical experience, and these must be drawn upon by
all subsequent investigators."
The Future of Cacao Planting. With 2 Illustrations and
Contributions by leading Planters in West Indies, West Africa,
&c. Foreword by Sir DANIEL MORRIS, K.C.M.G., formerly
Imperial Commissioner for Agriculture in the West Indies.
Price is. 2d., post free.
Notes on Soil and Plant Sanitation on Cacao and Rubber
Estates. With separate complete sections on Ceara,
Castilloa, and Funtumia Rubber, and Rubber Tapping. By
H. HAMEL SMITH. Foreword by Prof. WYNDHAM DUNSTAN,
C.M.G., &c., Dir. Imperial Institute. Over 100 illustrations,
nearly 700 pp. Price, IOs. net. Us post free.
•* Tropical Life," the leading authority on the cultivation,
preparation and sale of tropical produce, and
the opening up and development of the Tropics
generally. Subscription, 10s. per year post free,
or Life subscription, £5.
Send orders, accompanied by remittance, to : —
"Tropical Life" Publishing Department,
83-91, GREAT TITCHFIELD STREET, OXFORD STREET,
LONDON, W.
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