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WILFRID  PARKINSON  CURTIS, 
"  Aysgarth," 

Parkstone  Road, 

POOLE. 


BIOLOGY 
I  IBR  RV 


PLATE 


GOLDEN       ORIOLE 


LLOYD'S     NATURAL     HISTORY. 

EDITED  BY  R.  BOWDLER  SHARPE,  LL.D.,  F.L.S.,  &c. 


A  HAND-BOOK 

TO    THE 

BIRDS 

OF 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 


BY 

R.    BOWDLER     SHARPE,     LL.D, 
'I 

ASSISTANT-KEEPER,    SUB-DEPARTMENT   OF 
VER'lEBRATA,    BRITISH    MUbEUM. 


VOL.    I. 


LONDON : 

EDWARD  LLOYD,   LIMITED, 

12,    SALISBURY    SQUARE,    FLEET    STREET. 

1896. 


810LOGY 
R/ 

B 


•  *•*  »  "•  •* 

«  •      •     ". 

•  •       *<"'».' 


PRINTED  BY 
WYMAN   AND  SONS,    LIMITED. 


PREFACE. 


EVERY  ornithologist  who,  in  the  course  of  his  career,  may  be 
called  upon  to  write  a  book  upon  British  Birds,  will  always  find 
this  to  be  one  of  the  most  interesting,  but  certainly  one  of  the 
most  difficult,  tasks  which  he  has  ever  undertaken.  He  is  sure 
to  discover  that  not  only  is  the  path  well-worn,  but  that  the 
work  of  his  many  predecessors  has  been  so  well  done  that 
little  chance  of  originality  remains  to  him.  No  country  in  the 
world  has  had  more  excellent  books  written  about  its  birds 
than  Great  Britain,  whether  we  consider  illustrated  works,  such 
as  those  of  Selby  and  Gould,  or  the  attractive  "Coloured 
Figures  of  British  Birds,"  now  being  published  by  Lord  Lilford ; 
or  the  many  exhaustive  books  on  the  life-histories  of  our  native 
birds,  such  as  those  of  Macgillivray,  Yarrell,  and  others ;  or 
the  excellent  works  on  eggs  published  by  Hewitson  and 
Sctbohm. 

Of  the  two  leading  publications  on  the  subject,  viz.,  those 
of  Macgillivray  and  Yarrell,  the  palm  for  scientific  merit  must 
be  given  to  that  of  the  Scotch  naturalist,  and  the  increasing 
value  of  his  works,  day  by  day  and  year  by  year,  testifies  to  an 
appreciation  of  his  labour  which  would  have  gladdened  and 
cheered  him  in  his  work,  had  such  regard  been  bestowed  upon 
him  during  his  lifetime.  The  popularity  of  Yarrell's  "  History 
of  British  Birds,"  with  its  exquisite  little  woodcuts,  completely 
eclipsed  the  more  modest  publication  of  Margillivray,  and  it 


910513 


iy  PREFACE. 

has  been  left  to  the  present  generation  of  ornithologists  to 
recognise  the  full  value  of  the  varied  and  original  work  done 
by  the  last  named  naturalist.  Not  that  I  should  wish  by  writing 
thus  to  de'ract  for  one  moment  from  the  worth  of  Yarrell's 
publications,  for,  had  his  work  been  anything  but  excellent, 
it  would  have  been  impossible,  even  for  so  good  an  editor 
as  Professor  Newton,  to  have  founded  on  it  that  fourth 
edition  to  which  English  ornithologists  owe  so  much.  As 
completed  by  Mr.  Howard  Saunders,  this  edition  of  Yarreli's 
"British  Birds  "  stands  pre-eminent  among  the  works  on  the 
sucject. 

There  are  many  of  us  st'll  living  who  remeti  ber  the  enthu- 
siasm with  which  John  Gould  set  about  the  production  of  that 
magnificent  series  of  volumes  on  the  "  Birds  of  Great  Britain," 
with  which  his  rame  will  for  ever  be  connected.  The  letter- 
press may  be  ordinary,  as  nv  ch  of  it  is,  but  no  one  can  fail 
to  apprecia'e  the  loving  care  wh;ch  must  have  animated  the 
author  in  the  production  of  the  illustrations,  and  no  country 
in  the  world  can  boast  a  finer  presentment  of  its  native  birds 
than  is  to  be  found  in  the  figures  of  Gould's  work. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  contributions  to  the  history  of  our 
British  birds  published  of  late  years  is  the  "  Manual  "  of  Mr. 
Howard  Saunders,  a  model  of  condensation  and  an  epitome  of 
useful  information  concerning  the  Avi-fauna  of  Great  Brita'n ; 
but  there  is  still  another  work  on  the  birds  of  Great  Britain 
which  we  have  to  notice — Mr.  Seebohm's  four  volumes  on 
"  British  Birds."  The  constant  use  which  I  have  made  of  my 
late  friend's  writings  in  the  course  of  the  present  volume,  is  the 
best  testimony — if  further  testimony  be  needed — to  the  opinion 
I  have  often  expressed  as  to  the  excellence  of  Mr.  Seebohm's 
work.  I  have  no  hesitation  in  repeating  that,  since  the 
days  of  Macgillivray,  no  such  original  descriptions  of  the 
life-history  of  European  birds  have  been  published  in  any 


PREFACE.  V 

country.  Nor  do  I  consider  that  this  praise  is  exaggerated,  for 
while  the  descriptions  of  the  habits  of  birds  in  Dresser's  "  Birds 
of  Europe  "  and  other  popular  works  are  obviously  compiled 
from  the  writings  of  serious  field-naturalists  like  Naumann 
and  Macgillivray,  those  of  Mr.  Seebohm  are  based  upon  his 
personal  observation,  and  are  the  result  of  his  many  ornitho- 
logical expeditions  in  widely  distant  parts  of  the  Paloearctic 
Region.  The  specimens  collected  by  him  during  his  travels, 
the  nests  and  eggs  which  he  gathered — in  some  instances  still 
the  only  ones  in  any  museum — and  the  notes  which  he  made 
on  the  habits  of  so  many  European  birds,  furnished  him  with 
original  material  which  has  not  been  exceeded  by  any  writer 
of  the  present  day.  I  have,  therefore,  not  scrupled  to  draw 
upon  Mr.  Seebohm's  published  writings  during  the  preparation 
of  the  present  work,  for  I  have  found  his  "  History  of  British 
Birds  "  and  Mr.  Saunders'  "  Manual "  both  indispensable  to  me 
in  my  attempt  to  give  a  condensed  idea  of  the  Avi-fauna  of  the 
British  Islands.  Mr.  Harting's  "  Handbook "  and  Colonel 
Irby's  useful  "Key-list"  of  British  Birds  have  both  been 
frequently  consulted  by  me. 

I  have  written  the  present  work  in  the  form  of  a  "  Hand- 
book," as  the  most  convenient  form  for  the  student  of  British 
Birds,  and  I  can  assure  him  that  there  is  much  useful  work 
still  to  be  done  with  regard  to  our  native  birds,  in  various 
directions,  some  of  which  I  may  particularise  as  follows  : — 

1.  The  study  of  the  moulting  of  birds,  the  way  in  which  the 
young  gain  the  plumage  of  the  adult,  and  the  method  of  change 
from  summer  to  winter  plumage,  &c. 

2.  A  record   of  the   distribution  of  birds   throughout  the 
British  Islands.     This  is  a  very  important  subject,  and  one 
which  offers  a  fertile  field  of  observation  to  any  enthusiastic 
young  ornithologist.     A  model  can  be  found  in  Fatio  and 
Studer's  "  Catalogue  des  Oiseaux  de  la  Suisse  "  ;  and  so  many 


VI  PREFACE. 

useful  books  and  lists  of  the  birds  of  various  districts  of  Great 
Britain  have  been  published  during  recent  years,  that  it  ought 
now  to  be  possible  to  gather  together  the  threads  and  publish 
a  useful  volume  on  the  geographical  distribution  of  our  native 
birds. 

3.  The  migration  of  birds  in  Great  Britain.     Much  has  been 
done  during  the  past  few  years  to  improve  our  knowledge  of 
this  phenomenon,  but  the  material  is  still  rough  and  undigested, 
and  many  of  the  conclusions  published  are  merely  conjectural. 

4.  The  formation  of  local  collections  by  the  Museums  of  the 
capital  towns  of  each  county,  which  shall  serve  to  illustrate  its 
Avi-fauna,  and  exolain  the  distribution  of  every  bird  within  its 
limits 

It  would  thus  be  possible  to  obtain  an  ornithological  census 
of  the  British  Avi-fauna,  a  work  which  is  much  needed  in  the 
present  day. 

One  word  with  regard  to  the  nomenclature  of  the  present 
volume.  I  have  employed  such  names  as  I  believe  will 
ultimately  be  found  to  be  the  correct  ones  for  the  species  when 
an  International  Congress  of  Ornithologists  determines  to  settle 
what  shall  be  the  proper  scientific  designations  of  European 
birds.  At  present  there  is  considerable  confusion  in  the 
nomenclature  of  our  British  species,  the  names  of  the  "  List " 
published  by  the  British  Ornithologists'  Union  being  by  no 
means  acceptable  to  some  of  us  at  the  present  day,  and  differ- 
ing in  many  instances  from  those  employed  by  American  and 
German  Naturalists.  Then  again,  Mr.  Seebohm  employed  the 
simple  method  of  adopting  the  name  most  in  vogue  since  the 
time  of  Linnaeus,  or,  as  he  called  it,  auctorum  plurimorum.  He 
was  also  an  advocate  of  trinomials — such  as  Parus  ater  brittanni- 
cus  for  the  Eng  ish  Coal-Tit, — an  arrangement  I  shall  never 
adopt,  as  I  consider  it  a  clumsy  and  unnecessary  method  of 
nomenclature,  and  one  that  in  the  hands  of  unscrupulous 


PREFACE.  Vl'i 

writers  may  be  employed  ad  lib.  to  gain  a  little  temporary 
notoriety,  and  end  in  making  the  study  of  birds  impossible. 
Can  any  science  bear  the  weight  of  such  a  system  of  nomen 
clature  as  would  burden  it  with  names  like  Caryocatactes 
caryocatactes  brachyrhyncha  //? 

Then  as  regards  the  changing  of  specific  names  of  birds.  On 
this  subject  a  great  deal  of  nonsense  has  been  written,  and 
some  of  my  critics  who  have  declaimed  on  the  subject  of 
nomenclature,  have  shown  that  they  do  not  understand  what 
they  are  writing  about,  nor  what  synonymy  means.  My 
position  in  the  matter  is  very  simple.  I  contend  that  when 
Linnaeus,  or  any  other  of  the  Fathers,  gave  a  name  to  a  bird, 
no  power  on  earth  should  be  allowed  to  change  it,  by  taking 
the  specific  name  and  making  it  the  title  of  a  genus.  The 
Linnean  name,  when  perfectly  capable  of  identification,  as  it 
generally  is,  should  be  held  sacred,  even  when  the  result  is 
the  duplication  of  the  specific  name,  as  with  the  Linnet,  the 
Fringilla  cannabina  of  Linnaeus,  and  the  Goldfinch,  the  Frin- 
gilla  carduelis  of  Linnaeus.  In  process  of  time  both  these 
species  have  been  separated  (and  rightly)  from  the  genus 
JFringilla,  and  the  earliest  generic  names  turn  out  to  be 
Cannabina  of  Boie,  and  Carduelis  of  Brisson.  Hence  the 
names  Carduelis  carduelis  (L.)  and  Cannabina  cannabina  (L.), 
and  I  see  no  logical  way  to  avoid  these  names.  Nor  is  this 
system  of  nomenclature  without  one  great  advantage,  viz., 
that  in  nearly  every  case  the  duplicated  name  descends  upon 
the  typical  species  of  the  genus,  which  becomes  at  once  re- 
cognisable by  such  duplication  of  the  generic  and  specific 
names. 

Lastly,  there  is  one  other  matter  to  which  I  would  direct 
the  earnest  attention  of  my  brother  ornithologists.  It  is  a 
question  that  can  best  be  settled  by  a  general  conclave  of 
ornithologists,  which  should  not  be  longer  delayed ;  and  this 


vill  PREFACE. 

is  the  question  of  the  alteration  of  generic  names,  about  the 
priority  of  which  there  can  be  little  or  no  uncertainty.  I 
allude  to  some  of  the  names  brought  to  light  by  the  diligent 
research  of  our  colleague  Dr.  Stejneger  in  America ;  such,  for 
instance,  as  the  adoption  of  Plectrophenax  instead  of  Plectro- 
phanes  for  the  Snow-Buntings,  and  the  name  ^Egithalus  instead 
of  Acredula  for  the  Long-tailed  Tits.  It  is  much  better  to  face 
these  changes  fairly  and  squarely,  and  by  their  adoption,  if  they 
are  found  to  be  correct,  to  introduce  an  uniform  system  of 
nomenclature  on  both  sides  of  the  globe. 

In  a  work  of  the  present  size,  published  at  a  price  which 
it  is  hoped  will  place  it  within  the  reach  of  every  student,  it 
has  been  found  impossible  to  figure  every  species.  The  plates 
have  all  been  coloured  from  specimens  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  several  pictures  by  Mr.  Keulemans  have  been  added  to 
illustrate  certain  representative  species  of  British  Birds,  while 
others  will  be  given  in  the  succeeding  volumes. 

My  especial  thanks  are  due  to  the  Council  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  for  permission  to  use  the  woodcuts  from 
their  "  Osteological "  Catalogue ;  to  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  for 
the  kindly  help  he  has  rendered  during  the  progress  of  the 
volume  through  the  press ;  and  to  Mr.  Robert  Read,  who  wa. 
good  enough  to  send  us  some  original  notes  on  nests  and  eggs, 
which  unfortunately  reached  me  too  late  to  be  included  in  their 
entirety. 

R.  BOWDLER  SHARPS. 


SYSTEMATIC    INDEX. 


ORDER  PASSERIFORMES 
SECTION  A.-OSCINES 
FAMILY  CORVID/E 

SUB-FAMILY  CORVIN/E 

I.  TRYPANOCORAX,  Sund. 

i.  ffugilegus  (L.) 

II.  CORVUS,  L 

I.   corax,  L. 

III.  COLCEUS,  Kaup 

I.   monedula  (L.) 

IV.  CORONE,  Kaup 

1.  cornix  (L.) 

2.  corone  (L.) 

V.  NUCIFRAGA,  Briss 


.  PICA,  Briss 
I.  pit.  a  (L.) 

VII.  GARKULUS,  Briss 

I.  glandarius  ^L.)... 

SUB-FAMILY  FREGILIN^). 

VIII.  GRACULUS,  Koch. 

I.   graculus  (L.  )     ... 

IX.  PYRRHOCORAX,  V 

I.   pyrrhocorax  (L.) 

FAMILY  STURNID.E 

X.  STURNUS,  L 

I.  vulgaris,  L. 

XI.  PASTOR,  Temm 

I.  roseus  (L.) 

FAMILY  ORIOLID/E 

XII.  ORIOLUS,  L. 

I.  galbula,  L. 

FAMILY  ICTERID.E 
FAMILY  FRINGILLID^E 


PAGB 

I 


4 

4 
4 

8 

9 
10 
ii 

12 
14 

16 
16 
17 
18 
19 

20 

21 
22 
22 
23 
23 

23 
24 
24 
26 
26 

27 

28 
28 

29 
30 


SUB-FAMILY    I.    COCCO- 

TIIRAUSTIN^     30 

XIII.  LIGURINUS,  Koch          30,  333 
I.  chloris  (L. )        ...         ...  31 

XIV.  COCCOTHRAUSTES,  Bliss.  ...  33 

1.  toccothraustes  (L. )      ...  33 

SUB-FAMILY    II.    IRINGIL- 

LIN.E            35 

XV.  -F-ftiiNGiLLA,  L 35 

.  •    l\  Coelebs,  L.         ...         ...  35 

2.  montifringilla,  L.          ...  37 

XVI.  CARDUELIS,  BrLs.           ...  38 
I.  carduelis  (L.)    ...         ...  39 

XVII.  CHRYSOMITRIS,  Boie      ...  40 
i.  spinus  (L.)        ...         ...  41 

XVIII.  CANNABINA,  Boie         ...  42 

1.  flavirostris  (L.)...         ...  42 

2.  cannabina  (L.)  ...         ...  43 

3.  linaria  (L.)        45 

4.  holboelli  (Brehm)         ...  47 

5.  rufescens  (V.)    ...         ...  47 

6.  exilipes  (Coues)            ...  333 

7.  hornemanni  (Ilolb.)     ...  334 

XIX.  PASSER,  Briss 48 

1.  domesticus  (L.)            ...  49 

2.  montanus  (L.)  ...         ...  51 

XX.  SERINUS,  Koch       52 

I.  serinus  (L.)       ...         ...  53 

XXI.  CARPODACUS,  Kaup.        ...  54 
I.  erythrinus  (Pall. )         ...  55 

XXII.  LOXIA,  L 56 

1.  curvirostra,  L.  ...         ...  57 

2.  bifasciata  (Brehm)        ...  59 

XXIII.  PYRRHULA,  Briss.         ...  59 

1.  europoea,  V.       ...         ...  60 

2.  pyrrhula  (L.)     334 


SYSTEMATIC    INDEX. 


XXIV.  PlNICOLA,  V 6 1 

I.   enucleator  (L.)...         ...     61 

SUB-FAMILY  EMBERIZ1N.E      63 

XXV.  EMBERIZA,  Briss 63 

1.  schseniclus,  L.  ...         ...  63 

2.  pusilla,  Pall 65 

3.  rustica,  Pall 66 

4.  melanocephala,  Scop.  ...  67 

5.  citrinella,  L 69 

6.  cirlus,  L.  ...         ...  7° 

7.  hortulana,  L.     ...         ...  71 

XXVI.  MILIARIA,  Brehm.         ...  73 
I.  miliaria  (L.)      ...         ...  73 

XXVII.  PLECTROPHENAX,  Stejn.     75 
I.  nivalis  (L.)        75 

XXVIII.  TALCARIUS,  Bechst.  ...     77 
i.  lapponicus  (L.) 77 

FAMILY  ALAUDID^E  ...     79 

XXIX.  OTOCORYS,  Bp So 

I.  alpestris  (L.)     80 

XXX.  MELANOCORYPHA,  Boie  ...     82 
I.  sibirica  (Gm.)  ...         ...     82 

XXXI.  ALAUDA,  L 83 

i.  arvenns,  L.       ...         ...     84 

XXXII.  CALANDRELLA,  Kaup....    86 
I.  brachydactyla  (Lelsl.)...     86 

XXXIII.  GALERITA,  Boie        ...  87 
I.  cristata  (L.)      88 

XXXIV.  LULLULA,  Kaup.        ...  89 
I.  arborea  (L.)      90 

FAMILY  MOTACII.LID^E    ...     91 

XXXV.  MOTACILLA,  L.  ...     92 

1.  lugubris,  Temm.  ...     93 

2.  alba,  L 95 

3.  melanope,  Pall.  ...     97 

4.  campestris,  Pall.  ...     99 

5.  flava,  L.  ..  ...   101 

XXXVI.  ANTHUS,  Eechst         ...  102 

1.  trivialis  (L.)      ...          ...    103 

2.  pratensis  (L.) 106 

3    cervinus  (Pall.) 108 

4.  richardi,  V.        ...          ...  no 

5.  campestris  (L.) ill 

6.  spipoletta  (L.)  ...         ...  114 

7.  obccurus  (Lath.)  ...  116 

8.  rupestris,  Nilss.  ...  118 


FAMILY  CERTHIID^E 


..   119 


XXXVII.  CERTHIA,  L.... 
I.  familiaris,  L.     ... 

XXXVIII.  TlCHODROMA,    111 

I.   muraria  (L.) 
FAMILY  SITTID/E     ... 

XXXIX.  SITTA,  L. 

I.   cresia,  Meyer     ... 

FAMILY  PARIM;     ... 

XL.  PARUS,  L 

1.  major,  L. 

2.  caeruleus,  L. 

3-  ater,  L 

4.  britannicu?,  Saarpe 

Dresser 

5.  dresseri,  Stejn. .. 
XLI.   LOPHOPHANES,  Kaup. 

I.   cristatus  (L.)     ... 
XLII.  ^GITHALUS,  Herm. 

1.  vagans  (Leach)... 

2.  caudatus  (L.)    ... 
FAMILY  PANURID^ 
XLIII.  PANURUS,  Koch. 

I.  biarmicus  (L.)   ... 
FAMILY  REGULID^E 
XLIV.  REGULUS,  Koch.... 

1.  regu!us(L.) 

2.  ignicapillus  (Biehm) 

3.  calendula  (L.)  ... 
FAMILY  LANIID^     ... 
XLV.  LANIUS,  L. 

1.  minor,  Gm. 

2.  excubitor,  L.     ... 

3.  sibiricus,  Bogd. 

4.  collurio,  L. 

5.  pomeranus,  Scop. 
FAMILY  AMPELID/E 
XLVI.  AMPELIS,  L. 

I.  ganulus,  L. 
FAMILY  SYLVIID.E  ... 
XLVII.  SYLVIA,  Scop.  ... 

1.  nisoria  (Bechst.) 

2.  sylvia  (L.) 

3.  curruca  (L.) 

4.  sub-alpina,  Temm. 

5.  orpheus,  Temm. 

6.  atricapilla  (L.) ... 

7.  simplex,  Lath.  ... 


and 


PAGB 

1 20 

120 
123 
I23 
126 
126 
126 
129 
129 
130 
133 
136 

...  137 

-.  139 

...  142 

...  142 

.-  145 

...  147 

...  149 

...  150 

...  150 

...  151 

...  153 

...  154 

•••  154 

...  157 

...  159 

...  159 

...  159 

...  160 

...  162 

...  165 

...  167 

...  i/i 


SYSTEMATIC    INDEX. 


XI 


XLVIII.  JjJpHiLUS,  Learh 
I.  undatus  (Bodd.) 

XL1X.  AEDON,  Boie  

I.  galactodes  (Temm.)  .. 

L.  PHYLLOSCOPUS,  Boie 

1.  sibilator,  Bechst. 

2.  trochilus  (L.)    ... 

3.  minor  (Forst.)  ... 

4.  superciliosus  (Gm. ) 
LI.  HYPOLAIS,  C.  L.  Brehm     .. 

I.  hypolais  (L.)     ... 
LII.  ACKOCEPHALUS,  Naum.    .. 

1.  aquaiicus  (L.)   ... 

2.  phragmitis  (Bechst.)    .. 

3.  turdoides  (Meyer) 

4.  streperus  (V.)    ... 

5.  palustris  (Bechbt.) 
LIII.  LOCUSTELLA,  Kaup. 

1.  noevia  (Bodd.)  ...         .. 

2.  luscinioides  (Savi) 

FAMILY  TURDID/E 
LIV.  OREOCICHLA,  Gould 

I.  varia  (Pall.)       ...   ,     .. 
LV.  GEOCICHLA,  Gould....;*-  .-. 

I.   sibirica  (Pall  )..?.''... 
LVI.  MERULA,  Leactt  .  :!.' 

1.  meru4£f  (L.)     '  .-:. 

2.  torquata  (L.) 

3.  atrigularis  (Temtn.) 
LVII.  TURDUS,  L 

1.  iliacus,  L. 

2.  inusicus,  L. 

3.  visc'.yi  rus,  L.    ... 

4.  pilaris,  L. 

5.  migra.orius, 
LVI  1 1.  DAULIA«. 

i.   luscinia  (L. ) 
LIX.  ERITHACUS,  Cuv.  ... 

I.  rubecula  (L.)     ... 
LX.  CYANECULA,  C.  L.  Brehm.., 

i.  suecica  (L.) 
LXI.  MoiNTicoLA,  Bo!e 

I.  saxat  lis  (L.)  


PACK 
I98 

I98 

201 
202 
204 
205 
208 
211 
214 
217 
2.8 
221 
222 
224 
227 
230 
232 
235 
235 
238 

24I 
242 
243 

245 
246 

249 
249 
253 
256 
259 
259 
263 
267 
269 
272 

273 
274 

276 
277 
2/9 

2.*0 

282 


LXII.  RUTICILLA,  C.  L.  Brehm  285 

1.  phcenicurus  (L.)  ...  285 

2.  titys  (L.)  287 

LXIII.  SAXICOLA,  Bechst.        ...  289 

1.  cenanthe  (L.)    ...          ...  290 

2.  isabellina,  Cretzschm —  293 

3.  stapaziua  (L.) 295 

4.  deserti  (Temm.)            ...  296 
LXIV.  PRATINCOLA,  Koch       ...  298 

I    rubetra  (L.)       298 

2.  rubicola  (L.)     301 

FAMILY  ACCENTORIM;  ...  304 

LXV.  THARRHALEUS,  Kaup.  ...  305 
I.  modularis  (L.)  ...  ..,  305 

LXVI.  ACCENTOR,  Bechst.  ...  308 
I.  collaris  (Scop.) 308 

FAMILY  CINCLID^:...        ...  309 

LXVII.  CINCLUS,  Bechst.          ...  310 

1.  aquaiicus,  Btchst.         ...  310 

2.  cinclus  (L.)        313 

FAMILY  TROGLODYTID/E  ..  314 
LXV1II.  ANORTHURA,  Rennie...  314 

1.  troglodytes  (L.) 314 

2.  hinensis  (Seeb.)  ...  317 

FAMILY  PYCNONOTID^E   ...  318 

LX1X.  PYCNONOTUS,     318 

I.  capensis  (L.)     ...         .  .  318 

FAMILY  MUSCICAPID^:  ...  319 
LXX.  MUSCICAPA,  L 319 

I.  grisola,  L.  320 

LXXI.  FICEDULA,  Sundey  ...  322 

I.  atricapilla  (L.)  ...         ...  323 

LXXII.  SIPHIA,  Hodgs.  ...  324 

I.  parva  (Bechst.) 325 

FAMILY  IIIRUNDIMD/E  ...  327 

LXXIII.  CHELIION,  Boie  ...  327 

i.  urbica  (L.)  358 

LXXIV.  CLIVICOLA,  Forst.  ...  329 

I.  jiparia  (L.)  329 

LXXV.  HIRUNDO,  Schaeff.  ...  331 

I.  rustica  (L  )        ...         ...  331 


LIST    OF    PLATES. 


I. — Raven. 
II.- Jay. 

III. — Fig.  I.  Common  Starling. 
Fig.  2    Intermediate    Star- 
ling. 

IV.  —  Rose-coloured  Starling. 
V.— Golden  Oriole. 
VI.— Hawfinch. 
VII,-  Brambling. 
VIII.— Goldfinch. 
IX.— Crossbill. 
X.— Bullfinch. 
XI . — Snow- Bunting. 
XII.— Fig.  I.     Sky-Lark. 

Fig   2.     Wood- Lark. 
XIII.  —  Grey  Wagtail. 
XIV.— Nuthatch. 
XV.— Blue  Titmouse. 
XVI. -Fig.  i.  Coal- Tit. 

Fig.  2.  Marsh-Tit. 
XVII. —Fig.  i.  Gold-Crest. 
Fig.  2.  Fire-Crest. 
XVIII.— Great  Grey  Shrike. 
XIX.— Wax-wing. 
XX. -Fig.  i.  Whitetbroat. 

Fig  2.  Lesser  Whitethroat. 
XXL— Fig.  T.  Reed- Warbler. 
Fig.  2.  Sedge- Warbler. 
XXII.  —  Fig.  i.  Song-Thrush. 

Fig.  2.  Blackbird. 
XXIIL— Nightingale. 


XXIV.— Black  Redstart. 
XXV.— Wheatear. 

XXVI.— Dipper. 
XX  VI L— Wren. 
XXVIIL— Chimney-Swallow. 

XXIX.  — Fig    i.  Egg  of  Dipper. 


Fig.  2. 

Fig.  3- 
Fig.  4. 
Fig.  5- 
Fig.  6. 
Fig.  7- 
Fig.  8. 

XXX.— Fig.  i. 
Fig.  2. 
Fig.  3- 

Fig.  4. 
Fig-  5- 
Fig.  6. 

XXXI. —Fig   i. 
Fig  2. 

Fig.  3- 
Fig.  4- 

Fig  5- 
Fig  6. 
fig-  7- 
Fig.  8. 


Raven. 

Redbreast. 

Wheatear. 

Goldfinch. 

Nightingale. 

Magpie. 

Hawfinch. 

Song-Thrush 

Gold-Cre?t. 

Chimney- 

Swallow. 
Wren. 

Jay. 

Kingfisher. 
Brambllng. 
Green  Wooc 

pecker. 
Grey  Wag 
Red-backt 

Shrike. 
Hoopoe. 
Blackbird. 
Bee- Eater. 
Cuckoo. 


RITISH    BIRDS. 


PERCHING  BIRDS-ORDER  PASSERIFORMES. 

To  this  order  belong  the  bulk  of  the  known  species  of  birds 
in  the  world  The  characters  which  distinguish  Passerine  or 
Perching  Birds  from  the  rest  of  the  Class  "Aves"  are  principally 
anatomical,  and  the  chief  ones  consist  of  the  "  aegithognathous  " 
palate  and  the  "  Passerine  "  arrangement  of  the  deep  plantar 
tendons  of  the  foot. 

The  palate  is  said  to  be  "  aegithognathous,"  or  "  Passerine," 
when  the  vomer  is  broadened  and  blunt,  or  truncated,  at  the 
anterior  end,  and  is  not  connected  with  the  maxillo-palatines, 
which,  consequently,  are  widely  separated  from  each  other. 
This  arrangement  is  well  shown  in  the  skull  of  the  Rook,  one 
of  our  largest  Passerine  birds. 

The  deep  plantar  tendons  of  the  Passeres  are  of  the  simplest 
kind,  the  three  front  toes  being  served  by  the  flexor  perforans 
digitoruni)  while  the  flexor  longus  hallucis  serves  the  hallux  or 
hind  toe  only. 

There  are  many  other  characters  which  can  be  adduced  for 
the  distinguishing  of  the  Passeriformes,  but  the  two  above 
mentioned  are  the  most  important.  The  order  is  divided 
into  four  great  sections,  viz.,  A,  Oscines,  or  Singing  Passeres ; 
B,  Oligomyodae,  or  Non-singing  Passeres;  C,  Tracheo- 
phonae,  or  South  American  Passeres ;  D,  Atrichornithes, 
Australian  Scrub-birds. 

Of  these  only  Oscines  are  represented  in  the  Palaearctic 
Region,  of  which  Great  Britain  forms  part,  and  it  is  with  the 

I.  B 


LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


representatives  of  this  Section  that  we  have  to  deal  in  the 
present  volume. 


—7*7 


-  -  siphcniuzit 


FIG.  I.— Ventral  aspect  of  skull  of  Rook  to  show  the  segithognathous 
palate  and  bony-  siphonium  :  v.  vomer  ;  mpl.  -p.  maxillo-palatine  pro- 
cess ;  //.  palatine  ;  pg.  pterygoid  ;  q.  quadrate  ;  b.s.  basi-sphenoid  ; 
s.  r.  sphenoidal  rostrum.  (From  the  Catalogue  of  Osteological 
Specimens  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. ) 

SINGING  BIRDS.     SECTION  A.— OSCINES. 

THE  CROWS.     FAMILY  CORVID^E. 
AMONG  the  members  of  this  family  will  be  found  some    of 
the  most  perfect,  if  one  may  use  such  an  expression,  of  all  the 
Passeriformes.     The  structure  of  a  Raven  or  a  Crow  presents 


THE    CORVIDjE. 


as   complete   an  equipment   as  one   can    imagine  a   bird  to 
require— a  powerful  bill,  with  well-developed  nasal  plumes — 


FIG.  3 


FIG.  2. — Foot  of  Rook,  dissected  so  as  to  show  the  arrangement  of  the 
deep  plantar  tendons  : — F.  L.  H.  flexor  longus  hallucis  ;  F".  p.  D.  flexor 
fcrforans  digitorum.  (From  the  Catalogue  of  Osteological  Specimens 
in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons.) 

FIG.  3.— Plantar  surfaces  of  foot  of  Rook,  to  show  the  proportions  of  the 
toes  in  a  typical  Passerine  bird.  (From  the  same.) 

a  compact  and  regular  plumage1— strong  wings  and  tail,  with 
every  series  of  wing- covert  beautifully  patterned — and,  lastly, 

B  a 


4  LLOYDS    NATURAL    HISTORY. 

powerful  feet  and  claws,  with  every  scale  distinctly  indicated. 
The  Crows,  therefore,  have  a  right  to  be  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  Oscines,  in  preference  to  the  Thrushes,  which 
excel  them  only  in  singing,  beauty  of  voice  being  a  feature  to 
which  the  Crows  can  lay  no  claim.  It  should  be  added  that 
nearly  all  the  Crows  are  "  Ambulatores  "  or  "Walkers,"  that  is 
to  say,  they  do  not  hop.  Many  of  them  throw  up  pellets 
after  the  manner  of  the  Owls. 

THE  TRUE  CROWS.     SUB-FAMILY  CORVINE. 
THE  ROOKS.     GENUS  TRYPANOCORAX. 

Trypanocorax,  Sundev.  Av.  Meth.  Tent.,  p.  43  (1872). 
Type,  T.  fnigihgus  (Linn.). 

Distinguished  from  all  the  other  Corvidcz  by  having  the 
forehead  and  sides  of  face  bare,  and  covered  with  a  white 
scabrous  skin.  This  is  peculiar  to  the  adult  birds  only,  and 
is  found  in  both  male  and  female.  The  bill  is  more  slender 
and  lengthened  than  in  any  other  of  the  British  Crows. 

There  are  only  two  species  of  true  Rook  in  the  world,  one 
being  the  Common  Rook  of  Europe,  which  extends  eastwards 
as  far  as  Central  Asia,  and  the  other  the  Chinese  Rook 
{Trypanocorax  pastinator},  which  takes  its  place  in  Eastern 
Siberia,  Japan,  and  China. 

I.    THE   ROOK.         TRYPANOCORAX    FRUGILEGUS. 

Corvus  frugilegus,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  156  (1766);  Macg., 
Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  535  ;  Seeb.,  Hist.  Brit.  B.,  i.,  p.  549,  pi.  16, 
fig.  6;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  551,  pi.  264;  Newt.  ed. 
Yarr.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  289;  Saunders,  Man.  Br.  B.,  p.  237. 

Trypanocorax  frugilegus  (L.),  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  iii., 

p.  9  (1877). 
Adult  Male — Black,  with  a  gloss  of  rich  purple  on  the  head 

and  neck  ;  sides  of  face  greenish;  wing-coverts  like  the  back; 

wings  and  tail  black,  with  a  green  or  purple  gloss;   under 

surface  of  body  black,  with  a  purple  gloss,  the  throat  with 

a  steel-blue   gloss ;   bill   and   feet   black ;    iris   dark   brown. 

Total  length,   17   inches;   bill,  2-25;  wing,   12-4;  tail,  7-5; 

tarsus,  2' 2. 


THE    ROOKS.  5 

Adult  Female. — Similar  in  colour  to  the  male,  but  slightly 
smaller.  Total  length,  1 6  inches;  culmen,  2*2;  wing,  12*2; 
tail,  7-4 ;  tarsus,  2 '2. 

Young. — Much  duller  in  colour  than  the  adult  birds  and 
much  less  glossy,  and  distinguished  at  a  glance  by  the 
feathered  face  and  nostrils,  the  latter  being  quite  concealed 
by  bristles. 

It  can  readily  be  understood  that  the  young  Rook,  with 
its  feathered  face  and  feather-covered  nostrils,  may  be  mis- 
taken for  a  Carrion  Crow  (Corone  corone}.  The  difference 
in  size  and  shape  of  the  bill  is  not  easily  appreciated  unless 
the  two  birds  can  be  compared  together,  but  there  is  luckily  a 
character  by  which  a  Rook  at  all  ages  may  be  distinguished 
from  a  Carrion  Crow  at  all  ages.  On  lifting  the  body  feathers 
of  the  Rook,  it  will  be  found  that  the  bases  of  the  latter  are 
grey,  whereas  the  Carrion  Crow  has  white  bases  to  the 
feathers.  Considerable  discussion  has  taken  place  as  to  the 
method  by  which  the  Rook  gains  its  bare  face.  It  is  certain 
that  the  young  birds  retain  their  feathered  face  after  their  first 
moult,  and  carry  it  through  their  first  winter;  and,  though 
most  Rooks  seem  to  acquire  their  bare  face  by  the  ensuing 
spring,  Mr.  Service  has  sent  some  specimens  to  the  British 
Museum,  in  which  the  face  is  only  partially  bared,  though  the 
birds  were  killed  in  May  and  had  bred.  The  question  has 
arisen  as  to  whether  the  birds  wear  off  these  feathers  of  the 
face  by  contact  with  the  hard  earth  in  which  they  seek  for 
food,  or  whether  these  feathers  of  the  face  drop  off  naturally, 
leaving  the  face  bare.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
latter  is  the  case,  and  many  Rooks  killed  during  the  winter 
season  have  their  faces  half  bare  of  feathers,  the  white 
scabrous  skin  becoming  apparent  as  the  plumes  fall  off. 

Range  in  Great  Britain — Nearly  universally  distributed,  but 
not  yet  recorded  as  breeding  in  Shetland  or  the  Outer  Hebrides. 
The  Rook  is  to  a  certain  extent  migratory,  and  for  a  week 
together  vast  numbers  may  be  seen  flocking  into  England  by 
the  east  coast,  coming  apparently  from  Scandinavia  and  other 
parts  of  Northern  Europe,  in  company  with  Hooded  Crows, 
Jackdaws,  and  Starlings. 

Kange  outside  the  British  Islands. — Generally  distributed  and 


6  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY 

nesting  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Northern  and  Central 
Europe,  extending  eastwards  in  Siberia  to  the  valley  of  the 
Irtisch  river,  and  nesting  in  Turkestan.  It  breeds  through- 
out  the  greater  part  of  France,  locally  in  Northern  Italy,  and 
the  Danubian  provinces,  as  well  as  in  Southern  Russia.  In  the 
Mediterranean  countries  it  is  principally  known  as  a  winter 
visitor,  and  probably  the  birds  which  breed  in  Central  Asia  are 
those  which  find  their  way  to  North-western  India  and  Persia 
in  winter.  The  northern  range  of  the  Rook  extends  to  the 
Arctic  Circle  in  Scandinavia,  but  only  to  about  64°  N.  lat.  in 
Russia  and  Western  Siberia ;  its  eastern  range  being  limited 
by  the  yoth  meridian  of  longitude. 

Habits.  —  The  Rook  is  a  gregarious  bird,  being  always 
found  in  flocks,  both  in  winter  and  during  the  nesting-season ; 
therein  again  differing  from  the  Carrion  Crow,  which  is  always 
seen  in  pairs.  It  is  practically  an  omnivorous  bird,  devouring 
flesh,  fruit,  and  gaibage,  neither  disdaining  to  scavenge  on  the 
sea-shore,  or  to  hany  an  orchard.  It  will  devour  a  number  of 
walnuts  when  they  have  reached  a  good  size  and  are  almost 
ripe  for  picking,  and  in  dry  seasons,  when  other  food-supplies 
fail,  the  Rook  will  undoubtedly  feed  on  young  birds,  and  also 
pilfer  the  eggs  of  birds  which  build  in  the  open,  such  as 
Wheatears,  Pipits,  and  Larks.  On  the  other  hand  the  amount 
of  good  done  by  the  Rooks  in  the  destruction  of  wire-worms 
and  other  noxious  grubs  is  incalculable,  and  the  bird,  like  the 
Starling,  is  a  veritable  friend  to  the  farmer.  In  Scotland, 
where  it  is  supposed  to  do  some  injury  to  young  birds,  the 
Rook  is  regarded  with  no  more  favour  than  it  is  in  Holland, 
though  it  doubtless  often  suffers  for  the  misdeeds  of  the 
Hooded  Crow. 

Rooks  are  decidedly  capricious  in  their  choice  of  a 
nesting-place,  but  when  once  a  rookery  is  established,  it  is 
seldom  that  the  locality  is  deserted,  and  the  birds  will  return 
year  after  year  in  spite  of  persecution.  Thus  some  three 
years  ago,  in  the  town  of  Leiden,  the  Rooks  took  up  their 
abode  in  the  trees  which  line  the  principal  streets,  and  came  back 
the  next  year  in  spite  of  the  previous  destruction  of  their  nests. 
On  their  return,  however,  the  inhabitants  objected  to  the 
noise  and  litter  of  the  birds,  and  a  man  was  employed  by  the 


THE    RAVENS.  7 

municipality  to  shoot  them  down,  though  one  would  have 
fancied  that  the  constant  firing  of  a  gun  in  a  public 
thoroughfare  would  prove  a  greater  nuisance  than  the  "  cawing" 
of  the  birds  themselves. 

Nest. — A  stout  and  compact  structure  composed  of  turf  and 
twigs,  the  inside  consisting  of  roots  and  straws,  and  the  whole 
nest  being  not  unlike  a  huge  Blackbird's ;  it  is  by  no 
means  untidy,  and  is  much  more  neatly  finished  than  could  be 
believed  from  the  ragged  appearance  which  the  nests  present 
in  a  rookery,  when  viewed  from  below. 

Eggs. — Three  to  five  in  number,  the  ground-colour  being 
green  or  bluish  green,  sometimes  nearly  white.  The  markings 
consist  of  spots  and  blotches  of  greenish  brown,  wilh  darker 
spots  of  bluer  or  blackish  brown.  Axis,  1-4-1-65 ;  diam., 

1*1—1*2. 

THE  RAVENS.  GENUS  CORVUS. 

Corvus,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  155  (1766). 

Type.  C.  cor  ax  (Linn.). 

The  nostrils  always  hidden  by  bristly  feathers.  Bill  very 
stout  and  equal  in  length  to  the  head.  First  primary  quill 
long,  equalling,  or  even  exceeding,  the  innermost  secondaries 
in  length. 

The  Ravens  are  spread  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Northern 
Regions  of  both  hemispherts,  i.e.,  the  Palsearctic  and  Nearctic 
Regions.  They  are  birds  which  vary  much  in  size,  and  many 
ornithologists  believe  in  several  races  of  the  common  Raven ; 
but,  after  the  examination  of  a  large  series  of  specimens  in  the 
British  Museum,  we  cannot  allow  that  more  than  one  form  of 
Corvus  corax  exists,  the  most  recognisable  of  the  races  being 
the  Thibetan  Raven  (Corvus  thibetanus  of  Hodgson),  which 
has  longer  hackles  on  the  throat.  A  desert  form,  Corvus 
umbrinuS)  inhabits  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  extends  to  Persia, 
Afghanistan,  and  North-western  India,  while  a  third  Raven 
(C.  tingitanus)  inhabits  Morocco  and  the  Canary  Islands. 
Australia  possesses  one  species  of  true  Raven,  and  Africa 
has  two. 


LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


I.   THE   RAVEN.       CORVUS   CORAX. 

(Plate  /.) 

Corvus  corax,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  155  (1766);  Macg.,  Br.  B., 
i.,  p.  498;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  259;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  iii.,  p.  14 ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p. 
567,  pi.  265  ;  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  532,  pi.  16,  figs,  i,  3  ; 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  233 ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt. 
x.  (1889). 

Adult  Male — Of  large  size.  Plumage  black,  with  purplish 
gloss,  greenish  on  the  wings  and  tail ;  on  the  fore-neck  some 
long  lanceolate  feathers,  forming  throat-hackles ;  bill  and  legs 
black ;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  24  inches ;  bill  from  front, 
3-15  ;  wing,  17-5  ;  tail,  10-5  ;  tarsus,  2-85. 

Adult  Female.— Similar  to  the  male  in  plumage,  and  not 
inferior  in  size. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Local,  and  diminishing  in  numbers. 
A  few  pairs  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  southern  counties,  but 
it  is  only  in  the  wilder  parts  of  the  north  and  west  that  the 
Raven  now  occurs  regularly. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Throughout  the  whole  of 
the  northern  portions  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  in  America 
from  the  high  north  to  Mexico  and  Guatemala,  and  in  the  Old 
World  to  the  North  Mediterranean  countries.  Further  east 
it  reaches  to  the  line  of  the  Himalayas,  and  is  found  in 
North-western  India,  and  extends  through  Central  Asia  and 
Siberia. 

Habits.— Owing  to  continued  persecution,  the  Raven  is 
becoming  rarer  year  by  year  throughout  the  British  Islands. 
Its  large  size  and  undoubted  power  render  it  a  formidable 
enemy  to  farmers,  and  although,  like  all  members  of  the 
Corvida^  the  Raven  is  an  omnivorous  feeder,  it  is  well 
known  as  a  slaughterer  of  lambs,  fawns,  and  poultry,  whenever 
it  gets  the  chance ;  but  on  the  other  hand  it  destroys 
numbers  of  rats  and  other  vermin,  and  it  also  clears  up 
carrion.  In  other  countries,  where  it  is  not  so  persecuted,  the 
bird  is  much  tamer,  and  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  says  that  in 
Majorca  he  has  seen  a  pair  of  Ravens  following  the  plough 


II 


THE   JACKDAWS.  9 

just  like  Rooks,  while  in  the  wilder  parts  of  Central  Asia  the 
bird  is  a  regular  camp-follower. 

Nest. — This  is  a  huge  and  bulky  structure,  placed  in  a  lofty 
tree  or  on  a  cliff.  When  unmolested  the  bird  occupies  the 
same  nest  year  after  year,  merely  repairing  or  adding  some- 
what to  the  structure,  which  consists  of  a  mass  of  sticks  and 
heather,  with  a  dense  lining  of  sheep's  wool  or  something 
equally  soft.  The  Raven  breeds  very  early  in  the  year,  and 
the  eggs  are  laid  by  the  end  of  February  or  the  beginning 
of  March. 

Egg-s  — These  are  scarcely  so  large  as  might  be  expected  from 
the  size  of  the  bird,  and  often  do  not  greatly  exceed  those  of 
the  Carrion  Crow  in  size.  The  clutch  varies  from  three  to  six 
in  number,  and  the  ground  colour  is  bluish  or  greyish  green, 
thickly  blotched  and  overlaid  with  brown.  The  ground- 
colour is  sometimes  pale  greenish  blue,  and  in  such  eggs  the 
markings  are  fewer  and  more  distinct.  Axis,  i'85-2'i  inches; 
diam.,  1-25-1-4  inch.  (Plate  XXIX.,  Fig.  2.) 

THE  JACKDAWS.    GENUS  COLCEUS. 

Coloeiis,  Kaup.,  Skizz.,  Natiirl.  Syst.,  p.  114  (1829). 

Type,  C.  monedula  (Linn.). 

The  members  of  this  genus  resemble  the  Ravens  in  the  form 
of  the  wing,  having  a  long  first  primary,  which  equals  or  ex- 
ceeds the  innermost  secondaries  in  length.  In  general  form, 
however,  the  Jackdaws  are  different  from  the  last-mentioned 
birds,  having  a  very  short  bill,  which  is  not  even  as  long  as  the 
head  itself.  They  also  generally  build  in  holes  of  trees,  or  in 
buildings,  under  shelter. 

Five  species  of  Jackdaw  are  known,  one  of  them,  the  so- 
called  "  Fish-Crow,"  being  found  in  North  America,  while  the 
other  four  are  peculiar  to  the  Old  World.  Of  these,  our  common 
Jackdaw  is  found  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  while 
from  Turkey  eastwards  to  Central  Asia  its  place  is  taken  by  the 
White-collared  Jackdaw  (Colceus  collaris),  and  still  further,  in 
China  and  Japan,  it  is  replaced  by  the  Chinese  Jackdaw  ( Cola'us 
neghctus).  In  Eastern  Siberia,  China,  and  Japan  occurs  still 
another  form,  the  White-collared  Jackdaw  (Colaus  dauricus). 


IO  LLOYDS    NATURAL    HISTORY. 


I.    THE   JACKDAW.       COLCEUS    MONEDULA. 

Corvus  moi:ediila,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  156  (1766);  Macg.,  Br. 
B.,  i.,  p.  552  (1837) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  523,  pi.  261 
(1875) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  305  (1878) ;  B.  O.  U.  List 
Br.  B.,  p.  68  (1883) ;  Seeb.,  Hist  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  556  (1883) ; 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  229  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B., 
pt.  x.  (1889). 

Colceus  monedula,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  iii.,  p.  26  (1877). 

Adult  Male. — Black,  with  a  purplish  gloss  on  the  wings  and 
tail,  somewhat  shot  with  green ;  crown  of  head  glossy  blue- 
black,  forming  a  cap  by  reason  of  the  greyish  shade  which  per- 
vades the  hind  neck  and  sides  of  neck,  the  latter  part  inclining 
occasionally  to  hoary  white ;  bill  and  feet  black  ;  iris  bluish 
white.  Total  length,  13  inches;  culmen,  1-35  ;  wing,  9-5  ;  tail, 
6'  i ;  tarsus,  1*7. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour  and  size. 

Young. — Duller  than  the  adult,  and  not  showing  any  grey  on 
the  neck. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Generally  distributed,  but  is  some- 
what local,  and  there  are  many  localities  where  it  does  not 
breed,  such  as  the  Outer  Hebrides  and  the  Shetlands,  though 
a  few  pairs  nest  in  the  Orkneys.  There  is  a  great  migration  of 
these  birds  every  autumn  from  the  east,  and  large  numbers 
cross  to  England  in  October  and  November,  in  company  with 
Rooks.  Even  earlier  in  the  year  there  seems  to  be  a  migration 
along  the  south  coast,  as  we  have  seen  numbers  at  St.  Leo- 
nards, in  Sussex,  passing  from  east  to  west  in  September ; 
but  whether  these  were  British-bred  birds  shifting  their  quarters 
or  whether  they  were  the  forerunners  of  the  great  swarm  which 
visits  us  every  year  from  Northern  Europe  and  passes  over 
Heligoland,  it  is  impossible  to  say. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Throughout  nearly  the  whole 
of  Europe,  breeding  as  far  north  as  Trondhjemsfiord,  and  being 
found  generally  south  of  the  Arctic  Circle.  Seebohm  and 
Harvie  Brown  found  the  Jackdaw  common  in  Russia  at  Mezen 
(lat.  66°),  noticed  it  at  Ust  Zylma  (lat.  65°),  and  in  the  Urals  it 
is  known  to  occur  up  to  61°.  Its  range  is  evidently  further  north 


THE    CROWS.  1  i 

in  Scandinavia  than  in  Siberia,  where  it  reaches  to  the  Valley  of 
theYenesei,  Seebohm  having  noticed  it  at  Krasnoyarsk  (lat.  56°). 
In  many  parts  of  Southern  Europe  the  Jackdaw  is  local,  but  it 
occurs  in  the  countries  north  of  the  Mediterranean  and  in 
Algeria.  It  has  not  been  found  in  Egypt,  and  in  South- 
eastern Europe  is  replaced  by  Colceus  collaris^  which  takes  its 
place  to  the  eastward. 

Habits. — The  Jackdaw  is  decidedly  a  gregarious  bird  like  the 
Rook,  with  which  it  is  a  close  companion,  especially  in  winter, 
migrating  in  flocks  along  with  that  species.  Even  in  the 
breeding  season  many  pairs  nest  in  company,  and  we  have 
known  as  many  as  ten  nests  in  a  single  old  tree.  Cathedral 
and  University  towns  are  favourite  haunts  of  the  Jackdaw, 
which  finds  its  favourite  nesting-places  in  the  old  towers  and 
churches.  In  many  places,  however,  the  bird  builds  in  holes 
of  cliffs  and  in  rabbit-burrows,  and  not  unfrequently  in  the 
open.  We  have  ourselves  seen  a  Jackdaw's  nest  on  the  ledge 
of  a  window-sill  of  an  outhouse. 

Nest. — The  nest  is  an  untidy  structure,  by  no  means  equal  to 
that  of  the  Rook  as  a  piece  of  architecture,  and  is  composed  of 
sticks,  moss  and  grass,  with  a  few  feathers  occasionally  added. 

Eggs. — From  three  to  six  in  number,  bluish  green  or  bluish 
white,  with  obscure  grey  spots  and  bolder  spots  and  markings 
of  brown  or  greenish  brown,  distributed  pretty  equally  over 
the  whole  egg.  Axis,  i  '35-1  '55  inch;  diam.,  0-9-1-1  inch. 

In  dry  seasons,  when  food  is  difficult  to  obtain,  the  number 
of  eggs  is  often  only  three,  and  many  young  birds  perish  in 
the  nest. 

THE  CROWS.     GENUS   CORONE. 

Corone,  Kaup,  Skizz.,  Natiirl  Syst.,  p.  99  (1829). 

Type,  C.  corone  (Linn.). 

The  Crows  are  Ravens  in  miniature,  and  differ  only  in  the 
form  of  the  wing,  the  first  primary  quill  being  longer  than  the 
ordinary  secondaries,  but  not  equal  to  the  innermost  second- 
aries in  length.  They  are  found  in  the  northern  portions  of  both 
Hemispheres,  ranging  into  Mexico  in  the  New  World,  and 
occurring  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Old  World,  except  in 


12  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Africa  below  the  Sahara,  t.t.  the  Ethiopian  region  proper. 
Only  one  Crow  is  found  in  the  Pacific  Islands,  viz.,  Corone 
hawaiensis  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  :  otherwise  the  Crows  are 
not  represented  in  Oceania. 

The  genus  Corone  may  be  divided  into  two  main  groups,  the 
Hooded,  or  Saddle-backed  Crows,  and  the  True  Crows.  Of  the 
former  group  there  are  five  species  with  grey  necks,  or  mantles, 
while  all  the  rest  of  the  species,  some  fifteen  in  number,  are 
entirely  black.  Of  the  grey-necked  section  our  Hooded  Crow 
is  the  most  familiar  species.  It  is  found  over  the  greater  part 
of  Europe,  and  in  Western  Siberia  is  represented  by  a  very 
similar  species,  Corone  sharpii,  which  winters  in  North-west- 
ern India.  In  Persia  and  Mesopotamia  a  third  species  occurs 
(C.  capellanus).  Of  the  True  Crows,  we  have  but  one  species  in 
Europe,  the  Carrion  Crow,  but  this  is  represented  in  the  Indian 
and  Australian  Regions  by  many  forms,  so  like  one  another 
that  only  a  prolonged  study  can  result  in  a  proper  understand- 
ing of  the  species. 

I.  THE  HOODED  CROW.   CORONE  CORNIX. 

Coruus  comix,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  156  (1766) ;  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i., 
P-  529  (l837);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  543>  P1-  263>  %  2 
(1874);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  275  (1878);  B.  O.  U.  List 
Br.  B.,  p.  69  (1883);  Seeb.,  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  544  (1883); 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  235  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B., 
pt.  xi.  (1889). 

Corone  comix,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  iii.,  p.  31  (1877). 

Adult  Male. — Above  drab-grey;  head,  wings,  and  tail  purplish 
black,  with  green  reflections;  sides  of  neck  and  under  surface 
of  body  drab-grey  ;  bill  and  legs  black ;  iris  dark  brown. 
Total  length,  17  inches;  oilmen,  2^4;  wing,  12-5;  tail,  7-8; 
tarsus,  2 *2. 

Sexes  alike  in  colour. 

Young. — Duller  in  colour  than  the  adult,  the  grey  dusky,  and 
the  black  dull  without  glossy  reflections ;  the  lanceolate  plumes 
on  the  throat  not  developed. 

The  grey  back  of  the  Hooded  Crow  and  its  grey  breast 
render  it  easily  recognisable  from  all  its  brethren,  and  these 


THE   CROWS.  13 

features  are  easily  seen  when  the  bird  is  flying.  It  is  of  the 
same  size  and  shape  as  the  Carrion  Crow,  and  many  ornitho- 
logists deny  to  it  the  rank  of  a  species,  because  it  often  inter- 
breeds with  the  last-named  bird.  This  seems  to  us  a  mis- 
taken idea,  as  there  are  many  places  where  the  Carrion  and 
Hooded  Crows  breed  perfectly  true,  and  it  is  only  in  certain 
places  and  colonies  that  the  two  birds  hybridise.  We  have 
ourselves  come  across  such  mixed  colonies  in  Aberdeenshire, 
but  there  are  also  many  places  in  the  United  Kingdom  where 
Hooded  Crows  pair  and  rear  their  young.  When  hybridism 
takes  place  the  young  birds  partake  of  the  ground-colour  of  the 
Hooded  Crow,  but  have  the  grey  plumage  smudged  and 
streaked  with  black  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  In  Siberia 
the  interbreeding  of  the  Carrion  Crow  and  the  eastern  form  of 
Hooded  Crow  (C.  sharpii)  takes  place,  and  has  been  well 
described  by  Mr.  Seebohm,  whose  specimens  illustrative  of  the 
fact  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Great  Hall  of  the  Natural  History 
Museum  at  South  Kensington. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Chiefly  known  as  an  autumn  emi- 
grant, when  great  numbers  arrive  on  the  east  coast  and  dis- 
tribute themselves  inland.  For  a  week  together  flocks  of 
Hooded  Crows  are  constantly  arriving,  and  in  Heligoland  we 
have  seen  them  continually  for  five  days  and  nights,  a  flock 
being  constantly  in  sight,  either  arriving  or  departing.  In  Ire- 
land, Scotland,  and  some  parts  of  England  and  Wales,  the 
Hooded  Crow  breeds  regularly,  sometimes  pairing  with  a 
Carrion  Crow,  as  already  mentioned. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Hooded  Crow  has  a 
curious  distribution,  and  may  almost  be  said  to  exist  in 
scattered  colonies  throughout  Europe,  being  in  some  districts 
plentiful,  absent  in  others ;  in  some  localities  a  winter  visitant 
only,  in  others  a  resident ;  in  many  places  interbreeding  with 
the  Carrion  Crow,  as  already  mentioned.  The  great  stronghold 
of  the  species  is  probably  European  Russia,  whence  migrate  the 
large  flocks  which  populate  Western  Europe  in  winter,  but  in 
many  other  parts  of  Central  Europe,  in  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Egypt, 
the  Hooded  Crow  is  a  resident  bird,  though  always  local.  The 
exact  ranges  of  the  European  species  and  that  of  its  eastern 
representative  (C.  sharpii)  are  not  yet  determined,  and  we  only 


14  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

know  of  the  latter  that  it  breeds  in  Central  Siberia,  and  winters 
in  North-western  India,  so  that  its  migrating  line  is  probably 
north  and  south,  whereas  the  migration  of  C.  comix  is  east 
and  west. 

Habits. — The  ways  of  the  Hooded,  or  "  Danish  "  Crow,  as 
it  is  often  called  by  the  marshmen,  are  best  observed  in 
England  on  the  east  coast  after  the  season  of  migration,  when 
the  bird  is  plentiful  in  the  marshes  and  on  the  shores.  The 
favourite  food  of  the  Hooded  Crow  seems  then  to  consist  of 
cockles.  When  the  bird  finds  a  difficulty  in  opening  one  of 
the  latter,  it  flies  up  into  the  air  and  lets  the  mollusc  fall 
upon  a  rock  or  hard  ground,  so  as  to  break  the  shell.  In 
Scotland  and  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom  where  this  Crow  is 
resident,  it  enjoys,  with  the  Carrion  Crow,  the  hatred  of  every 
gamekeeper  for  the  damage  it  does  to  the  eggs  of  game-birds, 
which  it  devours  wholesale,  and  we  have  ourselves  seen  the 
ground  under  a  Hooded  Crow's  nest  strewn  with  the  egg- 
shells of  Grouse.  It  is  quite  as  destructive  a  bird  as  the 
Carrion  Crow,  if  not  more  so. 

Nest. — This  is  a  solid  structure,  and  is  placed  on  a  tree  or 
rock,  being  often  built  on  cliffs.  It  is  of  the  usual  Corvine  type, 
being  largely  composed  of  twigs,  and  branches,  coarse  roots, 
moss,  and  wool,  with  a  few  feathers. 

Eggs. — From  three  to  six  in  number,  green  or  greenish  blue, 
generally  clouded  with  brown  spots  and  mottlings  and  overlaid 
with  larger  mottlings  of  greenish  brown.  Sometimes,  even  in 
the  same  clutch,  will  occur  eggs  of  a  nearly  uniform  greenish 
blue,  with  the  markings  nearly  obsolete.  Axis,  1-55-1-8; 
diam.,  1-25-1-15  inch. 

K.  THE  CARRION  CROW.   CORONE  CORONE. 

Corvus  corofie,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  155  (1766) ;  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i., 
p.  516  (1837);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  531,  pi.  263,  fig.  i 
(1875);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  274  (1878) ;  B.  O.  U.  List 
Br.  B.,  p.  69  (1883) ;  Seeb.,  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  539  (1883) ; 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  233  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B., 
pt.  x.  (1889). 

Corone  coront,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  Hi.,  p.  36  (1877). 


THE   CROWS.  15 

Adult  Male. — Steel-black  above  and  below,  with  a  purplish 
shade ;  on  the  head  and  neck  a  green  gloss ;  throat-feathers 
purplish,  and  lanceolate  in  shape ;  bill  and  legs  black ;  iris 
brown.  Total  length,  19  inches;  culmen,  2*15;  wing,  13*0; 
tail,  8*0;  tarsus,  2 '5. 

Sexes  alike. 

Young. — Similar  to  the  adult,  but  the  whole  plumage  more 
dingy  in  colour. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. —  Generally  distributed,  but  more  plen- 
tiful in  some  parts  than  in  others,  especially  in  the  north  and 
west.  Rare  in  Ireland  and  generally  replaced  by  the  Hooded 
Crow.  A  considerable  migration  to  the  east  coast  occurs 
in  autumn. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Generally  but  locally  distri- 
buted over  Europe,  but  not  occurring  far  north,  while  it  is  an 
inhabitant  only  of  the  more  northern  parts  of  the  Mediterranean 
countries.  Many  naturalists  recognise  the  Carrion  Crow  of 
Eastern  Siberia  as  a  distinct  species  (Corone  orientalis],  and  it 
is  probably  this  species  which  interbreeds  with  the  Siberian 
Hooded  Crow  (Corone  sharp  it)  in  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei, 
as  recorded  by  Mr.  Seebohm  (Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  547).  Like  the 
Raven,  which  it  much  resembles  in  appearance  and  habits,  the 
Carrion  Crow  is  an  omnivorous  bird,  and  it  will  prey  upon  any- 
thing that  comes  in  its  way,  young  birds,  sickly  lambs,  eggs  of 
game-birds,  rodents  of  all  sizes,  garbage,  sea-shells,  etc.  Occa- 
sionally the  Crows  assemble  in  flocks  like  Rooks,  and,  like  the 
latter,  atone  for  their  misdeeds  by  devouring  insects  and  grubs. 

Nest. — Generally  built  in  a  tall  and  isolated  tree,  about  the 
middle  of  April,  but  sometimes  in  rocks,  and  when  these  suit- 
able situations  do  not  occur,  the  nest  will  be  placed  on  the 
ground.  In  structure  it  resembles  that  of  the  Hooded  Crow. 

Eggs. — Three  to  six  in  number,  very  similar  in  size  and  colour 
to  those  of  the  Hooded  Crow,  but  the  bluish  ground-colour 
generally  rather  brighter.  As  with  the  eggs  of  C.  cornix,  there 
are  many  varieties  in  which  the  spots  are  sparsely  distributed, 
and  in  some  instances  the  mottlings  show  a  tendency  to  crowd 
together  at  the  larger  end  of  the  egg.  Axis,  i '6-1*9  inch; 
diarn ,  1*1-1*25. 


1 6  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

THE    NUTCRACKERS.      GENUS    NUCIFRAGA. 

Nurifragci)  Briss.,  Orn.,  ii.,  p.  58  (1760). 

Type,  N.  caryocatactes  (Linn.). 

The  Nutcrackers  differ  in  structure  from  the  Rooks,  the 
Ravens,  and  the  Crows  in  the  proportions  of  the  wing-feathers, 
the  first  primary  quill  being  very  short,  and  not  equal  to  the 
secondaries  in  length.  The  bill  is  very  thin,  conical,  and  long, 
resembling  that  of  the  Rook  in  shape,  but  of  course  having  the 
nostrils  always  covered  with  bristles.  The  wing  is  somewhat 
rounded,  the  innermost  secondary  quills  being  gradually  shorter 
than  the  outer  ones. 

Four  species  of  Nutcrackers  are  now  recognised,  one,  N. 
columbiana^  being  confined  to  the  New  World,  and  three  to 
the  Old.  Of  these,  N.  caryocatactes  occasionally  visits  Great 
Britain,  the  other  two,  N.  kemispila  and  N.  multipunctata> 
being  inhabitants  of  the  Himalayan  sub-region. 

I.  THE   NUTCRACKER,      NUCIFRAGA   CARYOCATACTES. 

Corvus  caryocatactes,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  157  (1766);   Lilford, 

Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  iv.  (1887). 
Nucifraga caryocatactes^  Macg.,Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  583  (1837) ;  Dresser, 

B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  451,  pi.  252  (1874) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit. 

Mus.,  iii.,  p.  53  (1877) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  330  (1878) ; 

B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  67  (1883);  Seeb.,  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i., 

p.  583  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  223  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — Back  brown,  with  a  triangular  white  spot  on 
each  feather ;  head  dark  brown ;  outer  tail-feather  white  at  tip, 
the  basal  half  black;  central  primaries  with  a  large  patch  of 
white  near  the  base  of  the  inner  web ;  rump  and  upper  tail- 
coverts  brown,  uniform  ;  bill  and  feet  black  ;  iris  dark  brown. 
Total  length,  13  inches;  culmen,  1-95;  wing,  7-3;  tail,  5*2; 
tarsus,  i 'i. 

Sexes  alike  in  colour. 

Young. — Duller  in  colour  than  the  adult  and  browner,  the 
feathers  generally  more  fluffy;  wing-coverts  tipped  with  dull 
white ;  under  tail-coverts  dingy  white. 

Two  forms  of  Nutcracker  in   Europe  are   recognised  by 


THE    MAGPIES.  I  7 

many  naturalists,  IV.  caryocatactes^  and  a  short-billed  form,  N. 
brachyrhynchus,  the  supposed  differences  between  which  we 
have  never  been  able  to  appreciate. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  irregular  visitor.  Sometimes,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  Waxwing  and  Pallas'  Sand  Grouse,  a  west- 
ward immigration  occasionally  takes  place  in  Europe,  but  not 
many  instances  of  the  capture  of  this  bird  in  England  have 
been  recorded. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — An  inhabitant  of  the  conifer- 
forests  of  Europe  and  Siberia,  breeding  very  early  in  March, 
though  in  Siberia,  according  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  it  does  not 
nest  before  the  middle  of  June.  It  is  found  as  high  as 
67°  N.  lat.  in  Sweden,  and  its  range  extends  across  Siberia 
to  Kamtchatka  and  Japan.  To  the  southward  it  has  been 
found  breeding  in  the  pine-forests  of  Transylvania,  Switzerland, 
and  France,  and  it  probably  nests  in  the  Pyrenees  and  some 
of  the  mountain-ranges  of  Northern  Spain. 

Habits. — Mr.  Seebohm  states  that,  like  most  of  the  other 
European  Corvida,  the  Nutcracker  is  almost  omnivorous,  and 
will  devour  eggs  and  nestlings  of  other  birds.  It  also  extracts 
seeds  from  the  conifer-trees,  and  devours  wasps  and  other 
insects.  A  very  interesting  account  of  the  same  author's 
experiences  of  the  birds  in  Siberia  is  given  by  him  in  his 
"History  of  British  Birds"  (vol.  i.,  p.  584). 

Nest. — Somewhat  bulky  and  ragged,  composed  of  twigs  of 
larch  and  spruce  firs,  and  lined  with  dry  grasses. 

Eggs. — Three  to  five  in  number,  the  ground-colour  nearly 
white,  with  numerous  tiny  spots  of  pale  brown,  sometimes  a 
little  larger  towards  the  larger  end.  Axis,  1*4- 1*5 5  inch; 
diam.,  o'95-i'o. 

THE  MAGPIES.     GENUS  PICA. 

Pica,    Briss.,    Orn.,   ii.,  p.   35  (1766). 

Type,  P.  pica  (Linn.). 

Five  species  of  Magpie  are  known,  one  being  our  common 

British  Magpie,  which  is  found  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe 

and  Asia,  and  also  inhabits  North  America.     In  Central  Asia 

the  White-winged  Magpie  (P.  leucoptera)  takes  its  place,  and 

I.  C 


1 8  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

in  the  Eastern  Himalayas  a  black-rumped  form  occurs  (P. 
bottanensis\  while  in  South-eastern  Spain  an  intermediate  form 
is  found,  and  further  in  Algeria  and  Morocco  P.  mauritanica 
replaces  the  ordinary  European  species.  In  California  is  found 
the  Yellow-billed  Magpie  (JP.  nuttalli}. 

1.    THE  MAGPIE.      PICA  PICA. 

Corvus pica,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  157  (1766). 

Pica  melanoleuca,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  562  (1837). 

Pica  rustica,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  509,  pi.  260,  fig.  2  (1873) ; 

Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  312  (1878);    B.   O.  U.   List  Br. 

B.,  p.  68  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  227  (1889). 
Pica  caudata,  Seeb.,  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  562  (1883);  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  xii.  (1890). 
Pica  pica,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  iii.,  p.  62  (1877). 

Adult  Male. — Black,  with  green  and  coppery  reflections  ; 
rump  with  an  ashy- white  bar;  a  white  shoulder-patch;  tail  dark 
green,  black  at  the  end,  before  which  the  feathers  are  coppery, 
and  then  purplish  red  to  purplish  blue ;  throat  black,  with 
grey  streaks ;  rest  of  under  surface  pure  white ;  thighs  and 
under  wing-coverts  black,  with  a  green  shade;  bill  and  legs 
black;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  16  inches;  culmen,  1*5; 
wing,  7-9;  tail,  9-8;  tarsus,  1-95. 

Sexes  alike,  the  female  being  merely  a  little  duller  in  colour. 
Young. — Like  the  adults,  but  much  more  dingily  coloured. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Generally  distributed  throughout  the 
British  Islands,  though  absent  in  some  parts  of  Scotland, 
and  the  outlying  islands.  In  many  parts  of  the  southern  and 
south-eastern  counties  of  England  now  of  rare  occurrence. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Generally  distributed 
throughout  Europe  and  Northern  Asia  to  China,  and  also 
occurring  over  the  greater  part  of  North  America. 

Habits. — A  woodland  species,  still  plentiful  in  some  of  the  mid- 
land counties,  but  regarded  with  great  enmity  by  the  farmer  and 
gamekeeper.  As  regards  its  food,  it  is  practically  omnivorous, 
devouring  fruit  and  grain,  small  mammals  and  dead  birds,  eggs 
and  young  of  poultry  and  game ;  but  also  useful  from  the 


THE   JAYS.  IQ 

number  of  insects  and  grubs  it  destroys.  Generally  seen  in 
pairs,  but  also  assembles  on  occasions  in  considerable  flocks,  as 
many  as  forty  having  been  seen  together.  Its  flight  is  much 
more  laboured  than  those  of  the  other  Corvida^  and  is  accom- 
plished by  rapid  flappings  of  the  wings.  Owing  to  the  persecu- 
tion which  follows  it  in  England,  the  Magpie  is  a  very  shy  bird, 
but  in  other  countries  it  is  comparatively  tame,  and  frequents 
the  neighbourhood  of  dwellings,  building  in  bushes  and  even 
under  the  eaves  of  houses. 

Nest. — Constructed  of  twigs,  with  a  foundation  of  mud  and 
clay,  and  generally,  but  not  always,  domed.  The  nest  is  lined 
with  fine  rootlets,  and  is  so  constructed  with  thorny  sticks  as  to 
be  difficult  of  access. 

Eggs. — Four  to  seven  in  number.  Ground-colour  pale  greenish 
or  greenish  blue,  generally  plentifully  mottled  and  spotted  with 
brown  and  greenish  brown,  with  grey  underlying  spots  and 
blotches.  Considerable  variation  takes  places  in  the  eggs  of 
the  Magpie,  both  as  regards  colour  and  size,  the  spots  often 
clustering  at  the  end  of  the  egg  and  forming  a  brown  patch, 
while  occasionally  they  are  almost  entirely  devoid  of  markings. 
Axis,  1-25-175  inch;  diam.,  0-95-1-0.  (Plate  XXIX.,  Fig.  7.) 

THE  JAYS.     GENUS  GARRULUS. 

Garrulus,   Boss..  Orn.,   ii.,   p.   46   (1760). 

Type,  G,  glandarius  (Linn.). 

The  Jays,  like  the  Magpies,  belong  to  the  short-winged  group 
of  Crows,  and  are  very  strongly  represented  in  both  the  Old  and 
the  New  World.  They  are  of  brighter  colours  than  the  ordinary 
Crows,  some  of  the  American  Blue  Jays  being  of  beautiful 
plumage  and  possessing  ornamental  crests.  The  Jays  of  the 
Old  World,  though  not  so  brilliant  in  coloration,  are  remark- 
able for  a  spangled  blue  wing-patch,  which  is  a  well-known 
feature  of  our  British  Jay. 

There  are  two  groups  of  Jays,  the  white  or  vinous-throated 
birds,  and  the  black-throated  ones.  To  the  latter  section 
belong  Garrulus  lanceolatus  of  the  Himalayas,  and  G.  lidthi  of 
Japan  or  Corea.  Of  the  pale-throated  section,  there  are  some 
with  striped  heads  like  our  British  Jay,  some  with  black  heads 

C    2 


20  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

like  the  Jays  of  Algeria,  Asia  Minor,  and  the  Caucasus,  and 
some  with  uniform  vinous  coloured  heads,  the  latter  being  con- 
fined to  the  Himalayas,  China  and  Formosa. 

I.   THE  COMMON   JAY,      GARRULUS   GLANDARIUS. 

(Plate  II.) 

Corvus  glandarins,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  156  (1766). 
Garralus glandarius,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  576(1837) ;  Dresser, 
B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  481,  pi.  254(1873) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit. 
Mus.,  iii.,  p.  93  (1877) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  323  (1878) ; 
Seeb.,  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  569  (1883) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br. 
B.,  p.  67  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  225  (1889); 
Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  x.  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  vinaceous ;  throat  white ; 
under  surface  pale  vinaceous ;  vent  and  under  tail-coverts 
white ;  crown  of  head  streaked  with  black ;  forehead  whitish 
with  black  streaks  ;  bastard-wing  and  primary  coverts  barred 
with  black  and  cobalt-blue  ;  bill  black.  Total  length,  13  inches  ; 
culmen,  1-15;  wings,  7-3;  tail,  6'6 ;  tarsus,  17. 

Sexes  alike. 

Young.— Duller  in  plumage  than  the  adults,  and  the  feathers 
more  fluffy  in  texture. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Apparently  diminishing  in  num- 
bers, owing  to  systematic  persecution  on  account  of  its  depre- 
dations in  game  preserves,  the  Jay  is  still  to  be  found  in 
woodland  districts,  and  is  common  in  some  places.  In  Ireland 
it  is  now  only  found  in  the  south  and  east,  but  appears  to  be 
spreading  northward  in  Scotland,  occurring  as  far  as  Inverness- 
shire.  Occasionally  large  numbers  migrate  to  our  shores,  and 
they  have  been  observed  by  Mr.  Gatke  to  pass  over  Heligoland 
in  some  seasons  in  vast  quantities. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — Throughout  the  greater 
part  of  Europe,  but  replaced  in  North-eastern  Africa  by  an 
allied  form  ( Garrulus  minor),  and  in  South-eastern  Europe  and 
Siberia  by  other  species.  Its  highest  northern  range  in  Russia 
is,  according  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  about  lat.  63°,  whence  it 
extends  to  the  valley  of  the  Volga.  In  Scandinavia  it  occurs 
up  to  the  Arctic  Circle. 


THE   CHOUGHS.  21 

Habits. — The  Jay  is  an  extremely  shy  and  wary  bird,  having 
no  doubt  learnt  caution  from  the  state  of  danger  in  which  it 
constantly  finds  itself,  not  only  on  account  of  its  depredations 
in  the  covert,  but  because  of  the  brilliant  blue  feathers  in  the 
bird's  .wing,  which  are  much  in  request  with  fly-fishers.  It 
is  more  often  seen  than  heard,  and  its  harsh  note  is  the  only 
indication  of  the  bird's  presence.  Its  name  of  glandarius,  the 
bird  of  the  acorn,  has  been  amply  justified  during  the  past 
summer  (1893),  when  we  have  noticed  in  many  of  the  woods 
in  the  midland  and  eastern  counties  a  considerable  number  of 
Jays  gathered  together  to  feed  on  the  acorns  which  have  been 
so  unusually  abundant.  Although  in  the  spring  the  Jay 
devours  a  large  number  of  grubs,  it  is  decidedly  a  mischievous 
bird  later  on  in  the  fruit  season,  and  will  commit  great  havoc 
among  peas  in  a  garden,  if  the  latter  be  near  a  wood  inhabited 
by  the  birds.  It  is  detested  by  the  gamekeeper  as  a  devourer 
of  eggs  and  young  birds,  and  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  it 
is  as  omnivorous  as  any  of  its  Corvine  relations.  When  on  the 
ground,  it  does  not  walk  like  the  other  Corvida^  but  hops  like 
the  majority  of  Passerine  birds. 

Nest. — A  cup-shaped  structure  adapted  to  its  surroundings, 
placed  on  a  branch  of  a  bush  or  tree,  sometimes  at  a  con- 
siderable height  from  the  ground.  Composed  of  twigs  and 
roots,  and  lined  with  finer  rootlets. 

Eggs. — Three  to  six ;  axis,  i  -2-1  -4  ;  diam.,  0-9 ;  colour  varying 
from  grey  or  clay-colour  to  olive  brown,  in  the  latter  case  almost 
devoid  of  markings ;  but  the  ordinary  type  of  egg  is  thickly 
clouded  with  minute  spots  of  pale  brown,  sometimes  forming 
a  ring  at  one  end  or  the  other.  (Plate  XXX.,  Fig.  5.) 

THE  CHOUGHS.     SUB-FAMILY  FREGILIN^E. 

The  Choughs  constitute  a  small  section  of  the  Crows.  They 
belong  exclusively  to  the  Old  World,  and  differ  from  the  true 
Corvida  in  the  position  of  the  nostrils,  which  are  situated 
low  down  in  the  bill,  nearer  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  mandi- 
ble than  to  the  upper.  Two  genera  are  found  in  Europe 
and  Northern  Asia,  and  a  third  form  (Ccrcorax)  inhabits 
Australia. 


22  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

THE  TRUE  CHOUGHS.      GENUS  GRACULUS. 

Graculus,  Koch,  Syst.  Baler,  Zool.,  p.  91  (1816). 

Type,   G.  graculus  (Linn.). 

The  following   species  is  the   only  representative  of  this 
genus  :  — 

I.    THE   RED  BILLED   CHOUGH.      GRACULUS    GRACULUS. 

Corvus  graculus,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  158  (1766). 
Fregilus  graculus,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  587  (1837). 
Pyrrhocorax  graculus,   Dresser,    B.    Eur.,  iv.,  p.  437,  pi.  251, 

fig.    i    (1875);    Newt,    ed.,  Yarn,    ii.,    p.   252   (1878); 

B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  66  (1883);  Seeb.,  Hist.  Br.  B., 

i->  P-  578  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  221  (1889);  Lilford, 

Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  x.  (1889). 
Graculus  graculus,  Sharpe,  Cat.   B.   Brit.   Mus.,  iii.,   p.    146 


Adult  Male.  —  Purplish  black  ;  greenish  on  the  wings  and 
tail  ;  bill  deep  vermilion  ;  legs  vermilion  ;  iris  brown.  Total 
length,  15  inches;  culmen,  2'i  ;  wing,  12*0;  tail,  8-7  ;  tarsus, 
2-3. 

Sexes  alike  in  plumage. 

Young.  —  Dusky  black,  without  the  gloss  of  the  adults  ;  bill 
and  legs  orange-yellow. 

Eange  in  the  British  Islands.  —  Now  restricted  to  certain 
localities  in  the  South-western  counties  of  England,  parts  of 
Wales,  the  Isle  of  Man,  but  still  by  no  means  rare  in  some 
localities  in  Ireland.  It  also  occurs  in  some  of  the  Western 
Islands  of  Scotland  as  far  north  as  Skye.  Its  habitat  is 
now  almost  entirely  restricted  to  the  sea-coast,  but  it  was 
formerly  found  inland,  as  it  is  now  on  the  Continent  of  Europe 
and  the  mountains  of  Asia,  and  the  Himalayas.  Occurs  in 
the  Channel  Islands. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands.  —  An  inhabitant  of  the  cliffs 
and  mountains,  the  Chough  is  found  distributed  over  the 
countries  on  both  sides  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  Portugal,  and 
Western  France,  but  it  does  not  range  far  to  the  north  on  the 
Continent  of  Europe,  its  limit  being  given  by  Mr.  Seebohm  as 


THE   STARLINGS.  23 

lat.  58°.  It  extends  throughout  the  mountainous  parts  of 
Europe  to  Central  Asia  and  Persia,  as  far  as  North-eastern 
China,  while  in  the  Himalayas  a  slightly  larger  race  occurs. 

Nest. — Generally  placed  in  holes  in  cliffs  or  in  caves,  and 
always  difficult  to  visit.  It  is  made  of  sticks  and  stems  of 
heather,  and  is  lined  with  wool  and  hair. 

Eggs. — Three  to  six  in  number,  creamy  white  in  colour,  with 
grey  underlying  marks  and  brown  spots,  varying  considerably 
in  the  extent  and  character  of  the  latter.  Axis,  1*5  inch; 
diam.,  IT. 

THE  ALPINE  CHOUGHS.  GENUS  PYRRHOCORAX. 

Pyrrhocorax,  Vieill.,  N.  Diet,  vi.,  p.  568  (i 8 1 6). 

Type,  P.  pyrrhocorax  (Linn.). 

Only  one  species  of  the  genus  is  known,  differing  from  the 
true  Choughs  in  its  shorter  bill,  and  in  having  the  base  of  the 
cheeks  bare,  not  feathered  as  in  the  genus  Graculus. 

I.  THE  ALPINE  CHOUGH.   PYRRHOCORAX  PYRRHOCORAXT- 

Corvus  pyrrhoccrax,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  L,  p.  158  (1766). 

Pyrrhocorax  alpinus.  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  445,  pi.  251, 
fig.  2  (1875);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  iii.,  p.  148 
(1877);  Seeb.,  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  580,  note  (1883); 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  222  (1889). 

Only  one  specimen  has  ever  been  captured  in  England,  as 
recorded  and  figured  by  Messrs.  Aplin,  in  their  "Birds  of 
Oxfordshire."  It  may  very  probably  have  been  an  imported 
individual  that  had  escaped.  The  range  of  the  Alpine  Chough 
outside  the  British  Islands  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
foregoing  species,  and  it  apparently  extends  as  far  east.  The 
yellow  bill  will  always  serve  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
Red-billed  Chough. 

THE  STARLINGS.     FAMILY  STURNID^E. 

The  Starlings,  like  the  Crows,  are  "  Ambulatores,"  or  "Walk- 
ers," progressing  over  the  ground  by  a  walking  step,  instead  of 
by  hops,  like  the  Thrushes,  Sparrows,  and  most  "Passerine" 
birds.  Though  possessing  a  perfection  of  form  little  inferior 


24  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

to  that  of  the  Corvida  as  regards  the  wings  and  feet,  the  Star- 
lings are  very  different  in  the  shape  of  their  bill  and  swollen 
nostril,  and  also  in  the  form  of  the  wing,  which  is  very  much 
pointed  and  possesses  only  nine  primary  quills.  All  the  true 
Starlings  nest  in  holes,  and  lay  eggs  of  a  bluish  white  or  pale 
blue  colour,  without  spots. 

THE  TYPICAL  STARLINGS.     GENUS   STURNUS. 
Sturnus,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  291  (1766). 
Type,  S.  vulgaris   Linn. 

Starlings,  of  the  same  type  as  our  familiar  English  bird,  are 
about  ten  in  number,  and  are  all  confined  to  the  Old  World. 
Of  these  no  less  than  six  are  found  in  India,  two  being  resident, 
and  the  other  four  winter  visitants  from  their  more  northern 
breeding-places.  Sturnus  unicolor  belongs  to  the  Mediterranean 
sub-region,  S.  caucasicus  and  S.  purpurascens  to  the  Mediter- 
raneo-Persic  sub-region,  and  S.  poltoratzkii  to  the  Mongolian 
sub-region. 

The  typical  species  of  the  genus  is  Sturnus  vulgaris  of 
Linnaeus,  from  Sweden,  and  this  bird  is  widely  spread  over 
Europe,  but  in  Siberia  it  is  replaced  by  a  purple-headed  race, 
S.  menzbieri,  which  winters  in  India,  and  between  those  two 
forms  an  intermediate  form,  which  I  think  ought  to  be 
separated  from  both  and  called  by  a  separate  name.  It 
occurs  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  and  even  visits  England, 
especially  the  eastern  counties. 

1.  THE   COMMON    STARLING.      STURNUS   VULGARIS. 

(Plate  III. ,  Fig.  /.) 

Sturnus  vulgaris,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  290  (1766);  Dresser,  B. 
Eur.,  iv.,  p.  405,  pl.247  (I^74) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p. 
228  (1877) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  65  (1883);  Saunders 
Man.,  p.  217  (1889);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xiii.,  p. 
27  (1890);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xxii.  (1892). 
Sturnus  guttatus,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  595  (1837). 

Adult  Male. — Black,  with  reflections  of  green  and  purple  and 
violet ;  the  mantle  bronzy  purple ;  head,  sides  of  face,  and 
ear-coverts  green ;  sides  of  body  and  flanks  bluish  purple,  the 


PLATE     III 


1    COMMON    STARLING     2    INTERMEDIATE    STARLING 


THE   STARLINGS.  35 

latter  inclining  to  steel-blue  and  steel-green  ;  wings  variegated, 
the  quills  black,  with  a  spot  of  ashy  grey  just  before  the  ends 
of  the  inner  primaries  and  secondaries,  the  secondary  quills 
with  a  steel-blue  or  green  line  just  before  the  tip ;  bill  yellow ; 
feet  reddish  brown  ;  iris  light  brown.  Total  length,  8  inches ; 
culmen,  ro;  wing,  5-0;  tail,  2*4;  tarsus,  i'i. 

Adult  in  Winter  Plumage. — Similar  to  the  summer  plumage,  but 
entirely  obscured  by  sandy  buff  tips  to  the  feathers,  so  that  the 
colour,  especially  on  the  throat,  can  be  traced  only  with  diffi- 
culty. The  bill  is  brownish  black  at  this  season  of  the  year. 

The  female  resembles  the  male  in  colour,  but  the  gloss  of 
the  plumage  is  never  so  brilliant.  The  sandy  buff  tips  to  the 
feathers,  which  are  lost  in  the  male  by  being  abraded  and  worn 
off,  never  entirely  disappear  in  the  female,  and  are  still  to 
be  seen  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  the  breeding  bird. 

Young. — Entirely  different  from  the  adults,  being  almost 
uniform  brown  or  dove-colour,  the  breast  and  abdomen  white, 
streaked  with  brown. 

The  intermediate  form  of  Starling  between  our  common 
birds  and  the  Siberian  Starling  (S.  menzbieri}  is  figured  on  the 
plate  (PI.  III.,  Fig.  2),  and  differs  from  the  typical  bird  in 
having  the  head  and  throat  washed  with  purple,  but  the  ear- 
coverts  green.  In  S.  menzbieri  the  head,  throat,  and  ear- coverts 
are  all  purple. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Almost  universally  distributed,  and 
of  late  years  becoming  common  in  parts  of  Scotland,  where 
it  was  formerly  rare  or  unknown.  Nor  is  this  to  be  wondered 
at,  as  the  autumnal  migration  to  our  shores  is  enormous,  and 
for  days  together  flocks  of  migrants  pour  into  our  eastern  coasts. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Found  everywhere  in  sum- 
mer throughout  Europe,  but  only  occurring  as  a  winter  visitor 
in  the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean.  Its  eastern  range  ex- 
tends as  far  as  Egypt  and  Persia  in  winter,  but  in  Central 
Siberia  it  is  replaced  by  Stitrnus  menzbieri.  The  range  of 
the  intermediate  form,  if  the  latter  be  a  true  species,  is  not  yet 
determined. 

Habits.— The  Starling  is  gregarious  in  the  winter  season, 
sind  is  generally  to  be  found  in  the  society  of  Rooks,  with 


26  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

which  it  associates  in  large  flocks.  During  the  nesting  season 
it  is  more  familiar,  and  frequents  dwellings  and  farmyards, 
where  it  nests  under  roofs  and  in  chimneys,  or  in  holes  of 
buildings  or  trees.  It  does  an  incalculable  amount  of  good  in 
the  destruction  of  grubs  and  noxious  insects,  but  it  devours  a 
quantity  of  fruit  during  the  period  of  the  year  when  the  cherries 
are  in  season,  at  which  time  its  good  deeds  as  a  grub-destroyer 
are  apt  to  be  forgotten. 

Nest. — A  rough  structure  of  straw  and  grass,  with  a  few 
feathers  and  wool  for  lining. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  seven.  Pale  blue  or  bluish  white. 
Axis,  1*15-1*35  inch;  diam.,  0-8-0-85  mcn- 

THE  FIELD  STARLINGS.      GENUS  PASTOR. 

Pastor,  Temm.,  Man.  d'Orn.,  i.,  p.  83  (1815). 

Type,  P.  roseus  (Linn.). 

In  the  "  Rose-coloured  Pastor,"  as  this  bird  is  sometimes 
called,  the  bill  is  of  different  shape  to  that  of  the  true  Star- 
lings, being  shorter,  higher,  and  more  curved.  Only  one 
species  of  the  genus  is  known,  and  this  is  an  unfrequent 
visitor  to  the  British  Islands.  In  addition  to  its  brilliant 
plumage,  the  Pastor  has  an  enormous  crest. 

I.  THE   ROSE-COLOURED    STARLING.       PASTOR    ROSEUS. 
(Plate  IV.} 

Turdus  roseus,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  294  (1766). 

Pastor  roseus,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,   iv.,  p.  423,   pi.  250  (1873); 

Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  243  (1877) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p. 

66  (1883);  Seeb.,Hist.  Br.  B.,ii.,  p.  20  (1884);  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  vii.  (1888) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  219  (1889); 

Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Br.  Mus.,  xiii.,  p.  63  (1890). 

Adult  Male  in  Breeding  Plumage. —  Clear  rose-colour,  with  black 
wings  and  tail  shot  with  green  or  purple.  Total  length,  8 
inches;  culmen,  0-8;  wing,  5-1;  tail,  2-5;  tarsus,  1-25. 

Sexes  alike ;  the  female  not  quite  so  bright  in  colour,  and 
with  a  shorter  crest. 

Young. — Different  from  the  adults.      Brown,   with   darker 


THE    ORIOLES.  3] 

brown  wings  and  tail ;  cheeks,  chin,  and  upper  throat  white  ; 
under  surface  very  pale  brown,  the  flanks  mottled  with  darker 
brown. 

In  winter  the  plumage  of  the  old  birds  is  not  so  brilliant,  the 
whole  of  the  feathers  being  obscured  by  sandy-coloured  edges 
and  tips,  which  wear  off  and  become  abraded  as  the  spring 
approaches. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  visitor  from  the  south- 
east. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Very  common  in  winter  in 
the  plains  of  India,  staying  in  that  country  very  late  in  the 
season  (we  ourselves  saw  a  flock  of  some  ten  individuals  in 
brilliant  summer  plumage  near  Futtehpur  Sikri  on  the  3rd  of 
July),  but  they  disappear  suddenly,  and  are  back  again  with 
their  young  early  in  August.  During  their  short  absence  from 
their  winter  quarters  they  visit  Central  Asia,  and  come  to 
Asia  Minor  and  South-eastern  Europe  to  nest,  as  well  as 
Bulgaria,  the  Dobrudscha,  and  the  vicinity  of  Smyrna  at 
irregular  intervals,  often  following  the  locusts.  They  have 
even  been  known  to  breed  in  large  numbers  as  far  west 
as  Verona.  An  interesting  account  of  the  nesting  of  this 
species  will  be  found  in  Mr.  Seebohm's  "  History  of  British 
Birds  "  (I.e.). 

Habits. — In  most  respects  resembling  our  common  Starling, 
but  differing  in  their  mode  of  nesting,  when  they  are  gregarious, 
and  build  their  nests  in  holes  of  buildings  or  rocks. 

Eggs. — Five  to  seven,  nearly  white  or  pale  grey.  Axis, 
n-i'2  inch;  diam.,  0-8-0-9. 

THE  ORIOLES.     FAMILY  ORIOLID.E. 

The  Orioles  are  birds  generally  of  a  bright  black  and  yellow 
plumage,  or  black  and  crimson.  They  are  entirely  confined  to 
the  Old  World,  the  so-called  "  Orioles  "  of  America  belonging 
to  a  totally  different  family  of  birds,  viz.,  the  Icterida.  They 
differ  from  the  Crows  not  only  in  their  brilliant  coloration,  but 
in  having  a  notch  in  the  upper  mandible,  such  as  is  found  in 
Thrushes  and  many  other  Passerine  birds.  Their  mode  of 


2  8  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

nesting  is  also  very  peculiar,  the  nest  being  suspended  in  the 
fork  of  a  branch. 

THE  GOLDEN  ORIOLES.     GENUS  ORIOLUS. 

Oriolus,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  160  (1766). 

Type,  a  galbula  (Linn.). 

I.  THE  GOLDEN    ORIOLE.      ORIOLUS   GALBULA. 
(Plate    F.) 

Oriolus  galbula,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  160  (1766);  Dresser,  B. 
Eur.,  in.,  p.  365  (1875) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  233  (1877) ; 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  iii.,  191  (1877);  B-  O.  U. 
List  Br.  B.,  p.  36(1883);  Seeb.,  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  589 
(1883);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  137  (1889);  Lilford,  Col. 
Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  ix.  (1888). 

Adult  Male. — Golden  yellow ;  wings  black,  with  a  yellow 
speculum  caused  by  the  tips  of  the  primary  coverts ;  the 
secondaries  edged  towards  the  tips  with  yellowish  white ;  tail 
black,  the  feathers  tipped  with  yellow,  increasing  towards  the 
outermost  one,  which  is  yellow  with  a  black  base ;  bill  dull 
red ;  feet  leaden  grey ;  iris  blood-red.  Total  length,  9  inches ; 
culmen,  1*0;  wing,  5-9;  tail,  3-1;  tarsus,  o'8. 

Adult  Female  and  Young  Birds. — Similar  to  the  male  above,  but 
below  greyish  white,  streaked  with  black  on  the  throat  and 
breast.  The  statement  that  the  old  female  is  entirely  yellow 
and  black  like  the  male  has  not  yet  been  fully  confirmed. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — Rare  visitor  to  most  parts  of  England 
and  Ireland,  and  seldom  found  in  Scotland,  but  a  regular 
migrant  to  Cornwall  and  the  Scilly  Islands  in  spring. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Breeds  throughout  Europe 
and  below  the  Baltic,  extending  to  Lat.  63°  in  South  Finland 
and  in  Russia  to  60°  N.  Lat.  east  to  Russian  Turkestan  and 
the  Altai  Mountains.  Its  place  in  Central  Asia  is  taken  by 
the  Indian  Oriole  (O.  kundoo),  a  species  very  like  0.  galbula, 
but  having  the  black  coral  spot  extended  beyond  the  eye. 
The  furthest  south-eastern  range  with  which  we  are  ourselves 
acquainted  is  Fao,  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  whence  specimens 


THE   HANG-NESTS.  29 

have  been  sent  to  the  British  Museum  by  Mr.  W.  D.  Gum- 
ming. The  winter  home  of  the  species  seems  to  be  Southern 
and  South-western  Africa, — viz.,  Natal,  the  Transvaal  and  Da- 
mara  Land. 

Habits. — Very  much  like  those  of  a  Thrush.  In  disposition 
the  bird  is  very  shy  and  by  no  means  so  easily  observed  as 
its  brilliant  plumage  would  lead  one  to  suppose,  though  it  is 
often  found  nesting  in  parks  and  gardens  of  continental  towns. 
Its  food  consists  mostly  of  insects,  but  in  summer  it  feeds  a 
great  deal  on  fruit,  especially  cherries.  The  note  is  described 
as  flute-like  and  very  beautiful  in  tone.  Mr.  Seebohm,  who 
has  taken  many  nests  of  the  Oriole'  in  Holland,  says  :  "The 
call-note  during  the  pairing  season  sounds  like  the  words, 
'  Who  are  you  ? '  in  a  full  rapid  whistle ;  and  its  song  is  a 
wheet,  //,  vee-o,  whence  its  vernacular  name  in  Holland  of 
'  Kiel-i-vee-vo. ' " 

Nest. — Suspended  from  the  fork  of  a  branch,  sometimes  in  a 
fir-tree,  but  generally  in  an  oak,  at  a  considerable  height  from 
the  ground.  It  is  composed  of  strips  of  bark,  which  are  also 
used  to  bind  it  to  the  branch  in  which  it  is  fixed.  The  lining 
consists  of  grass-stalks. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five,  white  or  pinkish  white,  spotted  nearly 
all  over  with  black  or  chocolate  brown,  the  latter  generally 
being  the  underlying  colour,  the  spots  not  unfrequently  congre- 
gated at  the  larger  end.  Axis,  i*i— 1*3  inch;  diam.,  o'8-o'9. 

THE  HANG-NESTS.     FAMILY  ICTERID^.* 

Three  species  of  this  American  family  have  been  allowed  to 
swell  the  British  List, — (i)  the  Red-winged  Starling  (Agela>us 
pJmniceus\  of  which  about  a  dozen  occurrences  have  taken 
place ;  (2)  the  Rusty  Grakle  (Scokcophagus  ferrugineus\  which 
has  been  captured  once;  and  the  Meadow  Starling  (Stur- 
nella  magna\  of  the  occurrence  of  which  three  instances  are 
known.  There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  they  were  all 
imported  birds  which  had  escaped  or  been  turned  loose. 

•  Gracnla  religiosa^  an  Indian  Mynah,  has  also  been  recorded,  but  as  it 
is  a  frequent  cage-bird,  no  importance  can  be  attached  to  its  capture. 


30  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


THE   FINCHES.     FAMILY  FRINGILLID.E. 

The  great  family  of  Finches  is  of  wide  distribution  in  both 
hemispheres.  It  is  especially  characteristic  of  the  northern 
parts  of  both  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  and  its  members 
possess  an  exceeding  diversity  of  form,  so  that  the  characters 
of  the  family  are  not  easily  tabulated.  They  possess  only  nine 
primary  quills,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  conical-shaped 
bill,  which  has  gained  for  them  the  name  of  Conirostres  in 
most  systems  of  classification. 

I  have,  in  the  "  Catalogue  of  Birds  "  (vol.  xii.),  divided  the 
Finches  into  three  sub-families,  as  follows  : — (i)  Coccothrau- 
stinae,  or  Grosbeaks,  (2)  Fringillinae,  or  Finches,  and  (3)  Emberi- 
zinae,  or  Buntings. 

THE  GROSBEAKS.   SUB-FAM.  COCCOTHRAUSTIN^E. 

In  these  Finches  the  bill  is  extremely  powerful,  especially  in 
the  typical  forms,  and  in  the  skull  the  nasal  bones  are 
extended  backwards  beyond  the  anterior  line  of  the  orbit. 
In  this  sub-family  are  found  all  the  Hawfinches  and  large 
Grosbeaks  of  Europe  and  Asia,  but  there  are  no  representa- 
tions in  Africa  or  Australia.  Both  North  and  South  America 
possess  a  large  number  of  Grosbeaks,  and  some  of  the  smaller 
forms,  such  as  Spermophila^  are  characteristic  of  the  Neotropi- 
cal region. 

THE   GREENFINCHES.      GENUS  LIGURINUS. 

Ligurinus,  Koch,  Syst.  Baier.  Zool.,  p.  230  (1816). 
Type,  L.  chloris  (Linn.). 

The  Greenfinches  have  a  very  stout  and  conical  bill,  with 
the  nostrils  placed  high  in  the  mandible,  so  that  they  are 
situated  nearer  to  the  culmen  than  to  the  cutting  edge 
of  the  bill.  The  secondary  quills  are  of  ordinary  form  and 
are  not  falcated  or  "  bill-hook "  shaped  as  in  the  Hawfinch, 
which  is  the  only  other  British  Finch  which  has  a  stoutly- 
built  bill  like  the  Greenfinch. 

Five  species  of  true  Greenfinches  are  known,  our  English 
bird  (L.  chloris\  which  extends  throughout  Europe  to  Central 


THE    GREENFINCHES.  3! 

Asia,  and  is  replaced  in  Syria  and  Palestine  by  a  brightly- 
coloured  race  (L.  chloroticus\  while  in  Eastern  Siberia,  China, 
and  Japan  occurs  the  Chinese  Greenfinch  (L.  sinicus\  the  two 
remaining  species  L.  kawarahiba  and  L.  kittlitzi  being  peculiar 
to  Japan  and  the  Bonin  Islands  respectively. 

I.    THE   GREENFINCH.      CHLORIS    CHLORIS. 

Loxia  chloris,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  304  (1766). 
Linaria  chloris,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  365  (1837). 
Coccothraustes  chloris,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  105  (1876). 
Ligurinus  chloris,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  567,  pi.  174(1875); 

B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  49  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  161 

(1889). 

Chloris  chloris,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.  21  (1888). 
Fringilla  chloris,  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xiv.  (1890). 

Adult  Male, — Above  olive-yellow,  shaded  with  ashy  grey,  es- 
pecially on  the  head  ;  ear-coverts  ashy ;  cheeks  and  under  sur- 
face of  body  bright  yellow,  slightly  washed  with  ashy ;  forehead 
and  eyebrows  brighter  yellow ;  lower  abdomen  white ;  quills 
dusky  brown,  with  yellow  outer  webs  to  the  primaries,  reach- 
ing to  the  shaft,  and  grey  margins  and  tips  to  the  secondaries  ; 
bastard  wing  bright  yellow;  tail-feathers  yellow  at  base,  blackish 
at  the  ends ;  bill  fleshy  pink ;  feet  pale  brown ;  iris  hazel. 
Total  length,  6  inches;  oilmen,  0*55;  wing,  3-35  ;  tail,  2-25; 
tarsus,  0*7. 

Adult  Female. — Duller  in  colour  than  the  male,  and  always 
to  be  distinguished  by  the  primaries  being  merely  edged  with 
yellow  at  the  base,  while  the  tail  is  not  yellow  at  the  base,  and 
the  feathers  of  the  bastard  wing  also  show  no  yellow  base. 

Young. — Browner  than  the  adults,  and  having  dusky  brown 
streaks  on  the  throat,  breast,  and  flanks. 

In  winter  the  plumage  of  the  adult  birds  is  always  overlaid 
with  brown  tips  to  the  feathers,  and  it  is  by  the  wearing  off  of 
these  tips  that  the  Greenfinch  attains  its  bright  summer  dress. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Found  nearly  everywhere  if  trees  or 
bushes  are  present,  and  apparently  extending  its  range  north- 
ward, as  it  now  breeds  sparingly  in  the  Orkneys,  though  to 
these  islands  and  the  Shetlands  it  is  chiefly  a  winter  visitor 


32  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

from  the  Continent.  A  large  migration  takes  place  to  the 
east  coast  in  autumn,  and  on  the  south  coast  there  is  also 
a  regular  migration  every  spring  and  autumn.  Birds  caught 
on  passage  at  these  seasons  are  brighter  in  colour  than  the 
resident  British  birds,  which  are,  as  in  many  other  instances, 
more  dingy  than  their  continental  representatives. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Throughout  the  whole  of 
Europe,  up  to  65°  N.  lat.  in  Scandinavia  and  to  60°  in  the 
Ural  Mountains.  Its  breeding  range  extends  to  about  long. 
70°,  and  it  is  found  as  far  as  North-western  Persia  and  North- 
west Turkestan.  In  the  southern  portion  of  its  range  the  Green- 
finch is  a  much  smaller  and  more  brilliantly  coloured  bird  than 
in  the  north,  and  has  been  recognised  as  a  species  (C.  aurantii- 
ventris)  by  some  writers. 

Habits. — In  summer  the  Greenfinch  is  somewhat  shy,  but  in 
winter  it  is  found  in  flocks  in  the  fields  and  farmyards  along 
with  Sparrows  and  Chaffinches.  The  song  of  the  Greenfinch 
is  generally  described  as  poor,  but  we  have  more  than  once 
heard  a  male,  during  the  nesting  season,  giving  forth  a  song 
not  much  inferior  to  that  of  a  Canary.  Its  general  food  con- 
sists of  seeds  and  grain,  but  it  also  devours  quantities  of 
insects,  especially  when  bringing  up  its  young,  which  are 
largely  fed  upon  caterpillars. 

Nest. — Most  commonly  to  be  found  in  shrubberies  and  ever- 
green trees,  but  not  unftxquently  found  in  woods  far  from  any 
habitation,  and  occasionally  in  unexpected  situations,  as  in  a 
hollow  at  the  top  of  a  gate-post.  Several  nests  have  been 
found  in  close  proximity  to  each  other.  The  nest  is  rather  a 
carelessly  built  structure,  composed  of  moss  with  a  few  twigs 
and  rootlets,  the  lining  consisting  of  horse-hair  and  a  few 
feathers. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six.  They  vary  very  much  in  size  and  mark- 
ings. The  ground-colour  is  white  or  bluish  white,  and  the 
spots  are  pinkish,  generally  at  the  larger  end,  with  larger  out- 
lying blackish  spots  or  small  blotches,  with  occasionally  a  linear 
streak  of  the  same  colour.  Axis,  o"j$-o'g  ;  diam.,  o'55-o-6 
inch.  Small  eggs  of  the  Greenfinch  are  often  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish from  those  of  the  common  Linnet. 


PLATE     VI 


. 


\?    ff  '  *VV   1 

^ 
s&fP 


HAWFINCH. 


THE    HAWFINCHES.  33 

THE   HAWFINCHES.     GENUS   COCCOTIIRAUSTES. 

Coccothraustes,  Briss.,  Orn.,  iii.,  p.  218  (1760). 

Type,  C.  Coccothraustes  (Linn  ). 

The  Hawfinches  are  easily  distinguished  from  nil  the  other 
Finches  in  the  world  by  the  peculiar  form  of  their  secondary 
quills,  which  are  shaped  like  a  bill-hook.  They  are  among  the 
largest  of  the  family,  and  far  exceed  all  other  British  Finches 
in  size  and  in  the  massiveness  of  their  bill. 

Three  species  of  true  Hawfinch  are  known,  one  (C.  cocco- 
thraustes)  believed  to  be  peculiar  to  Europe,  another  (C.  japo- 
nicus)  to  Eastern  Siberia,  Japan,  and  Northern  China,  while 
the  third  (C.  humit)  is  only  known  from  the  extreme  north- 
west of  the  Punjab,  but  may  be  found  to  range  into  Afghani- 
stan and  perhaps  into  Central  Asia. 

1.    THE   HAWFINCH.      COCCOTHRAUSTES   COCCOTHRAUSTES. 
(Plate  VI.} 

Loxia  coccothraustes,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  299  (1766). 
Coccothraustes  atrogularis,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  356  (1837). 
Coccothraustes  vulgaris,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  575,  pi.  175 

(1875);    Newt.    ed.  Yarn,  ii.,  p.    98    (1876);   B.  O.  U. 

List  Br.  B.,  p.  50  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  163  (1889); 

Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xvi.  (1890). 
Coccothraustes  Coccothraustes ,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii., 

p.  36  (1888). 

Adult  Male. — Chocolate-brown  above,  pale  vinous  brown 
below ;  head  cinnamon-brown  ;  sides  of  neck  and  hind  neck 
bluish  grey  ;  lower  back,  rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts  cinna- 
mon-brown, as  also  the  inner  greater  coverts;  wings  black, 
glossed  with  purple  or  steel-blue ;  primaries  with  a  large  patch 
of  white  about  the  middle  of  the  inner  web ;  a  line  of  black 
on  the  forehead,  and  throat,  black ;  lower  abdomen  and  under 
wing-and  tail-coverts,  white ;  tail  blackish  brown,  tipped  with 
white,  the  centre  feathers  like  the  back  ;  bill  leaden  blue,  the 
lower  mandible  flesh-colour  at  base ;  feet  greyish  brown  ;  iris 
white  or  greyish  white.  Total  length,  7  incb.es  ;  culmen,  o'8  ; 
wing,  4-2;  tail,  2*15,  tarsus;  0*85. 

i.  U 


34  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY 

In  winter  the  colour  of  the  plumage  is  as  in  summer,  but 
the  whole  of  the  bill  is  fleshy  white. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  from  the  male  in  being  duller  coloured, 
the  head  being  ashy  brown,  becoming  chocolate-brown  on  the 
hinder  crown ;  forehead  and  sides  of  face  dull  ochre-brown ; 
under  surface  of  body  ochreous  brown.  Total  length,  6-7 ; 
culmen,  075  ;  w~'ng,  3-9  ;  tail,  2*1 ;  tarsus,  075. 

Young. — Chocolate-brown  above,  the  crown  olive-yellow  with 
dusky  tips  to  the  feathers ;  throat  pale  yellow ;  under  surface 
light  brown  with  dusky  tips  to  the  feathers. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Locally  distributed,  but  increasing  in 
numbers,  and  by  no  means  rare  in  the  vicinity  of  London, 
while  in  some  of  the  southern  counties  it  may  be  called 
even  plentiful.  In  Scotland  and  Ireland  it  is  an  irregular 
visitor. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. —  Generally  distributed  over 
Europe  and  breeding  also  in  Algeria,  extending  eastward  to 
Asia  Minor  and  the  Caucasus,  and  even  to  Turkestan. 

Habits. — The  Hawfinch  is  a  very  shy  bird,  and  even  where  it 
is  known  to  nest  it  is  not  easy  of  observation.  Its  food  con- 
sists largely  of  berries,  seeds,  and  the  kernels  of  stone-fruit, 
which  it  is  able  to  crush  with  its  strong  bill,  rejecting  the  fruit 
itself,  and  eating  only  the  kernel.  In  this  way  Hawfinches  do 
some  damage  to  plum-trees,  and  they  also  devour  a  quantity 
of  peas  from  the  gardens.  The  young  birds  are  especially 
fond  of  the  last-named  food. 

Nest — Composed  of  twigs  and  roots  with  a  little  lichen  added, 
the  eutside  of  the  nest  having  a  considerable  fdnge  of  out- 
standing twigs,  as  in  the  nest  of  the  Bullfinch.  The  lining 
consists  of  fine  roots  and  hair. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six.  Ground  of  eggs  stone-colour,  with  scrib- 
bling marks  and  spots  of  grey  or  blackish  brown,  the  grey 
being  the  underlying  tint ;  occasionally  the  markings  are 
aimost  obliterated.  In  some  specimens  the  ground-colour  of 
the  egg  is  yellowish  or  creamy  stone-colour.  Axis,  o'8-i  -i  inch; 
diam.,  0-65-075.  (Plate  XXIX.,  Fig.  8.) 


THE   CHAFFINCHES.  J5 

THE   TRUE  FINCHES.     SUB-FAMILY   II. 
FRINGILLIN^E. 

Of  this  Sub-family,  which  contains  the  bulk  of  the  birds 
ordinarily  known  as  "  Finches,"  our  Common  Chaffinch  may 
be  taken  as  the  type.  The  bill  is  strong,  ayd  always  more  or 
less  stoutly  built,  but  does  not  exhibit  the  robusujess  of  that  of 
the  Grosbeaks.  The  nasal  bones  are  not  produced  backwards 
beyond  the  base  of  the  cranium,  but  on  looking  at  the  skull 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  angle  of  the  chin  is  slightly  out  of 
line  with  the  lower  mandible  of  the  bill.  In  the  Grosbeaks 
the  line  is  continuous,  and  in  the  Buntings  the  angle  is 
extremely  well  marked,  so  that  the  Finches  hold  an  inter- 
mediate position  between  the  Grosbeaks  and  the  Buntings. 

The  distribution  of  the  true  Finches  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  the  Grosbeaks,  as  they  are  not  represented  in  Australia  or 
in  the  Pacific  Islands,  but  they  are  very  plentiful  in  the  northern 
portions  of  the  Old  and  New  World,  less  so  in  India  and 
Africa,  and  again  abundant  in  South  America. 

THE  CHAFFINCHES.    GENUS   FRINGILLA. 
Fringilla,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  318  (1766). 
Type,  F.  Calebs   Linn. 

Two  species  of  the  genus  Fringilla  occur  in  England,  and 
one  of  them,  the  Brambling,  ranges  right  across  Asia  to 
Japan.  In  Algeria,  Madeira,  the  Canary  Islands,  and  the 
Azores,  no  less  than  six  species  of  Chaffinch  are  known,  most 
of  the  separate  islands  possessing  a  peculiar  form  of  their 
own. 

I.  THE   CHAFFINCH.       FRINGILLA   CCELEBS. 

Fringilla  Calebs,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  318  (1766)  •  Macg.,  Br.  B., 
i.,  p.  329  (1837);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  3,  pi.  182 
(1873) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  68  (1876);  B.  O.  U.  List 
Br.  B.,  p.  52  (1883) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p. 
171  (1888);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  viii.  (1888); 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  175  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — Chestnut-brown  ;  the  lesser  and  median  wing- 
coverts  white;  greater  coverts  black,  tipped  with  white,  forming 

D    2 


3 5  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

a  band  across  the  wing;  lower  back  and  rump  olive-green  ; 
centre  tail-feathers  ashy  grey,  the  remainder  black  with  a  large 
wedge-shaped  mark  of  white  on  the  last  feather  but  one,  this 
white  mark  still  more  extended  on  the  outer  feather  ;  crown 
and  hind  neck  slaty  blue ;  forehead  black ;  under  surface 
pale  vinous  red;  lower  abdomen,  thighs,  and  under  tail-coverts 
white  ;  bill  leaden  blue ;  feet  brown  ;  iris  hazel.  Total  length, 
6  inches ;  culmen,  0-45;  wing,  3-5;  tail,  2-5;  tarsus,  0*65. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male.  Above  ashy  brown, 
washed  with  olive-yellow  ;  under  surface  of  body  pale  ashy 
brown,  lighter  on  the  throat,  and  tinged  with  pink  on  the 
throat  and  breast.  Total  length,  6-5  inches  ;  culmen  0-5  ;  wing, 
3'4;  tail,  2*6;  tarsus,  0*65. 

Young. — Like  the  adult  female,  but  more  dingy ;  rump  and 
upper  tail-coverts  olive-brown. 

Kange  in  Great  Britain.  —  Breeding  nearly  everywhere,  but  a 
winter  visitor  only  to  the  Shetlands.  A  common  winter  migrant 
on  all  our  eastern  shores. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Generally  distributed  through- 
out Europe,  up  to  the  line  of  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  extending  to 
62*  N.  lat.  in  the  Ural  Mountains.  Its  western  breeding  range 
extends  to  about  long.  70°. 

Habits. — The  Chaffinch  is  a  bird  familiar  to  most  people,  and 
is  to  be  found  in  great  abundance  in  most  parts  of  the  British 
Islands,  particularly  in  winter,  when  it  associates  with  Sparrows 
and  Greenfinches  in  the  stubbles  and  in  the  farmyards.  Its 
familiar  note,  "  pink,  pink,"  is  heard  everywhere  in  the  spring, 
and  in  some  of  our  southern  counties  the  Chaffinch  is  an  ex- 
tremely abundant  species.  It  builds  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
nests  of  any  British  bird,  and  it  is  so  well  concealed  by  protec- 
tive resemblance  to  its  surroundings,  that  in  the  majority  of 
cases  it  would  pass  undiscovered  but  for  the  anxious  notes  of 
the  parent  bird  which  lead  to  its  discovery.  Like  most  Finches, 
the  food  consists  of  grain  in  winter,  but  in  summer  the  birds 
feed  largely  on  insects. 

Hest. — A  pretty  cup-shaped  structure,  placed  in  a  bush  or 
branch  of  a  tree,  composed  chiefly  of  moss  with  a  few  rootlets 
and  twigs,  and  clothed  externally  with  cobwebs  an$  lichens,  so 


PLATF  VII 


BRAMBLING 


THE   CHAFFINCHES*  37 

as  to  resemble  the  surrounding  of  the  branches  on  which  it  is 
placed.     The  lining  consists  of  horse-hair,  feathers,  and  down. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six.  Very  variable  in  tint,  ranging  from 
bluish  stone-colour  to  clear  blue.  In  the  former  instance  the 
markings  consist  of  a  reddish  or  pink  wash  over  the  eggs, 
which  are  dotted  here  and  there  with  bold  spots  of  black  or 
reddish  brown.  In  the  blue  type  of  egg,  the  underlying  spots 
are  pale  violet  and  the  upper  spots  and  scratches  are  purplish 
or  black,  and  are  generally  congregated  round  the  larger  end. 
Axis,  o'75-o'S  ;  diam.,  o'55~o'6. 

II.   THE   BRAMBLING.      FRINGILLA   MONTIFRINGILLA. 

(Plate  VII.} 

Fringilla  montifringilla^  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  318  (1766) ;  Macg., 
Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  335  (1837) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  15,  pi.  184 
(1871) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  75  (1876) ;  B.  O.  U.  List 
Br.  B.,  p.  52  (1883) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p. 
178  (1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  177  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — Differs  from  the  Chaffinch  in  the  white  band 
across  the  rump  and  in  its  variegated  plumage.  Head  and 
mantle  blue-black ;  flanks  spotted  with  black ;  a  white  specu- 
lum on  the  wing,  formed  by  the  white  base  to  the  inner 
primaries ;  sides  of  face  black  like  the  crown  ;  under  surface 
pale  orange-rufous,  the  abdomen  white;  bill  bluish  black  ;  feet 
reddish  brown;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  6'2  inches;  culmen, 
0-55;  wing,  3-5;  tail,  2-45;  tarsus,  075. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  from  the  male  in  being  much  duller 
and  browner  in  colour. 

In  winter,  when  the  Brambling  visits  England,  the  colours 
of  the  adult  bird  are  obscured  by  sandy-coloured  margins  to 
the  feathers,  which  gradually  wear  off,  leaving  the  feathers  of 
the  breeding  plumage  in  their  full  beauty.  The  bill  is  yellow 
with  a  blackish  tip. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  winter  visitor  only,  arriving  some- 
times in  enormous  flocks. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Europe  and  Northern  Asia 
to  Japan.  Breeds  in  Scandinavia  up  to  lat.  60°,  and  in 


38  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Eastern  Siberia  to  lat.  50°.  Visits  Southern  Europe  and  the 
Mediterranean  countries  in  winter,  and  eastwards  it  is  found  in 
Turkestan  and  the  North-western  Himalayas,  Japan,  Eastern 
Siberia,  and  China. 

Habits. — When  the  Brambling  arrives  in  late  autumn  it  betakes 
itself  generally  to  the  beech-woods,  roosting  in  evergreen 
shrubs  in  the  neighbouring  woods  and  sometimes  traversing 
a  considerable  distance  to  reach  its  roosting-place.  It  feeds  on 
beech  mast  and  seeds  of  the  alder,  and  occasionally  visits  farm- 
yards in  company  with  Chaffinches,  with  which  it  consorts 
largely  in  the  woods  during  the  day. ' 

The  Brambling  has  been  said  to  breed  in  the  British  Islands, 
but  these  records  are  mostly  untrustworthy,  though  one  instance 
of  a  nest  being  found  in  Scotland  by  Mr.  E.  T.  Booth 
seems  to  be  authentic. 

Nest. — Of  the  same  type  as  that  of  the  Chaffinch,  but  rather 
larger  and  not  so  neatly  finished  off.  "  Its  principal  beauty," 
says  Mr.  Seebohm,  "is  derived  from  the  mixture  of  green 
moss,  lavender-coloured  lichens,  and  white  birch-bark,  inter- 
woven with  cobwebs,  thistle-down,  and  buff  inner  birch-bark ; 
it  is  lined  with  fine  grass  and  feathers."  The  nest  is  built  in  a 
birch  or  spruce  fir-tree,  often  at  a  considerable  height  from  the 
ground. 

Eggs. — Resemble  those  of  the  Chaffinch,  but  the  ground- 
colour is  darker  and  rather  more  olive  or  stone-colour.  Markings 
similar  to  those  of  the  Chaffinch.  Axis,  07-0-8  inch ;  diam., 
0-55-0-6.  (Plate  XXXI.,  Fig  i.) 

THE  GOLDFINCHES.    GENUS  CARDUELIS. 

Carduelis,  Briss.,  Orn.,  iii.,  p.  53  (1760). 

Type,  C.  carduelis  (Linn.). 

'  It  is  difficult  to  define  the  exact  differences  of  form  be- 
tween the  Chaffinches  and  the  Goldfinches,  but  the  latter  are 
much  more  slender  birds  and  have  a  longer  and  more  pointed 
bill.  By  their  style  of  plumage,  however,  the  Goldfinches 
are  easily  recognisable,  the  crimson  face  and  the  golden  patch 
on  the  wing  making  them  very  conspicuous.  Two  species  of 
Goldfinch  are  known,  our  British  bird  occurring  throughout 


PLATE     VHI 


GOLDFINCH 


THE   GOLDFINCHES.  39 

the  greater  part  of  Europe  to  Central  Siberia  and  Central 
Asia,  while  the  grey-headed  Goldfinch  (C.  caniceps)  is  found  in 
the  Himalayas,  and  extends  to  Eastern  and  Central  Siberia  and 
Central  Asia.  In  Siberia  C.  caniceps  interbreeds  with  the 
ordinary  Goldfinch,  or  rather  with  the  larger  and  whiter  race 
which  occurs  in  Eastern  Europe  and  Siberia,  and  which  has 
been  called  C.  major  by  Russian  naturalists. 

I.   THE   GOLDFINCH.      CARDUELIS   CARDUELIS. 

(Plate   VIII.} 

Fringilla  carduelis,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  318  (1766). 
Carduelis  degans,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  393  (1837);  Newt.  ed. 
Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  117  (1877);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  527,  pi. 
166(1877);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  47  (1883) ;  Saunders, 
Man.,  p.  165  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xv. 
(1890). 
Carduelis  carduelis,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Br.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.  185  (1888). 

Adult  Male. — Above  pale  chocolate-brown ;  greater  wing- 
coverts  golden  yellow;  quills  black,  tipped  with  white,  the 
base  of  the  primaries  golden  yellow,  forming  a  conspicuous 
patch  ;  crown  of  head  and  a  band  behind  the  ear- coverts  black ; 
forehead  crimson ;  bill  rosy  whitish,  with  the  tip  black ;  feet 
fleshy  brown;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  5-2  inches;  oilmen, 
0-55;  wing,  3-2;  tail,  1-85;  tarsus,  0*6. 

Sexes  alike  in  plumage. 

Young. — Light  brown,  with  no  red  on  the  face ;  underneath 
white,  washed  with  brown  on  the  fore-neck,  breast,  and  sides  of 
body,  all  of  which  are  spotted  with  blackish. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Generally  distributed,  but  now  local 
where  once  it  was  common.  In  many  parts  of  the  north,  and  in 
Scotland,  it  is  only  an  accidental  visitor.  Local  in  Ireland, 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Europe  generally,  occurring 
in  Scandinavia  to  lat.  65°  and  in  the  Ural  Mountains  to  lat. 
60°.  The  exact  limit  between  the  range  of  our  Goldfinch  and 
of  the  larger  Eastern  race  (C.  major)  has  not  yet  been  accu- 
rately determined. 

HaMts. — The  Goldfinch  is  essentially  a  bird  of  the  country, 
and  has  in  many  of  the  southern  counties  been  driven  away  by 


40  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

the  development  of  the  towns  and  the  invasion  of  the  bird- 
catcher  into  its  favourite  haunts.  The  gradual  cultivation  of 
waste-lands,  with  their  accompanying  plenitude  of  thistles,  has 
doubtless  likewise  had  something  to  do  with  the  disappearance 
of  the  Goldfinch.  An  old  bird-catcher  has  told  us  that  in 
his  youth  he  once  caught  twelve  dozen  Goldfinches  in  a  single 
morning,  placing  his  nets  behind  a  hedge  which  then  existed  on 
the  present  site  of  the  Great  Western  Railway  at  Paddington ; 
and  we  can  remember  when  the  Goldfinch  was  common  in 
Berkshire,  and  flocks  of  young  birds  were  to  be  found  in 
autumn  in  places  where  a  Goldfinch  has  probably  not  been 
seen  for  the  last  twenty  years.  In  winter  it  frequents  the 
alder-trees  in  company  with  Redpolls  and  Siskins,  and  is  often 
to  be  seen  on  the  thistles,  the  seeds  of  which  form  a  staple 
article  of  its  food.  It  nests  in  fruit-trees,  and  in  many  places  in 
evergreen  shrubs,  away  from  habitations,  but  the  nest  is  often 
built  in  the  slender  branches  of  a  beech  or  oak  tree  in  parks 
and  woodlands. 

Nest. — Cup-shaped  and  beautifully  made ;  composed  of  moss 
and  lichens  distributed  externally ;  lined  with  horse-hair  and 
downy  feathers. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number,  of  the  same  type  as  those  of 
the  Greenfinch,  but  much  smaller ;  ground-colour  creamy  blue 
or  bluish  white,  with  grey  underlying  markings,  and  spotted  or 
lined  with  reddish  brown.  The  markings  vary  greatly  in 
strength  and  intensity,  and  some  eggs  are  practically  without 
spots  of  any  kind.  Axis,  07  inch  ;  diam.,  0*5.  Mr.  Seebohm 
points  out  that  the  eggs  of  the  Goldfinch  cannot  be  distin- 
guished from  those  of  the  Serin  or  Siskin,  and  can  only  be 
told  from  those  of  the  Linnet  and  Greenfinch  by  their  smaller 
size.  The  lighter  ground-colour  distinguishes  them  from  the 
eggs  of  the  Lesser  Redpoll  (Plate  XXIX.,  Fig.  5.) 

THE  SISKINS.    GENUS  CIIRYSOMITRIS. 

Chtysomitris,  Boie,  Isis,  1822,  p.  322. 

Type,  C.  spinus  (Linn.). 

Possessing  a  bill  of  similar  shape  to  that  of  the  Goldfinches, 
attenuated  and  pointed,  the  Siskins  differ  from  the  latter  birds 


THE    SISKINS.  4? 

in  their  style  of  coloration,  which  consists  chiefly  of  green  and 
yellow,  the  crown  of  the  head  being  in  most  cases  black. 

The  Siskins  are  found  all  over  South  and  North  America, 
throughout  Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  to  the  Himalayas,  and 
they  occur  also  in  North-eastern  Africa,  the  highlands  of 
Equatorial  Africa,  and  reappear  in  the  Cape  Colony. 

I.    THE   SISKIN.      CHRYSOMITRIS   SPINUS. 

Fringilla  spinus,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  322  (1766);  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xiv.  (1890). 
Carduelis  spinus,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  400  (1837);  Newt.  ed. 

Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  126  (1877). 
Chrysomitris  spinus,   Dresser,   B.   Eur.,   iii.,   p.   541,   pi.   169 

(1876);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  48  (1883);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B. 

Br.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.   212   (1888);    Saunders,  Man.,  p.   167 


Adult  Male.  —  Head  black  ;  throat  black  ;  back  yellowish 
green,  with  dusky  shaft-streaks  on  the  feathers  of  the  upper 
surface  ;  rump  brighter  yellow  ;  flanks  yellowish,  streaked  with 
black  ;  tail-feathers  yellow  at  base  ;  bill  dusky,  livid  at  base  ; 
feet  light  brown  ;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  4-5  inches  ;  culmen, 
0-45;  wing,  27;  tail,  17;  tarsus,  0-55. 

Adult  Female.  —  Differs  from  the  male  in  wanting  the  black 
head  ;  under  surface  white,  tinged  with  yellow  on  the  throat  ; 
sides  of  body  and  flanks  streaked  with  black  centres  to  the 
feathers. 

Range  in  Great  Britain.  —  Breeding  in  Scotland  and  in  certain 
parts  of  Ireland  (co.  Waterford  and  Wicklow).  Generally 
known  as  a  winter  visitor  to  England,  though  it  is  said  to  have 
nested  in  most  of  the  English  counties. 

Range  ontside  the  British  Islands.  —  Breeds  throughout  the  pine 
districts  of  Europe,  in  Scandinavia  to  lat.  67°,  in  Russia 
to  the  vicinity  of  Archangel,  and  in  the  Urals  to  lat.  58°. 
Extends  throughout  Siberia  to  Japan.  Winters  to  the  south- 
ward. 

Nest.—  A  pretty  structure,  cup-shaped,  made  of  moss  with  a 
few  feathers  and  lined  with  horse-hair.  Mr.  Seebohm  says 
that  there  is  generally  a  foundation  of  grass-stalks  with  a  few 


4»  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY 

heather-twigs  intermixed.     The  nest  is  generally  placed  high 
up  in  a  fir-tree,  arid  is  difficult  to  find. 

Eggs.— Five  Of  six  in  number,  exactly  like  those  of  the  Gold- 
finch in  size  and  markings. 

THE  LINNETS.     GENUS  CANNABINA.* 
Cattnabinat  Boie,  Isis,  1828,  p.  1277. 
Type,  C.  cannabina  (Linn.). 

The  bill  in  the  present  genus  is  shorter  and  stouter  than  in 
the  Goldfinches  and  Siskins,  though  of  the  same  pointed 
shape.  The  absence  of  yellow  in  their  plumage  is  another 
character  of  the  Linnets,  which  have  most  of  them  a  red  top- 
knot or  cap,  as  well  as  some  red  on  the  breast  and  rump,  in 
the  nesting  season  at  least. 

T.   THE   TWITE.      CANNABINA    FLAVIROSTRIS. 

Fringilla  flavirostris,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  322   (1766);   Lilford, 

Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  xiii.  (1890). 
Linaria  flavirostris,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  379  (1837). 
Linota  flavirostris,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  59,  pi.  191  (1876); 

Newt.    ed.  Yarrell,    ii.,  p.    160   (1877);    B.  O.  U.   List 

Br.  B.,  p.  54  (1883). 
Acanthis  flavirostris,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.   236 

(1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  185  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — Distinguished  from  the  common  Linnet  by  its 
dusky  yellow  bill.  Brown  above,  streaked  with  blackish  cen- 
tres to  the  feathers ;  the  head  like  the  back,  without  any 
red  cap  ;  breast  and  abdomen  white,  the  throat  reddish  brown 
with  darker  streaks ;  rump  rosy ;  no  red  on  the  breast ;  bill 
yellow ;  feet  blackish ;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  5  inches  ; 
culmen,  0-35;  wing,  3-0;  tail,  2-3;  tarsus,  0-65. 

*  Dr.  Sclater  having  shown  (Ibis,  1892,  p.  555)  that  the  generic  name 
of  Acanthis,  Bechst.,  which  I  used  for  the  Linnets  in  the  "  Catalogue 
of  Birds,"  cannot  properly  be  employed  for  these  birds,  being  in  fact  a 
synonym  of  Carduelis,  the  next  name  in  order  of  date  is  Linaria  of  Vieillot 
(1816).  This  generic  name,  however,  is  pre-occupied  in  Botany,  and  so 
the  next  in  order  of  date  is  Cannadina  of  Boie  (1828). 


THE   LINNETS.  43 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  not  having  the 
vinous  rump,  this  part  resembling  the  rest  of  the  back. 

Young. — Like  the  old  female,  but  with  a  dusky  bill. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  northern  bird,  breeding  throughout 
Scotland,  and  down  to  the  Midland  Counties.  Breeds  also  in 
Ireland  in  suitable  localities.  In  the  south  only  known  as  a 
winter  visitor. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — As  in  Great  Britain,  the 
Twite  is  a  northern  bird,  and  its  breeding-range  is  confined  to 
Western  Europe,  not  extending  beyond  long.  25° ;  it  only 
nesting  in  suitable  districts  in  Norway.  It  winters  to  the  south, 
but  rarely  reaches  the  Mediterranean  countries. 

Habits, — The  Twite  is  a  moorland  species,  ard  in  all  its 
ways  resembles  the  Linnet,  except  in  its  mode  of  n  jsting.  As 
with  most  Finches,  its  food  consists  of  seeds,  but  during  the 
nesting  season  it  consumes  a  great  many  insects  and  rears  its 
young  upon  them.  In  winter  it  migrates  south  in  large  flocks, 
which  frequent  the  neighbourhood  of  the  coast,  and  enliven 
the  marshes  with  their  twittering  song,  which  is  very  cheery 
when  uttered  by  a  hundred  or  more  birds  in  concert.  The  note 
resembles  that  of  a  Redpoll  or  Siskin  more  than  the  voice  of 
a  Linnet. 

Nest.— Cup-shaped  and  very  neatly  made,  composed  of  moss 
and  twigs  of  heather,  lined  with  finer  rootlets,  wool,  feathers  or 
thistle-down.  It  is  often  placed  on  the  ground,  but  sometimes 
in  a  tree  or  among  heather. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number.  Ground-colour  light  blue  or 
bluish  white  with  red  or  purple  spots  and  lines,  generally 
clustered  at  the  larger  end  of  the  egg,  with  an  occasional  larger 
spot  or  scribbling  of  blackish  brown.  Axis,  07-075  inch ; 
diam.,  0-5-0-55. 

II.    THE   LINNET.      CANNABINA   CANNABINA. 

Fringilla  cannabina,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  322  (1766). 
Linaria  cannabina^  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  371   (1837);  Dresser, 
B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  31,  pi.  186  (1875). 


44  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY 

Linota  cannabina,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  153  (1877);  B.  O.  U. 

List   Br.  B.,  p.  53  (1883) ;   Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  vii. 

(1888). 
Acanthi's  cannabina,  Sharpe,   Cat.  B.  Brit.   Mus.,   xii.,  p.   240 

(1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  179  (1889). 
Adult  Male. — Reddish  brown  above,  streaked  with  black;  fore- 
head crimson ;  no  black  on  chin  ;  breast  crimson ;  wing- 
coverts  not  tipped  with  white,  so  as  to  form  a  wing-bar ;  upper 
tail-coverts  and  tail-feathers  black,  edged  with  white,  increasing 
on  the  outer  feathers  ;  breast  and  abdomen  dull  buffy  white  ; 
bill  lead-colour ;  feet  and  toes  brown  ;  iris  hazel-brown.  Total 
length,  5-5  inches;  culmen,  0-4;  wing,  3*05  ;  tail,  2*25  ;  tarsus, 
0-65. 

Female. — Browner  than  the  male,  and  wants  the  crimson 
on  the  crown  and  breast ;  the  latter  sandy  buff,  like  the  sides  of 
body  and  flanks,  all  streaked  with  dark  brown.  Total  length, 
5-3  inches;  culmen,  0-4;  wing,  3-0  ;  tail,  2'i  ;  tarsus,  0-5. 

Young. — Resembles  the  old  female,  but  is  more  reddish  brown ; 
wings  and  tail  as  in  the  adults,  but  the  white  edgings  washed 
with  rufous  brown  ;  below  white,  washed  with  sandy  buff  on  the 
breast  and  sides  of  the  body ;  the  throat  spotted  with  dusky 
brown,  the  fore-neck  and  breast  with  dusky  brown  streaks,  and 
the  lower  breast  spotted  with  brown. 

In  winter  plumage  the  colours  are  much  duller  than  in 
summer,  the  crimson  of  the  head  and  breast  being  hidden  by 
broad  edgings  to  the  feathers.  These  margins  gradually  wear 
off  as  spring  approaches,  till  the  crimson  colour  alone  remains ; 
there  is  no  spring  moult. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — Generally  distributed,  but  rarer  in 
some  parts  of  Scotland  and  not  known  in  the  Shetlands. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — Found  over  the  whole  of 
Europe,  as  high  as  lat.  64°  in  Scandinavia,  and  in  Eastern 
Russia  to  lat.  60°.  It  extends  to  the  Caucasus,  but  here  and 
in  Asia  Minor  the  prevailing  form  is  Cannabina  fringillirostris, 
a  paler  race  with  the  primary-coverts  white-edged,  which  takes 
the  place  of  the  common  Linnet  throughout  Central  Asia.  Our 
Linnet  is  also  found  in  North-western  Africa,  the  Canaries  and 
Madeira.  In  spring  and  autumn  a  considerable  migration  of 


THE    LINNETS.  45 

Linnets  occurs  on  our  coasts,  the  arrivals  from  the  Continent 
being  decidedly  brighter  in  plumage  than  our  resident  birds. 

Habits. — Throughout  the  autumn  and  winter  Linnets  are 
found  in  flocks,  feeding  on  the  stubbles  and  open  ground,  and 
at  the  former  season  they  are  very  common  in  fields  near  the 
sea-shore.  In  the  breeding  season  they  are  less  gregarious, 
but  many  pairs  may  be  found  in  close  proximity  to  each  other 
in  gorse  covered  districts,  the  gorse-bushes  being  such  a 
favourite  nesting  place  that  in  many  places  the  bird  is  known 
as  the  "  Gorse  "  Linnet.  It  nests  also  in  broom  and  heather, 
and  sometimes  has  been  known  to  build  its  home  on  the  ground. 
Its  song  is  heard  to  perfection  in  the  spring,  and  while  the  hen  is 
sitting,  but  during  the  breeding  season  the  bird  is  much  more 
shy  than  at  other  times  of  the  year.  Its  food  consists  almost 
entirely  of  seeds,  and  it  is  not  known  to  feed  its  young  on 
insects  to  the  same  extent  as  most  of  the  other  Finches.  As  Mr. 
Howard  Saunders  remarks :  "  The  food  consists  of  soft  seeds, 
especially  those  of  an  oily  nature,  such  as  the  various  species  of 
flax  and  hemp  ;  grains  of  charlock,  knot-grass,  and  other  weeds 
are  also  largely  consumed,  while  in  winter  various  kinds  of 
berries  and  even  oats  are  devoured." 

Nest. — Cup-shaped,  composed  of  moss  with  fine  twigs  and 
grass,  lined  with  hair,  sheep's  wool  and  a  few  feathers. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number.  Ground-colour  bluish,  with 
rufous  spots  confined  to  the  larger  end,  where  they  form  a  ring 
or  cluster  of  spots  varied  with  overlying  lines  and  streaks  of 
purplish  black.  In  some  instances  the  larger  end  of  the  egg  is 
clouded  with  purple,  speckled  over  with  dots  and  streaks  of 
purplish  brown.  Axis,  07-075  inch  ;  diam.,  o'55-o'6. 


III.  THE  MEALY  REDPOLL.      CANNABINA  LINARIA. 

Fringilla  linaria.  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  322  (1766)  -  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xv.  (1890). 

Linaria  borealis,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  388  (1837). 
Linota  linaria^  Newt  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  133  (1877) ;  Dresser,  B. 

Eur.,  iv.,  p.  37,  pi.  187  (1877);  B,  0.  U.  List  Br  B.,  p, 

53  (1883). 


4  5  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Aca nfhis  linaria,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.  245  (1888); 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  181  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — Light  brown  above,  with  dark  bi  own  streaks  ; 
forehead  crimson  ;  wing-coverts  tipped  with  white,  forming 
wing-bars;  chin  blackish;  throat,  fore-neck,  and  breast  beau- 
tiful rosy-pink,  the  feathers  generally  edged  with  hoary  white ; 
rump  ashy  white,  streaked  with  blackish,  and  slightly  tinged 
with  rosy ;  bill  yellow,  with  the  tip  brown  ;  feet  and  claws 
blackish;  iris  hazel-brown.  Total  length,  5-2  inches;  oilmen, 
0-4:  wing,  2*85  ;  tail,  2*05;  tarsus,  o'6. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  lacking  the  crimson 
forehead  and  the  rose-colour  on  the  breast  and  rump ;  chin 
and  upper  throat  black ;  remainder  of  under  surface  white, 
with  blackish  streaks  on  the  side  of  the  body.  Total  length, 

5  inches;  culmen,  0-35  ;  wing,  275 ;  tail,  2-05  ;  tarsus,  0-55. 

Kange  in  Great  Britain. — A  winter  visitor  from  Shetland  south 
along  the  east  coast  of  Scotland  and  England,  but  less  re- 
gular in  occurrence  in  the  south  and  Midlands.  In  some 
seasons  considerable  flocks  arrive,  and  we  have  known  the 
Mealy  Redpoll  to  occur  in  some  numbers  in  the  Thames 
Valley  in  winter.  They  are  then  found  in  company  with  Lesser 
Redpolls,  from  which  they  may  be  distinguished  by  their 
much  larger  size,  especially  as  regards  the  feet. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands.  —  Throughout  Northern 
Europe  to  the  limits  of  the  birch-region,  across  Siberia  and 
North  America,  but  replaced  in  Greenland  by  Cannabma 
rostrata,  a  large  race  of  Mealy  Redpoll,  with  a  larger  bill  and 
coarser  stripes  on  the  under  surface. 

Habits. — Frequenting  the  birch  and  alder  trees,  the  seeds  of 
which  form  its  principal  food,  in  company  with  Common  Red- 
polls and  Siskins. 

Nest. — Cup-shaped ;  composed  of  bents  and  shreds  of  bark 
with  lichens ;  lined  with  catkins,  hair,  and  feathers. 

Eggs. — Five  or  six,  resembling  those  of  the  Linnet,  but  with  a 
deeper  blue  ground  and,  of  course,  much  smaller  in  size  ;  the 
reddish  shading  at  the  larger  ends  often  clouded  with  tiny  spots 
of  reddish  brown  and  dots  and  lines  of  purplish  black.  In  a 


THE    LINNETS.  4; 

clutch  of  eggs  taken  by  Mr.  Seebohm  in  the  Petchora  there 
are  distinct  scribblings  near  the  larger  end,  similar  to  those  of 
a  Yellow  Bunting.  Axis,  0-6-075  ;  diam.,  0-5-0-55. 

iv.  HOLBOELL'S  REDPOLL.    CANNABINA  HOLBOELLI. 

Linaria  holboelli,  Brehm.,  Vog.  Deutschl.,  p.  280  (1831). 
Acanthis  holboelli,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.,  xii.,  p.  250  (1888). 

Adult  Male. — Similar  to  the  Mealy  Redpoll,  but  larger  and 
with  a  very  much  larger  bill.  Total  length,  5  inches  ;  culmen, 
0-5;  wing,  2-9-3-0;  tail,  2*2;  tarsus,  0-5. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Two  specimens  of  this  large  Redpoll 
are  in  the  British  Museum.  They  were  formerly  in  the  col- 
lection of  Mr.  John  Gould,  and  are  labelled  by  him  as  having 
been  obtained  near  Norwich  in  January.  Professor  Newton 
suggests  that  the  longer  bill  of  this  Redpoll  is  due  to  the 
food  on  which  the  bird  subsists  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year. 

V.   THE    LESSER    REDPOLL.       CANNABINA   RUFESCENS. 

Linaria  rufescens,  Vieill.  Mem.  R.  Accad.  Torino,  xxiii.,Sc.  Fis., 

p.  202  (1816). 

Linaria  minor,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  383  (1837). 
Linota  rufescens,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  146  (1877);   Dresser, 

B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  47,  pi.  188  (1877);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B., 

p.  54  (1883). 
Acanthis   rufescens,    Sharpe,   Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.   252 

(1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  183  (1889). 
Fringilla  rufescens,  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xiii.  (1890). 

Adult  Male. — A  smaller  bird  than  the  Mealy  Redpoll,  much 
more  rufous-brown  in  colour,  with  only  a  little  white  ;  bill 
yellow,  with  a  blackish  tip ;  feet  and  toes  blackish ;  iris  brown. 
Total  length,  4-5  inches;  culmen,  0*35 ;  wing,  2*7  ;  tail,  1*95 ; 
tarsus,  0*55. 

Adult  Female. — Lacks  the  beautiful  red  colour  on  the  breast 
and  rump.  Total  length,  4-5  inches;  culmen,  0-35 ;  wing,  2-7; 
tail,  i -9  ;  tarsus,  0*5. 

Young. — Like  the  old  female,  but  the  head  and  back  streaked 
with  whitish ;  rump  paler  than  tb<*  back  and  mixed  with  white ; 


48  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

no  black  on  the  throat ;  under  surface  white,  with  a  little  yellow 
on  the  abdomen  ;  breast  and  flanks  spotted  with  broad  marks 
of  black. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Local  during  the  breeding  season, 
nesting  generally  in  England,  as  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  points 
out,  "  north  of  a  line  drawn  through  Shropshire,  Leicester- 
shire, and  Norfolk ;  locally  in  Suffolk  and  Cambridgeshire ; 
sparingly  in  Gloucestershire  and  along  the  upper  part  of 
the  Thames  Valley;  and  more  frequently  than  is  generally 
supposed  in  the  counties  of  Middlesex,  Surrey,  and  Kent."  In 
the  Southern  Counties  it  is  very  local  as  a  breeding  bird,  and  in 
the  extreme  south-west  is  rare  at  any  time.  In  winter  it  is 
more  generally  distributed  over  Great  Britain,  and  large  num- 
bers are  caught  on  the  autumn  and  spring  migrations. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Lesser  Redpoll  is  a 
bird  of  Western  Europe,  but  nests  in  the  Alpine  regions  of 
Italy,  Savoy,  and  Styria.  It  is  also  found  breeding  in  France, 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  Western  Germany,  and  has  once  been 
known  to  nest  in  Heligoland. 

Habits. — In  winter  it  frequents  the  birch  and  alder  trees, 
and  was  formerly  quite  common  in  the  Thames  Valley  in 
winter,  in  company  with  Siskins  and  Goldfinches.  It  is  now, 
however,  not  nearly  so  common  near  London  during  the  winter 
months  as  it  used  to  be.  Its  ways  of  life  are  very  similar  to 
those  of  the  Siskin. 

Nest. — A  pretty  and  compact  little  cup-shaped  structure, 
composed  of  moss  and  grass-stems,  with  a  few  twigs,  and  lined 
with  vegetable  down  and  hair,  with  some  feathers. 

Eggs. — Three  to  six  in  number,  bluish,  spotted  with  red, 
sometimes  clouding  round  the  larger  end,  with  overlying  spots 
of  purplish  brown  dotted  about  the  latter.  Axis,  0*6  inch  ; 
diam.,  0*4. 

THE  SPARROWS.     GENUS   PASSER. 

Passer,  Briss.,  Orn.,  iii.,  p.  71  (1760). 

Type,  P.  domestic**  Linn. 

In  the  genus  Passer  and  the  rest  of  the  Finches  to  oe 
treated  of,  the  bill  is  much  more  swollen  and  "globose,"  the 


THE    SPARROWS.  49 

upper  edge  of  the  bill  being  gently  curved  towards  the  tip,  while 
the  line  of  the  lower  mandible  is  more  abrupt.  In  the  species 
which  we  have  been  considering  before,  the  bill  is  more  com- 
pressed and  pointed  and  not  so  swollen. 

The  introduction  of  the  English  Sparrow  into  America  and 
many  of  our  colonies  has  greatly  widened  the  area  of  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  the  genus  Passer,  which  is,  however, 
essentially  a  type  of  the  temperate  portions  of  the  Old  World, 
Europe  alone  possessing  three  distinct  species,  viz.,  the 
House-Sparrow  (Passer  domesticus},  the  Italian  Sparrow  (P. 
italice.},  and  the  Spanish  Sparrow  (P.  hispaniolensis}.  Peculiar 
species  occur  in  Central  Asia,  Thibet,  Sind,  and  Palestine,  but 
the  larger  number  of  the  members  of  the  genus  Passer  are 
found  in  Africa,  though  here  the  species  are  of  a  somewhat 
different  type  from  the  European  ones.  The  Tree-Sparrow  (P. 
montanus\  extends  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  in  many  countries  it  takes  the  place  of  the  House- 
Sparrow  in  the  towns. 


I.    THE   HOUSE-SPARROW.      PASSER   DOMESTICUS. 

Fringilla  domestic^  Lmn ,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  323  (1766). 

Passer  domes ticus,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  340  (1837) ;  Newt  ed. 

Yarn,  ii.,  p.  89  (1876);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  587,  pi. 

176,  fig.   i  (1876);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  51  (1883); 

Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  vi.  (1888) ;    Sharpe,  Cat.  B. 

Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.  307  (1888);   Saunders,  Man.,  p.  170 

(1889). 

Adult  Male. — Above  chestnut,  streaked  with  black ;  throat 
black ;  lesser  wing-coverts  uniform  chestnut ;  crown  uniform 
dark  ashy  grey;  lower  back  and  rump  uniform  ashy  brown ; 
sides  of  neck  and  a  broad  superciliary  streak  deep  chestnut ; 
feathers  below  the  eye  black ;  ear-coverts  and  sides  of  face 
ashy  white,  with  a  little  white  spot  behind  the  eye ;  bill  leaden 
blue  ;  feet  brown  ;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  6  inches ;  culmen, 
°'55;  wing,  2-95;  tarsus,  075. 

In  winter  the  plumage  is  duller  owing  to  the  ashy  brown 
margins  with  which  the  feathers  are  supplied.  These  edges 
gradually  wear  off  and  leave  the  full  summer  plumage,  without 
L  B 


50  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTOR\ 

a  moult.    The  bill  is  horny  brown  in  winter  and  becomes  leaden 
blue  in  summer. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  from  the  male  in  wanting  the  black 
throat  and  being  altogether  browner  in  colour;  the  back 
streaked  with  blackish ;  over  the  eye  a  pale  streak ;  rump 
pale  ashy  brown;  cheeks  dingy  brown  like  the  ear- coverts. 
Total  length,  5-2  inches;  culmen,  0^45;  wing,  3-0;  tail,  2-2; 
tarsus,  075 

Young. — Resembles  the  old  female,  but  is  whiter  below, 
especially  on  the  throat. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Universally  distributed. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Generally  throughout  Europe, 
"  where  grain  will  grow,"  as  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  puts  it.  Re- 
placed in  Italy  by  P.  italiz,  and  in  most  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean countries  by  P.  hispanioknsis>  though  the  Common 
Sparrow  is  often  found  in  the  same  districts  as  the  latter 
species.  The  Eastern  form  of  the  Sparrow,  P.  indicus,  is  only 
a  smaller  and  somewhat  purer  coloured  race  of  our  bird, 
which  may  thus  be  said  to  extend  eastwards  to  India  and  the 
neighbourhood  of  Lake  Baikal.  The  Sparrow  has  been  now 
introduced  into  North  America,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and 
other  countries,  to  the  detriment  and,  in  some  cases,  the 
extinction  of  the  native  birds. 

Habits. — These  are  too  well-known  to  require  a  detailed 
description.  Considerable  controversy  has  taken  place  as  to 
the  harm  done  by  the  sparrows  to  the  farmers,  and  on  this 
point  a  pamphlet  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Gurney,  "  On  the  Misdeeds 
of  the  House-Sparrow,"  may  be  read  with  interest,  as  also  an 
excellent  monograph  of  the  species  written  by  Mr.  Walter  B. 
Barrows,  and  published  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  "  especially  as  to  the  relations  of  the  Sparrow  tc 
agriculture."  Doubtless  during  the  nesting  season  the  Sparrow 
largely  feeds  its  young  on  insects,  and  we  have  seen  one  she 
by  our  friend  Major  Wardlaw  Ramsay,  with  its  crop  perfectl] 
full  of  the  Bean  Aphis  (Aphis  rumicis),  but  at  other  seasons  of 
the  year  it  is  capable  of  inflicting  great  damage,  from  the  amount 
of  grain  it  devours. 

—  A  rough  structure  of  grasses  and  straws,  hay,  and  al 


THE    SPARROWS.  51 

kinds  of  materials,  but  thickly  and  warmly  lined  with  feathers. 
It  is  usually  placed  in  holes  of  buildings  and  trees,  or  under  the 
eaves  of  roofs;  it  often  occupies  House-Martins'  nests  and  even 
the  burrows  of  Sand-Martins.  Its  reproductive  powers  are 
proverbial,  and  as  many  as  three  broods  are  often  reared  in  the 
season. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number,  very  variable  in  colour,  even 
in  specimens  of  the  same  clutch.  Ground-colour  white  or 
greenish  white,  with  spots  and  blotches  of  brown,  purplish  or 
greenish  in  tint.  Occasionally  the  eggs  are  so  thickly  mottled 
with  brown  as  to  be  nearly  uniform,  and  a  common  type  of 
Sparrow's  egg  is  white,  dotted  all  over  with  tiny  black  markings. 
Axis,  o'S-ro  inch;  diam.,  o'6-o'65. 

II.    THE   TREE-SPARROW.       PASSER    MONTANUS. 

Fringilla  montana^  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  324  (1766). 

Passer  mont anus )  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  351  (1837);  Dresser,  B. 
Eur.,  iii.,  p.  597,  pi.  178  (1875) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  82 
(1876);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  51  (1883);  Sharpe,  Catr- 
B.   Brit.   Mus.,  xii.,  p.  301  (1888) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.   Br. 
B.,  pt.  ix.  (1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  173  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — Throat  and  fore-neck  black;  back  streaked 
with  black  ;  head  uniform  chocolate-brown ;  lesser  wing-coverts 
uniform  brown,  not  chestnut ;  ear-coverts  ashy  whitish,  with  a 
black  patch  on  the  lower  parts ;  sides  of  neck  white ;  under 
surface  of  body  ashy ;  bill  black ;  legs  light  brown ;  iris 
brown.  Total  length,  5*6  inches;  culmen,  0*45  ;  wing,  275  ; 
tail,  2*0;  tarsus,  07. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour.  Total  length, 
5 -2  inches;  wing,  2*65. 

Unlike  the  House-Sparrow,  there  is  scarcely  any  difference 
between  the  plumage  of  the  Tree-Sparrow  in  summer  and 
winter,  and  the  summer  plumage  is  not  acquired  by  any  shed- 
ding of  the  pale  tips  to  the  feathers.  Young  birds  resemble 
the  adults,  but  are  duller  in  colour. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — According  to  Mr.  Howard  Saunders, 
the  Tree-Sparrow  is  extending  its  range  in  the  British  Islands. 
It  is  an  inhabitant  chiefly  of  the  eastern  counties  of  Scotland 

E  a 


5*  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

and  England,  and  in  the  other  portions  of  the  country  it  is  de- 
cidedly local.  In  Ireland  this  is  especially  the  case ;  it  is  not 
uncommon  near  Dublin,  and  has  more  recently  been  recorded 
from  North  Aran  Island,  co.  Donegal. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islards. — In  most  parts  of  Europe, 
the  Tree-Sparrow  is  a  local  species,  as  in  Great  Britain,  but  is 
extending  its  range  northward  in  the  western  countries,  having 
reached  the  Faeroes  and  settled  there  within  the  last  twenty- 
five  years,  and  it  has  now  extended  its  range  in  Scandinavia 
beyond  the  Arctic  Circle.  In  many  other  parts  of  Europe  it 
is  more  abundant  than  the  House-Sparrow,  and  its  home 
extends  throughout  temperate  and  tropical  Asia,  along  the  line 
of  the  Himalayas  to  the  Burmese  countries  and  the  Malayan 
Peninsula  to  Java,  while  to  the  northward  the  Tree-Sparrow  is 
found  throughout  China  to  Manchuria  and  Japan. 

Habits. — A  more  elegant  and  lively  bird  than  the  House- 
Sparrow,  the  present  species  has  also  a  clearer  and  more  musical 
note.  It  is  also  an  inhabitant  of  the  open  country,  avoiding 
the  towns,  where  its  congener  is  so  much  at  home,  though  it 
occasionally  builds  its  nests  in  barns  and  outhouses.  A  favourite 
nesting-place  in  this  country  is  in  the  holes  of  pollard  willows, 
and  it  will  even  build  in  holes  of  walls  or  in  wells. 

Nest. — Composed  of  straw,  grasses,  and  rootlets,  but  not 
so  rough  or  clumsy  in  construction  as  that  of  the  Common 
Sparrow.  The  lining  consists  of  wool,  feathers,  and  sometimes 
a  little  hair,  according  to  Mr.  Seebohm. 

Eggs. — Three  to  five  in  number,  smaller  than  those  of  the 
House-Sparrow,  but  varying  in  markings  and  colour,  as  is  the 
case  with  that  species  ;  as  a  rule,  however,  the  tendency  of  the 
Tree-Sparrow's  eggs  is  towards  a  darker  colour  than  the  House- 
Sparrow's,  and  the  majority  of  a  series  of  clutches  are  more 
uniform.  Axis,  07-0-8  ;  diam.,  0-55-0*3. 

THE  CANARIES.     GENUS  SERINUS. 

Serinus,  Koch,  Syst.  Baier,  Zool.,  p.  228  (1816). 

Type,  S.  scrinus  (Linn.). 

The  members  of  this  genus  recall  the  Siskins  in  their  mode 
of  coloration,  having  a  considerable  amount  of  yellow  and! 


THE    CANARIES.  53 

green  in  their  plumage.  The  bill  is  swollen  and  the  curve  of 
both  mandibles  is  equally  marked  towards  the  tip,  so  that  the 
bill  is  not  pointed  as  in  the  Siskins,  but  is  more  like  that  of  a 
small  Grosbeak. 

The  Canaries  are  mostly  African,  sixteen  species  being 
peculiar  to  that  continent.  In  Southern  and  Central  Europe 
the  Serin  Finch  is  found,  and  the  true  Canary  Bird  of  the 
Azores,  Madeira,  and  the  Canary  Islands  is  only  a  large  form  of 
the  Serin  Finch.  A  third  species,  S.  canonicus,  occurs  in 
Palestine.  A  small  Serin  (S.  pusillus]  with  a  red  forehead, 
recalling  the  appearance  of  the  Redpolls,  is  found  from  Asia 
Minor  and  Syria  eastwards  to  Central  Asia  and  the  North- 
western Himalayas. 

I.   THE   SERIN    FINCH.      SERINUS   SERINUS. 

Fringilla  serinus^  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  320  (1766). 

Serinus  hortulanus.  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  in.,  p.  549,  pi.  170  (1875) ; 

Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  in  (1877);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br. 

p.  49  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  169  (1889). 
Serinus  serinus,    Sharpe,    Cat.    B.    Brit.    Mus.,    xii.,    p.    368 

(1888). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  pale  brown,  streaked  with 
black,  the  feathers  also  marked  with  yellow ;  throat  and  breast 
yellow,  with  an  ashy  shade  on  the  lower  throat;  forehead 
yellow ;  sides  of  body  ashy-brown,  very  distinctly  streaked  with 
black;  abdomen  white.  Total  length,  4-5  inches;  culmen, 
0-3;  wing,  2-8;  tail,  1-9;  tarsus,  0-55. 

The  Female  is  coloured  like  the  male,  but  the  plumage  is  not 
quite  so  bright.  Total  length,  4-5  inches;  wing,  2*6. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  very  rare  visitor,  some  eight  ex- 
amples having  been  taken  in  England  either  in  spring  or 
autumn. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — An  inhabitant  of  Southern 
and  Central  Europe,  extending  through  the  Mediterranean 
countries  to  Asia  Minor  and  Palestine.  Northwards  its  range 
extends  to  the  Rhine  Provinces  and  to  Denmark,  and  it  breeds 
near  Frankfort  and  Darmstadt.  The  Canary  (Serinus  canarid) 


54  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

from  the  Canary  Islands  and  the  Azores  is  nothing  but  a  large 
race  of  the  Serin  Finch.* 

Habits. — Very  much  resembling  those  of  a  Siskin,  but  the 
Serin  is  of  a  more  lively  nature,  and  its  clear  and  ringing  call- 
note  makes  it  very  conspicuous  as  it  sings  from  the  top  of  a 
tree,  or  mounts  into  the  air.  "Its  note  resembles  the  word 
zi-zi-zi  often  repeated,  and  a  flock  of  birds  settled  on  a  tree  pro- 
duces a  peculiar  buzzing,  or  almost  hissing  sound."  (Howard 
Sounder s.) 

Eggs. — Resemble  very  closely  those  of  the  Linnet,  but  are 
smaller,  with  a  bluish  white  ground-colour,  mottled  and  spotted 
with  reddish  brown  or  pink  with  darker  purplish  black  spots. 
Axis,  o-6-o'7  inch;  diam.,  o'45-o'5. 

THE  RED  BULLFINCHES.     GENUS  CARPODACUS. 

Carpodacus,  Kaup.,  Natiirl.  Syst,  p.  161  (1829). 

Type,  C.  erythrinus  (Pall.). 

These  birds  are  similar  in  form  to  the  Canaries,  but  are 
somewhat  more  stoutly  built,  and  have  a  good  deal  of  crimson 
or  purple  in  their  coloration. 

Only  one  species  has  occurred  in  England,  the  Scarlet  Bull- 
finch ( C.  erythrinus\  which  is  a  North  European  form  occurring 
throughout  Northern  Asia.  A  large  number  of  species  inhabit 
the  mountains  of  Asia,  particularly  the  Himalayas,  and  at  least 
half-a-dozen  are  found  in  North  America,  some  of  them  ranging 
into  Mexico. 

*  Wild  Canaries,  identical  with  the  resident  bird  of  the  Canary  Islands, 
have  been  frequently  caught  in  England.  Some  ornithologists  consider 
these  birds  to  have  been  imported,  others  believe  that  they  may  be  occa- 
sional immigrants  to  our  shores.  It  seems  quite  feasible  to  suppose  that 
escaped  Canaries  of  the  orthodox  yellow  colour  would,  in  a  very  short 
space  of  time,  revert  to  the  plumage  of  the  wild  stock  from  which  they  were 
derived  ;  and  it  is  probably  birds  of  this  category  which  have  been  captured 
in  England,  rather  than  wanderers  from  the  far  distant  home  of  the  species. 
Other  Canaries,  S.  canicollis  and  S.  icterus,  have  also  been  captured  in 
England  ;  but  as  these  are  by  no  means  uncommon  cage-birds,  there  is  no 
4oubt  tliat  the  individuals  recorded  had  escaped  from  captivity. 


THE  RED  BULLFINCHES.  55 


I.  THE  SCARLET  EULLFINCH.   CARPODACUS  ERYTHRINUS. 

Loxia  erytlirina,  Pall.,  N.  Comm.  Acacl.  Sci.,  St.  Petersb  ,  xiv.,  p. 

587,  pi.  23,  fig.  i.  (1770). 
Carpodacus  e> -ythrinus ,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,iv.,p.  75,  pi.  195  (1871) ; 

B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  55  (1883);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit. 

Mus.,  xii.,  p.  391  (1888). 
Pyrrhula  erythrina,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  189  (1877);  Saun- 

ders,  Man.,  p.  189  (1889) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xiv. 

(1890). 

Adult  Male. — Dark  brown,  washed  with  rosy  or  pale  crimson ; 
lower  back  and  rump  dull  rosy ;  crown  of  head  dull  .crimson, 
this  colour  overspreading  the  nape  and  hind-neck ;  cheeks, 
throat,  and  breast  bright  crimson,  paler  on  the  latter ;  centre 
of  breast  and  abdomen  white,  slightly  washed  with  crimson ; 
bill  greyish  horn-colour,  the  ridge  more  dusky ;  feet  and  toes 
brown ;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  5-5  inches  ;  culmen,  0-45  ; 
wing,  3*2  ;  tail,  2*25;  tarsus,  0*75. 

Adult  Female. — Above  olive-brown,  with  dusky  centres  to  the 
feathers ;  rump  brown  like  the  back,  with  no  crimson ;  wing- 
coverts  tipped  with  yellowish  white,  forming  a  double  wing-bar; 
throat  dull  white,  streaked  with  brown ;  fore-neck  and  breast, 
ochreous  buff,  streaked  with  dusky ;  abdomen  white.  Total 
length,  5-2  inches;  wing,  3-0. 

Young  Male.— Similar  to  the  female,  but  not  so  distinctly 
striped  on  the  throat  and  breast;  wing-bars  yellow  and  very 

distinct. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  straggler,  having  oc- 
curred twice :  near  Brighton  in  September,  and  near  Hamp- 
stead  in  October.  As  the  species  is  one  which  is  extending  its 
range  in  Western  Europe,  these  are  not  likely  to  have  been 
individuals  escaped  from  confinement. 

Range- outside  the  British  Islands. — Breeds  from  Eastern  Prus- 
sia eastwards  through  Northern  Russia  and  Southern  Siberia  to 
the  Pacific,  as  well  as  from  Asia  Minor  eastwards  to  Central 
Asia.  It  winters  in  India  and  the  countries  to  the  south  of  its 


56  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

breeding-range,  and  has  occurred  on  migration  in  Southern 
Sweden,  Heligoland,  and  France  ;  while  Mr.  Howard  Saunders 
records  two  specimens  from  the  south  of  Spain. 

Habits. — Mr.  Seebohm  observes  :  "  The  marshy  forest-banks 
of  the  great  Siberian  rivers  are  a  very  favourite  resort  of 
this  bird ;  and  in  the  Baltic  Provinces,  where  it  is  common, 
and  in  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Volga,  it  is  described  as  fre- 
quenting willows  and  other  low  trees  in  marshy  districts." 

Nest. — Described  by  Mr.  Seebohm  as  built  in  the  fork  of  a 
small  bush,  or  amongst  climbing-plants  not  far  from  the  ground, 
and  resembling  rather  that  of  a  Warbler  than  that  of  a  Finch. 
It  is  deep,  carefully  made,  so  slenderly  put  together  as  to  be 
semi-transparent  when  held  up  to  the  light,  and  composed  of 
long  grass-stalks  and  lined  with  horse-hair. 

Eggs. — Four  to  five  in  number,  of  a  beautiful  blue  colour, 
with  small  underlying  spots  of  reddish  brown,  and  darker  over- 
lying spots  of  purplish  brown  or  black,  chiefly  collected  round 
the  larger  end.  Axis,  075-0-85  inch;  diam.,  0-55-0-6. 

THE  CROSSBILLS.    GENUS  LOXIA. 

Loxia,  Linn.  Syst.,  Nat.,  i.,  p.  299  (1766,  pt). 

Type,  Z.  curvirostra   Linn. 

The  Crossbills,  so  called  from  their  mandibles  crossing  eacl 
other  at  the  end  of  the  bill,  are  easily  recognised  by  this  pecu- 
liarity. In  the  very  young  birds  this  feature  is  not  noticeable, 
the  bill  being  apparently  like  that  of  any  other  Finch,  but  the 
mandibles  begin  to  be  irregular  in  shape  as  soon  as  the  birds 
are  full-sized. 

The  common  Crossbill  varies  very  much  in  size,  the  largest 
birds  being  found  in  Northern  Europe,  and  possessing  such  big 
bills  that  they  have  generally  been  considered  a  separate  species, 
and  have  been  called  the  Parrot  Crossbill  (L.  pytiopsittacus), 
while  the  American  form  (L.  americana)  is  very  much  smaller, 
and  the  Himalayan  one  (L.  himalayand]  the  smallest  of  all. 
They  are  all,  however,  mere  races  of  the  ordinary  Crossbill  of 
Europe  (L.  curvirostra). 


PIRATE      IX 


- ^ 


CROSSeiLL. 


THE   CROSSBILLS.  57 

There  are  also  Crossbills  which  have  white  bands  on  the 
wing.  Of  these  there  are  two,  the  European  White-winged 
Crossbill  (Z.  bifasciata),  which  ranges  to  Eastern  Siberia,  and 
the  American  White-winged  Crossbill  (L.  Ieucoptera\  which 
takes  the  place  of  Z.  bifasciata  in  North  America. 


I.  THE   CROSSBILL.       LOXIA   CURVIROSTRA. 
(Plate  IX.) 

Loxia  curvirostra.  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  299  (1766);  Newt.  ed. 

Yarn,  ii.,  p.   187  (1877);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  127,  pi. 

203  (1872) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  57  (1883) ;  Sharpe, 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.  p.  435  (1888) ;  Saunders,  Man., 

p.  193  (1889). 

Loxia  europcea,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  417  (1837). 
Loxia  pytiopsittacus,  Bechst,  Orn.  Taschenb,  p.  106  (1882). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  pale  vermilion,  the  rump 
clearer  vermilion  or  pale  scarlet ;  under  surface  also  vermilion  ; 
bill  and  feet  brown ;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  6  inches ;  cul- 
men,  0*8 ;  wing,  3*8;  tail,  2*2;  tarsus,  o'6. 

Adult  Female. — Not  so  brightly  coloured  as  the  male,  being 
olive-yellow,  where  the  latter  is  red. 

Young  Birds  are  dull  coloured  like  the  female,  but  are 
streaked  both  above  and  below,  the  under  surface  being  dull 
white,  slightly  tinged  with  yellow  and  streaked  with  blackish 
brown. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Breeds  in  the  pine  districts  of  Scot- 
land, and  in  Ireland.  A  nest  from  co.  Waterford  has  been 
presented  by  Mr.  R.  T.  Ussher  to  the  British  Museum, 
and  it  may  be  seen  among  the  series  of  cases  illustrating  our 
native  birds  and  their  nests.  In  the  southern  counties  of 
England  the  Crossbill  also  nests  in  suitable  localities,  but  it  is 
chiefly  known  as  a  winter  visitant  in  the  south. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Over  the  greater  part  of 
Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  as  well  as  North  America,  being 
everywhere  an  inhabitant  of  the  pine  regions.  Several  races 


58  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

are  known,  the  most  familiar  to  English  ornithologists  being  the 
so-called  "  Parrot  "  Crossbill  (Loxia  pytiopsittacus\  which  has  a 
much  larger  bill  than  the  ordinary  species,  and  is  an  inhabitant 
chiefly  of  Northern  Europe,  whence  it  ranges  occasionally  into 
the  British  Islands.  In  the  Himalayas  the  race  of  the  Cross- 
bill known  as  Loxia  himalayana  is  very  small,  and  many 
ornithologists  consider  the  American  Crossbill  to  be  separable 
as  a  race.  As  stated  in  the  "  Catalogue  of  Birds,"  we  have 
not  been  able  to  recognise  the  differences  of  these  various 
races. 

Habits.— In  winter,  when  the  Crossbill  is  generally  met  with 
in  the  southern  counties  of  England,  it  is  gregarious,  going 
about  in  small  flocks  or  in  parties.  It  is  a  bird  of  irregular 
migration,  and  its  movements  within  the  confines  of  the 
British  Islands  are  also  irregular.  During  the  nesting  season 
it  is  decidedly  shy,  but  in  winter  is  very  tame,  and  it  can 
be  observed  from  a  very  short  distance.  The  food  in  sum- 
mer consists  largely  of  insects,  on  which  the  young  are 
principally  reared.  The  Crossbills  feed  also  on  the  seeds 
of  the  pines,  which  they  extract  very  dexterously  from  the 
cones,  as  well  as  on  berries.  The  ordinary  Crossbill  de- 
vours the  seeds  of  the  larch  and  spruce-firs,  but  the  large 
race,  the  so-called  "  Parrot "  Crossbill,  is  said  by  Mr.  See- 
bohm  to  find  its  principal  food  in  the  seeds  of  the  Scotch 
fir,  which  its  powerful  bill  enables  it  to  extract  from  the 
larger  cones  of  that  tree.  The  Crossbill  is  a  very  early 
breeder. 

Nest. — Cup-shaped,  and  generally  placed  in  a  fir-tree,  often 
at  a  considerable  height  from  the  ground.  It  is  composed  of 
grass  and  moss,  with  a  little  wool  and  a  few  feathers  in  the 
lining ;  outside  the  nest  is  composed  of  twigs,  and  in  general 
appearance  is  like  that  of  the  Bullfinch. 

Eggs. — Four  to  five.  Ground-colour  varying  from  stone- 
colour  or  creamy-white  or  pale  bluish,  with  the  usual  reddish 
spots  and  darker  purplish-brown  overlying  spots  and  scrib- 
blings.  The  spots  are  distributed  over  the  whole  surface 
of  the  eggs,  but  when  strongly  marked,  they  are  collected 
round  the  larger  end  of  the  egg.  Axis,  0-8-0*9  mc}l  > 


THE    BULLFINCHES.  59 

IT.   THE   TWO-BARRED   CROSSBILL.*      LOXTA    BIFASCIATA. 

Cructrostra  bifasriata,  Brehm.,  Ornis.,  iii.,  p.  85  (1827). 
Loxia  bifasciata,  Newt.  ed.   Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  211  (1877);  Dresser, 

B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.   141,  pi.  205  (1877);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br. 

B.,  p.  58  (1883);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.  58 

(1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  195  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — Distinguished  from  the  common  Crossbill  by  the 
white  bands  on  the  wings,  formed  by  the  white  tips  to  the 
median  and  greater  coverts.  Total  length,  5-5  inches;  cul- 
men,  07 ;  wing,  3-65  ;  tail,  2*1  ;  tarsus,  07. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  visitor,  sometimes  oc- 
curring in  some  numbers,  as  in  1889. 

Range  ontside  the  British  Islands. — Accidental  in  many  parts 
of  Central  Europe,  but  resident  in  Northern  Russia  and 
Northern  Asia  across  Siberia  to  the  Pacific. 

Habits. — Like  those  of  the  common  Crossbill. 

Nest  and  Eggs. — Like  those  of  the  common  Crossbill,  but 
smaller  in  size,  the  egg  said  to  be  darker  in  colour  than  that 
of  the  last-named  bird. 

THE  BULLFINCHES.     GENUS  PYRRHULA. 
Pyrrhula,  Briss.,  Orn.,  iii.,  p.  308  (1760). 

Type,  P.  turopaa  (Vieill.). 

The  peculiarly  swollen  and  evenly  rounded  bill,  which  is 
very  broad  at  the  base,  is  the  chief  distinguishing  character  of 
the  Bullfinches,  apart  from  their  coloration,  which  is  also  some- 
what peculiar.  The  sexes  carry  out  the  same  style  of  colour, 
but  the  males  are  generally  red-breasted,  while  the  females  are 
grey-breasted.  In  some  species,  however,  like  the  Azorean 
Bullfinch  (P.  murina]  and  Cassin's  Bullfinch  (P.  cassini),  both 
sexes  are  equally  brown  or  grey,  with  no  red.  Similar  Bull- 
finches, with  the  sexes  alike,  occur  in  the  Himalayas,  which 

*  The  White-winged  Crossbill  (Loxia  hucopterd)  is  the  American 
form  of  the  Two-barred  Crossbill.  It  is  rather  more  crimson  in  its  colour, 
and  has  a  little  more  black  on  the  scapulars.  Total  length,  9  inches  ;  wing, 
3'55.  It  is  said  to  have  occurred  in  the  British  Islands  on  several  occa- 


60  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

possess  three  species,  but  the  genus  is  essentially  a  Palaearctic 
one,  and  is  to  be  found  throughout  the  region,  one  species 
only,  P.  casstni,  extending  its  range  to  the  Nearctic  Region  and 
occurring  in  Alaska. 

I.    THE   BULLFINCH.       PYRRHULA   EUROPiEA. 

(Plate  X.} 

Loxia  pyrrhula  (nee.  Linn.),  Lath.  Ind.  Orn.,  i.,  p.  387  (1790). 
Pyrrhula pihata,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  407  (1837). 
Pyrrhula  europcza,  Vieill. ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  101,  pi.  199 
(1876);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.   166  (1877);   B.  O.  U. 
List  Br.  B.,  p.  56  (.1883);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii, 
p.  447  (1888) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  187  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — Bluish  grey,  with  a  conspicuous  white  band 
across  the  rump ;  wings  black,  with  a  small  spot  of  pale 
vermilion  on  the  innermost  secondaries ;  crown  of  head  black ; 
sides  of  face,  ear-coverts,  cheeks,  and  under  surface  of  body 
dull  vermilion  ;  lower  abdomen  and  under  tail-coverts  white ; 
bill  black;  feet  dark  brown;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  6 
inches;  culmen,  0-45;  wing,  3-1  ;  tail,  2-4;  tarsus,  0*65. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  from  the  male  in  having  the  back 
brown,  the  hind  neck  ashy-grey,  forming  a  tolerably  distinct 
collar ;  ear-coverts,  sides  of  face,  and  under  surface  of  body 
vinous  chocolate,  paler  on  the  abdomen,  the  under  tail-coverts 
white.  Total  length,  6  inches ;  wing,  3-1. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Generally  distributed,  and  increasing 
its  range  in  Scotland,  though  still  somewhat  local  in  most 
parts  of  the  country,  being  absent  in  the  Hebrides,  and  only 
an  occasional  visitor  to  the  Orkneys  and  Shetland. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — A  bird  of  Western  Europe, 
extending  east  to  Germany  and  south  to  the  Mediterranean 
countries  and  Algeria,  but  replaced  in  Scandinavia  and  Europe 
east  of  Poland  by  a  larger  and  purer  coloured  form,  commonly 
known  as  the  "Russian  Bullfinch,"  Pyrrhula  pyrrhula. 

Habits. — Shy  and  retiring,  and  always  to  be  seen  in  pairs 
both  in  summer  and  winter.  Its  piping  call-note  is  a  feature 
of  the  woodland  life  of  England,  when  the  Bullfinch  is 


PLATE     X 


BULLFINCH 


THE    PINE-FINCHES.  6 1 

by  no  means  rare,  and  is  to  be  recognised  in  flight  by  the 
white  band  across  the  back,  which  is  very  conspicuous. 
Its  food  consists  almost  entirely  of  seeds,  fruits,  and  berries, 
but  it  is  very  partial  to  the  young  buds  of  fruit-trees,  and 
numbers  are  shot  in  the  spring  by  gardeners,  who  resent 
the  havoc  which  the  bird  works  among  the  buds  of  the 
currant  and  gooseberry  bushes. 

Nest. — A  beautiful  structure,  on  account  of  the  network  of 
fine  twigs  with  which  it  is  surrounded,  the  inside  of  the  nest 
being  neatly  constructed  of  fine  rootlets. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number^  Ground-colour  a  clear 
blue,  thickly  spotted  with  red  at  the  larger  end,  and  having 
conspicuous  spots  and  blotches  of  purplish  brown,  in  most 
cases  very  distinctly  pronounced.  Axis,  0-75-0-8  inches; 
diam.,  0-55-0-6. 

THE   PINE-FINCHES.     GENUS  PINICOLA. 

Pinicola,  Vieill.,  Ois.  d'Amer.,  Sept.,  p.  iv.  (1807). 

Type,  P.  mucleator  (Linn.). 

Only  one  species  of  the  genus  Pinicola  is  known,  which 
occurs  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds.  It 
is  generally  called  the  Pine  "  Grosbeak,"  but  it  is  not  a  Gros- 
beak at  all,  but  a  Bullfinch ;  in  fact,  it  might  very  well  be 
placed  in  the  genus  Pyrrhula,  as  has  often  been  done.  Its 
large  size,  however,  different  style  of  coloration,  and  somewhat 
differently-shaped  bill,  render  it  convenient  to  separate  the 
genus  Pinicola  from  the  true  Bullfinches. 

I.   THE   PINE-FINCH,       PINICOLA    ENUCLEATOR. 

Loxia  enucleator,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  299  (1766). 

Pyrrhula  enuclcator,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  411  (1837);  Newt. 

ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.    177  (1877);    Saunders,   Man.,  p.    191 

(1889). 
Pinicola  enucleator^  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  ill,  pi.  201  (1874); 

Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.  459  (1888). 

Adult  Male. — Above  rosy  or  crimson ;  the  upper  surface 
mottled  with  darker  brown  markings  before  the  tips  of  the 


62  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

feathers ;  lower  back  and  rump  uniform  rosy ;  wings  dark 
brown,  with  rosy  margins  to  the  feathers,  broader  on  the  inner 
secondaries ;  crown  uniform  rosy  or  pale  crimson,  as  also  the 
under  surface  of  the  body,  which  is  ashy  whitish  on  the  lower 
abdomen  and  under  tail-coverts.  Total  length,  8-5  inches  ; 
culmen,  0-65  ;  wing,  4-15  ;  tail,  3-25  ;  tarsus,  o'S6. 

Adult  Female. — Lacks  the  rosy  colour  of  the  male,  the  lower 
back  being  ashy  like  the  rest  of  the  back,  with  dusky  centres 
to  the  feathers ;  quills  and  tail-feathers  edged  with  yellowish 
white  or  olive ;  under  surface  of  body  ashy  grey,  washed  with 
golden  olive  on  the  throat  and  breast ;  abdomen  and  under 
tail-coverts  pale  ashy.  Total  length,  8  inches  ;  wing,  4-0. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — Accidental  only  ;  the  numerous  re- 
cords of  its  capture  in  this  country  resting  in  nearly  every 
case  on  unsatisfactory  evidence. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — An  inhabitant  of  the  pine- 
woods  of  Northern  Europe,  across  Northern  Asia,  and  North 
America,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Arctic  Circle.  In  Central 
Europe  it  has  occurred  only  as  an  irregular  wanderer. 

Habits. — According  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  the  Pine-Finch  goes 
about  in  flocks  during  the  winter,  but  disperses  through  the 
pine-woods  during  the  nesting  season.  The  call  note  is  some- 
thing like  that  of  the  Bullfinch.  In  disposition  it  is  some- 
what shy  and  frequents  the  tops  of  the  trees,  affecting  the 
woods  by  the  sides  of  streams.  Its  food  consists  of  "  buds  of 
various  forest-trees,  the  seeds  of  pine-  and  fir-cones,  and  the 
berries  of  various  shrubs,  especially  those  of  the  southern- 
wood." 

Nest. — "  Made  on  the  same  model  as  those  of  the  Hawfinch 
and  Bullfinch,  but  of  coarser  materials.  The  outside  is  a 
framework  of  slender  fir-twigs,  and  the  inside,  which  projects 
above  the  outside,  is  composed  of  roots,  fine  grass,  and  a 
lichen  which  grows  on  the  branches  of  the  trees,  and  which 
might  easily  be  mistaken  for  hair."  (Seebohm.} 

Eggs. — Three  to  four  in  number.  Something  like  large  Bull- 
finch's eggs  in  appearance,  but  much  deeper  blue,  with  plentiful 
underlying  spots  of  purplish  grey,  and  overlying  spots  of  brown, 
with  darker  blotches  and  spots  of  purplish  brown,  collecting 


I  HE   TRUE    BUNTINGS.  63 

chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  but  in  many  cases  distributed  over 
the  egg.     Axis,  I'o-i'iinch;  diam.,  o'7-o'75. 


THE  BUNTINGS.     SUB-FAMILY   EMBERIZIN^E. 

A  very  widely-distributed  group  of  birds,  especially  developed 
in  Northern  and  Southern  America,  and  likewise  spread  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  Old  World,  but  not  occurring  in  the 
Malay  Archipelago,  Australia,  and  the  Pacific  Islands. 

The  form  of  the  bill  is  the  best  character  for  separating  the 
Buntings  from  the  other  Finches,  for  the  angle  of  the  chin  is 
very  strongly  marked  and  the  bill  is  usually  gaping — that  is  to 
say,  there  is  a  distinct  gap  in  the  outline  of  the  closed  bill. 
Many  Buntings  have  a  knob-like  protuberance  on  the  palate  or 
roof  of  the  mouth. 

THE  TRUE  BUNTINGS.     GENUS   EMBERIZA. 

Emberiza,  Briss.,  Orn.,  iii.,  p.  257  (1760). 

Type,  E.  ritrinella   Linn. 

In  the  true  Buntings,  as  distinguished  from  the  Long-spurs, 
the  hind  claw  is  not  strongly  developed,  and  is  never  longer 
than  the  hind  toe.  The  wing  is  scarcely  longer  than  the  tail, 
the  nostrils  are  hidden  by  little  bristly  plumes,  and  the  tail  has 
always  a  white  pattern  in  it,  very  conspicuous  during  flight. 

I.  THE   REED-BUNTING.      EMBERIZA   SCH/ENICLUS. 

Emberiza  schanidus,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  311  (1766);  Macg., 
Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  453  (1837);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  23 
(1876);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  241^15.221-222(1878); 
B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  62  (1883) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit. 
Mus.,  xii.,  p.  480  (1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  211  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — Rufous  above,  streaked  with  black,  and  with 
pale  edgings  to  the  feathers;  lower  back  and  rump  ashy 
grey,  streaked  with  black  ;  scapulars  and  lesser  wing-coverts 
chestnut,  the  former  streaked  with  black ;  head  and  throat 
black  ;  under  surface  of  body  white,  streaked  ivith  black  on  the 


64  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

sides  and  flanks.    Total  length,  6  inches  ;  culmen,  0*15  ;  wing, 
3-0;  tail,  2'o  •  tarsus,  075. 

In  winter  the  bird  is  much  browner  than  in  summer,  the 
feathers  having  sandy  edges,  which  gradually  wear  away  in  the 
spring,  leaving  the  full  plumage  in  its  entirety,  without  any 
moult. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  from  the  male  in  wanting  the  black 
head  and  throat ;  the  under  surface  of  the  body  white,  with- 
out any  yellow  tinge;  the  sides  streaked  with  dusky  brown; 
breast  distinctly  streaked ;  throat  ashy  fulvous,  with  a  broad 
black  streak  on  either  side  widening  out  on  each  side  of  the 
neck ;  centre  of  crown  brown,  streaked  with  black,  and  re- 
sembling the  back ;  lesser  wing-coverts  chestnut.  Total  length, 
5  '2  inches  ;  wing,  2-9. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Found  everywhere,  and  breeding  in 
suitable  places,  except  in  the  Shetlands,  where  it  is  only  an 
irregular  visitor. 

Eange  outside  Great  Britain. — Europe  generally,  extending 
east  to  the  Yenesei  Valley,  and  said  to  occur  in  Mongolia 
and  Kamtchatka,  but  not  extending  north  beyond  the  forest 
growth.  It  is  certainly  found  in  Central  Asia  and  through- 
out Turkestan,  occurring  in  North-western  India  in  winter. 
In  the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean  it  is  replaced  in  many 
districts  by  the  large  Marsh  Bunting  (Pyrrhulorhyncha  palus- 
tris). 

Habits. — The  Reed-Bunting  is  a  familiar  object  on  our 
marshes  and  rivers,  the  black-and-white  head-dress  of  the  male 
rendering  him  very  conspicuous  as  he  utters  his  twittering  song 
from  the  top  of  some  bulrush  or  low  bush.  It  is  a  bird  fre- 
quently to  be  observed  in  summer  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames 
and  other  rivers  in  England.  In  the  autumn  and  winter  the 
Reed-Buntings  collect  in  considerable  flocks  and  frequent 
the  stubble-fields  in  company  with  Sparrows  and  Chaffinches. 
Large  numbers  visit  our  shores  in  autumn,  and  it  was  one  of 
the  most  plentiful''- migrants  which  we  saw  in  Heligoland.  As 
is  the  case  with  most  of  our  Finches,  the  food  of  the  Reed- 
Bunting  in  summer  consists  largely  of  insects,  but  in  winter  it 
feeds  chiefly  on  seeds  and  grain. 


THE   BUNTINGS.  65 

Nest. — Generally  placed  low  down  in  some  marshy  bank, 
but  we  have  often  found  it  in  a  bush  a  yard  or  two  above  the 
water,  though  never  suspended  in  reeds. 

Eggs.— Four  to  six  in  number.  Ground-colour,  stone-brown 
or  clay-colour,  scribbled  and  blotched  all  over  with  black,  with 
occasional  spots  of  black,  the  "  writing  "  marks  always  very 
distinct.  Axis,  075-0-85  ;  diam.,  0-55-0-6. 

II.    THE    LITTLE    BUNTING.       EMBERIZA    PUSILLA. 

Emberiza  pusilla,  Pall.  Reise.  Russ.  Reichs.,  iii.,  p.  697  (1776) ; 
Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  34  (1876);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p. 
235,  pi.  220  (1877) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  61  (1883)  ; 
Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  144  (1884) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus., 
xii.,  p.  487  (1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  209  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — Above  rufous-brown,  broadly  streaked  with 
black,  the  rump  duller  in  colour  ;  under  surface  white,  the  sides 
of  the  body  streaked  with  blackish-brown,  but  without  any  tinge 
of  yellow  below ;  breast  distinctly  streaked  ;  ear-coverts  and 
throat  vinous-chestnut ;  bill  brown,  whitish  on  the  lower  man- 
didle  ;  feet  reddish-grey  ;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  4-8  inches ; 
oilmen,  0*4;  wing,  2-8;  tail,  2-1 ;  tarsus,  0*8. 

Adult  Female. — Like  the  male,  but  not  quite  so  richly  tinted, 
j  and  less  distinctly  striped  below. 

Young. — Lacks  the  rufous  colour  on  the  throat,  which  is 
white.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Reed-Bunting 
its  smaller  size,  chestnut  crown,  and  especially  by  having  the 
wing-coverts  brown  with  dusky  centres,  not  uniform  chestnut. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — A  very  rare  and  occasional  visitor, 
laving  once  been  taken  near  Brighton. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — Northern  Russia,  from  the 
valley  of  the  Dwina  across  Siberia  to  the  Pacific;  wintering 
n  India,  the  Burmese  countries,  and  China.  In  winter  it  has 
also  occurred  in  most  of  the  countries  of  Central  Europe. 

Habits. — Mr.  Seebohm  met  with  this  Bunting  on   the   Pet- 
:hora  river  and  again  on  the  Yenesei.     He  says  that  it  was 
xtremely  tame,  and  he  found  several  nests.     It  is  a  very  late 
iiilor  too  in  the  north,  arriving  only  in  the  early  part  of  June, 

I  F 


66  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

when  it  Is  common  in  the  pine-woods  and  birch-forests.  It 
has  an  "  unobtrusive  and  quiet  song."  In  winter,  like  othei 
Buntings,  it  assembles  in  flocks. 

Nest.— This  is  described  by  Mr.  Seebohm  as  "a  hole  made 
in  the  dead  leaves,  moss,  and  grass,  copiously  and  carefully 
lined  with  fine  dead  grass."  Two  other  nests  found  by  him 
were  lined  with  reindeer-hair. 

Eggs.  —Three  to  five  in  number.  Like  miniature  eggs  of  the 
Corn-Bunting,  the  ground-colour  varying  from  stone-grey  tc 
pinkish-brown,  with  underlying  grey  markings,  and  conspicuous 
overlying  spots  and  scribblings  of  purplish-black  and  reddish 
brown.  Axis,  o'7~o'8  inch  ;  diam.,  0*5-0 '6. 

III.   THE    RUSTIC    BUNTING.      EMBERIZA    RUSTICA. 

Emleriza  rustica,  Pall.  Reise.  Russ.  Reichs.,  iii.,  p.  698 
(1776);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  29(1876);  Dresser,  B, 
Eur.,  iv.,  p.  229,  pi.  219  (1877);  B.  O.  U,  List  Br.  B.,  p, 
61  (1883);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  140  (1884);  Sharpe,  Cat 
B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.  490  (1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  205 


Adult  Male. — Above  chestnut,  streaked  with  black,  with 
ashy  margins  to  the  feathers;  lesser  wing-coverts  chestnut 
under  surface  of  body  white,  with  a  chestnut  band  across  the 
fore-neck,  the  sides  of  the  body  also  streaked  with  chestnut , 
breast  distinctly  streaked ;  ear-coverts  brown  ;  a  broad  white 
eyebrow;  base  of  chin  black.  Total  length,  5  inches;  cul 
men,  0-45  ;  wing,  3-0  ;  tail,  2'o  ;  tarsus,  075. 

In  winter  the  whole  colour  of  the  bird  is  duller,  the  feathers 
being  margined  with  buff,  these  pale  edgings  wearing  off  in 
spring,  and  leaving  the  breeding  plumage  in  all  its  brilliancy. 

Adult  Female. — Duller  in  colour  than  the  male,  and  lacking 
the  rufous  colour  on  the  head  and  throat ;  lesser  wing-coverts 
brown  instead  of  chestnut ;  under  surface  of  body  buffy-whit 
the  throat  more  isabelline.     Total  length,  5-5  inches; 

Young.  —  Resembles   the   old    female,    but  has   the  thr( 
yellowish-buff,  the  fore-neck  and  chest  streaked  with  blackis 


THE    BUNTINGS.  67 

brown  ;  wing-coverts  edged  with  sandy-buff,  and  not  tipped 
with  white. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  rare  and  accidental  visitor.  Has 
occurred  three  or  four  times  :  near  Brighton;  in  Yorkshire ;  and 
near  London. 

Range  ontside  the  British  Islands. — A  Siberian  bird,  extending 
to  the  Pacific,  and  wintering  plentifully  in  China.  In  the 
winter  it  wanders  westward,  and  has  been  taken  in  most  of 
the  countries  of  Europe.  It  occurs  as  far  west  as  Finland  up 
to  64°  N.  lat.,  near  Archangel  to  65°,  in  the  Urals  to  62°, 
and  Mr.  Seebohm  met  with  it  on  the  Yenesei  at  the  same 
latitude. 

Habita. — These  are  described  as  resembling  those  of  the 
Reed-Bunting,  the  bird  frequenting  the  marshy  pine-woods  of 
Northern  Europe.  It  is  said  to  have  quite  a  melodious  song. 

Nest. — Described  by  Mr.  Dresser  as  a  carelessly-built  struc- 
ture, made  entirely  of  fine  wiry  grass. 

Eggs. — According  to  Mr.  Dresser,  these  are  like  those  of  the 
Reed-Bunting,  but  the  ground-colour  is  white,  with  a  warm, 
almost  reddish,  tinge.  The  markings  are  redder  than  those 
of  the  above-named  bird,  bolder,  and  chiefly  collected  in 
a  zone  round  the  larger  end  of  the  egg.  The  two  eggs  in 
the  Seebohm  Collection  from  Archangel  are  greenish-white, 
mottled  and  clouded  all  over  with  greenish-brown,  these 
mottlings  distributed  over  the  entire  egg.  Axis,  o'8  inch; 
diam.,  0*6. 

IV.  THE   BLACK-HEADED    BUNTING.    EMBER IZA   MELANOCEPHALA. 

Embcriza  melanocephala,  Scop.,  Ann.,  i.,  p.  142  (1769);  Dresser, 
B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  151,  pi.  206  (1872);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B., 
p.  59  (1883);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  165  (1884);  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Br.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.  503  (1888) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p. 
197  (1889). 

Euspiza  melanocephala,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  64  (1876). 

Adult  Male. — Light  bay  colour  above,  paler  on  the  rump, 
which  is  orange-chestnut.  A  collar  round  the  hind-neck,  as 
well  as  the  entire  under  surface,  golden-yellow ;  no  streaks  on 
the  sides  of  the  body ;  upper  mandible  blackish  ;  head  black  ,- 

F  2 


68  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

no  white  eyebrow,     Total  length,  7  inches ;  culmen,  o'6  ;  wing, 
3*65  ;  tail,  2-9  ;  tarsus,  0*9. 

In  winter  all  the  bright  colours  are  obscured  by  ashy  mar- 
gins to  the  feathers,  the  black  head  and  chestnut  back  being 
entirely  hidden  by  these  margins,  which  wear  off  in  springtime. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  from  the  male,  and  is  much  duller  in 
colour.  The  sides  of  the  body  are  not  streaked,  the  bill  is 
blackish  (bluish-grey  in  life) ;  rump  with  concealed  chestnut 
markings ;  no  black  on  the  head  ;  under  tail-coverts  yellow ; 
abdomen  isabelline.  Total  length,  6  inches ;  wing,  3-35. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  rare  and  accidental  visitor.  Has 
occurred  three  times  :  near  Brighton  ;  in  Nottinghamshire;  and 
in  Scotland,  near  Dunfermline. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — From  Italy  to  Greece  and 
Turkey,  eastward  to  Persia  and  the  Caucasus,  and  wintering  in 
the  Indian  Peninsula.  Its  migration  is  therefore  strictly  east 
and  west.  It  arrives  in  South-eastern  Europe  at  the  end  of 
April,  and  leaves  again  at  the  end  of  July  or  the  beginning  of 
August. 

Habits. — According  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  who  has  studied  the 
habits  of  the  bird  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  it  is  a  thorough 
Bunting,  and  he  gives  some  interesting  notes  on  the  species. 

Ifest. — Placed  in  a  small  bush  or  on  the  ground ;  a  bulky 
structure,  very  rough  outside,  but  neatly  finished  inside.  "  The 
main  portion  is  constructed,"  writes  Mr.  Seebohm,  "entirely 
of  the  yellow  dry  stalks  of  various  small  flowering-plants,  the 
seed-capsules  on  which  are  the  most  prominent  object  and  are 
conjoined  with  the  stiffness  of  the  stalks,  which  prevents  them 
from  bending  easily ;  this  gives  the  nest  a  very  slender  and  un- 
finished look.  The  lining  is  of  entirely  different  materials, 
brown  instead  of  yellow,  and  consists  of  dry  grass,  roots,  and 
slender  stalks  without  any  seed-capsules,  with  not  unfrequently 
a  final  addition  of  goat's-hair,  or  a  few  horse-hairs." 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number.  Ground-colour  very  pale, 
greenish-white,  speckled  with  numerous  dots  of  light  brown, 
with  overlying  spots  of  reddish-brown,  these  spots  generally 
distributed  over  the  egg,  but  in  some  instances  collecting  at 
the  larger  end.  Axis,  o'85-o'98  ;  diam.,  0*6-07. 


THE   BUNTINGS.  69 

V.    THE   YELLOW    BUNTING.       EMBERIZA    CITRINELLA. 

Emberiza  citrinella,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  309  (1766) ;  Macg.,  Br. 

B.,  i.,  p.  445  (1837);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,   iv.,  p.   171,  pi. 

209  (1871);  Newt.  ed.  Yarn,  ii.,  p.  43  (1876) ;  B.  O.  U. 

List  Br.  B.,  p.  60  (1883) ;  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  160  (1884) ; 

Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.  515  (1888);  Saunders, 

Man.,  p.  201  (1889);  Wyatt,  Br.  B.,  pi.  17  (1894). 

Adult  Male.— Brown  above,  with  black  centres  to  the  feathers; 

lower  back  and  rump  vinous-chestnut ;  under  surface  of  body 

yellow,  greener  on  the  fore-neck  and  sides  of  neck  ;  no  stripes 

on  the  throat  and  breast,  but  \hsflanks  distinctly  streaked  with 

blackish-brown  ;  crown  yellow,  greenish  on  the  sides  ;  eyebrow 

yellow ;  breast  and  sides  of  the  body  chestnut  or  bay.     Total 

length,  7  inches;  culmen,  0-45:  wings,  3-6;  tail,3*o;  tarsus,o-75. 

In   winter   the   colours   are   much   duller,   and    the  bright 

plumage,  especially  of  the  chestnut  breast,  is  much  obscured. 

In  the  spring  the  dusky  edges  gradually  become  abraded  and~ 

wear  off,  so  that  the  full  plumage  is  gained  without  a  moult. 

Adult  Female. — Never  so  brightly  coloured  as  the  male,  and 
having  the  yellow  on  the  crown  concealed,  and  the  throat  and 
breast  striped.  Total  length,  6^3;  wing,  3*2. 

Young. — Resembles  the  old  female,  but  is  very  distinctly 
streaked  below. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — Universal,  breeding  everywhere,  ex- 
cept in  the  Orkneys,  where  it  is  only  known  as  a  visitant. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — Generally  resident  through- 
out Central  Europe,  but  a  summer  visitor  in  the  northern 
portion  of  its  range,  which  extends  as  far  as  70°  in  Scandi- 
navia, 65 1°  in  Eastern  Russia,  and  64°  on  the  River  Ob.  It 
reaches  Turkestan  to  the  eastward,  but  is  only  a  winter  visitor, 
as  it  is  also  to  the  greater  part  of  Southern  Europe. 

Habits. — In  England  a  very  common  and  familiar  bird, 
ecognisable  in  every  country  lane  and  hedgerow  by  its  some- 
vhat  monotonous  note,  which  sounds  like  "  a  little  bit  of 
sread  and — no  cheese"  In  winter  it  joins  with  the  Chaffinches, 
Sparrows,  and  Greenfinches  in  the  stubbles  and  farm-yards,  and 
feeds  largely  on  grain.  The  young  birds,  however,  are  entirely 
fed  on  insects  and  caterpillars. 


70  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Nest. — Generally  placed  on  the  ground,  but  occasionally  in 
a  gorse  bush.  It  is  composed  of  dry  grass  and  bents,  with  a 
few  twigs  and  rootlets  and  a  little  moss.  It  is  lined  with  fine 
roots. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number.  From  the  curious  "scrib- 
bling" on  the  eggs  the  Yellow  Bunting,  or  "Yellow  Hammer," 
as  it  is  generally  called,*  is  in  many  places  known  as  the 
"  Writing  Lark."  By  this  name  it  was  always  familiar  to 
us  in  our  school-days  in  Northamptonshire.  Ground-colour 
of  eggs  varying  from  stone-grey  to  reddish-  or  pinkish-grey, 
or  even  white.  The  markings  always  irregular,  no  two 
eggs  being  exactly  alike,  sometimes  with  greyish  underlying 
blotches,  but  generally  very  distinctly  spotted  and  lined  with 
overlying  marks  of  purplish-brown.  Axis,  o1 7 5-0*97  ;  diam., 
0-6-0-75. 

VI.    THE   CIRL    BUNTING.       EMBERIZA    CIRLUS. 

Emberiza  cirlus.  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  311  (1766);  Macg.,  Br.  B., 
i.,  p.  450  (1837);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  177,  pi.  210 
(1871);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  50  (1876);  B.  O.  U.  List 
Br.  B.,  p.  60  (1883);  Seeb.,   Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  156  (1884); 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.  525  (1888)  ;  Saunders, 
Man.,  p.  203  (1889);  Wyatt,  Br.  B.,  pi.  17  (1894), 
Adult  Male. — Somewhat  resembles  the  Yellow  Bunting,  but  is 
chestnut  above,  streaked  with  black.     The  breast  is  chestnut 
and  the  abdomen  yellow,  the  flanks  streaked  with  blackish  ; 
lower  back  and  rump  olive-greenish,  streaked  with  dusky  ;  head 
and    hind-neck    olive-green,    streaked   with   black ;    eyebrow 
yellow;   throat   black,   followed   by  a   yellow  patch.      Tota 
length,  5-5  inches ;  culmen,  0-45  ;  wing,  3-9  ;  tail,  2-45  ;  tarsu 
0-65. 

The  winter  plumage  is  duller,  the  feathers  being  edged  wit 
olive,  and  the  summer  plumage  is  attained  by  the  gradua 
wearing  off  of  the  dull  edges. 

Adult  Female. — Lacks  the  black  and  yellow  markings  on  th 
face  ;  the  throat  and  breast  striped ;  lesser  wing-coverts  greenisJ 
grey,  different  from  the  back.  This  last  feature  will  alway 
distinguish  it  from  the  female  Yellow  Bunting. 

*  If  the  vernacular  name  is  to  be  employed,  it  should  properly  be  Yello 
Amnter,  as  it  comes  doubtless  from  the  German  word  "  Ammer, "  a  Bunting 


THE   BUNTINGS.  71 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Very  local,  and  chiefly  confined  to 
the  Southern  Counties  of  England.  Unknown  in  Ireland ; 
only  found  as  a  rare  straggler  to  Scotland.  It  has  been  known 
to  breed  as  far  north  as  Brecon,  and  in  the  Midlands,  but 
further  north  it  is  only  of  accidental  occurrence. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Principally  a  western  bird, 
and  an  inhabitant  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe,  extending 
east  to  Asia  Minor,  and  breeding,  it  is  said,  as  far  east  as  the 
Crimea.  It  is  also  found  in  North  Africa,  and  breeds  there, 
but  is  principally  known  as  a  winter  visitor. 

Habits. — A  much  shyer  and  more  woodland  species  than  the 
Yellow  Bunting,  though  its  song  is  similar  to  that  of  the  last- 
named  bird,  and  its  call-note  is  almost  the  same.  There  is, 
however,  a  difference  in  tone  which  can  be  detected  by  any- 
one accustomed  to  that  of  the  Cirl  Bunting,  as  the  latter  bird 
has  not  the  prolonged  final  note  of  the  Yellow  Bunting.  In 
autumn  small  flocks  of  the  present  species  disperse  themselves 
over  the  stubbles,  in  company  with  other  Buntings  and  Finches, 
feeding,  like  the  latter,  on  seeds  and  grain. 

Nest. — A  cup-shaped  structure,  made  of  roots  and  grasses, 
and  lined  with  finer  roots  and  leaves,  with  a  little  moss.  Placed 
sometimes  on  the  ground,  like  that  of  the  Yellow  Bunting,  but 
is  generally  built  in  bushes,  and  sometimes  at  a  height  of  six 
feet  from  the  ground. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number,  very  similar  in  character  to 
those  of  the  Yellow  Bunting,  but  the  ground-colour  lighter, 
greyish  or  pinkish-white,  and  the  lines  and  scribblings  very 
distinct,  purplish-black  in  colour,  more  pronounced,  as  a  rule, 
than  those  of  the  Yellow  Bunting.  Axis,  0*8-0-85  ;  diam., 
0-6-07. 

VII.   THE   ORTOLAN    BUNTING.      EMBERIZA    HORTULANA. 

Einberiza  hortulana^  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  309  (1766);  Macg.,  Br. 

B.,  i.,  p.  457  (1837) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  185,  pi.  211 

(1871);   Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,   p.   57   (1876);   B.  O.  U. 

List  Br.  B.,p.  61  (1883);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  153  (1884); 

Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.  530  (1888);  Saunders, 

Man.,  p.  205  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  pale  reddish-brown,  with 
dusky  streaks  on  the  back  and  scapulars,  less  distinct  on 


?2  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

the  lower  back  and  rump ;  wing-coverts  and  quills  blackish- 
brown,  with  rufous  edges;  head  greenish-olive;  lores  yellowish; 
eyelid  white;  cheeks  pale  sulphur-yellow,  separated  from  the 
throat  by  a  distinct  moustachial  streak  of  dusky  greenish-olive  ; 
under  surface  of  body  cinnamon  ;  throat  olive-yellow ,  the  chest 
more  ashy  ;  no  streaks  on  the  chest  or  the  sides  of  the  body  ;  bill 
entirely  red.  Total  length,  6  inches;  culmen,  0-5  ;  wing,  3-35  ; 
tail,  2-5  ;  tarsus,  075. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  paler  in  colour,  the 
lower  throat  and  fore-neck  streaked  with  dark  brown.  Total 
length,  5*8  inches;  wing,  3-2. 

Young. — Like  the  adult  female,  but  yellower  below,  without 
any  tinge  of  fawn-colour ;  the  throat,  breast,  and  sides  of  body 
streaked  with  dark  brown. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  occasional  visitor,  of  which  many 
specimens  have  been  taken  at  different  times. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Generally  distributed  over 
Europe,  but  mostly  as  a  summer  visitor.  It  occurs  as  far  east 
as  Central  Asia,  and  the  Altai  Mountains,  and  its  northern 
range  reaches  to  the  Arctic  Circle  in  Scandinavia  and  to  lat. 
57°  in  the  Ural  Mountains.  Its  winter  home  is  supposed  to 
be  Northern  and  North-eastern  Africa,  but  little  is  really 
known  about  it,  which  is  not  a  little  curious,  considering  the 
number  of  the  birds  which  come  north  to  breed. 

Habits. — A  late  arrival  in  the  north  of  Europe,  reaching  its 
breeding  haunts  in  the  middle  of  May.  It  is  not  shy,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Seebohm,  who  says :  "  It  frequently  remains  for  a 
very  long  time  on  the  same  twig,  generally  near  the  top  of  the 
tree,  especially  in  the  evening,  when  its  simple  song  harmonises 
with  the  melancholy  stillness  of  the  outskirts  of  the  country 
village.  The  song  begins  something  like  that  of  the  Yellow 
Bunting,  but  ends  quite  differently.  It  may  be  roughly  ex- 
pressed by  the  words,  '  tsee-ah,  tsee-ah^  tsee-ah,  tyur-tyur? 
Sometimes  there  is  only  one  ' tyur*  at  the  end.  It  seeks 
most  of  its  food  on  the  ground,  where  it  hops  with  great  ease, 
and  probably  picks  up  small  seeds  and  insects  of  various  kinds." 

West. — On  the  ground ;  formed  of  roots  and  dry  grass,  and 
lined  with  fine  roots  and  hair. 


THE   BUNTINGS.  73 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number.  Ground-colour  pinkish  or 
greyish  stone-colour,  the  underlying  markings  being  grey  and 
the  overlying  spots  purplish-black.  Writing  lines  are  sometimes 
present,  but  never  so  strongly  marked  as  in  the  eggs  of  the  Yel- 
low and  Cirl  Buntings.  Axis,  0-75-0-8;  diam.,  0-55-0-65. 

THE  CORN-BUNTINGS.     GENUS  MILIARIA. 
Miliaria,  Brehm.,  Isis,  1828,  p.  1278. 

Type,  M.  miliaria  (Linn.). 

While  the  other  Buntings  are  remarkable  for  somewhat 
fariegated  plumage,  especially  with  respect  to  the  tail-fea- 
thers, which  generally  have  a  patch  of  white  on  the  outer 
ones,  very  conspicuous  when  the  bird  is  flying,  in  the  genus 
Miliaria  the  wing  is  shorter  than  the  tail,  and  the  inner 
secondaries  are  lengthened  and  nearly  equal  to  the  primary 
quills,  like  the  wings  of  Larks  and  Wagtails.  There  is  no 
white  pattern  on  the  tail.  Only  one  species  of  Miliaria  is 
known,  the  Corn-Bunting,  which  is  singularly  like  a  Lark  in 
plumage. 

I.   THE   CORN-BUNTING.       MILIARIA    MILIARIA. 

Ember  iza  miliaria.  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  308  (1766);  Macg.,  Br. 

B.,  i.,  p.  440  (1837);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  163,  pi. 

208  (1871) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  38  (1876) ;  B.  O.  U. 

List  Br.  B.,  p.  59  (1883);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  148  (1884); 

Saunders,  Man.,  p.  199  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B., 

pt.  v.  (1887);  Wyatt,  Br.  B.,  pi.  17  (1894). 
Miliaria  miliaria^  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.  p.  552  (1888). 

Adult  Male.— Above  brown,  with  black  centres  to  the  feathers, 
less  distinct  on  the  lower  back  and  rump ;  wing-coverts  brown, 
with  sandy-buff  edges,  whiter  on  the  margins ;  head  like  the 
back,  and  similarly  streaked ;  sides  of  neck  ashy-white,  streaked 
with  black ;  tail-feathers  brown,  with  a  shade  of  ashy-white 
near  the  end  of  the  inner  web ;  cheeks  and  throat  dull  white, 
with  a  moustachial  line  of  black  spots  ;  under  surface  of  body 
dull  white,  with  some  triangular  spots  of  black  on  the  throat, 
more  distinct  on  the  fore-neck  and  breast,  which  are  tinged 
with  rufous-buff;  sides  of  body  browner  and  streaked  with 
black  ;  bill  horn-brown,  tinged  with  rufous,  the  lower  mandible 
yellow  ;  feet  pale  fleshy-brown  ;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length, 
7-5  inches  ;  culmen,  o"6  ;  wing,  3*85  ;  tail,  2*75  ;  tarsus,  0*95. 


74  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  smaller.  Total 
length,  6-5  inches;  wing,  3-45. 

In  winter  the  general  colour  of  the  plumage  is  much  more 

rufous. 

Bange  in  Great  Britain. — Nearly  universal,  extending  even  to 
the  Shetlands,  but  is  somewhat  local. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — Pretty  generally  distributed 
in  Europe,  but  especially  so  in  the  southern  and  central  parts 
of  the  Continent.  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  says  that  in  the 
Spanish  Peninsula  and  other  great  corn-producing  countries  of 
the  south,  as  well  as  in  North  Africa  and  the  Canaries,  it  is 
"  resident  and  extremely  numerous."  It  does  not  extend  very 
high  north,  being  only  found  in  the  south  of  Scandinavia,  and 
thence  its  range  tends  south-eastwards,  its  most  northern  limit 
in  Russia  being  the  vicinity  of  Riga,  and  it  is  not  known, 
according  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  to  occur  near  Moscow  or  in  the 
Urals.  It  is,  however,  found  in  the  Caucasus,  and  its  farthest 
eastern  range  is  Bushire,  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  Its  supposed 
occurrence  in  Sind  is  not  altogether  authentic.  The  birds 
from  the  more  eastern  localities  are  paler  in  colour  than  those 
from  Western  Europe. 

Habits. — The  name  of  "  Corn "  Bunting  for  the  present 
species  is  decidedly  appropriate,  at  least  as  far  as  the  south 
of  England  is  concerned,  for  it  is  generally  in  the  vicinity  of 
corn  land  that  the  Bunting  is  observed.  Its  peculiar  note 
attracts  attention,  as  the  bird  sits  on  the  top  of  a  tree  or  bush, 
or,  as  is  often  the  case,  on  a  telegraph-wire.  Beginning  very 
much  like  that  of  the  Yellow  Bunting  it  trails  off  into  a  feeble 
ending,  instead  of  the  ascending  note  with  which  the  last- 
named  bird  finishes  its  song.  The  Corn-Bunting  is,  to  a 
certain  extent,  migratory,  and  flocks  of  the  species  are  met 
with  in  winter. 

Nest. — To  be  found  towards  the  end  of  May,  as  the  species 
is  a  late  breeder.  It  is  generally  placed  in  a  hollow  in  the 
the  ground,  generally  in  a  corn-field,  hidden  under  a  tuft  of 
grass  or  a  small  bush.  It  is  an  inartistic  structure  of  bents  or 
dry  grass,  or  made  only  of  rootlets,  with  a  few  finer  grasses  or 
hairs  for  lining. 


THE   BUNTINGS. 


75 


. — Very  handsomely  marked  and  blotched  with  purplish- 
black,  which  takes  the  form  of  bold  spots  and  scribblings, 
lines,  and  dashes.  The  ground-colour  varies  from  stone-grey 
to  creamy-white  and  purplish-brown,  the  underlying  blotches 
being  lilac  or  ashy-grey  or  even  pinkish-grey.  The  overlying 
marks  and  lines  are  strongly  pronounced,  and  are  generally 
distributed  over  the  whole  egg,  more  rarely  clustered  round  the 
larger  end.  Axis,  0-85-1-0  inch  ;  diam.,  07-0-75. 

THE  SNOW-BUNTINGS.      GENUS  PLECTROPHENAX. 
PlectrophtnaX)  Stejneger,  Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  33 

(1882). 

Type,  P.  Jiiv.ilis  (Linn.). 

The  Snow-Buntings  are  easily  recognised  from  the  other 
Buntings  by  their  long  wings,  which  reach  nearly  to  the  end 
of  the  tail.  The  plumage  of  the  adults  is  black  and  white. 
Two  species  of  Snow-Bunting  are  known,  one  being  our  British 
bird,  which  inhabits  the  northern  portions  of  the  Old  and  New 
Worlds,  and  the  other,  P.  hyptrboreus,  being  found  in  Alaska 
only. 

I.  THE   SNOW-BUNTING.      PLECTROPHENAX   NIVALIS. 

(Plate  XL) 
Emberiza  nivalis^  Linn.,  S.  N.,i.,  p.  308  (1766);  Seeb.,  Br.  B., 

ii.,  p.  125  (1884). 
Plectrophanes  nivalis,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  460  (1837) ;  Dresser, 

B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  261,  pis.  224  and  225,  fig.  2  (1873);  Newt. 

ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.   i  (1876);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  63 

(1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xvii.  (1891). 
fltctrophenax  nivalis,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.  572 

(1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  215  (1889). 
Adult  Male. — Black  above;  wing-coverts  white;  primary  quills 
black,  white  at  the  base  ;  tail  black,  the  outer  feathers  white, 
with  a  small  black  mark  at  the  end  of  the  outer  web  ;  head  and 
neck  all  round  white,  like  the  whole  of  the  under  surface  ;  bill 
dull  yellow,  darker  round  the  tip  ;  feet  black ;  iris  dark  brown. 
Total  length,  7  inches;  culmen,  0^5;  wing,  4*45;  tail,  27, 
tarsus,  0-85. 

Adult  Female. — Like  the  male,  but  not  so  black  ;  the  feathers 
mottled  with  greyish-white  edges  to  the  feathers ;  the  crown 


76  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

slightly  washed  with  fulvous ;  wing-coverts  blackish-brown, 
tipped  with  white ;  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts,  and  quills 
blackish-brown,  edged  with  whitish ;  eyebrow  and  under  surface 
of  body  dull  white ;  the  ear-coverts  dull  ashy  ;  sides  of  upper 
breast  ashy-brown.  Total  length,  6  inches ;  wing,  3-8. 

In  winter,  when  the  Snow-Bunting  is  chiefly  captured  in 
England,  the  plumage  is  altogether  more  rufous  or  even  chest- 
nut, the  paler  edges  to  the  feathers  concealing  the  full  plumage 
underneath.  The  summer  dress  is  gained  by  the  wearing,  off 
of  the  light  margins  to  the  feathers. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Chiefly  known  as  a  winter  visitant, 
large  flocks  occurring  on  the  eastern  coast,  especially  in  severe 
weather,  when  the  Snow-Buntings  are  found  some  distance 
inland.  Within  the  last  ten  years  the  species  has  been  dis- 
covered to  breed  in  Scotland,  a  nest  having  been  taken  in 
Sutherlandshire  in  1888  by  Messrs.  Peach  and  Hinxman,  and 
again  by  Mr.  John  Young  in  1888,  while  in  1893  a  nest  was 
found  in  Banffshire  by  a  party  of  naturalists.  It  had  already 
been  said  to  nest  in  Unst,  the  most  northern  of  the  Shetland 
Isles. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands.  —  The  Snow-Bunting  is  an 
arctic  bird,  and  has  been  found  nesting  in  Grinnell  Land  by 
Colonel  Feilden  during  the  voyage  of  the  "Alert"  in  lat.  82° 
33'  N.  It  is  a  circumpolar  species,  being  found  in  the 
Faeroes,  Iceland,  Novaya  Zemlia,  Spitzbergen,  and  also,  as 
Mr.  Seebohm  says,  "  breeding  on  the  tundras  of  the  Arctic 
Regions,  beyond  the  limit  of  forest  growth."  It  also  inhabits 
the  arctic  portions  of  North  America,  and  migrates  south  in 
winter,  reaching  the  Mediterranean  countries  in  Europe,  and 
Georgia,  in  the  United  States. 

Habits. — Usually  found  frequenting  the  sea-shore  or  the 
adjacent  lands.  Here  the  birds  keep  in  flocks,  feeding  on  seeds, 
and  are  not  very  shy,  their  black  and  white  plumage,  however, 
rendering  them  always  conspicuous.  For  the  nesting  season 
the  flocks  disperse,  and  the  birds  are  only  found  in  their  breed- 
ing haunts  in  pairs,  and  an  interesting  account  of  the  nesting 
of  the  species  in  different  parts  of  Northern  Euro  DC  and 
Siberia  is  given  by  Mr.  Seebohm.  On  the  Yenesei,  'where 


THE   BUNTINGS.  77 

there  are  no  rocks,"  the  nest  was  placed  amongst  the  piles  of 
driftwood  near  the  shore ;  but  in  Banffshire  the  nest  taken  by 
Mr.  Ogilvie  Grant  and  his  friends,  Capt  Savile  Reid,  Mr.  Eagle 
Clarke,  and  Mr.  Hinxman,  was  in  the  face  of  a  very  wild  "scree." 
Indeed,  the  general  situation  of  the  nest  is  in  precipitous  and 
rough  ground  on  high  mountains,  where  it  is  *vell  concealed  in 
a  hole  among  the  loose  debris  of  rock.  Sucn,  at  least,  was  the 
position  of  the  Banffshire  nest,  which  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum. 

Nest. — Composed  of  grasses  and  twigs,  with  a  little  moss, 
and  lined  with  hair  and  a  few  feathers.  Colonel  Feilden  found 
a  Snow-Bunting  nest  in  the  Arctic  Regions,  in  close  proximity 
to  that  of  a  Snowy  Owl,  some  of  whose  feathers  were  used  for 
lining  the  bird's  nest. 

Eggs. — Five  to  seven,  but  sometimes  eight.  The  ground- 
colour varies  from  stone-grey  to  cream  colour,  and  bluish-  or 
greenish-white.  The  underlying  blotches  are  lilac-grey  or  violet, 
with  overlying  spots  or  streaks  of  purplish-black.  In  this  type 
the  ground  is  greenish-blue,  and  the  egg  is  very  Finch-like.  In 
another  type  the  underlying  blotches  are  reddish-grey,  and  the 
overlying  markings  and  blotches  are  generally  darker  rufous. 
The  eggs  vary  greatly,  and  embrace  many  different  types  and 
styles  of  coloration.  Axis,  o-S-ro  inch;  diam.,  o*6-o*7. 

THE   LONG-SPURRED    BUNTINGS.     GENUS    CALCARIUS. 

CahariuS)  Bechst,  Orn.  Taschenb.,  p.  130  (1802). 

Type,  C.  lapponicus  (Linn.). 

The  Long-spurs,  of  which  the  Lapland  Bunting  is  the  type, 
are  three  in  number,  two  of  the  species  being  North  American 
— C.  ornatus  and  C.pictus, — while  the  third,  C.  lapponicus^  is  an 
inhabitant  of  the  northern  portions  of  both  hemispheres.  The 
members  of  this  genus  may  be  recognised  from  all  the  other 
I  Emberizine  genera  by  the  length  of  the  hind  claw,  which  is 
longer  than  the  hind  toe  itself. 

I.  THE   LAPLAND    BUNTING.      CALCARIUS    LAPPONICUS. 

Frlngitta  lapponica,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  317  (1766). 
Pltcirophants  lappunica^  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  469  (1837). 


78  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Plectrophanes  lapponicus,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  223,  pi.  253 

(1872);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  15  (1876). 
Cakarius  lapponicus,   B.  O.  U.    List  Br.   B.,   p.  62   (1883); 

Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xii.,  p.  579  (1888) ;  Saunders, 

Man.,  p.  213  (1889). 
Emberiza  lapponica,  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  131  (1884);  Lilford, 

Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xvii.  (1891). 

Adult  Male. — Above  black,  streaked  with  rufous  or  white ; 
wing-feathers  blackish,  edged  with  whitish  or  pale  rufous ; 
tail-feathers  the  same,  the  outer  one  white,  with  a  brown  mark 
near  the  end  of  the  outer  web,  the  inner  web  also  dusky  near 
the  base  ;  crown,  sides  of  face,  and  throat  black,  with  a  broad 
collar  of  chestnut  round  the  hind-neck  and  on  the  sides  of  the 
neck  ;  a  creamy-buff  eyebrow,  and  a  broad  line  of  white  from 
the  eyebrow  down  the  sides  of  the  neck  to  the  sides  of  the 
breast,  forming  a  patch  on  the  latter ;  under  surface  of  body 
creamy-white,  with  black  stripes  on  the  flanks  ;  bill  dull  yel- 
low, dusky  at  the  tip ;  feet  brownish-black  ;  iris  dark  brown. 
Total  length,  6  inches;  culmen,  0*4;  wing,  3*5;  tail,  2*35; 
tarsus,  0-75. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  from  the  male  in  wanting  the  black 
head  and  rufous  collar  on  the  neck.  Total  length,  5  inches ; 
wing,  3'5- 

In  winter  the  entire  plumage  is  obscured  by  sandy-rufous 
edges  to  the  feathers,  and  the  young  birds  which  visit  this 
country  as  a  rule  are  in  winter  dress,  and  resemble  the  winter 
plumage  of  the  old  ones,  but  the  general  tone  of  the  plumage 
is  more  buff,  with  the  white  patch  on  the  sides  of  the  neck 
visible,  and  the  eyebrow  also  plainly  marked. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — An  occasional  visitor  in  autumn  and 
winter,  some  fifty  occurrences  having  now  been  recorded. 
These  are  principally  from  England;  as  for  Scotland  only 
two  records  have  been  noted,  and  for  Ireland  only  one. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Breeds  in  the  high  north  oi 
both  hemispheres,  being  very  common  in  the  tundras  or  barren 
grounds  of  Siberia  and  North  America.  It  likewise  nests  on 
the  high  mountain  ranges  of  Norway,  such  as  the  Dovrefjeld. 
In  winter  it  migrates  south,  and  has  been  procured  in  nearly 


THE    LARKS. 


79 


every  country  of  Europe,  though  its  visits  rarely  extend  to 
those  bordering  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

Habits. — These  are  described  by  Mr.  Seebohm  as  resembling 
those  of  the  Snow-Bunting.  It  is  equally  gregarious,  and  has 
a  somewhat  similar  song,  generally  delivered  while  the  bird  is 
soaring  in  the  air  like  a  Lark.  The  female  has  nearly  as  loud 
a  song  as  the  male. 

Nest. — "  Almost  always  placed  in  some  hole  in  the  side  of  one 
of  the  little  mounds  or  tussocks  which  abound  on  the  marshy 
part  of  the  tundra;  it  is  composed  of  dry  grass  and  roots,  and 
profusely  lined  with  feathers."  (Seebohm. ) 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number.  Egg  very  dark  brown  in 
appearance,  the  ground-colour  olive  or  stone-brown,  often 
uniform,  with  purplish-brown  spots  or  streaks,  and  occasionally 
a  few  lines.  Great  variation  is  shown  in  the  depth  of  the 
ground-colour,  and  in  the  amount  of  markings  on  the  egg. 
Axis,  075-0-95  inch  ;  diam.,  0-6-0-65. 

NOTE. — A  specimen  of  Brandt's  Siberian  Bunting  (Emberiza  cioides) 
has  been  obtained  in  Yorkshire.  Two  specimens  of  the  White-throated 
Bunting  (Zonotrichia  albicollis)  have  been  recorded,  one  from  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Aberdeen,  and  another  from  Brighton ;  while  the  Painted  Bunt- 
ing (Cyanospiza  ciris)  was  noted  in  1802  as  having  been  captured  near  Port- 
land. This  individual,  as  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  well  remarks,  "Montagu, 
with  his  accustomed  good  sense,  naturally  presumed  to  have  escaped  from 
confinement. "  So  many  different  kinds  of  foreign  Finches  are  brought  alive 
to  England  every  year  that  it  is  devoutly  to  be  hoped  that  in  future  the 
shooting  of  some  of  these  aliens  will  not  be  deemed  worthy  of  record  in 
scientific  journals,  when  it  is  so  obvious  that  they  must  have  been  caged 
birds. 

THE  LARKS.     FAMILY  ALAUDID^. 

The  Larks  have  been  designated  by  Sundevall  as  Scuielli- 
plantares,  because  the  hinder  aspect  of  the  tarsus  is  divided 
into  scales  like  the  front  aspect.  In  most  Passerine  birds  the 
hinder  portion  of  the  tarsus  is  perfectly  smooth,  and  not 
divided  into  scales.  By  these  characters  a  Lark  and  a  Pipit 
can  be  easily  distinguished,  for  although  our  English  Tit-larks 
or  Pipits  have  much  of  the  appearance  and  habits  of  a  Lark 
(the  Meadow-Pipit  even  having  a  Lark-like  hind  claw),  yet  they 
can  be  immediately  told  by  the  undivided  scaling  of  the  back 


8o  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

of  the  tarsus,  or  planta  tarsi,  as  it  is  called.  The  Larks  have 
also  ten  primaries,  but  the  first  one  is  so  short  that  very  often 
only  nine  are  apparent. 

THE  HORNED  LARKS.     GENUS  OTOCORYS. 
Otocorys,  Bp.  Nuovi  Ann.  Sci.  Nat.,  Bologna,  ii.,  p.  407  (1838). 
Type,  O.  alptstris  (Linn.). 

In  the  birds  of  this  genus  the  bill  is  short  and  stout  like 
that  of  the  Sky-larks,  but  they  are  at  once  recognised  by  the 
little  tufts  of  black  feathers,  or  hornlets,  on  each  side  of  the 
hinder  crown. 

The  Horned  Larks  are  principally  northern  birds,  occurring 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  North  America,  where  there  are 
many  kinds,  one  species  also  being  found  as  far  south  as 
Colombia,  in  South  America.  Besides  the  species  which  visits 
England  and  which  extends  across  Siberia,  there  are  other 
forms  which  inhabit  the  deserts  from  Algeria  to  Central  Asia 
and  Mongolia,  and  more  than  one  form  of  Horned  Lark  is 
found  in  the  higher  ranges  of  the  Himalayas. 

I.  THE   SHORE-LARK.       OTOCORYS    ALPESTRIS. 

Alauda  alpestris,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  289  (1766);  Macg.,  Br.  B., 
ii.,  p.  159  (1839) ;  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  284  (1884). 

Olocorys  alpestris.  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  604  (1874);  Dresser, 
B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  387,  pi.  243  (1874) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B., 
p.  73  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  249  (1889);  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xiii.,  p.  541  (1890) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 
Br.  B.,  pt.  xvi.  (1890). 

Adult  Male. — Above  ashy,  with  a  tinge  of  vinous,  the  centre 
tail-feathers  ashy,  with  black  centres;  the  rest  of  the  tail- 
feathers  black,  the  outer  one  edged  with  white,  the  median  and 
lesser  wing-coverts  vinous ;  remainder  of  wing-coverts  and 
quills  dusky  brown,  externally  ashy  with  whitish  margins,  the 
inner  coverts  and  secondaries  browner ;  hinder  crown  and  hind- 
neck  pure  vinous ;  forehead  and  eyebrow  yellow  or  yellowish- 
white  ;  across  the  crown  a  broad  band  of  black,  continued  into 
the  hornlet  on  each  side  of  the  hinder  crown ;  throat  pale  sul- 
phur-yellow ;  nasal  plumes,  lores,  and  fore  part  of  ear-coverts 


THE   LARKS.  Si 

black,  the  remainder  of  the  ear-coverts  yellowish-white,  like  the 
sides  of  the  neck;  across  the  lower  throat  and  fore-neck  a 
broad  band  of  black ;  under  surface  of  body  white,  the  sides 
of  the  body  and  thighs  vinous,  slightly  streaked  with  blackish ; 
bill  black,  bluish-white  at  base  of  lesser  mandible ;  feet 
brownish-black,  tinged  with  grey ;  iris  reddish-brown.  Total 
length,  6'8  inches  ;  culmen,  0*55  ;  wing,  4*25  ;  tail,  2-9  ;  tarsus, 
0-9. 

Adult  Female. — Forehead  yellower  than  in  the  male,  the  black 
band  on  the  crown  not  so  strongly  marked ;  hinder  crown  and 
nape  browner,  with  less  vinous  tinge,  mottled  and  streaked 
with  black  like  the  back. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  visitor  in  autumn  and  winter  to  the 
eastern  coasts,  and  of  pretty  regular  occurrence  ;  it  has  also 
been  noticed  on  the  spring  migration. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — A  strictly  northern  bird, 
breeding  beyond  the  limit  of  forest  growth  in  Northern  Europe 
and  Siberia,  and  migrating  south  in  winter.  Also  found  across 
the  high  northern  portions  of  America. 

Habits. — Generally  noticed  in  small  parties  on  the  sea-shore, 
where  it  picks  up  small  molluscs,  and  feeds  on  the  buds  of 
small  plants.  In  the  summer  the  principal  food  consists  of 
insects,  but  in  the  autumn  it  lives  principally  on  seeds.  Mr. 
Seebohm  says  that  the  Shore-Lark  appears  to  be  entirely  a 
ground-bird,  and  often  sings  on  the  ground ;  but  at  its  breed- 
ing places  it  sings  incessantly,  and  mounts  into  the  air  like  a 
Sky-Lark.  The  nest  is  placed  on  the  ground,  generally  1 1  some 
slight  hollow. 

Nest. — According  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  the  nest  is  loosely  made 
of  dry  grass  and  stalks,  and  the  inside,  which  is  rather  deep,  is 
lined  with  willow-down  or  reindeer-hair. 

Eggs. — Three  to  five  in  number,  more  generally  four.  Ground- 
colour brown,  thickly  mottled  with  spots  of  darker  brown 
distributed  over  the  whole  egg,  and  collecting  in  a  broad  ring 
round  the  larger  end  of  the  latter.  This  ring  is  generally  very 
distinct,  but  is  sometimes  lighter,  and  occasionally  absent 
altogether.  Axis,  0*9-1 -o  inch;  diam.,  o*6-o-65. 


82  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

THE   CALANDRA    LARKS.     GENUS    MELANOCORYPHA. 

Melanocorypha,  Boie,  Isis  (1828),  p.  322. 

Type,  M.  calandra  (Linn.). 

The  Larks  composing  this  genus  are  birds  of  large  size,  and 
are  peculiar  to  Southern  Europe  and  the  Mediterranean 
countries,  extending  eastwards  to  Southern  Russia,  and  south 
to  Abyssinia.  Species  of  the  genus  are  also  found  from  Pales- 
tine and  Asia  Minor  through  Persia  to  Central  Asia  and  North- 
western India,  while  some  extend  from  the  Eastern  Himalayas 
to  Thibet,  and  one  at  least  inhabits  Western  Siberia  and 
Northern  China. 

The  Calandra  Larks  are  generally  recognised  by  their  large 
size  and  very  stout  bills.  The  wing  is  more  pointed  than  in 
the  majority  of  the  Larks,  the  secondaries  not  reaching  to 
the  tips  of  the  primaries  as  in  most  of  the  members  of  this 
family. 

The  Calandra  Lark  of  Southern  Europe,  Melanocorypha 
calandra,  has  been  chronicled  in  some  lists  of  British  Birds  on 
the  strength  of  two  specimens  "  recognised  in  the  shops  of  bird- 
stuffers  in  Devonport  and  Exeter  respectively ;  but  the  evidence 
is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  the  introduction  to  the  British  List 
of  a  species  which  is  very  tolerant  of  confinement,  and  is  one 
of  the  commonest  cage-birds  in  Spain  and  Italy."  (Howard 
Saunders.) 

I.  THE   WHITE-WINGED    LARK.       MELANOCORYPHA    SIBIRICA. 

Alauda  sibirica,  Gm.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  799  (1788) ;  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii., 
p.  279  (1884);  Saunders.  Man.,  p.  247  (1889). 

Melanocoryphn  sibirica,  Newt.    ed.  Yarr.,   i.,   p.   642  (1874); 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  373,  pi.  240  (1873);  B.  O.  U 
List  Br.   B.,  p.   73  (1883);  Sharpe,   Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus 
xiii.,  P-  557  (1890). 

Melanocorypha  kucoptera,  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.,  Br.  B.,   pt.  xv 
(1890). 

Adult  Hale. — Brown,  streaked  with  black,  the  upper  tai 
coverts  more  rusty ;  lesser  wing-coverts  and  primary-covert 
bright  rusty-red,  forming  a  shoulder  patch  ;  remainder  of  winj 
coverts  and  quills  dark  brown,  with  rust-coloured  margins 


THE    LARKS.  83 

secondary  t/ui/ls  white,  with  a  black  base ;  crown  of  head  rusty- 
ied;  lores  and  eyebrow  creamy  white;  ear-coverts  rusty-red, 
the  fore  part  white ;  under  surface  of  body  white,  with  a  tinge 
of  tawny  colour  on  the  thighs  and  sides  of  the  breast,  with  a 
few  dusky  spots  on  the  sides  of  the  throat  and  fore-neck ;  sides 
of  body  streaked  with  dark  brown  ;  axillaries  and  under  wing- 
coverts  white.  Total  length,  7  inches;  culmen,  0*55;  wing, 
47  ;  tail,  2^5  ;  tarsus,  0*9. 

Adult  Female. — Lacks  the  rufous  crown,  the  head  and  ear- 
coverts  being  ashy  brown,  streaked  with  black  like  the  back ; 
the  sides  of  face  and  throat  more  distinctly  spotted  with 
black  than  in  the  male.  Total  length,  6'8  inches;  wing, 
4'8. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  visitor,  one  specimen 
having  been  caught  near  Brighton  in  November,  1869. 

Raage  outside  the  British  Islands. — An  inhabitant  of  Central  and 
Southern  Russia,  as  far  east  as  Central  Asia,  the  Altai  Moun- 
tains, and  the  Irtisch  river.  In  winter  it  wanders  occasionally 
west  to  Poland  and  Galicia,  and  has  been  procured  in  Heligo- 
land, in  Belgium,  and  in  Northern  Italy. 

Habits. — In  its  native  haunts  it  is  a  bird  of  the  grassy  and 
open  districts,  is  said  to  be  by  no  means  shy,  and  has  a  song 
very  like  that  of  the  Sky-Lark.  Like  the  latter  bird,  it  also 
ascends  into  the  air  for  a  short  distance  and  sings  during  the 
breeding  season.  In  the  autumn  these  Larks  collect  in 
flocks. 

Nest. — Built  in  a  little  cavity  on  the  ground  under  a  tuft  of 
herbage  or  beneath  a  little  bush,  and  is  said  to  be  made  of 
grass. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number.  Ground-colour  clay-white 
or  greenish-white  spotted  all  over  with  brown,  with  underlying 
spots  of  grey.  Axis,  0-95  inch  ;  diam.,  0*65. 

THE  SKY-LARKS.     GENUS  ALAUDA. 
Alauda,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  L,  p.  287  (1766). 

Type,  A.  arvenslsy  Linn. 

The  Sky-Larks  are  familiar  birds  and  favourites  in  every 
country  where  they  are  found,  and  are  in  as  much  request  as 

G  a 


84  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

cage-birds  in  China  as  they  are  in  this  country,  on  account  of 
their  beautiful  song.  They  are  to  be  recognised  from  the  other 
Larks  of  Great  Britain  by  their  tiny  first  primary  quill  (which 
looks  like  a  little  wing-covert),  combined  with  a  long  and  straight 
hind  claw.  The  Sky- Larks  are  entirely  birds  of  the  Old  World, 
and  are  found  throughout  Europe  and  Asia  to  China  and  the 
Indian  Peninsula,  but  they  do  not  extend  to  the  Malayan 
Peninsula  or  the  islands.  One  species  is  confined  to  Abyssinia. 

I.    THE    SKY-LARK.      ALAUDA    ARVENSIS. 

(Plate  XI 7. ,  Fig.  i.) 

Alauda  arvensis,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  287  (1766) ;  Macg.,  Br.  B., 
ii.,  p.  163  (1839);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  307,  pi.  231, 
(1871);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  614  (1874);  B.  O.  U. 
List  Br.  B.,  p.  71  (1883);  Seeb.  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  266  (1884); 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  239  (1889);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit. 
Mus.,  xiii.,  p.  567  (1890) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt. 
xvi.  (1890);  Wyatt,  Brit.  B.,  pi.  24,  fig.  2  (1894). 

Adult  Male. — Brown,  streaked  with  black  centres  to  the  feathers, 
many  of  which  are  edged  with  grey ;  head  like  the  back  and 
crested  ;  wing-coverts  and  quills  dark  brown,  edged  with  tawny 
buff,  the  secondaries  tipped  with  white ;  eyebrow  isabelline ;  ear- 
coverts  dark  rufous,  broadly  streaked  with  black  ;  under  surface 
of  body  white,  washed  with  tawny  buff  or  rufous  on  the  fore- 
neck,  chest,  and  sides  of  body;  the  sides  of  the  face  and 
throat  spotted  with  blackish,  these  markings  longer  and  more 
distinct  on  the  lower  throat  and  chest,  and  developing  into 
long  streaks  on  the  sides  of  the  body ;  under  wing-coverts 
and  axillaries  dark  ashy  isabelline;  outer  tail-feather  white, 
except  a  wedge-shaped  mark  of  brown  at  the  base  of  the  inner 
web  ;  penultimate  feathers  white  only  on  the  outer  web  ;  bill 
greyish  brown,  yellowish  at  base  of  lower  mandible  ;  feet  flesh- 
coloured,  with  a  livid  tinge  ;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  7  inches ; 
culmen,  0-55  ;  wing,  4'35-4'55 ;  tail,  2*8;  tarsus,  ro. 

Adult  Female. — Like  the  male  in  colour,  but  smaller.  Winj 
from  3  '9-4  -2  inches  in  length. 

NOTE. — The  resident  bird  in  many  parts  of  England  is  very  rufous 
colour,  much  more  so  than  the  generality  of  Sky-Larks  from  other  parts 
Europe.  The  birds  which  migrate  into  England  during  the  autumn 
generally  larger  and  much  darker  in  colour. 


SKY-LARK         ?-   WOOD-LARK 


THE   LARKS.  85 

Bange  in  Great  Britain. — Universally  distributed,  and  resident 
everywhere  except  in  the  more  northern  portions,  which  it 
quits  during  the  winter.  A  large  migration  of  Larks  takes 
place  into  England  during  the  autumn. 

Eange  ontside  the  British  Islands. — Generally  distributed  through- 
out Europe,  where  the  form  is  identical  with  the  general  run 
of  specimens  from  Great  Britain ;  breeding  as  far  as  the  Arctic 
circle  or  a  little  beyond ;  but  only  known  as  a  winter  visitant 
in  the  Mediterranean  countries,  where  a  paler  and  lighter  form, 
generally  called  A.  cantarella,  takes  the  place  of  the  true 
Alauda  arvensis.  This  pale  form  extends  to  Central  Asia  and 
North-western  India,  while  a  more  rufous  race,  known  as  Alauda 
liopus,  inhabits  the  Himalayas,  and  extends  to  China  and  Japan. 
These  races  of  Sky-Larks  are  scarcely  worthy  of  separation  from 
our  British  birds. 

Habits. — These  are  almost  too  well  known  to  need  descrip- 
tion, as  the  Sky- Lark  is  a  general  favourite  with  everyone,  &ut 
especially  when  its  bright  song  is  heard  in  the  spring  and 
during  the  nesting  season,  when  it  soars  into  the  air  and  sings 
at  such  a  height  as  to  be  often  almost  invisible.  In  winter, 
when  the  home-bred  birds  are  reinforced  by  a  vast  invasion  of 
migratory  Sky-Larks,  they  distribute  themselves  over  the 
stubble-fields,  and  as  they  devour  a  great  number  of  seeds  of 
noxious  weeds  they  doubtless  render  good  service  to  the 
farmer,  but  they  also  pick  out  a  considerable  number  of  grains 
of  newly-sown  corn. 

Nest. — Placed  on  the  ground,  generally  on  a  level  with  the 
surface,  a  cup-shaped  depression  being  scratched  out  by  the 
bird  for  its  reception.  It  is  nearly  always  well  concealed,  and 
sometimes  hidden  under  grass  or  a  tuft  of  herbage.  The  nest 
itself  is  made  of  dry  grass,  lined  with  fine  roots  and  grasses, 
with  a  little  hair  occasionally. 

Eggs. — Three  to  five  in  number.  Ground-colour  greyish- 
brown  or  brownish-white,  more  rarely  greenish-white,  the  eggs 
generally  thickly  clouded  with  brown  and  grey,  the  latter  being 
the  underlying  colour,  the  brown  overlying  markings  occurring  in 
the  form  of  spots  and  blotches,  the  larger  end  of  the  egg  being 
generally  uniform,  and  the  dark  colour  forming  a  ring.  Axis, 
0-9-1-0  inch;  diam.,  0-6-07. 


86  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

THE  SHORT-TOED  LARKS.    GENUS  CALANDRELLA. 

Calandrella,  Kaup.,  Nat.  Syst,  p.  39  (1829). 

Type,  C.  brachydactyla  (Leisl.). 

Like  the  Sky-Larks,  the  members  of  this  genus  have  a  very 
rudimentary  first  primary,  but  they  are  distinguished  from  the 
species  of  Alauda  by  their  smaller  size,  longer  wings,  and 
curved  hind  claw.  As  in  Alauda,  the  secondary  quills  are  as 
long  as  the  primaries.  Four  species  of  true  Short-toed  Lark 
are  known  ;  the  best-known  form,  C.  Irachydactyla,  inhabiting 
Southern  Europe  across  to  Central  Asia  and  North-western 
India,  being  replaced  in  the  Indian  peninsula  by  C.  dukhunensis. 
C.  thibetana  inhabits  the  Himalayas  and  Thibet,  while  in  Tur- 
kestan its  place  is  taken  by  C.  acutirostris.  None  of  the  Short- 
toed  Larks  exhibit  a  perceptible  crest. 

I.  THE  SHORT-TOED  LARK.   CALANDRELLA  BRACHYDACTYLA. 

Alauda  brachydactyla,  Lcisler,  Wetterau  Gesellsch.  Ann.,  iii., 
PP-  357-359  (1814);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  274  (1884);  Saun- 
ders,  Man.,  p.  244  (1889). 

Calandrella  brachydactyla,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  341,  pi.  235 
(1873)  ;  Newt.  ed.  Yam,  i.,  p.  637  (1874);  B.  O.  U.  List 
Br.  B.,  p.  72  (1883) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xiii.,  p. 
580  (1890);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xvii.  (1891). 

Adult  Male. — Of  small  size,  and  distinguished  by  the  cru 
racters  mentioned  above.     Sandy  brown,  with  blackish  centre 
to   the  feathers;   those  of   the  wing  and   tail   dark   browi 
edged    with    sandy    buff;    the    outer    tail-feathers    broadl] 
margined  with  isabelline,  inclining  to  sandy  buff  towards  th< 
end  of  the  outer  web  and  round  the  tip  of  the  feather ;  outer- 
most feather  white,  except  for  an  oblique  mark  of  blackish 
brown  on  the  inner  web,  the  white  of  the  outer  web  tinged 
isabelline  towards  the  ead ;   head   streaked   like   the   back ; 
under  surface  of  body  white,  with  a  distinct  wash  of  isabelline 
on  the  fore-neck,  chest,  and  sides  of  body ;  on  the  former  a 
few  blackish  spots ;  a  blackish  patch  on  the  side?  of  the  fore- 
neck  ;  bill  whity-brown,  the  culmen  darker ;  feet  pale  yellow- 
ish-brown ;    iris  brown.     Total  length,  5-5  inches ;   culmen, 
0-45;  wing,  3-45;  tail,  2-05  ;  tarsus,  075. 


THE   LARKS,  87 

Adult  Female.— Similar  to  the  male,  and  not  perceptibly 
smaller,  as  in  most  Larks ;  scarcely  any  streaks  on  the  fore- 
neck,  the  blackish  patch  on  the  sides  of  the  latter  also  smaller. 
Total  length,  5-5  inches;  wing,  3-6. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  visitor,  which  has  oc- 
curred about  eight  times  in  the  southern  half  of  England,  and 
once,  quite  recently,  in  Ireland. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — A  resident  in  many  parts  of 
Southern  Europe,  but  migratory  in  others,  departing  in  winter 
after  nesting.  It  breeds  in  the  south  of  France  and  through- 
out the  Mediterranean  countries,  and  as  far  east  as  Turkestan  ; 
but  is  only  of  accidental  occurrence  in  Germany  and  other 
more  northern  countries  of  Europe,  as  in  England. 

Habits.— An  inhabitant  of  sandy  districts,  where  it  lives 
entirely  on  the  ground.  It  arrives  in  its  breeding  haunts 
about  the  beginning  of  April,  and  the  eggs  are  found  in  May 
and  June,  its  song  is  like  that  of  the  Sky- Lark,  but  more 
feeble,  and  is  uttered  as  the  bird  mounts  into  the  air,  though 
it  also  sings  on  the  ground.  It  is  of  a  very  tame  disposition, 
and  during  the  winter  congregates  in  large  flocks. 

Nest. — Placed  on  the  ground  in  any  kind  of  depression,  such 
as  a  hoof-print,  often  concealed  under  the  herbage.  It  is  very 
like  that  of  the  Sky-Lark,  being  formed  of  dry  grasses  with 
vegetable  down,  and  scantily  lined  with  hair. 

Eggs. — Four  to  five  in  number.  There  are  two  distinct  types, 
one  light,  nearly  uniform  pale  brown,  the  spots  of  brown  very 
tiny  and  indistinct,  sometimes  showing  a  ring  round  the  large 
and  sometimes  round  the  small  end  of  the  egg.  The  second 
type  of  egg  is  Sparrow-like,  the  ground-colour  white,  thickly 
spotted  with  brown,  with  underlying  spots  of  grey.  Axis, 
0-75-0-8  inch;  diam.,  o'55-o'6  inch. 

THE  CRESTED   LARKS.    GENUS  GALERITA. 
Gahrita,  Boie,  Isis,  1882,  p.  321. 

Type,  G.  cristata  (Linn.). 

The  Crested  Larks,  of  which  we  have  two  species  in  Eu- 
rope, are  distinguished  by  having  the  first  primary  quill  well 


88  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

developed,  the  hind  claw  not  as  long  as  the  bill,  the  latter  being 
long  and  slender,  and  the  crest  very  distinct,  long,  and  narrow, 
and  extending  backwards  in  a  point  from  the  back  of  the  head. 
Like  the  Sky- Larks,  these  birds  vary  greatly  in  the  colour  of 
the  plumage  according  to  the  districts  they  inhabit,  being  paler 
in  the  desert  countries.  Four  species  are  recognised,  and  the 
genus  is  found  from  Southern  and  Central  Europe,  across  to 
Central  Asia,  and  even  to  Northern  China.  Crested  Larks  also 
inhabit  Abyssinia  and  the  plains  of  Western  Africa. 

I.    THE   CRESTED    LARK.      GALERITA   CRISTATA. 

Alauda  cristata,  Linn.,  S  N.,  i.,  p.  288  (1766);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.? 
iv.,  p.  285,  pis.  228-229  (1873) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  632 
(1874) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  71  (1883) ;  Seeb.,  Br.  B., 
ii.,  p.  261  (1884);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  243  (1889). 

Gakrita  cristata^  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xiii.,  p.  626 
(1890). 

Adult  Male. — Brown,  streaked  with  blackish  centres  to  the 
feathers ;  lower  back  and  rump  more  uniform  ashy-brown,  in- 
clining to  vinaceous  on  the  upper  tail-coverts ;  wings  brown, 
the  feathers  edged  with  ashy  or  rufous ;  tail-feathers  brown, 
edged  with  ashy,  the  outer  one  pale  brown  sandy-buff  exter- 
nally, with  an  oblique  dark  mark  on  the  inner  web ;  crown  of 
head  streaked  like  the  back,  with  a  long  median  crest  of  pointed 
feathers ;  ear-coverts  brown,  with  a  whitish  patch  below  the 
eye ;  cheeks  and  throat  whitish,  the  former  spotted  with  black- 
ish ;  rest  of  under  surface  of  body  isabelline,  the  fore-neck  and 
breast  browner,  the  chest  thickly  spotted,  and  the  sides  of  the 
body  streaked  with  black ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries 
clear  vinous  isabelline  ;  bill  brown,  paler  on  the  lower  man- 
dible ;  feet  dusky  yellowish  flesh-colour ;  iris  light  brown. 
Total  length,  7  inches ;  oilmen,  07  ;  wing,  4*25  ;  tail,  27  ; 
tarsus,  0*9. 

Adult  Female. — Like  the  male  in  colour,  but  smaller.  Total 
length,  6-5  inches ;  wing,  3-8. 

Range  In  Great  Britain. — Although  comparatively  common  on 
the  Continent,  the  Crested  Lark  can  only  be  considered  a  rare 


THE    LARKS.  89 

and  occasional  visitor,  about  half-a-dozen  authentic  records  of 
its  capture  being  known  in  the  southern  half  of  England. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. —  An  inhabitant  chiefly  of 
Central  and  Southern  Europe,  but  resident  in  Scandinavia  and 
Russia  up  to  about  60  N.  lat.  It  varies  slightly  in  colour. 
The  range  of  the  ordinary  Crested  Lark  follows  the  distribution 
given  by  us  for  the  genus  Galerita. 

Habits. — More  of  a  frequenter  of  towns  and  villages  than  the 
Sky-Lark,  and  often  to  be  seen  dusting  itself  in  the  roads 
in  the  villages  of  Central  Europe.  Otherwise  its  habits  seem 
to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Sky-Lark.  It  does  not  soar 
in  the  air  when  singing,  like  the  latter  bird,  though  Mr.  See- 
bohm  says  that  he  has  seen  it  make  short  excursions  into  the 
air  like  a  Pipit.  It  does  not  collect  in  flocks  in  the  autumn 
to  any  extent.  Its  food  is  similar  to  that  of  other  Larks,  con- 
sisting of  seeds  and  grain  in  the  autumn  and  winter,  but  chiefly 
of  insects  in  the  spring  and  summer. 

Nest. — Placed  on  the  ground,  like  that  of  other  Larks,  in  a 
depression  scratched  out  by  the  bird  itself,  or  in  a  footprint ; 
sometimes  it  is  built  in  a  wall  of  earth,  or  in  the  thatch  of  a 
low  shed.  It  is  composed  of  rootlets  and  dry  grass,  and  is 
sometimes  lined  with  a  few  hairs. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number.  Ground-colour  light  brown 
or  ashy-white,  with  purplish-grey  underlying  spots  or  blotches, 
the  overlying  spots  of  brown  being  thickly  distributed  over  the 
egg,  appearing  more  distinct  where  the  ground-colour  is  lighter. 
Axis,  0*9-1  *o  inch;  diam.,  o'65-o*7. 

THE  WOOD-LARKS.  GENUS  LULLULA. 

Lullulci)  Kaup.,  Natiirl.  Syst,  p.  92  (1829). 

Type,  L.  arborca  (Linn.). 

The  Wood-Lark, — for  there  is  only  one  species  of  the  genus 
Lullula, — agrees  with  the  Crested  Lark,  and  differs  from  the 
Sky- Lark  in  having  the  first  primary  quill  well  developed  ;  but 
it  is  distinguished  from  the  Crested  Lark  by  its  much  longer 
hind  claw  and  by  the  shape  of  the  crest,  which  is  very  full  and 
rounded,  not  pointed,  in  shape. 


90  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

I.  THE  WOOD-LARK.     LULLUI.A  ARBOREA, 

(Plate  XI L>  Fig.  2.) 

Aiauda  arborea,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  287  (1766);  Macg.,  Br.  B., 
ii.,  p.  174  (1839);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  321,  pi.  232 
(1872) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  625  (1874) ;  B.  O.  U.  List 
Br.  B.,  p.  71  (1883);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  256(1884); 
Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  iv.  (1887);  Saunders,  Man., 
p.  241  (1889);  Wyatt,  Brit.  B.,  pi.  24,  fig.  i  (1894). 

Lullula  arborea,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  xiii.,  p^.  636  (1890). 

Adult  Male. —  Sandy  rufous,  broadly  streaked  with  black, 
except  on  the  mantle,  where  the  streaks  are  less  distinct  and 
the  colour  is  rather  paler ;  lower  back  and  rump  ashy  brown, 
with  a  reddish  tinge  on  the  upper  tail-coverts;  wing-coverts 
dark  brown,  margined  with  rufous ;  primary  coverts  black, 
tipped  with  whitish,  and  forming  a  distinct  patch  on  the  wing  ; 
tail-feathers  black,  with  a  triangular  white  spot  at  the  ends,  the 
outer  feather  smoky  brown,  with  an  oblique  black  mark  on  the 
inner  web ;  crown  sandy  buff,  streaked  with  black,  a  broad  line 
of  white  over  the  eye  nearly  meeting  on  the  hinder  crown  ; 
ear-coverts  rufous,  with  a  dark  brown  upper  edge ;  under  sur- 
face of  body  white,  the  breast  and  abdomen  tinge4  with  yellow ; 
throat,  fore-neck,  and  chest,  as  well  as  the  sides  of  the  body, 
streaked  with  black  ;  flanks  brown ;  axillaries  and  under  wing- 
coverts  leaden  grey.  Total  length,  5^5  inches;  oilmen,  0*5; 
wing,  3*65  ;  tail,  1*9  ;  tarsus,  0*8. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  in  colour  to  the  male  and  equal  in 
size.  Wing,  3-6-3-8. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  decidedly  local  bird,  more  plentiful 
in  the  Southern  Counties  of  England,  and  decreasing  in  num- 
bers towards  the  north,  though  it  has  been  found  breeding  in 
Stirlingshire  by  Mr.  Harvie-Brown.  In  other  parts  of  Scotland 
it  is  only  known  as  a  migrant.  It  is  resident  in  Ireland  in 
a  few  places  only. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Found  generally  throughout 
Europe,  and  as  far  east  as  Persia,  but  does  not  extend  very  far 
north,  reaching  to  about  60  N.  lat.  in  Scandinavia  and 
Western  Russia  and  the  valley  of  the  Volga  in  Eastern  Russia, 


THE   WAGTAILS.  91 

according  to  Mr.  Seebohm.     In  the  Me  Hterranean  countries 
it  is  chiefly  known  as  a  winter  visitor. 

Habits.— As  its  name  implies,  this  species  is  a  more  wood- 
land bird  than  the  other  British  Larks,  and  in  many  of  its  ways 
of  life  it  resembles  the  Tree  Pipit,  frequenting  the  neighbour- 
hood of  woods  and  plantations,  but  always  affecting  trees.  On 
these  it  loves  to  sit,  and  from  them  it  takes  flights  into  the  air, 
singing  all  the  while.  Its  note  is  considered  superior  to  that 
of  the  Sky-Lark,  but  like  that  bird  it  often  sings  when  on  the 
ground,  on  which  it  is  thoroughly  at  home,  and  on  which  it 
roosts. 

Neat. — Placed  on  the  ground,  and  skilfully  concealed  under  a 
tuft  of  herbage  or  a  small  bush.  It  resembles  the  nest  of  the 
Sky-Lark,  but  is  rather  more  firmly  put  together.  It  is  com- 
posed of  dry  grass  and  fine  rootlets,  and  is  lined  with  finer 
grass  with  a  little  hair. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number.  Pale  in  colour  for  those  of 
a  Lark,  though  darker  examples  are  not  wanting  in  a  large 
series  ;  often  very  rounded  in  shape.  Ground-colour  white  or 
reddish-white,  numerously  dotted  with  fine  spots,  reddish- 
brown,  with  indistinct  underlying  spots  of  grey.  In  some 
specimens  the  spots  are  clouded  at  the  larger  end,  and  form  a 
ring.  Axis,  0-8-0-9  inch;  diam.,  0-6-075. 

THE   WAGTAILS   AND   PIPITS.      FAMILY 
MOTACILLID^S. 

In  this  family  are  included  the  Wagtails  and  Pipits,  birds 
which  are  intermediate  in  character  between  the  Larks  and 
the  Warblers.  They  have  a  single-plated  tarsus  like  the  latter 
birds,  but  they  have  the  same  shaped  wings  as  the  Larks,  the 
inner  secondaries  being  about  as  long  as  the  primary-quills. 
Like  the  Larks,  too,  they  run  on  the  ground,  do  not  hop,  and 
the  nesting  habits,  especially  those  of  the  Pipits,  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  the  Larks,  even  to  the  colouring  of  the  eggs. 

Wagtails  are  found  in  every  part  of  the  Old  World,  excepting 
Australia  and  Oceania.  One  species,  M.  fiava^  even  extends 
to  Alaska.  They  breed,  as  a  rule,  in  the  northern  portions  of 


92  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Europe  and  Asia,  and  migrate  south  in  winter  to  Africa,  India, 
China,  and  the  Malayan  peninsula  and  islands. 


THE  WAGTAILS.     GENUS  MOTACILLA. 

Motacilla,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  328  (1766). 

Type,  M.  alba^  Linn. 

These  birds  get  their  popular  name  from  the  curious  dipping 
motion  of  the  tail,  which  accompanies  every  movement  of  the 
body.  They  are  divisible  into  two  groups,  the  "  Pied "  and 
"Yellow"  Wagtails,  or  '|  Water"  and  " Field"  Wagtails,  most 
of  the  water-loving  species  being  black-and-white  or  grey,  and 
the  field-frequenting  species  belonging  to  the  yellow  group. 
No  structural  characters,  however,  can  be  found  to  divide  these 
two  sections  of  the  genus  Motadlla,  and  we  have,  therefore, 
included  all  the  species  under  one  generic  heading. 

Of  the  black-and-white  Wagtails  fourteen  species  are  known, 
and  they  are  more  or  less  migratory.  This  is  certainly  the 
case  with  the  species  which  breed  in  northern  latitudes,  but 
there  are  at  least  three  species  peculiar  to  Africa,  and  two  to 
India.  Representing  our  European  Wagtails,  M.  lugubris  and 
M.  alba  in  Eastern  Asia,  breeding  in  the  north,  and  migrating 
south  in  winter,  are  three  species,  M.  ocular  is,  M.  lugens,  M. 
leucopsis ;  these  are  all  birds  of  the  Manchurian  subregion,  to 
which  geographical  area,  a  fourth  species,  M.  grandis,  seems  to 
be  confined.  As  is  the  case  with  the  Yellow  Wagtails,  there  is, 
among  the  Pied  section  of  the  genus,  a  tendency  to  found 
isolated  colonies  ;  hence  we  find  in  Persia  a  race  of  the  White 
Wagtail,  which  has  been  called  M.  persica,  while  in  Central 
Siberia  there  is  another  race,  which  is  known  as  M.  baicalensim 
from  its  having  first  been  noticed  near  Lake  Baikal. 

The  Wagtail  of  Madagascar,  M.  flaviventris,  and  the  Grey 
Wagtail  of  Europe,  M\  melanope,  are  "  Water "  Wagtails,  with 
the  colouring  of  Yellow  Wagtails.  Nearly  every  one  of  the 
latter  come  northward  and  breed  every  season,  and  retire  south 
in  winter.  The  Black-headed  Yellow  Wagtail,  M.  feldeggii,  is 
perhaps  the  one  which  wanders  least,  and  its  two  races,  M. 
paradoxa^  from  South-eastern  Europe,  and  M.  xanthophrys% 
from  Lenkoran,  have  a  very  limited  range. 


THE   WAGTAILS.  93 

1.   THE   PIED   WAGTAIL.       MOTACILLA   LUGUBRIS. 

Motacilla  lugubris,  Temm.  Man.  d'Orn.,  i.,  p.  253  (1820);  Newt, 
ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  538  (1874) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  239, 
pis.  125,  fig.  3,  126,  fig.  2  (1875) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,p. 
30  (1883)  ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  x.,  p.  460  (1885); 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  113  (1889);  Wyatt,  Br.  B.,  pL  8,  fig.  3 
(1894). 

Motacilla  yarrelli,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  225  (1839);  Seeb.,  Br. 
B.,  ii.,  p.  194  (1884);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  pt.,  viii. 
(1888). 

Adult  Male  in  Summer  Plumage. — Black  above;  throat  and  fore- 
neck  black ;  ear-coverts  white ;  breast  and  abdomen  as  well  as 
under  tail-coverts  white ;  the  sides  of  the  body  ashy-grey ; 
median  and  greater  wing-coverts  black,  externally  margined 
with  white;  quills  black,  edged  with  grey,  the  inner  secondaries 
with  white ;  tail-feathers  black,  the  two  outer  ones  white,  black 
at  the  base  and  along  the  edge  of  the  inner  web  ;  bill  and  feet 
black  ;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  7-3  inches ;  culmen,  0*67 
wing,  3-55  ;  tail,  37  ;  tarsus,  0-95. 

Adult  Female. — Like  the  male,  but  never  so  entirely  black  on 
the  body,  the  latter  being  dingy  grey,  more  or  less  mottled  with 
black  feathers.  Total  length,  6*8  inches  ;  wing,  3-25. 

Adults  in  Winter  Plumage. — Easily  distinguished  by  the  white 
throat,  which  is  followed  by  a  black  band  across  the  fore-neck, 
extending  in  a  crescent  up  to  the  ear-coverts ;  the  back  is  grey, 
with  the  forehead  white,  and  the  hinder  crown  and  nape  black. 

Young  Birds  have  at  first  the  head  grey  like  the  back.  After 
the  first  moult  they  resemble  the  winter  plumage  of  the  adults, 
being  dull  ashy,  with  a  white  forehead,  and  a  black  patch  on 
the  hinder  crown,  as  well  as  a  black  patch  on  the  fore-neck. 
There  is  almost  invariably  a  tinge  of  sulphur-yellow  pervading 
the  white  on  the  sides  of  the  face  and  neck.  The  method  by 
which  the  black  throat  is  assumed  is  curious,  as  it  is  chiefly 
acquired  by  a  change  in  the  colour  of  the  feather,  rather  than 
by  a  complete  moult.  The  white  feathers  of  the  winter  dress 
become  black  at  their  tips,  and  this  black  gradually  spreads 
over  the  whole  of  the  feather,  until  the  entire  throat  becomes 
black.  We  were  at  one  time  inclined  to  believe  that  there  was  no 
spring  moult  at  all,  at  least,  in  the  old  birds,  but  we  have  seen 


94  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

some  specimens  which  induce  us  to  believe  that  there  is  a  parti 
spring  moult  in  all  Wagtails  and  Pipits,  and  that  some  of  the 
black  throat-feathers  in  the  former  are  really  assumed  by  a 
direct  moult.  That  the  Tree-Pipit  moults  in  spring  we  have 
proved  by  a  pair  of  birds  which  we  kept  through  the  winter  (vide 
infra,  p.  105). 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  resident,  and  breeding  over  the 
greater  portion  of  our  islands,  but  not  remaining  during  the 
winter  in  the  more  northern  parts.  Although  nesting  in  small 
numbers  in  the  Orkneys  and  some  of  the  Hebrides,  it  is  only  a 
spring  and  autumn  migrant  in  the  Shetland  Islands.  In  most 
places  a  certain  amount  of  migration  takes  place,  and  many  of 
our  Pied  Wagtails  leave  the  country,  but  in  many  parts  of 
England  the  species  remains  through  the  winter. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Pied  Wagtail  is  pecu- 
liarly a  species  of  Western  Europe.  It  breeds  in  the  north- 
west of  France,  and  sparingly  in  Holland,  but  in  Belgium  it 
appears  to  be  only  an  accidental  visitor.  It  likewise  visits 
Denmark,  passes  over  Heligoland,  sometimes  in  some  num- 
bers, and  breeds  in  South-western  Norway.  It  is  a  winter  visitor 
to  Southern  France,  Spain,  extending  to  Morocco,  and  has  oc- 
cured  as  a  straggler  in  Italy. 

Habits. — This  very  graceful  little  bird  is  familiar  to  most 
people,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  country  it  is  called  a  "  Dish- 
washer." Its  name  of  Wagtail  is  gained  from  the  graceful  way 
in  which  it  balances  and  sways  its  tail  up  and  down,  with  every 
movement.  The  flight  of  the  species  is  undulating,  and  consists 
of  a  series  of  dips  through  the  air,  each  dip  being  accompanied 
by  an  utterance  of  its  call-note,  which  is  very  well  imitated 
by  the  words  chiz-zit.  During  the  nesting  season  the  Wagtail 
is  very  tame  and  trustful,  nesting  often  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  habitations  in  the  most  easily  detected  places.  At 
Cookham  in  our  young  days  we  often  found  the  nest  in  the 
large  rustic  flower-baskets  on  the  lawn,  a  little  depression  being 
scraped  in  the  mould  and  the  nest  placed  therein.  It  was  diffi- 
cult to  preserve  the  birds  from  prowling  cats,  but  a  still  more 
relentless  enemy  was  the  Cuckoo,  which  seemed  always  to  select 
a  Wagtail's  nest  in  which  to  deposit  its  eggs.  The  food  of  the 
Wagtail  consists  entirely  of  insects,  in  the  pursuit  of  which  it  is 


THE   WAGTAILS.  95 

untiring,  running  about  with  the  greatest  swiftness  on  the  lawn 
or  pasture,  or  chasing  them  by  the  river's  bank. 

Nest. — Placed  in  the  hole  of  a  bank  or  building,  among  roots 
of  trees  or  even  in  the  stems  of  an  old  ivy-tree,  growing  against 
a  wall.  The  nest  is  a  very  rough  structure  outside,  made  of 
grass,  roots,  and  moss,  but  neatly  lined  with  hair,  wool,  and  some 
feathers. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number.  Ground-colour  bluish-white 
or  stone-grey,  numerously  spotted  all  over  with  minute  dots  of 
purplish-brown,  sometimes  collecting  near  the  larger  end,  but 
generally  scattered  over  the  egg.  The  underlying  marks  are 
purplish-grey,  very  inconspicuous  as  a  rule,  but  occasionally 
causing  a  blotch.  On  one  specimen  in  the  British  Museum 
the  underlying  markings  are  very  distinct,  and  form  irregular 
blotches  of  a  light-brown  colour,  with  streaks  and  hair-lines  of 
blackish  brown.  Axis,  075-0*9  inch;  diam.,  o'6. 

II.  THE  WHITE  WAGTAIL.      MOTACILLA  ALBA. 

Motacilla  alba,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  331  (1766) ;  Macg.,  Br.  B., 
ii.,  p.  221  (1839);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  548(1874); 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  233,  pi.  125  (1875);  B.  O.  U. 
List  Br.  B.,  p.  29  (1883) ;  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  199  (1884) ; 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  x.,  p.  464  (1885);  Lilford, 
Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  viii.  (1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  115 
(1889). 

Adult  Male  in  Breeding  Plumage.— Grey,  not  black,  above;  throat 
and  fore-neck  black  ;  ear-coverts  white ;  wing-coverts  edged 
with  white,  with  black  bases  ;  head  and  nape  black  ;  forehead 
white  ;  under  surface  of  body  white,  the  sides  light  ashy-grey ; 
bill  and  feet  black;  iris  light  brown.  Total  length,  67  inches; 
culmen,  0-5  ;  wing,  3-35  ;  tail,  3-35  ;  tarsus,  0-85. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  the  black  on  the 
crown  generally  not  so  strongly  marked,  being  mixed  with 
ashy.  Tolal  length,  6 '8  inches  ;  wing,  3-3. 

Adults  in  Winter  Plumage. — Distinguished  by  the  white  throat, 
followed  by  a  crescentic  band  of  black  on  the  fore-neck  ;  the 
back  grey,  with  a  white  forehead,  followed  by  a  black  patch  on 
the  crown. 


96  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Young. — At  first  recognisable  by  having  the  forehead  ar 
crown  of  head  grey  like  the  body,  and  a  tinge  of  yellow  on  the 
throat ;  the  fore-neck  and  chest  dull  ashy  with  a  dusky  spot  on 
the  former.  After  the  first  moult  the  young  birds  may  still  be 
recognised  by  the  yellow  tinge  on  the  white  throat ;  the  head 
is  grey  like  the  body,  but  the  forehead  is  white. 

The  White  Wagtail  may  always  be  distinguished  from  the 
Pied  Wagtail  in  summer  by  its  pure  grey  back,  which  contrasts 
with  the  black  head,  whereas  in  the  latter  species  both  head 
and  back  are  black.  The  female  of  the  White  Wagtail  has  a  pure 
grey  back  like  the  male,  whereas  there  is  always  some  admix- 
ture of  black  in  the  back  of  the  Pied  Wagtail,  though  the 
female  is  never  so  entirely  black  as  the  male.  In  winter  the 
two  species  are  more  difficult  to  distinguish,  especially  as  the 
young  birds  of  both  have  a  grey  back  like  the  adults,  but  at 
all  ages  the  greater  amount  of  white  on  the  wing-coverts  serves 
to  denote  a  White  Wagtail. 

Bange  in  Great  Britain. — A  regular  visitant  in  spring,  and  has 
been  identified  as  nesting  in  the  British  Islands  on  several 
occasions.  It  has  doubtless  often  been  confounded  with  the 
Pied  Wagtail,  and  is  probably  more  common  than  is  supposed. 
It  has  been  noticed  in  many  parts  of  Scotland,  and  on  one  or 
two  occasions  the  late  Mr.  E.  T.  Booth  observed  it  in  some 
abundance  in  the  island  of  Lewis  and  near  Inverness.  It  is 
probably  a  regular  visitor  in  autumn  on  its  way  south,  as  in 
1890,  and  again  in  1891,  a  White  Wagtail  frequented  the  lawn 
of  our  house  at  Chiswick,  appearing  in  October  for  two  years 
in  succession,  and  remaining  for  two  or  three  days  in  the 
neighbourhood. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — A  more  eastern  bird  than 
the  Pied  Wagtail,  but  found  along  with  the  latter  bird  in  its 
winter  home  in  the  South  of  France.  It  goes  much  further  south 
than  M.  lugubris,  and  winters  in  Senegambia  and  North-eastern 
Africa.  The  White  Wagtail  also  goes  further  to  the  northward  to 
breed  than  does  its  congener,  being  found  throughout  Europe 
and  extending  to  Iceland  and  the  Faeroes  in  summer,  and  even 
reaching  Jan  Mayen  and  South  Greenland.  Its  breeding  quarter* 
extend  into  Siberia  to  the  valley  of  the  Yenesei,  and  it  winters 
in  the  plains  of  North-western  India  and  the  Burmese  countries. 


THE    WAGTAILS.  97 

Habits. — These  are,  as  might  be  expected,  very  similar  to 
those  of  M.  liigubris,  and,  like  that  species,  the  White  Wagtail 
is  a  very  lively  and  active  little  bird,  pursuing  insects  with  the 
same  elastic  and  rapid  movements. 

Nest. — Similar  to  that  of  the  Pied  Wagtail,  with  which 
species  it  certainly  interbreeds  on  certain  occasions.  In  the 
western  corridor  at  the  British  Museum  (N.H.)  can  be  seen  a 
Wagtail's  nest  sent  by  Lord  Walsingham,  and  procured  by  his 
keeper  in  Norfolk.  The  male  bird  is  undoubtedly  a  White 
Wagtail,  while  the  female  is  a  Pied  Wagtail,  and  a  second 
instance  of  such  interbreeding  has  been  noticed  by  Dr.  Giin- 
ther  in  Suffolk. 

Eggs. — Five  to  six.  Generally  indistinguishable  from  those 
of  M.  lugubris,  but  in  the  Seebohm  collection  in  the  British 
Museum  are  some  very  curious  variations  in  markings.  The 
ground  colour  is  decidedly  more  bluish-white  than  in  eggs 
of  M.  lugubris,  and  the  same  styles  of  eggs  with  the  stone-grey 
ground  and  the  fine  specklings,  which  are  seen  in  the  latter 
species,  are  also  frequent  in  a  series  of  eggs  of  M.  alba. 
There  is,  however,  in  the  latter  species  an  occasional  tendency 
to  produce  a  brownish  egg,  wherein  the  ground-colour  is  dull 
white,  almost  entirely  hidden  by  marblings  and  spots  of  light 
brown  or  reddish-brown,  especially  marked  in  a  clutch  taken 
by  Mr.  Seebohm  in  the  Petchora  Valley,  and  again  distinct  in 
another  clutch  from  Valkensvaard  in  Holland,  but  in  the  latter 
case  the  markings  are  not  so  strongly  exemplified.  One  egg  in 
the  British  Museum,  from  Holland,  is  white  with  the  large  end 
black,  an  unusual  variation  in  a  Wagtail's  egg.  Axis,  0-8-0-9 
inch ;  diam.,  o'6-o'65. 

IIII.    THE  GREY  WAGTAIL.      MOTACILLA  MELANOPE. 
(Plate  XIII.) 

Motadlla  melanope,  Pall.  Reise.  Russ.  Reichs,  iii.,  App.,  p. 

696-{i776);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  251,  pi.  128  (1875); 

.   O.   U.  List  Br.   B.,  p.   30  (1883);  Sharpe,  Cat.   B. 

Brit.  Mus.,  x.,  p.   497  (1885);  Saunders,   Man.,  p.    117 

(1889);  Wyatt,  Br.  B.,  pi.  8,  figs,  i,  2  (1894). 

Motadlla  boarulat  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  235  (1839). 


98  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Motacilla  sulphured,  Newt.  ed.  Yarn,  i.,  p.  552  (1874);  Seeb.,  Br. 
B.,  ii.,  p.  203  (1884);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  vi. 
(1888). 

Adult  Male  in  Summer  Plumage. — Above  blue-grey,  the  lower 
rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  brighter  yellow;  breast  yellow, 
the  under  tail-coverts  brilliant  yellow;  throat  black,  with  a 
white  moustachial  streak  on  each  side;  wing-feathers  dusky 
brown,  edged  with  ashy  olive,  the  inner  secondaries  dull  white 
near  the  base  of  the  outer  web,  forming  a  wing-patch ;  bill 
black ;  feet  blackish ;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  6'8 
inches;  oilmen,  0-55  ;  wing,  3-25  ;  tail,  3-55;  tarsus,  075. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  with  less  black  on 
the  throat,  the  feathers  edged  with  hoary  white.  Total  length, 
7  inches;  culmen,  o'6  ;  wing,  3-25  ;  tail,  3-8;  tarsus,  o'8. 

Winter  Plumage. — Similar  to  the  summer  plumage,  but  with 
the  throat  white. 

Young  Birds. — Like  the  adults  in  their  winter  dress,  but  wit 
a  wash  of  pale  fawn-colour  on  the  cheeks,  throat,  and  fore-neck 
a  fawn-coloured  eyebrow. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — Somewhat  locally  distributed,  an( 
breeding  more  particularly  in  the  mountainous  and  hilly  por 
tions  of  the  British  Islands.  In  the  southern  counties  it  i 
chiefly  known  as  an  autumn  migrant,  frequenting  streams,  bu 
it  also  breeds  in  the  south,  regularly  in  the  south-westerr 
districts,  more  sparingly  in  the  south-eastern  parts  of  the  coun 
try. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — A  bird  of  very  wide  distri 
bution,  extending  throughout  Europe  and  Asia  to  the  Pacific 
but  not  extending  very  high  north,  nor  reaching  beyonc 
Central  Russia,  and  only  found  in  the  extreme  south  o 
Scandinavia.  In  the  countries  of  Southern  Europe  it  is 
resident,  but  is  migratory  in  the  more  northern  parts  of  it 
range,  and  it  visits  in  winter  the  high  mountain  ranges  of  North 
eastern  and  Central  Africa,  the  peninsula  of  India,  the  Bur 
mese  countries,  and  extends  into  the  Molucca  Islands. 

Habits. — Although  coloured  like  the  Field  Wagtails,  the 
present  species  is  a  "Water"  Wagtail  in  its  habits,  and  is 
generally  found  in  autumn  along  the  sides  of  rivers  and  ponds 


THE   WAGTAILS. 


99 


in  the  south  of  England,  where  many  winter.  Their  move- 
ments and  ways  of  capturing  insects  are  the  same  as  those  of 
the  preceding  species.  It  is  a  more  shy  and  retiring  bird  than 
the  Pied  Wagtail,  and  is  a  somewhat  early  breeder,  as  we  have 
known  the  young  to  be  on  the  wing  in  the  early  part  of  May. 

Nest. — Resembles  that  of  the  Pied  Wagtail,  but  generally  to 
be  found  near  a  stream,  built  on  the  bank  under  a  shelf  of 
rock,  and  generally  well  concealed  by  the  surrounding  herbage. 
We  found  a  nest  for  three  years  in  succession  in  some  ivy- 
covered  trellis-work  which  grew  over  a  disused  bath-house  at 
Avington  Park,  and  Mr.  Seebohm  states  that  he  once  saw  a 
nest  built  in  the  fork  of  three  stems  of  an  alder-tree,  close  to 
the  ground,  almost  overhanging  the  water.  The  same  observer 
remarks  that  he  has  found  the  nest  lined  with  cow-hair,  the 
preference  being  given  to  white,  and  he  observed  the  same 
habits  in  Greece,  the  inner  lining  of  the  nest  being  made  of 
white  goats'  hair  in  the  last-named  country. 

Eggs. — Generally  five,  but  occasionally  as  many  as  seven. 
In  colour  they  vary  considerably,  the  ground-tint  being  more 
olive  than  in  the  two  foregoing  species.  Occasionally  there  is 
an  approach  to  the  markings  and  specklings  of  the  White  Wag- 
tail, but  as  a  rule  the  tendency  in  the  Grey  Wagtail's  egg  is 
towards  uniformity,  one  clutch  procured  by  Mr.  R.  J.  Ussher, 
in  co.  Waterford,  being  nearly  uniform  bluish-white,  with  only 
the  faintest  indications  of  rufous  mottlings.  Another  clutch 
taken  by  the  same  gentleman  is  bluish-white,  handsomely 
mottled  and  spotted  with  rufous-brown  and  with  grey  under- 
lying blotches  and  spots.  As  a  rule  the  colour  of  each  clutch 
of  eggs  is  the  same  in  character,  but  occasionally  there  is  some 
variation  in  this  respect,  a  clutch  of  four  from  the  Vosges 
Mountains  having  two  of  the  eggs  nearly  uniform  pale  olive, 
while  the  others  are  thickly  spotted  and  blotched  with  pale 
brown,  so  that  the  olive  ground-colour  is  all  but  concealed. 
Axis,  0-75-0-8  inch;  diam.,  0-55.  (Plate  xxxi.,  fig.  3.) 

IV.  THE   YELLOW    WAGTAIL.       MOTACILLA   CAMPESTRI3. 

\Motacilla  campestris.  Pall.  Reis.  Russ.  Reichs,  Hi.,  Anhang, 
p.  697  (1776) ;' Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  x.,  p.  510, 
pi.  vi.,  figs,  i,  2  (1885). 

H    2 


ioo  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Budytes  rayi,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  212  (1839). 

Motacilla  rayi,  Newt.  ed.  Yarn,  i.,  p.  564  (1874). 

Motadlla  raiiy  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  h'L,  p.  277,  pi.  131  (1875); 
B.  O.  U.  List.  Br.  B.,  p.  31  (1883);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii., 
p.  212  (1884);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  vi.  (1888); 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  121  (1889). 

Adult  Male  in  Breeding  Plumage. — General  colour  olive-yellow 
above,  and  bright  yellow  below;  the  under  tail-coverts  bright 
yellow  like  the  breast ;  head  also  bright  yellow,  as  well  as  the 
eyebrow,  the  hinder  crown  like  the  back.  Total  length,  6-3 
inches;  culmen,  0-5;  wing,  3*15;  tail,  27;  tarsus,  0-9. 

Adult  Female — Similar  to   the   male,  but  not  so  bright  in 
colour,  and  having  the  forehead  greenish  like  the  head,  instea 
of  being  bright  yellow  as  in  the  male. 

Adults  in  Winter  Plumage. — Greener  than  in  summer,  the  fore 
head  like  the  rest  of  the  upper  parts  :  a  broad  yellow  eyebrow 
ear-coverts  greenish;  under-surface  of  body  yellow,  with 
slight  tinge  of  saffron  on  the  breast. 

Young  Birds. — Olive-brown  above,  more  yellow  on  the  lowe 
back  and  upper  tail-coverts;  a  broad  eyebrow  of  pale  fawn 
colour ;  ear-coverts  brown ;  chin  and  cheeks  whitish ;  throa 
and  chest  pale  fawn-colour,  with  dusky  spots  on  the  latter 
lower  flanks,  abdomen,  thighs,  and  under  tail-coverts,  brigh 
yellow. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor  only,  breeding  i 
most  parts  of  England  and  the  south  of  Scotland,  as  well  a 
near  Lough  Neagh  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Dublin  in  Ire 
land.  It  is  not  known  to  breed  west  of  Somersetshire,  an 
occurs  only  on  migration  in  our  south-western  counties, 
spring  and  autumn  it  is  a  very  common  migrant  on  the  land 
near  the  coast. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands.  —  The  Yellow  Wagtail 
chiefly  a  western  bird,  nesting  in  the  north  of  France,  bu 
elsewhere  only  known  as  a  migrant  on  its  way  to  or  from  it 
winter  home  in  Western  Africa.  Specimens  have  been  sen 
from  the  Zambesi  and  the  Transvaal,  but  these  may  b 
migrants  from  Turkestan  or  Southern  Russia,  where  the  Yellow 
Wagtail  is  also  found,  and  it  is  most  probable  that  the  line 


THE   WAGTAILS.  IQI 

southern  migration  of  the  Russian  birds  would  be  along  the 
line  of  Eastern  Africa.  .  •    . 

Habits. — The  present  bird  is  more'of  a  ''Field  "  Wagtail  than 
any  of  the  foregoing  species,  and  on  its  arrival  in  spring,  often 
as  early  as  March,  it  frequents  the  land  by  the  sea-shore,  as- 
sembling in  the  pastures  in  small  flocks,  and  attracting  attention 
by  its  brilliant  yellow  plumage,  which  rivals  that  of  a  Canary. 
For  some  time  after  its  arrival  inland  the  flocks  keep  together  in 
the  pastures,  before  they  break  up  into  pairs  for  the  nesting 
season.  In  the  autumn  these  Yellow  Wagtails  also  assemble  in 
flocks  in  the  pasture  lands  near  the  sea-shore,  feeding  generally 
round  the  cattle,  and  catching  the  jmsects  disturbed  by  the 
latter,  in  the  usual  graceful  manner  of  Wagtails.  At  night  they 
retire  to  roost  in  the  neighbouring  reed-beds  in  large  numbers. 

Nest. — On  the  ground,  well-concealed,  built  under  a  turf  or 
stone,  sometimes  in  a  bank.  It  is  composed  of  rootlets  or  dry 
grass,  and  Mr.  Cullingford  informed  Mr.  Seebohm  that  the 
materials  varied  greatly,  the  lining  consisting  sometimes  of  hair, 
at  other  times  of  feathers  or  roots. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number.  They  vary  extremely  in  colour 
and  markings.  Some  are  uniform  pale  olive-brown,  some 
darker  olive,  while  others  are  nearly  uniform  pinkish-brown. 
Another  type  resembles  the  greenish-olive  egg  of  the  Sedge- 
Warbler,  and  even  has  an  occasional  hair-line  of  black,  as  is  so 
often  seen  in  the  eggs  of  that  bird.  Other  eggs  of  the  Yellow 
Wagtail  are  like  those  of  the  Reed  Warbler,  having  a  greenish- 
white  ground  mottled  all  over  with  greenish-brown  and  under- 
lying markings  of  grey.  Some  of  the  eggs  with  the  ground- 
colour greenish-white  have  the  spots  collected  round  the  larger 
end  so  as  to  form  a  ring.  Axis,  07-0*6  inch ;  diam.  0-55-0-6. 

V.    THE   BLUE-HEADED   WAGTAIL.      MOTACILLA    FLAVA. 

Motadlla  flava^  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  331  (1766);  Newt.  ed. 
Yarr.,  i.,  p.  558  (1874) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  261, 
pi.  129  (1875);  B.  O.  U.  List.  Br.  B.,  p.  31  (1883); 
Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  208  (1884);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit. 
Mus.,  x.,  p.  516,  pi.  vi.,  figs.  3,  5  (1885);  Lilford,  Col 
Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  vi.  (1888) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  119(1889). 

Budytts  flava>  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  208  (1839). 


T°2  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Adult  Male'  in  Breeding1  Plumage. — General  colour  olive-yellow, 
the  rump  lighter ;  bfeast  entirely  bright  yellow,  the  under  tail- 
coverts 'of  the  same -colour;  head  blue-grey,  with  a  distinct 
white  eyebrow  ;  bill  and  feet  blackish ;  iris  brown.  Total  length, 
57  inches  ;  culmen,  0-55  ;  wing,  2-95  ;  tail,  27  ;  tarsus,  0-85. 

Adult  Female. — Duller  in  colour  than  the  male,  and  slightly 
browner  on  the  head  and  back  :  underneath  paler  yellow, 
whiter  on  the  throat.  Total  length,  6  inches ;  wing,  3-1. 

Young — Still  paler  than  a  thedult  female,  and  with  dusky 
spots  on  the  chest;  over  the  eye  a  streak  of  tawny  buff;  ear- 
coverts  brown ;  cheeks  and  throat  dull  white,  becoming 
browner  on  the  fore-neck  and  chest.  The  young  birds  of 
the  Blue-headed  Wagtail  are  scarcely  distinguishable  from  those 
of  the  Yellow  Wagtail. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  visitor  in  summer  to 
England  and  Scotland,  principally  to  the  eastern  coasts.  We 
ourselves  once  shot  a  fine  male  bird  in  Sussex,  near  Pagham,  in 
May,  in  company  with  Yellow  Wagtails.  Mr.  John  Hancock 
has  certified  to  the  nesting  of  the  species  in  Northumberland, 
and  Mr.  Menteith  Ogilvie  has  shown  us  some  birds  killed  by 
him  in  Suffolk  during  the  nesting  season  which  appeared  to  be 
females  of  M.flava,  though  the  latter  are  difficult  to  distinguish 
from  the  females  of  M.  campestris  when  their  plumage  becomes 
worn. 

Nest. — Similar  to  that  of  the  Yellow  Wagtail,  and  built  in 
similar  situations. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number,  and,  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected, very  similar  in  character  to  those  of  the  Yellow  Wag- 
tail. As  a  rule  they  appear  to  be  more  uniform  in  tint  than  is 
the  case  with  the  latter  bird,  the  series  in  the  British  Museum 
not  showing  the  mottled  Warbler-like  eggs  which  are  often 
found  in  a  series  of  those  of  M.  campestris.  Axis,  07-075 
inch ;  diam.,  0*5 5-0*6. 

THE  PIPITS.     GENUS  ANTIIUS. 

Anthus,  Bechst.  Naturg.  Deutschl.,  iii.,  p.  704  (1807). 
Type,  A.  trivialis  (Linn.). 

The   Pipits   differ  from   the  Wagtails  in  having  a  brown 


THE  PIPITS.  103 

plumage  and  more  Lark-like  appearance.  The  secondary 
quills  are  elongated  and  of  about  the  same  length  as  the 
primaries,  and,  in  the  style  of  plumage,  the  Pipits  resemble 
the  Larks,  but  in  the  formation  of  the  wings  and  also  in  the 
curious  "  dipping "  motion  of  the  tail,  they  show  their  close 
relationship  with  the  Wagtails. 

There  are  five  genera  of  Pipits ;  Anthus^  with  thirty-three 
species  ;  Xanthocorys,  from  Brazil,  with  one  species  ;  Neocorys, 
from  the  Upper  Missouri  and  Manitoba  in  North  America,  also 
with  one  species ;  Oreocorys,  with  a  single  species  confined  to 
the  Himalaya  Mountains;  and  Macronyx,  with  five  species, 
confined  to  Africa.  The  birds  of  the  last-named  genus  are 
the  largest  of  all  Pipits,  and  are  remarkable  for  the  bright 
yellow  or  pink  colour  of  the  breasts,  an  anomaly  amongst 
these  plain  coloured  birds. 

The  True  Pipits,  of  the  genus  Anthus,  are  found  over  the 
greater  part  of  both  Hemispheres,  and  are  abundant  in  South 
America,  Africa,  and  the  Indian  Region  generally,  extending  to 
Australia  and  New  Zealand,  but  not  reaching  the  islands  of 
Oceania.  The  genus  comprises  birds  of  different  form  and 
habits,  and  the  shape  of  the  hind  claw  varies  almost  as  much 
as  in  the  Larks,  some  of  the  species  being  frequenters  of 
woodland,  like  our  Tree-Pipit,  while  others  are  lovers  of  open 
country,  like  our  Meadow-Pipit. 

I.     THE   TREE-PIPIT.      ANTHUS    TR1VIALIS. 

Alauda  trivialis.    Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  288  (1766). 

Anthus  trivialis.  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  569  (1874);  Dresser, 

B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  309  (1874) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  33 

(1883);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,   x.,  p.   543  (1888); 

Saunders,  Man.,  p.  123  (1889). 
Anthus  arboreus,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  188  (1839) ;  Seeb.,  Br. 

B.,  ii.,  p.  219  (1884). 

Adult  Male  in  Summer  Plumage. — Above  clear  sandy-brown, 
streaked  with  black  centres  to  the  feathers ;  below  sandy-buff, 
the  centre  of  the  breast  and  abdomen  inclining  to  buffy- 
white,  clearer  sandy-buff  on  the  under  tail-coverts  ;  the  lower 
throat  and  fore-neck  broadly  streaked  with  black,  more 
narrowly  on  the  breast,  sides  of  body,  and  flanks  ;  under  wing- 


164  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

coverts  sandy-buff;  median  and  greater  upper  wing-coverts 
tipped  with  white,  forming  a  double  wing-bar ;  the  pattern  of 
the  outer  tail-feathers  white,  with  an  oblique  dusky-brown  mark 
on  the  inner  web  ;  bill  dark-brown,  the  lower  mandible  fleshy  ; 
feet  dark-brown;  iris  pale-brown.  Total  length,  6*0  inches; 
culmen,  0-55;  wing,  3-45;  tail,  2-55;  tarsus,  0-9. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  with  narrower  streaks 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  body.  Total  length,  6  inches ; 
wing,  3-45. 

Winter  Plumage. — Brighter  than  in  summer,  the  general  tone 
of  the  plumage  richer  buff,  especially  below,  where  there  is  a 
more  tawny  shade.  The  bird  passes  through  a  complete 
moult  before  leaving  its  winter  quarters,  as  a  pair  which  we  kept 
in  confinement  through  an  entire  winter  moulted  in  March  of 
the  following  year. 

NOTE. — The  Tree-Pipit  can  always  be  distinguished  from  the  other  Brit- 
ish species  by  its  curved  hind  claw,  which  is  not  so  long  as  the  hind  toe  itself. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor,  affecting  wooded 
districts,  and  breeding  in  most  parts  of  the  British  Islands ; 
but  becoming  rarer  in  the  northern  portions  of  Scotland. 
Almost  unknown  in  Ireland. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Breeding  throughout  the 
greater  portions  of  Central  and  Northern  Europe,  and  as  far 
east  as  the  Valley  of  the  Yenesei,  reaching  to  lat.  62°  in  the 
latter  country,  to  about  lat.  65°  in  the  Petchora  Valley,  and  tO( 
69°  in  Norway.  In  the  Mediterranean  countries  it  is  a  migrant,! 
though  a  few  are  said  to  breed  on  the  mountains.  It  winters 
in  Africa,  and  in  North-western  and  Western  India.  Further 
to  the  eastward  the  Tree-Pipit  disappears ;  but  its  place  is 
taken  by  a  closely  allied  species,  the  Indian  Tree-Pipit 
(Anthus  maculatus),  which  inhabits  the  greater  part  of  Eastern 
Siberia,  and  ranges  west  to  the  Yenesei.  Its  winter  home  is 
in  the  plains  of  India  and  Burma,  but  always  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Indian  Peninsula.  The  Indian  Pipit  closely 
resembles  our  own  bird,  but  is  more  olive-green  in  colour,  and 
has  much  larger  spots  of  black  on  the  breast. 

Habits.—  At  first  sight,  the  present  species  might  easily  be 
mistaken  for  the  Common  Tit-lark,  or  Meadow-Pipit,  but  its 


THE    PIPITS.  105 

habits  are  quite  different.  Its  colours  are  also  much  brighter 
and  purer  in  tint  than  the  latter  bird,  its  song  is  much  superior, 
and  it  frequents,  by  preference,  the  woodland  country.  It 
affects  the  outside  of  woods  and  plantations,  when  it  may  be 
seen  mounting  into  the  air,  and  uttering  its  pretty  and  melo- 
dious song.  The  birds  which  we  kept  in  our  aviary  during 
the  winter  were  very  tame,  and  kept  themselves  scrupulously 
neat  and  clean,  having  a  Thrush-like  appearance.  They  were 
always  fond  of  bathing,  and  had  to  be  carefully  looked  after 
to  prevent  their  taking  a  chill  in  severe  weather.  They  never 
uttered  more  than  a  whispered  call-note,  "  chick,"  but  when 
allowed  to  walk  about  the  room,  they  took  little  flights  from 
the  ground,  mounting  and  falling  in  a  most  graceful  manner, 
and  roosting  on  the  highest  point  of  the  curtains  or  on  a 
picture-frame.  Having  demonstrated  to  us  the  fact  that  both 
male  and  female  moulted  in  the  spring,  they  were  allowed  to 
fly  away,  and  although  they  were  in  captivity  the  tamest  of  birds, 
they  bolted  straight  away  as  soon  as  their  cage  was  opened,- 
and  never  even  visited  the  garden  for  food. 

The  food  of  the  Tree-Pipit  consists  almost  entirely  of  in- 
sects, which  it  seeks  for  mostly  on  the  ground,  often  frequent- 
ing pasture  land,  and  running  about  among  the  cattle  in 
pursuit  of  flies,  after  the  manner  of  the  Wagtails.  Mr.  Dixon 
also  mentions  that  it  devours  corn  when  the  seeds  are  in  a 
soft  and  milky  state. 

Nest. — Placed  on  the  ground,  often  on  a  bank  by  the  side  of 
a  wood ;  but  sometimes  in  a  corn-field  at  some  distance  from 
its  favourite  haunts.  It  is  composed  of  dried  grasses,  with 
some  moss  and  rootlets,  being  lined  with  finer  grass  and  a 
little  horse-hair. 

Eggs. — Four  to  seven  in  number,  and  extremely  variable  in 

I  tone  of  colour   and    markings.     The   series   in   the   British 

Museum  varies  between  a  purplish-  or  pinkish-red,  and  stone- 

grey    ground-colour.     Between   these  two    extremes    occurs 

every  shade  of  variation  in  tint,  and  the  markings  consist  either 

j  of  minute  dots,  which  cover  the  surface  of  the  egg  so  as  to 

I  hide  the  ground-colour,  or  constitute  bold  spots  and  blotches, 

I  sometimes  collecting  in  a  ring,  or  patch,  at  the  larger  end 

of  the  egg.      There  are  always  two  kinds  of  these  boldly- 


106  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

marked  spots,  the  principal  ones  being  reddish-  or  purplish- 
brown,  and  the  underlying  maikings  purplish-grey.  Axis,  075 
-0-9  inch ;  diam.,  o'6o-'65. 

II.    THE   MEADOW-PIPIT.      ANTHUS   PRATENSIS. 

Alauda pratensis,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  287  (1766). 
Anthus  pratensis,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.   181  (1839);  Newt.  ed. 
Yarn,  p.  575   (1874);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.   285,  pi. 
132  (1874) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  32  (1883) ;  Seeb.,  Br. 
B.,  ii.,  p.  224  (1884) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  x.,  p.  580 
(1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  ix.  (1888) ;  Saunders, 
Man.,  p.  125  (1889);  Wyatt,  Br.  B.,  ix.,  fig.  i  (1894). 
Adult  Male  in  Breeding  Plumage.  —  Olive-brown    above,    with 
blackish   centres  to   the  feathers,  those  on  the  mantle  with 
whitish  margins  ;  rump  uniform ;    eyelid   and   eyebrow  pah 
sandy-buff;    throat   uniform    tawny-buff,   as    also  the  breast 
which  is  thickly  streaked  with  black  triangular  spots,  which 
become   narrower   on  the  lower  breast ;   flanks  washed  with 
olive   and   broadly   streaked    with    black ;    abdomen,    vent 
and   under    tail-coverts    isabelline    white;  axillaries    smoky 
brown,  washed  with  olive-yellow  ;  upper  wing-coverts  with  con 
spicuous  margins  of  dull  white ;  quills  externally  olive  ;  Ugh 
pattern  of  outer  tail-feathers  white.     Total  length,  575  inches 
culmen,  0-5;  wing,  3*15;  tail,  2*45;  tarsus,  0*85. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  smaller  and  less 
strongly  spotted  below.  Total  length,  6  inches;  wing,  2^95. 

Autumn  and  Winter  Plumage. — More  decidedly  olive-brown  in 
colour,  the  black  spots  on  the  under  surface  strongly  markec 
and  the  olive-yellow  on  the  axillaries  very  plain. 

Young, — Like  the  adults,  but  more  dingy,  less  olive,  and  the 
black  streaks  on  the  upper  surface  broader ;  a  distinct  mous 
tachial  streak  of  black,  as  well  as  two  more  stripes  on  the  sides 
of  the  throat. 

NOTE. — The  Meadow-Pipit  is  known  by  its  small  size,  and  nearly  straigh 
hind  claw,  which  is  longer  than  the  hind  toe  itself. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Universally  distributed,  frequenting 
the  uplands  as  well  as  the  lowlands  in  summer,  but  occurring 


THE   PIPITS.  107 

more  generally  in  the  latter  localities  during  the  winter  season. 
Many  migrate  south  in  winter,  and  it  is  noticeable  that  those 
which  return  to  England  in  the  spring  are  much  brighter  in 
plumage  than  those  which  are  resident  in  the  British  Islands. 
On  the  south  coast  of  England  there  appears  to  be  a  small 
resident  race  of  Meadow-Pipit. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Generally  distributed  through- 
out Central  and  Northern  Europe,  ranging  eastwards  to  the 
Valley  of  the  Ob.  Principally  known  as  a  winter  visitor 
to  the  Mediterranean  countries,  and  wintering  in  Northern 
and  North-eastern  Africa. 

HaMts, — As  the  name  denotes,  the  present  species  is  more 
a  bird  of  the  meadows  than  of  the  trees,  like  the  foregoing 
bird,  but  it  does  occasionally  perch  on  trees  and  bushes, 
though  its  life  is  principally  passed  on  the  ground.  It  is 
found  in  nearly  every  kind  of  situation,  on  moorland  and  the 
sides  of  hills,  where  its  short  song  is  often  heard  in  the  spring, 
as  it  takes  brief  flights  into  the  air  and  descends  again  to  the 
ground  It  is  especially  common  near  the  sea-shore,  and 
frequents  the  beach  and  the  saltings,  where  numbers  may 
be  seen  at  any  time  of  the  year ;  and  though  the  species 
cannot  be  said  to  be  gregarious  during  the  breeding  season, 
they  are  found  in  small  parties  in  the  autumn,  and  sometimes 
even  in  large  flocks.  During  the  shooting  season,  the  Meadow- 
Pipit  is  a  frequent  object  in  the  turnip-fields,  as,  when  dis- 
turbed, it  either  flies  away  silently  and  drops  down  again  a 
little  further  on,  or  flies  round  and  round  before  settling, 
uttering  a  "peep "-ing  note.  It  the  winter  it  may  be  seen 
running  along  the  edge  of  ice-holes  in  search  of  food,  and 
then  often  frequents  the  shores  of  rivers,  and  is  sometimes 
driven  to  seek  its  sustenance  in  farmyards.  The  food  con-, 
sists  almost  entirely  of  insects,  which  it  often  pursues  into  the 
air  like  a  Flycatcher.  It  is  also  said  to  eat  small  worms  and 
fresh-water  mollusca,  while  it  has  also  been  known  to  feed  on 
seeds  and  grain  when  hard  pressed. 

Nest. — Composed  of  dry  grass  with  an  admixture  of  moss, 
and  lined  with  finer  grass  or  hair.  It  is  always  placed  on  the 
ground. 

— From  four  to  six  in  number,  and  somewhat  variable 


io8  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

in  tint,  though  generally  uniform  in  appearance,  brown 
being  the  prevailing  colour.  Sometimes  the  eggs  are  entirely 
brown  with  only  a  hair-like  line  here  and  there,  but  in  most 
clutches  the  brown  appearance  is  produced  by  the  mottlings 
of  the  eggs,  the  ground-colour  of  which  is  dull  white  or  even 
bluish-white.  Both  the  brown  cloudings  and  spots  and  the 
grey  underlying  markings  are,  as  a  rule,  evenly  distributed 
over  the  egg,  and  hence  the  uniform  appearance  which  is 
created.  Some  clutches  of  eggs  from  the  Faeroe  Islands  in 
the  Seebohm  collection  vary  from  those  obtained  in  the 
British  Islands.  Six  eggs  taken  by  Mr.  Miiller  in  the  Faeroes 
are  of  a  pinkish-grey  colour,  very  pale,  and  covered  with  a 
profusion  of  very  minute  greyish-brown  dots.  Another  clutch 
taken  by  the  same  well-known  collector,  is  of  a  "Wagtail 
type,  being  greenish-white,  spotted  all  over  with  purplish 
brown  and  grey  underlying  markings,  in  some  collecting 
the  larger  end.  Axis,  075-0-85  inch  ;  diam.,  0-6-0-65. 

III.    THE   RED-THROATED    PIPIT.      ANTHUS   CERVINUS. 

Motadlla  ceruina,  Pall.  Zoogr.  Rosso.-Asiat.,  i.,  p.  511  (1811). 

Anthus  cervinus,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  iii.,  p.  299,  pi.  136  (1874) 
B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  32  (1883) ;  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  22 
(1884);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  x.,  p.  585  (1885) 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  127  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B 
pt.  xi.  (1889). 

Adult  Male  in  Breeding  Plumage. — Like  the  Meadow-Pipit,  bu 
the  throat  and  breast  not  spotted  or  streaked,  of  a  vinous  re 
like  the  sides  of  the  neck ;  the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverl 
mottled  with  black  centres  and  resembling  the  back ;  bi 
dark  brown,  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible  and  the  gap 
yellow  ;  feet  yellowish  flesh-colour  ;  iris  brown.  Total  length 
5-6  inches;  culmen,  0-55;  wing,  3-5;  tail,  2*5;  tarsus,  0*85. 

Adult  Female. — Like  the  male,  and  has  the  throat  vinous,  bu 
not  the  chest,  which  is  sandy-buff  like  the  rest  of  the  unde 
surface.  Total  length,  5-3  inches  ;  wing,  3-2. 

Winter  Plumage. — Resembles  that  of  the  Meadow-Pipit,  bu 
is  distinguished  by  the.  blackish  centres  to  the  feathers  of  th 
rump  and  upper  tail-coverts ;  the  median  wing-coverts  tippe 
with  whitish,  forming  a  tolerably  distinct  wing-bar. 


THE    PIPITS.  lOQ 

Range  In  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  visitor  in  spring  ;  two 
examples  having  been  obtained,  one  near  Brighton  in  March, 
and  another  near  Rainham,  in  Kent,  in  April.  It  is  quite 
possible  that  the  species,  which  has  a  very  wide  distribution 
throughout  the  Palaearctic  Region,  may  occur  more  often  than 
is  supposed,  as  it  may  return  in  the  spring  migration  with 
Meadow-Pipits,  whose  winter  home  it  shares  in  many  countries. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — A  more  eastern  bird  than 
the  Meadow-Pipit,  being  found  during  the  breeding  season 
from  Northern  Scandinavia  to  Kamtchatka  and  Bering  Is- 
land, throughout  the  high  latitudes  of  Europe  and  Siberia, 
beyond  the  limits  of  forest  growth.  Its  winter  range  is  some- 
what interesting,  as  it  does  not  visit  India,  but  is  common 
throughout  China  and  the  Burmese  countries  as  far  south  as 
the  Philippines  and  Borneo.  To  the  west  it  winters  in  Persia, 
Egypt,  and  Abyssinia,  and  has  also  occurred  in  most  of  the 
Mediterranean  countries  at  this  season. 

Habits. — From  Mr.  Seebohm's  description  of  the  habits  of- 
the  species,  these  seem  to  be  very  like  those  of  the  Meadow- 
Pipit.  He  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  nesting  of  the 
species  in  the  Valley  of  the  Petchora,  and  again  on  the  Yenesei 
in  Siberia.  In  Finmark  he  noticed  the  Red-throated  Pipit 
beginning  to  breed  in  the  last  week  of  June.  It  was  not  so 
shy  as  the  Meadow-Pipit,  which  was  also  plentiful  in  the  same 
locality,  and  the  song  resembled  rather  that  of  the  Tree-Pipit, 
the  call-note  being  similar  to  that  of  the  common  Tit-lark  or 
Meadow-Pipit.  It  is  described  by  Mr.  Seebohm  as  being 
very  decidedly  a  swamp-bird,  and  rarely  seen  on  the  dry  grassy 
hills,  or  on  the  rocky  slopes.  In  North-eastern  Russia  he 
found  the  species  very  common,  being  almost  as  numerous  on 
the  tundra  as  the  Lapland  Bunting,  which  was  the  most  abun- 
dant species  of  the  region.  As  in  Finmark,  the  species  was  a 
late  breeder,  arriving  in  the  valley  of  the  Petchora  on  the  iyth 
of  May,  and  passing  further  northward.  On  the  6th  of  June 
k  arrived  within  the  Arctic  Circle  on  the  Yenesei  river. 

Nest. — "  Entirely  made  of  dry  grass,  the  coarser  pieces  being 
used  for  the  foundation,  and  the  finest  reserved  for  the  lining. 
It  is  placed  in  recesses  on  the  sides  of  the  tussocky  ridges 
which  intersect  the  bogs."  (Secbohm.) 


no  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Eggs.  —  Four  to  six  in  number.     In  general  appearance  re- 
sembling those  of  the  Meadow-Pipit,  all  the  variations  of  the 
latter  species  being  represented  in  a  series  of  eggs  of  Anthus 
cervinus.      Many  of  the  latter,  however,  are  of  a  richer  and 
darker  brown  than  is  seen  in  the  Meadow-Pipit's  egg,  and 
there  is  further  an  occasional  clutch,  not  seen  in  the  case  of 
the  latter  bird,  where  the  colour  greatly  resembles  that  of  the 
Tree-Pipit's  eggs,   the  mottlings  and   spots   being   extremeh 
bold  and  distinct,  especially  the  brown  overlying  spots,  whicl 
are  distributed  over  the  egg.     Axis,  075-0*85    inch;  diam. 


ANTHUS  RICHARDI. 

Anthus  richardi,  Vieill.,  N.  Diet.  d'Hist.  Nat,  xxvi.,  p.  491 
(1818);  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  199  (1839)  ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr. 
i.,  p.  598  (1874);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  328,  pi.  138 
(1874)  ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  34  (1883)  ;  Seeb.,  Br.  B. 
ii->  P-  233  (l884);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  x.,  p.  56, 
(1885);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  131(1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig 
Br.  B.,  pt.  x.  (1889). 

Adult  Male  in  Breeding  Plumage.  —  Of  large  size,  with  a  power 
ful  foot,  the  hind  claw  about  equal  to  the  length  of  the  him 
toe.  Dark  brown  above,  with  sandy-buff  edges  to  the  feathers 
like  a  Lark  in  appearance  :  lesser  wing-coverts  dull  sandy 
rufous,  the  median  and  greater  coverts  as  well  as  the  quill 
dusky,  edged  with  sandy  rufous,  the  coverts  tipped  with  pale 
fulvous  ;  axillaries  and  under  wing-coverts  sandy-rufous,  wit! 
dusky  bases  ;  flanks  perfectly  uniform,  without  blackish  streaks 
light  portion  of  outer  tail-feather  white  ;  bill  black,  the  lower 
mandible  flesh-colour,  the  gape  yellow  ;  feet  reddish  flesh 
colour;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  7*7  inches;  culmen 
0-6;  wing,  3-95;  tail,  2'8;  tarsus,  n. 

Adult  Female.  —  Similar  to  the  male  in  colour,  but  smaller 
Total  length,  7  inches;  wing,  3-55. 

NOTE.  —  Richard's  Pipit  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  large  size,  and  large 
hind  claw,  which  is  equal  to  or  longer  than  the  hind  toe  itself. 

Range  in  Great  Britain.  —  An  irregular  visitor  in  autumn,  princi- 
pally to  the  south-eastern  and  southern  coasts. 


THE   PIPITS.  Ill 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands, — A  bird  of  Eastern  Asia, 
breeding  from  the  valley  of  the  Yenesei  and  Eastern  Turkestan 
to  Eastern  Siberia  and  Mongolia,  whence  it  migrates  south  in 
autumn  to  China,  India,  and  the  Burmese  countries  and  the 
Moluccas.  At  the  same  season  of  the  year  it  journeys  west- 
ward, and  has  been  recorded  from  most  of  the  countries  of 
Europe. 

Habits. — Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  this  present  species  is 
"  essentially  a  Steppe  bird,  delighting  in  wet  pastures  and  rich 
meadows  left  for  hay  in  the  northern  climates,  where  the 
harvest  is  late  and  it  can  build  its  nest  in  f.he  long  grass,  and 
rear  its  young  before  the  mowers  come  to  disturb  it,  and 
where  it  can  find  abundance  of  food  on  the  short  grass  after 
the  hay  is  cleared  away,  just  when  its  young  are  most 
voracious."  The  bird  has  a  habit  of  hovering  in  the  air,  like 
a  Kestrel,  and  is  then  easily  procured  ;  otherwise,  Mr.  Seebohm 
says,  it  is  a  most  difficult  species  to  obtain,  as  it  runs  about  in 
the  grass  and  cannot  be  detected.  Colonel  Legge  states  that 
in  its  winter-quarters  in  Ceylon,  Richard's  Pipit  frequents 
cattle-pastures,  and  is  very  fond  of  dusting  itself  in  the  road 
like  a  Lark.  Everywhere  it  seems  to  be  a  shy  species. 

Nest. — Not  yet  described,  but  is  doubtless  similar  to  that 
of  other  Pipits. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number.  Axis,  0-85-0-9  inch  ;  diam., 
07.  Ground-colour  greenish-white,  or  brownish-white,  pro- 
fusely spotted  and  clouded  with  spots  of  brown  or  greenish- 
brown,  with  underlying  spots  of  grey,  almost  completely  hiding 
the  ground-colour  of  the  egg.  This  is  more  particularly  the 

.se  in  the  browner  type  of  egg  in  the  British  Museum. 

V.    THE   TAWNY-PIPIT.       ANTHUS   CAMPESTRIS. 

lauda  campestris,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  288  (1766). 

nthus  campestris,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  592  (1874)  ;  Dresser, 

B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  317,  pi.  137  (1874);  B.  O.  U.  List.  Br. 

B.,  p.  33  (1883);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  239  (1884);  Sharpe, 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  x.,  p.  569  (1885);  Saunders,  Man.,  p. 

129  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xviii.  (1891). 

Adult  Male. — Sandy-coloured  above,  with  dark  centres  to  the 


Ill  LLOYD'S    NATURAL    HISTORY, 

feathers;  rump  nearly  uniform;  cheeks,  throat,  and  under 
surface  of  body  whitish,  with  a  wash  of  sandy-buff  on  the 
breast  and  sides  of  the  body ;  chest  uniform  ;  wing-coverts  edged 
with  sandy-buff;  outer  tail-feather  nearly  entirely  white^  with  a 
brown  edging  to  the  inner  web,  the  shaft  of  this  feather  white ; 
the  next  tail-feather  blackish-brown  on  the  inner  web,  the  outer 
web  entirely  light  fulvous,  this  colour  extending  obliquely  along 
the  inner  web  to  the  tip,  the  shaft  brown  ;  sides  of  face  whitish 
with  a  moustachial  streak  of  dusky.  Total  length,  7  inches ; 
culmeri,  0-65;  wing,  3-6;  tail,  2*8;  tarsus,  1*0. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  with  the  moustachia 
streak  less  marked ;  sides  of  breast  slightly  streaked  wit 
dusky  brown.  Total  length,  6*5  inches  ;  wing,  3-3. 

Winter  Plumage. — Paler  than  in  summer,  the  sandy  margins  t 
the  feathers  broader  and  more  marked,  especially  on  the  quills 
moustachial  streak  not  emphasised. 

Young  Birds. — Resemble  the  winter  plumage  of  the  adults,  bu 
distinguished  by  dusky  blackish  triangular  spots  on  the  fore 
neck  and  chest. 

NOTE. — The  Tawny-Pipit  may  be  distinguished  by  its  slightly-curve 
hind  claw,  which  is  equal  to  the  hind  toe  in  length,  or  even  exceeds  th 
latter,  by  its  uniform  breast  when  adult,  the  broad  sandy- coloured  margin 
to  the  wing-coverts,  the  unstreaked  flanks,  and  the  pattern  of  the  two  oute 
tail-feathers. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  rare  autumnal  visitor,  generally  t 
the  south  coast.  Several  examples  have  been  obtained  nea 
Brighton. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands.  —  Formed  throughout  th 
sandy  and  arid  districts  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe,  east 
ward  to  Turkestan  and  Eastern  Siberia,  wintering  in  Sene 
gambia,  N.E.  Africa,  and  the  plains  of  North-western  India. 

Habits. — From  its  pale  coloration  this  Pipit  might  be  con 
sidered  a  desert-haunting  bird,  but  it  cannot  be  said  strictl 
so  to  be,  though  it  is  undoubtedly  a  frequenter  of  sandy  plain 
and  prairie-ground.  It  inhabits  the  sand-dunes  of  the  Baltic  Pro- 
vinces, and  even  extends  as  far  west  as  Holland  and  the  north 
of  France ;  found  as  well  as  in  other  tracts  of  sandy  and  wast* 
land  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  its  furthest  north 


tHE    PIPITS.  113 

ern  point  being  the  south  of  Sweden.  It  arrives  in  South- 
eastern Europe  at  the  end  of  March  or  the  beginning  of  April, 
and  reaches  its  more  northern  breeding  ground  at  the  end  of 
the  latter  month,  or  early  in  May.  One  of  the  best  accounts 
of  the  habits  of  this  species  is  contributed  by  Mr.  Dixon  to 
Mr.  Seebohm's  "  History  of  British  Birds,"  and  is  quoted  at 
length,  as  it  illustrates  a  mode  of  life  somewhat  different  to  that 
of  our  own  Pipits:  "The  Tawny-Pipit  is  very  common  in  the 
more  elevated  parts  of  Algeria,  and  is  a  bird  that  cannot  easily 
be  passed  unseen.  To  look  at  its  plumage  one  might  almost  ex- 
pect to  meet  with  it  only  in  the  desert ;  but  in  summer,  at  any 
rate,  it  does  not  frequent  that  sandy  waste,  and  we  only  met 
with  it  on  the  elevated  plateaux  beyond  Constantine,  and  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Batna  and  Lambessa.  The  road  be- 
tween these  two  latter  places  runs  through  rich  meadows  and 
barley-fields,  and  abounded  with  Tawny-Pipits  in  abundance. 
I  saw  them  only  in  pairs ;  they  were  very  tame,  and  often 
allowed  themselves  to  be  almost  trodden  upon  before  they 
would  take  wing.  I  often  saw  them  running  about  very  quickly 
over  the  bare  pieces  of  ground,  stopping  now  and  then  to  look 
round  to  see  if  they  were  being  pursued.  When  flushed  they 
would  often  fly  for  a  little  distance  in  a  very  straightforward 
manner,  not  undulating,  as  is  their  usual  flight,  and  perch  on 
a  little  tuft  of  higher  vegetation,  or  on  a  boulder,  or  even  a 
I  paling.  Many  of  the  birds  were  on  the  road,  where  you  could 
witness  their  actions  very  closely  as  they  ran  up  and  down  like 
a  Wagtail,  often  giving  their  tail  a  sharp  jerk,  accompanied  by 
a  flicking  movement  of  the  wings.  They  seemed  to -especially 
prefer  a  large  unenclosed  plain  of  rough  land  on  which  no  crop 
was  sown,  what  we  should  call  summer  fallow  in  England. 
Here  I  repeatedly  saw  the  birds  soar  into  the  air  for  a  little 
way  and  sing  their  loud  but  simple  song,  which  put  me  in 
mind  of  the  Sky-Larks'  notes,  although  not  so  rich  or  so  sweet. 
The  species  does  not  soar  so  high  as  the  Tree-Pipit,  and  seems 
anxious  to  get  to  the  ground  again.  When  alarmed  by  the  report 
[of  a  gun,  the  birds  close  at  hand  would  generally  rise  for  some 
distance  into  the  air  and  betake  themselves  to  safer  quarters  in 
i  drooping  flight,  uttering  a  short  whit,  or  yhit,  as  they  went.  I 
bund  an  empty  nest,  which  could  only  have  belonged  to  this 
bird,  placed  amongst  the  growing  barley,  which  was  about 


ii4  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

twelve  inches  high,  in  exactly  a  similar  place  to  that  in  which 
the  Sky-Lark  often  builds,  made  of  dry  grass  lined  with  hair. 

Nest. — On  the  ground,  generally  concealed  under  a  clod  of 
earth  or  tuft  of  herbage,  or  under  a  bush ;  sometimes  in  a  bank 
near  a  dried-up  streamlet,  or  even  in  the  open  plains  among  the 
growing  crops.  It  is  composed  of  dry  grass,  often  intermixed 
with  a  few  stems  of  coarse  herbage  or  straws,  together  with 
roots,  and  lined  with  horse-hair,  although  in  many  cases  fine 
roots  alone  serve  the  purpose. 

Eggs.— From  four  to  six  in  number.  The  general  colour  is 
very  light,  when  compared  with  that  of  the  eggs  of  the.  other 
European  Pipits.  The  ground-colour  is  white  or  greenish 
white,  and  the  spotting  varies  in  intensity  and  degree.  In 
some  eggs  the  whole  surface  is  covered  with  tiny  dots  of  black 
or  blackish-brown,  the  grey  underlying  dots  being  scarcely  per 
ceptible.  On  those  which  have  the  ground-colour  greenish 
white,  the  spots  are  of  a  greenish-brown  tint,  and  on  those  eggs 
which  incline  to  a  creamy-white  ground,  the  overlying  spots  are 
reddish-brown,  and,  with  the  grey  underlying  spots,  are  dis 
tributed  all  over  the  egg.  Axis,  0-8-0-95  incn  >  diam.,  0-65-07 

VI.   THE   WATER-PIPIT.      ANTHUS    SPIPOLETTA. 

Alauda  spinoletta.  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  288  (1766). 

Anthus  spipoletta,   Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  581   (1874;  nom 

emend.);  B.   O.  U.   List  Br.  B.,  p.  34(1883);  Sharpe, 

B.  Brit.   Cat.  Mus.,  x.,  p.  592  (1885);  Saunders,  Man. 

p.  133  (1889) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xviii.  (1891) 
Anthus  spinoktta,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  335,  pi.  140  (1874) 

Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  248  (1884). 

Adult  Male  in  Breeding  Plumage. — Above  light  brown,  the 
mantle  mottled  with  dusky  centres  to  the  feathers  ;  lower  back 
and  rump  uniform  ;  head  and  hind-neck  ashy-grey,  slightly 
streaked  with  dusky  on  the  crown  ;  a  broad  whitish  eyebrow, 
cheeks  and  under  surface  of  body  pale  rosy,  extending  over  the 
abdomen,  without  any  streaks  upon  the  chest ;  lower  abdomer 
and  under  tail-coverts  whitish ;  wing-coverts  tipped  with  dul 
white ;  eyebrows  and  lores  isabelline ;  flanks  slightly  streaked 
with  brown ;  light  pattern  of  outer  tail-feather  white.  Tota 


THE   PIPITS.  IT5 

length,  6-6  inches;  oilmen,  0-55  ;  wing,  3-55  ;  tail,  2-75  ;  tar- 
sus, 0-95. 

Winter  Plumage. — Like  the  summer  plumage,  but  without  the 
reddish  colour  on  the  under  surface,  which  is  whitish  with  a 
brown  moustachial  line  on  each  side  of  the  throat ;  the  fore- 
neck,  chest,  and  breast  spotted  with  brown,  less  distinct  on  the 
sides  of  the  body  and  flanks ;  light  pattern  on  outer  tail-feather 
white,  the  penultimate  feather  with  a  conspicuous  white  tip. 

NOTE. — The  birds  which  visit  England  are  always  likely  to  be  in  win- 
ter plumage  or  to  be  immature  birds.  From  the  young  of  the  Tawny- 
Pipit  they  can  be  told  by  the  streaks  on  the  flanks,  which  are  uniform  in  the 
latter  bird.  From  the  Meadow-Pipit  they  can  be  distinguished  by  having 
the  end  of  the  penultimate  feathers  brown  along  the  outer  web ;  in  the 
Meadow-Pipit  this  part  of  the  feather  is  white.  From  the  Rock-Pipit, 
with  which  the  Water-Pipit  is  most  easily  confounded,  it  can  be  recognised 
by  having  the  light  part  of  the  outer  tail-feather  w&ite,  instead  of  smoky- 
brown,  as  it  is  in  A.  obscurus. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  visitor  in  autumn  and 
spring,  four  specimens  having  been  recorded,  all  from  the 
vicinity  of  Brighton.  One  was  killed  there  in  1864,  another 
near  Worthing  in  the  same  year,  a  third  near  Shoreham  in 
October,  1868,  and  a  fourth  near  Lancing  in  March,  1877. 

Range  ontside  the  British  Islands. — An  inhabitant  of  the  moun- 
tain regions  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe,  throughout  Cen- 
tral Asia  to  the  Altai  Mountains,  occurring  also  in  the  high 
ranges  of  Persia  and  Baluchistan.  A  smaller  race,  named 
Anthus  blakistoni,  is  found  in  Eastern  Siberia  and  China. 

Habits. — From  its  mountain-loving  propensities,  Mr.  Seebohm 
prefers  to  call  this  species  the  "  Alpine  "  Pipit,  as  it  frequents 
only  the  higher  mountain  slopes  above  the  forest  growth  during 
the  breeding  season,  visiting  the  lowlands  in  the  winter.  He 
has  given  a  good  account  of  the  nesting  of  the  species  in  the 
Engadine,  where  he  found  it  on  the  higher  mountains,  living 
in  the  same  districts  as  the  Marmot,  "  where  the  gentle  ist  of 
the  Pipit  contrasts  with  the  loud  mee-ik  of  the  latter,  these 
being  almost  the  only  signs  of  animal  life  in  these  regions." 
The  ways  of  the  species  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
Meadow-Pipit,  its  food  consisting  of  insects,  small  worms  and 
land-shells,  but  it  is  said  to  eat  seeds  in  winter,  when  insect 
life  fails.  Like  other  Pipits,  it  runs  actively  along  the  ground, 

I   3 


u6  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

and  also  flies  up  into  the  air  to  utter  its  song,  which  is  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Seebohm  as  being  like  that  of  the  Meadow- 
Pipit,  but  not  so  sweet :  its  call-note  also  resembles  that  of  the 
latter  bird. 

Nest.— Composed  of  dry  grass,  with  some  moss,  lined  with 
fine  roots,  and  occasionally  with  horse-hair  or  wool. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number.  The  ground-colour  is  dull 
white,  obscured  by  the  closely-set  mottlings  and  numerous  dots 
of  purplish-brown,  sometimes  clouding  round  the  larger  end, 
where  there  are  hair-like  lines  of  black.  Another  type  of  egg 
is  more  like  that  of  a  Wagtail,  wherein  the  brown  spots  are 
more  sparsely  distributed,  except  at  the  larger  end,  where  they 
collect,  the  greyish  underlying  markings  being  also  very  dis- 
tinct. Both  brown-  and  grey-tinted  eggs  occur  in  the  same 
clutch.  Axis,  0*8-0*9  mcn  >  diam.,  0-65. 

VII.    THE    ROCK-PIPIT.        ANTHUS    OBSCURUS. 

Alauda  obscura.  Lath.  Ind.  Orn.,  ii.,  p.  494  (1790). 

Anthus  aquaticus,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  194  (1839). 

Anthus  obscurus,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  586  (1874);  Dresser, 
B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  342,  pi.  141  (1877);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B., 
P-  35  (1883);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  244  (1884) ;  Sharpe,  Cat. 
B.  Brit.  Mus.,  x.,  p.  599  (1885);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  135 
(1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xviii  (1891). 

Adult  Male  in  Breeding  Plumage. — Olive  brown  above  with  dark 
centres  to  the  feathers ;  throat  dull  white ;  under  surface  of 
body  whitish,  very  thickly  mottled  with  dark  brown  centres  to 
the  feathers;  wing-coverts  tipped  with  dull  white;  light  pattern 
of  outer  tail-feather  smoky-brown  ;  the  penultimate  feather  also 
smoky-brown  at  the  tip ;  bill  black ;  feet  fleshy-brown ;  iris 
brown.  Total  length,  6'8  inches;  oilmen,  0*7;  wing,  3*45; 
tail,  2*6;  tarsus,  0-95. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  less  spotted  under- 
neath. Total  length,  6*4  inches;  wing,  3-35. 

Winter  Plumage. — Resembles  the  summer  plumage,  but  is 
more  olive ;  a  narrow  moustachial  line  of  blackish-brown, 
widening  out  on  to  the  sides  of  the  lower  throat ;  throat  dull 
white,  marked  with  olive ;  fore-neck  and  breast  olive,  the 


THE    PIPITS.  Iiy 

feathers  broadly  centred  with  spots  and  streaks  of  dark  brown; 
flank-feathers  olive  brown,  streaked  with  darker  brown  ;  lower 
breast  and  abdomen  as  well  as  the  under  tail-coverts  dull  white, 
washed  with  pale  olive-yellow. 

NOTE. — The  Rock-Pipit  can  be  told  by  the  smoky-brown  tint  of  the 
light  pattern  of  the  outer  tail-feathers,  which  is  found  in  birds  of  all  ages. 

Range  in  Great  Britain.  —  Resident  on  the  rocky  coasts  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  also  in  England  on  suitable  parts 
of  the  coast,  but  not  breeding  on  the  more  open  parts,  where 
it  occurs  only  as  a  migrant  or  winter  visitor. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — This  is  not  yet  well  under- 
stood, as  few  authors  have  recognised  the  validity  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian form  of  Rock-Pipit.  We  ourselves  have  never  seen 
an  undoubted  specimen  cf  our  own  Rock-Pipit  from  any  other 
locality  than  the  British  Islands,  but  the  spotted-breasted 
form  is  said  by  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  to  occur  in  the  Channel 
Islands  and  along  the  shores  of  Northern  and  Western  France. 
In  the  other  portions  of  Northern  Europe  it  is  represented  by 
the  Scandinavian  form,  A.  rupestris. 

Habits. — In  the  south  of  England  and  on  all  our  open  coasts 
the  Rock-Pipit  is  found  on  migration  or  in  winter,  and  some- 
times in  some  numbers.  Its  actions  are  like  those  of  the 
Meadow-Pipit,  and  it  might  be  mistaken  for  the  latter  bird,  were 
it  not  for  its  larger  size  and  generally  darker  appearance.  It 
runs  along  the  shore  or  over  the  sea-weed,  picking  up  its  food, 
which  consists  of  shore-insects  and  small  mollusca ;  it  also 
feeds  on  seeds  of  marine  plants,  and  the  Rock-Pipits  which 
we  killed  in  Heligoland  fed  on  some  kind  of  insect  which 
rapidly  decomposed,  so  that  on  more  than  one  occasion  the 
skin  of  the  gullet  peeled  off  in  a  few  hours,  and  the  birds  had 
to  be  attended  to  by  the  taxidermist  very  soon  after  death,  to 
ensure  their  conservation. 

The  Rock-Pipit  breeds  at  the  end  of  April  or  beginning  of 
May,  and  during  the  pairing-season  the  song  of  the  male  is 
heard  incessantly,  as  he  springs  into  the  air.  Like  other 
Pipits,  the  song  is  generally  uttered  as  the  bird  descends  with 
outspread  wings  and  tail.  Its  notes  are  described  as  very 
musical,  not  unlike  those  of  the  Meadow-Pipit,  but  not  equal 
to  those  of  the  Tree-Pipit. 


n8  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Nest. — Differs  considerably  in  the  materials  used  for  its 
construction,  according  to  locality,  being  generally  built  of 
fine  dry  grass,  sometimes  intermixed  with  sea-weed  and  the 
stalks  of  shore-plants.  Some  of  them  have  an  admixture  of 
moss,  and  are  frequently  lined  with  hair.  As  Air.  Seebohm 
observes,  when  the  birds  can  obtain  hair,  they  use  it ;  where 
fine  grass  only  can  be  procured,  they  generally  employ  it  for 
the  construction  of  the  nest,  whilst  in  localities  affording  a 
more  extensive  choice,  the  materials  are  more  varied.  The 
nest  is  generally  placed  in  a  well-concealed  situation,  but 
always  close  to  the  sea-shore.  It  is  sometimes  placed  in  a  cliff 
several  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  waves,  more  often 
close  to  the  shore  under  a  tuft  or  in  the  hole  of  a  rock  or  a 
bank. 

Eggs. — Four  to  five  in  number,  and  very  dark  as  a  rule  in 
colour,  the  ground-tint  being  greyish-white  or  greenish-white, 
overlaid  with  spots  and  mottlings  of  dark  brown  or  reddish- 
brown,  so  thickly  distributed  as  to  impart  to  the  eggs  a  uni- 
form appearance.  Some  clutches  are  much  paler  than  others 
and  have  a  white  ground,  spotted  with  brown,  very  much  after 
the  pattern  of  a  Tree-Pipit's  egg ;  these  light-coloured  eggs  are, 
however,  the  exception,  the  general  tone  being  very  dark. 
Axis,  0-85-0*9  ;  diam.,  0-65. 

VIII.  THE   SCANDINAVIAN    ROCK-PIPIT.      ANTHUS    RUPESTRIS. 

Anthus  rupestris,  Nilss.  Orn.  Suee.,  i.,  p.  245,  pi.  9,  figs,  i,  2 
(1817). 

Adult  in  Breeding  Plumage. — Similar  to  the  preceding  bird,  bi 
with  the  under  surface  of  the  body  uniform  vinous,  without 
spots.     Total  length,  6'i  inches;  wing,  3-4;  tarsus,  0-85. 

Winter  Plumage. — Indistinguishable  from  that  of  the  ordinarj 
Rock-Pipit  of  the  British  Islands. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  autumn  migrant  to  the  east  C( 
of  our  islands,  and  passing  regularly  along  the  south  coast 
returning  by  the  same  route  from  west  to  east  in  the  spring, 
which  season  the  differences  between  this  race  and  our  owr 
Rock-Pipit  are  easily  discernible. 

Range   outside   the   British   Islands. — Occurs    along    the  rockj 


THE   CREEPERS.  1 19 

shores  of  the  Baltic,  Denmark,  and  Western  Scandinavia  as  far 
as  the  White  Sea. 

Habits. — The  same  as  those  of  A.  obscurus. 

lfest. — Like  that  of  A.  obscurus. 

Eggs.  --Also  like  those  of  the  above-mentioned  species 

THE   CREEPERS.     FAMILY  GERTRUDE. 

These  birds  are  mostly  recognised  from  the  rest  of  the 
Passeiiformes  or  Perching  Birds  of  the  Old  World,  by  their 
peculiarly  pointed  tail,  which  is  like  that  of  a  miniature  Wood- 
pecker, and  serves  the  same  purpose,  having  stiffened  shafts 
to  the  feathers,  as  a  support  to  the  bird  when  it  is  clinging  to 
or  climbing  up  a  tree.  In  their  mode  of  nesting,  and  in  the 
colour  of  their  eggs,  the  Creepers  are  very  like  Tits,  to  which 
they  are  undoubtedly  closely  allied;  but  they  possess  very  long 
and  slender  bills,  and  their  toes  are  also  very  long,  especially 
the  hallux,  or  hind  toe,  which  has  always  a  large  claw. 

Just  as  in  the  Woodpeckers,  which  have  not  all  stiffened 
shafts  to  the  tail-feathers,  there  are  among  the  Certhiida^  birds 
in  which  the  tail  is  soft,  like  that  of  the  Tits.  Such  forms  are 
Tichodroma  and  Salpornis,  the  former  a  bird  of  the  Mediter- 
raneo-Persic  Sub-region,  the  latter  of  the  Indian  and  African 
Regions. 

In  all  the  Creepers  the  bill  is  long  and  curved,  very  different 
from  that  of  the  Tits,  where  it  is  stout  and  strong.  The  tongue 
is  ordinary,  and  not  capable  of  being  extended,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  tropical  Sunbirds  (Nectariniida\  which  have  a  very 
similarly  shaped  bill.  The  tail-feathers  are  twelve  in  number. 
The  Creepers  have  no  bristles  at  the  gape,  and  in  this  respect 
they  approach  the  Wrens,  as  they  do  also  in  the  colour  and 
markings  of  the  eggs.  They  are  poor  nest-builders,  much  in- 
ferior to  Tits  in  this  respect,  and  far  behind  the  Wrens  in 
architectural  skill.  Although  laying  spotted  eggs,  they  conceal 
them  in  the  same  manner  as  Tits  and  Wrens,  the  reason  being 
doubtless  the  same  in  all  three  cases,  viz.,  that  the  glossy  white 
ground-colour  of  the  egg  is  so  conspicuous,  that  the  few  spots 
would  not  serve  to  hide  them,  were  the  nest  built  in  the  open. 


120  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

THE  TRUE   CREEPERS.     GENUS    CERTHIA. 

Ccrthia,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  184(1766). 

Type,  C.  familiariS)  Linn. 

The  true  Tree-Creepers — such  as  our  British  birds — are 
about  ten  in  number,  and  are  found  in  the  northern  parts 
of  boih  Hemispheres,  as  far  south  as  Guatemala  in  Central 
America,  and  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  Asia,  as 
far  as  the  Himalayas  and  the  Burmese  countries.  The  char- 
acters of  the  genus  have  been  explained  under  the  heading  of 
the  family  (vide  supra}. 


I.  THE  TREE  CREEPER.   CERTHIA  FAMILIARIS. 

Certhia  familiaris,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  184  (1766);  Macg.,  Br. 
B.,  iii.,  p.  33  (1840);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  468  (1874); 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  195,  pi.  122  (1874);  B.  O.  U. 
List  Br.  B,p.  45  (1883)  -  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  511  (1883); 
Gadow,  Cat.  B.,  Brit.  Mus.,  viii.,  p.  323  (1883);  Lilford, 
Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  iv.  (1887);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  109 
(1889);  W\att,  Erit.  B.,  pi.  9,  fig.  2  (1894). 

Adnlt  Male. — General  colour  above  brown,  with  a  tinge  of 
golden  buff,  the  head  and  back  streaked  with  ashy-grey  centres 
to  the  feathers ;  the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  orange-tawny, 
the  feathers  long  and  fluffy,  and  having  a  silky  white  mark  just 
before  their  tips ;  lores  dusky,  as  also  the  feathers  below  the  eye 
and  along  the  upper  edge  of  the  ear-coverts  ;  above  the  eye  a 
streak  of  silky  white ;  sides  of  face  and  under  surface  of  body 
also  silky  white ;  wing-coverts  tipped  with  yellowish-buff,  the 
greater  coverts  with  white,  before  which  is  a  black  band  ;  the 
quills  dusky-brown,  chequered  with  a  broad  bar  of  bufify- white 
across  the  inner  primaries  and  secondaries,  bordered  above  and 
below  with  black;  the  inner  secondaries  externally  buff  towards 
their  ends,  the  innermost  black  before  their  white  tips ;  tail- 
feathers  brown,  with  reddish-brown  shafts;  bill  dark  brown,  the 
lower  mandible  paler ;  feet  brown  ;  iris  clear  hazel.  Total 
length,  5*5  inches;  culmen,  07  ;  wing,  2*5  ;  tail,  2*3;  tarsus, 
0-6. 

Adnlt  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  plumage.    Total  length, 
5  inches;  wing,  2-5  ;  tarsus,  0-55. 


THE   TRUE   CREEPERS.  121 

Young. — Much  more  mottled  on  the  upper  surface  than  the 
adults,  the  central  buff  markings  to  the  feathers  very  much 
larger  and  occupying  nearly  the  whole  of  the  feather ;  the 
pattern  of  the  wing  as  in  the  adult,  the  cross  bands  on  the 
quills  all  very  strongly  indicated;  the  under  surface  of  the  body 
dull  white,  the  feathers  of  the  breast  obscured  by  dusky-brown 
tips. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Resident  in  nearly  every  part  of  the 
British  Islands,  as  far  north  as  the  Isle  of  Skye  and  Caithness, 
and  occurring  as  a  straggler  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetland  Is- 
lands. Mr.  Ridgway  considers  that  the  British  Tree-Creeper 
is  a  different  species  from  that  inhabiting  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  has  named  it  Certhia  britannica.  He  says  that 
the  form  of  the  British  Islands  is  browner  in  colour,  the  wings 
of  a  deeper  tawny  colour,  and  the  under-parts  duller.  (Cf. 
Ridgw.,  Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  113  (1882).  The  con- 
tinental bird  is  certainly  greyer,  the  streaks  ashy  instead  of 
buff;  the  rump  is  not  so  conspicuously  tawny  in  the  foreign 
specimens,  but  there  is  no  difference  in  the  colour  of  the  under- 
parts.  Such  is  our  conclusion  after  comparing  a  series  of 
skins  in  the  British  Museum,  but  the  differences  can  hardly  be 
called  specific,  as  French  specimens  are  intermediate. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Throughout  the  Palaearctic 
Region,  i.e.,  Europe  and  Asia  north  of  the  line  of  the  Hima- 
layas. Mr.  Ridgway,  however,  in  his  paper  above  referred  to, 
recognises  two  races  in  Europe  besides  the  one  he  calls  C. 
britannica,  and,  according  to  the  opinions  cf  recent  writers, 
there  are  several  races  of  the  Common  Creeper  to  be  distin- 
guished in  the  Palaearctic  Region  alone,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
American  Creeper  (C.  americana\  which  can  scarcely  be  sepa- 
rated from  its  European  representative.  The  Himalayas  and 
the  off-lying  mountain  ranges  of  the  chain  in  Burma  possess 
six  species,  these  regions  being  very  rich  in  Creepers,  Tits,  and 
Nuthatches.  The  northern  range  of  the  European  Certhia  is 
63°  N.  lat.  in  Scandinavia,  60°  in  Russia,  and  about  57°  in 
Siberia.  It  is  found  in  Algeria  to  the  south  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, but  not  in  those  countries  where  no  pine-forests 
occur. 

HaMts. — Notwithstanding  the  name  offamitiaris  which  Lin- 
naeus bestowed  on  the  Creeper,  it  is  by  no  means  a  familiar 


122  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


bird  to  the  majority  of  English  people,  though  it  is  really  quite 
a  common  bird  in  most  of  our   counties.     Its   single   not 
wheest,  is  somewhat  ventriloquial,  and  the  bird  cannot  always 
be  detected  by  the  sound.     If  once  the  note  be  recognisec 
however,  it  is  not  long  before  the  bird  can  be  discovei 
as  it  pursues  a  course  along  a  tree  or  branch,  and  then  flit 
down  to  a  lower  level,  though  even  then  it  may  escape  obi- 
vation,  owing  to  its  small  size  and  sober  colouring.     It  runs  uj 
the  trees  in  the  manner  of  a  tiny  Woodpecker,  but  its  wi 
bill  is  not  capable  of  hammering  at  the  bark  like  the  last 
named  bird,  or  of  prising  off  a  large  piece,  as  the  Nuthatc 
can  do.     Its  food  consists  of  tiny  insects,  and  spiders  consti 
tute  a  large  portion  of  its  prey,  in  pursuit  of  which  the  bir 
climbs  most  actively,  sometimes  running  up  the  trunk  to  the 
top  of  the  tree  or  turning  aside  to  follow  the  course  of  soi 
large  branch,   examining  both  the  upper  and  under  sides 
the  latter,   but  always   steadily  pursuing   its   course  towai 
the  end  of  the  bough.     In  many  of  its  movements  it  is  ver 
like  a  Tit,  but  it  is  never  seen  to  turn  back  or  move  with 
head   downwards,  as  a  Nuthatch  or  a  Woodpecker  will 
Both  male  and  female  are  very  assiduous  in  the  care  of  the 
young,  but  the  latter  are  very  noisy,  and  often  lead  to  the  dii 
covery  of  the  well-concealed  nest,  by  the  squeaking  that  th< 
make  on   the  arrival   of  the  parent- birds  with   food. 
Creeper  has  been  credited  with  a  song,  and  some  observe 
have  recorded  the  fact  in  this  country.     Although  we 
been  acquainted  with  the  species  from  boyhood,  we  have  neve 
heard  a  Tree-Creeper  sing  in  England,  though  the  continent 
birds  undoubtedly  do  sing,  and  we  remember  once  hearing 
bird  in  France,  which  had  a  remarkably  loud  song,  like  that 
a  Tit.     So  convinced  were  we  that  it  was  a  Tit  which 
singing,  that  we  looked  everywhere  in  the  upper  branches 
the  tree  for  the  songster,  and  at  last  caught  sight  of  it- 
Creeper — clinging  to  the  trunk  only  a  few  yards  off  from  wht 
we  stood,  and  singing  vigorously  a  song  which  we  never  hear 
our  English  bird  give  way  to.     So  there  may  be  something 
the  belief  that  the  Creeper  of  the  continent  of  Europe  is  nc 
quite  the  same  as  our  British  bird. 

Nest. — Placed  in  a  hole  in  a  tree  or  behind  the  beam  of 
shed,  often  behind  a  crevice  in  the  bark  of  a  tree,  but  alwaj 


THE   CRIMSON-WINGED   CREEPERS.  123 

concealed  and  hidden.  The  nest  is  generally  somewhat  rough, 
composed  of  moss  and  small  roots,  with  a  good  many  chips 
of  dead  wood. 

Mr.  Seebohm,  however,  calls  it  a  handsome  little  structure, 
and  says  that  "  there  is  a  rustic  beauty  about  a  Creeper's  nest 
which  few  others  possess.  The  crevice  behind  the  bark  which 
the  bird  usually  selects  is  often  too  large  for  the  nest  itself; 
and  the  superfluous  space  is  filled  up  with  a  quantity  of  fine 
twigs,  chiefly  of  beech  and  birch.  Round  the  edge  of  the  nest 
is  artfully  woven  a  series  of  the  finest  twigs ;  and  the  lining  is 
made  of  roots,  grass,  moss,  and  sometimes  feathers.  But  the 
chief  characteristic  of  the  Creeper's  nest  is  the  lining  of  fine 
strips  of  inside  bark  which  is  almost  invariably  there." 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number.  Ground  colour  either  pure 
white  or  reddish-white,  the  markings  varying  with  the  ground- 
colour of  the  two  different  sty!es  of  egg.  Where  the  egg  is 
creamy-  or  reddish-white,  the  spots  are  decidedly  rufous 
character,  with  a  tendency  to  cluster  round  the  large  end.  In 
the  whiter  eggs,  the  spots  vary  from  reddish-brown  to  blackish, 
with  underlying  spots  of  grey,  not  easily  distinguishable  from 
the  overlying  spots.  Axis,  0*65  inch;  diam.,  0*5. 

THE  CRIMSON-WINGED  CREEPERS.    GENUS  TICHODROMA. 

Tichodroma,  111.  Prod.,  p.  211  (1810). 

Type,  T.  muraria  (Linn.). 

The  present  genus  holds  an  intermediate  position  between 
the  Tree- Creepers  and  the  Nuthatches.  Like  the  former,  it  has 
a  curved  and  slender  bill,  and  a  powerful  head ;  but  like  the 
Nuthatches  it  has  a  soft  tail,  a  grey  upper  plumage,  and  it  shares 
with  the  Nuthatches  the  character  of  the  white  spots  on  the 
outer  tail-feathers. 

There  is  only  one  species  of  the  genus  Tichodroma^  the 
range  of  which  is  given  below. 

I.    THE   WALL-CREEPER.      TICHODROMA   MURARIA. 

Certhia  muraria^  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  184  (1766). 
Tichodroma  muraria^  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.   207,  pi.    123 
(1871);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  46  (1883);  Gadow,  Cat. 


124  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

B.  Brit.  Mus.,  viii.,  p.  331  (1883);  Seeb.,  Hist.  Brit.  B  ,  i., 
p.  518,  pi.  18  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  in  (1889); 
Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  xv.  (1890). 

Adult. — Above  delicate  pearly-grey,  browner  on  the  crown, 
and  gradually  shading  off  into  blackish  on  the  upper  tail- 
coverts  and  tail,  the  latter  tipped  with  white  spots ;  the  wing- 
coverts  beautiful  crimson,  the  bastard  wing  black,  and  the 
greater  coverts  black  on  the  inner  web,  crimson  on  the  outer 
one  ;  the  innermost  greater  coverts  grey,  like  the  outer  web  of 
the  adjoining  inner  secondaries  ;  primary  coverts  and  primaries 
black,  externally  crimson  for  the  greater  part  of  the  outer  web  ; 
sides  of  face  and  throat  greyish-white,  remainder  of  the  under 
surface  from  the  fore-neck  downwards  slaty  grey,  verging  int( 
black  on  the  abdomen  and  under  tail-coverts ;  under  wing- 
coverts  and  axillaries  dark  crimson ;  quills  black  below,  with 
a  white  spot  near  the  end  of  the  second,  third,  fourth,  am 
fifth  primaries,  and  a  second  white  spot  near  the  base  of  th( 
same  quills ;  bill  and  legs  black ;  iris  brown.  Total  length, 
6-5  inches;  culmen,  n  ;  wing,  4-0;  tail,  2'i  ;  tarsus,  0-95. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  5-5  inches 
wing,  4-0. 

During  the  Nesting  Season  the  birds  assume  a  black  throat  am 
chest,  which  are  not  so  distinctly  marked  in  the  female  as  ii 
the  male. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — A  very  rare  and  accidental  visitor, 
of  which  two  occurrences  have  been  recorded;  one  as  long  ago 
as  1792,  as  we  learn  from  a  letter  written  by  Robert  Marsham 
to  Gilbert  White,  of  Selbourne,  in  which  he  states  that  a  Wall- 
Creeper  had  been  shot  at  his  house  at  Stratton-Strawless,  in 
Norfolk.  Mr.  F.  S.  Mitchell  had  also  a  specimen  in  his  collec- 
tion which  was  shot  at  Sabden,  in  Lancashire,  on  the  8th 
May,  1872.  It  was  observed  flying  round  a  tall  chimney,  am 
attracted  the  attention  of  a  number  of  mill-hands  by  its  bright 
colour.  It  appeared  to  be  a  solitary  bird  and  not  to  have 
mate  with  it. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — An  inhabitant  of  the  moui 
tains  of  Southern  Europe,  extending  into  Central  Asia  as  fa 
east  as  China,  and  found  in  nearly  all  the  mountain-chains 


THE    CRIMSON-WINGED    CREEPERS.  125 

eastwards  from  the  Caucasus.  It  is  also  an  inhabitant  of  Abys- 
sinia to  the  southward.  The  northward  range  of  the  species 
in  France,  as  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  has  recently  pointed  out 
(Bull.,  Brit.  Orn.  Club,  i.,  p.  xlix),  is  more  extended  than  is 
generally  supposed,  and  it  has  been  noticed  on  the  Rhine  as 
far  north  as  Coblentz  ;  so  that  its  appearance  in  England  is 
not  so  strange  as  might  otherwise  have  been  imagined. 

Habits. — Everyone  who  has  had  the  opportunity  of  observing 
this  bird  in  a  state  of  nature,  agrees  that  it  is  a  most  beautiful 
object  in  the  mountainous  localities  which  it  frequents,  the 
bright  red  on  the  wings  rendering  it  generally  conspicuous. 
Like  other  Creepers,  its  food  consists  of  small  insects,  such  as 

!  spiders  and  beetles,  while  Bailly,  the  ornithologist  of  Savoy, 
says  that  it  also  devours  ants'  eggs  and  small  worms,  sometimes 

I  also  capturing  an  insect  on  the  wing.  The  same  observer  states 
that  its  cry  resembles  the  syllable  pli  pli  pli  pli^  a  note  like 
that  of  the  Lesser  Spotted- Woodpecker.  On  the  face  of  the 
rocks  which  the  bird  frequents  it  climbs  in  a  zigzag  fashion, 
sometimes  head-downward,  "with  a  crab-like  sidling  motion," 
according  to  Canon  Tristram,  "  rapidly  expanding  and  closing 
its  wings  in  a  succession  of  jerks,  and  showing  its  brilliant 
crimson  shoulders  at  each  movement."  The  flight  of  this  species 
is  described  as  very  peculiar,  and  more  like  that  of  a  Butterfly. 

Nest. — Placed  in  the  crevices  of  rocks,  sometimes  in  perfectly 
inaccessible  positions.  Mr.  Seebohm  writes :  "A  handsome 
nest  of  this  bird  in  my  collection  is  very  elaborately  built.  Its 
chief  material  is  moss,  evidently  gathered  from  the  rocks  and 
stones,  intermingled  with  a  few  grasses,  and  compactly  felted 
together  with  hairs,  wool,  and  a  few  feathers.  The  lining  is 
almost  exclusively  composed  of  wool  and  hair,  very  thickly  and 
densely  felted  together.  The  nest  is  about  one  and  a  half 
inches  deep  inside,  and  the  internal  diameter  is  about  three 
inches;  outside  it  measures  two  and  a  half  inches  in  depth, 
and  is  about  six  inches  in  diameter. 

Eggs. — Three  to  five  in  number.  Almost  pure  white,  save 
for  certain  tiny  black  or  reddish-brown  dots,  scarcely  percep- 
tible on  some  eggs,  and  sparsely  scattered  over  the  surface  of 
others,  in  no  case  very  perceptible.  Axis,  o'8-o*85  inch  ' 
diam.,  0-55. 


126 


LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


THE   NUTHATCHES.     FAMILY   SITTID^. 

These  little  birds  hold  an  intermediate  position  between  tl 
Creepers  and  the  Tits.     They  have  a  soft  tail  like  the  latter, 
not  a  spiny  tail  like  the  Creepers,  and  they  differ  from  both 
the  above-mentioned  families  in  having  a  wedge-shaped  and 
Woodpecker-like  bill,  with  which  they  are  enabled  to  hamme 
and  prise  off  the  bark  of  trees  in  a  manner  which  would  n< 
disgrace  their  larger  Picarian  relatives. 

The  Nuthatches  are  chiefly  inhabitants  of  the  northern  parts 
of  both  Hemispheres,  extending  in  America  as  far  south  as! 
Mexico  ;  and,  in  the  Old  World,  they  are  plentifully  represented! 
in  the  Himalayas,  while  in  the  mountains  of  Burma  the  largest; 
known  species  of  the  genus,  Sitta  magna,  is  found.  In  the 
Indian  region  an  allied  genus,  Dendrqphila,  is  plentifully  dis-; 
tributed,  finding  in  Madagascar  an  outlying  and  isolated  repre-i 
sentative  in  the  genus  Hypositta,  while  in  Australia  and  New 
Guinea  occurs  the  genus  Sitella. 

THE   TRUE   NUTHATCHES.     GENUS   SITTA. 

Sitta^  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  177  (1766). 

Type,  »S.  europcea,  Linn. 

Of  the  European  Nuthatches  there  are  four  species,  two 
which  are  southern  and  two  northern.  Of  the  former,  both| 
of  which  are  black-headed,  Sitta  krueperi  is  an  inhabitant 
Asia  Minor,  and  Sitta  whiteheadi  of  the  high  pine-forests 
Corsica.  Of  Sitta  ccesia,  the  distribution  is  given  below,  am 
Sitta  europcza — with  certain  variations — extends  from  Scandi- 
navia, across  Asia,  to  Kamtchatka. 

I.    THE   NUTHATCH.      SITTA   CJESIA, 

(Plate  XIV.) 
Sitta  europaa.  Lath.,  Ind.  Orn.,  i.,  p.  261  (1790);  Macg.,  Br. 

B.,  in.,  p.  48  (1840) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  473  (1873) 

Wyatt,  Brit.  B.,  pi.  9,  figs,  i,  2  (1894). 
Sitta ccesta,  Meyer;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  175,  pi.  119(1873) 

B.  O.  U.   List  Br.  B.,  p.  28  (1883);  Seeb.,   Brit.  B.,  i. 

p.  523  (1883);  Gadow,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  viii.,  p.  34;! 

(1883);  Lilford,  Col. Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  viii.  (1888);  Saundersj 

Man.,  p.  105  (1889);  Wyatt,  Brit.  B.,  pi.  9,  fig.  i  (1894) 


PLATE     XIV. 


NUTHATCH. 


THE   TRUE   NUTHATCHES.  127 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  clear  grey  or  slaty-blue, 
ncluding  the  wings  and  centre  tail-feathers  ;  quills  dusky-brown, 
xternally  slaty-blue,  the  primaries  whitish  near  the  base  of  the 
mter  web  ;  tail-feathers,  except  the  centre  ones,  black,  with 

grey  tip,  the  inner  web  of  the  three  penultimate  feathers 
white  at  the  tip,  the  outermost  tail-feathers  with  a  white  sub- 
erminal  band  extending  obliquely  across  both  inner  and  outer 
webs ;  over  the  eye  a  faint  streak  of  greyish-white  ;  a  black  band 
enclosing  the  lores  and  the  feathers  below  the  eye,  extending 
n  a  broad  line  down  the  sides  of  the  neck  ;  cheeks  and  throat 
ashy-white ;  remainder  of  under  surface  of  body  light  fawn- 
colour  or  isabelline ;  the  flanks  vinous  chestnut ;  under  tail- 
coverts  white,  mottled  with  chestnut  edges  to  the  feathers ; 
under  wing-coverts  like  the  breast,  with  ashy- white  bases,  and 
laving  a  large  patch  of  black  near  the  edge  of  the  wing  ;  quill- 
ining  ashy  white ;  bill  slaty  blue,  the  lower  mandible  paler ; 
feet  pale  reddish-brown;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  5-8  inches; 
culmen,  o'8;  wing,  3-4;  tail,  17;  tarsus,  0*8. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  in  colour  to  the  male.  Total  length, 
5-4  inches;  wing,  3-35. 

Young. — Similar  to  the  adults,  but  with  paler  and  more  yel- 
owish  feet,  the  colours  all  duller,  the  black  streak  on  the  sides 
of  the  head  and  the  chestnut  flanks  not  so  strongly  marked 
as  in  the  adults. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Pretty  generally  distributed  over 
England,  but  becoming  rarer  in  the  north,  scarcely  known 
in  Scotland,  and  altogether  absent  in  Ireland.  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders  says  that  the  species  appears  to  have  decreased  in 
numbers  in  the  northern  counties  of  late  years,  but  in  other 
parts  of  England  it  is  increasing.  It  has  been  obtained  only 
in  the  south  of  Scotland,  in  Berwickshire  and  Haddington- 
shire,  though  there  are  one  or  two  other  records. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  distribution  of  our  Nut- 
hatch on  the  continent  of  Europe  is  somewhat  singular  and 
interesting.  It  is  spread  over  Southern  and  Central  Europe, 
and  extends  eastward  as  far  as  Asia  Minor  and  Palestine, 
northward  to  the  Baltic  Provinces  as  far  as  the  peninsula  of 
Jutland.  Here  its  range  coalesces  with  that  of  the  Scandi- 


128  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

navian  Nuthatch  (Sitta  eurofcea),  a  species  which  has  the  und< 
parts  white,  and  which  ranges  from  Scandinavia  and  Northei 
Russia,  across  Siberia  to  Japan  and  Kamtchatka.     Gradi 
variations  in  plumage  occur  throughout  the  range  of  the  Whit 
breasted   Nuthatches,   which  have  been  divided  into  seven 
races  and  species,  but  Mr.  Seebohm  affirms  that  intermedia! 
forms  occur  between  all  of  them,  not  excepting  Sitta  europaa 
and  S.  ccesia. 

Habits. — These  are  a  combination  of  the  habits  of  a  T 
and  a  Woodpecker.      Like   the    former  bird,    the    Nuthatc 
seeks  diligently  for  its  insect  food  on  the  trunks  and  branch* 
of  trees,    over   which  it  runs  like  a  Woodpecker,  with  th 
difference,  that  its  tail  is  not  pressed  into  the  service  of  climb- 
ing a  tree,  nor  does  it  gradually  ascend  from  the  bottom  to  th 
top,  as  a  Woodpecker  so  often  does.     On  the  contrary, 
Nuthatch  will  generally  be  found  in  the  higher  branches,  an 
will  work  its  way  from  the  end  of  the  branch  down  toward 
the  trunk,  and  is  just  as  much  at  home  on  the  under  side  o 
a  limb  as  it  is  on  the  upper.     Its  movements  are  like  those  ( 
a  Mouse,  rather  than  those  of  a  bird,  and  it  often  runs,  heac 
downward,    or   hangs   on   the   under  side   of  a  branch  an 
hammers  away  at  the  bark  with  its  powerful  little  bill.     Th 
noise  produced  by  one  of  these  birds,  when  tapping  at  a  tree, 
is  really  astonishing  for  a  bird  of  its  size,  and,  if  undisturbed, 
it  can  be  approached  pretty  closely.     We  have  often  watche< 
a  Nuthatch  at  work,  and  the  pieces  of  dead  bark  which  th 
bird  prises  off  with  its  wedge-shaped  bill,  are  sometimes  as  larg 
as  the  bird  itself.     Its  general  food  consists  of  insects,  and  ii 
the  winter  the  Nuthatches  join  the  wandering  parties  of  Tit 
and  Creepers  which  traverse  the  woods  in  search  of  food.     A 
a  rule,  however,  the  Nuthatch  evinces  a  partiality  for  park-lane 
and  old  timber,  and  its  cheerful  note,  often  repeated  as  it  run 
along  a  bough,  sounds  like  "  t'wee,  t'wee,  t'wee."     It  has  also 
a  scolding  note,  or  note  of  alarm,  not  unlike  the  churr  of  a  j 
Warbler.     In  the  autumn  it  feeds  on  hazel-nuts  and  beech- 1 
mast,  breaking  them  open  by  constant  hammering,  and,  like 
Tits,  the  Nuthatches  can  be  tempted  to  the  vicinity  of  houses 
in  winter,  and  become  quite  interesting  by  their  tameness. 

. — The  nesting  commences  in  the  middle  of  April,  a  | 


THE  TITS.  129 

hole  in  a  tree  or  wall  being  selected,  and,  in  the  former 
instance,  the  entrance  to  the  nest  is  plastered  up  by  the  birds, 
leaving  only  a  small  hole  for  ingress.  The  nest  is  scarcely 
worthy  of  the  name,  consisting  only  of  a  few  grasses  or  dead 
leaves.  The  most  remarkable  nest  of  a  Nuthatch  is  to  be  seen 
in  the  Natural  History  Museum,  to  which  it  was  given  by  the 
late  Mr.  F.  Bond  as  a  natural  curiosity.  It  is  built  in  the  side 
of  a  haystack,  to  which  the  birds  had  carried  as  much  as 
eleven  pounds'  weight  of  clay,  and  had  thus  constructed  a  solid 
nest  in  this  apparently  unfavourable  position. 

Eggs. — Five  to  eight  in  number.  Ground-colour  pure  white, 
thickly  spotted  with  rufous,  with  underlying  spots  of  grey. 
The  rufous  markings  are  generally  large  and  bold,  and  often 
encircle  the  larger  end  of  the  egg,  but  in  many  clutches  the 
markings  consist  of  a  sprinkling  of  red  dots  all  over  the  egg, 
occasionally  relieved  by  some  larger  spots  of  dark  rufous. 
Axis,  o-7-o'85  inch;  diam.,  o*5-o'6. 

THE  TITS.     FAMILY  PARID^S. 

The  members  of  this  family  are  generally  distributed  over 
the  northern  parts  of  the  Old  and  New  World,  ranging  as  far 
south  as  Southern  Mexico  in  America,  and  in  the  Old  World 
all  over  Europe,  Africa,  and  Asia,  as  far  as  the  Indo-Malayan 
Islands.  The  Tits  are  remarkable  for  their  powerful  little 
conical  bills,  which  are  densely  beset  with  feathers  at  the  base, 
so  as  to  entirely  hide  the  nostrils.  The  tarsus  is  scutellated. 
The  family  may  be  roughly  divided  into  True  Tits,  Crested 
Tits,  Long-tailed  Tits,  and  Penduline  Tits,  all  but  the  latter 
group  being  represented  in  England.  The  Reedlings  (Panurus) 
are  also  generally  classed  in  this  family,  but  have  little  to  do 
with  the  other  Paridcs.  By  some  recent  writers,  notably  by 
Mr.  Oates,  the  Tits  have  been  placed  in  close  proximity  to  the 
Crows.  With  these  birds,  in  our  humble  opinion,  they  have 
little  in  common,  beyond  a  certain  carnivorous  propensity. 

THE  TRUE  TITS.     GENUS  PARUS. 

Partis^  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  341  (1766). 

Type,  P.  major,  Linn. 

The  genus  Parus  includes  not  only  the  True  Tits,  such  as 

1.  K 


LLoVb'S    NATURAL    KiSTGRY. 


P.  major  and  P.  c<zrnlc:is,  but  also  the  Coal-Tits,  of  vvhici. 
P.  ater  is  the  type,  and  the  Marsh-Tits,  of  which  P.  palustris 
is  the  typical  representative.  The  range  of  the  genus  Parus  is, 
therefore,  coincident  with  that  of  the  family.  They  are  all 
builders  in  holes  of  one  kind  or  another,  and  their  eggs  are  all 
of  a  similar  type,  and,  in  most  cases,  numerous. 

1.    THE    GREAT   TIT.       PARUS    MAJOR. 

Pants  major,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  341  (1766) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur. 
iii.,p.  79,  pi.  106(1871);  Newt.  ed.  Yarn,  i.,  p.  479  (1873)5 
B.O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  26  (1883);  Gadow.,  Cat.  B.  Brit, 
viii.,  p.  19  (1883);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  463  (1883);  Lil- 
ford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  vi.  (iS8S) ;  Saunders,  Man., 
p.  95  (1889)  :  Wyatt,  Brit.  B.,  pi.  8,  fig.  2  (1894). 

Parus  fringillago,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  425  (1839). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  green,  inclining  to  yellow 
towards  the  nape,  where  there  is  a  patch  of  white ;  rump  and 
upper  tail-coverts  greyish-blue,  like  the  tail-feathers,  which  have 
the  shafts  and  the  inner  webs  black,  the  outer  tail-feathers  white 
along  the  outer  webs  and  at  the  tips ;  wing-coverts  bluish  slate- 
colour,  the  greater  series  darker,  and  tipped  with  yellowish- 
white  ;  primary-coverts  and  quills  dusky,  externally  edged  with 
slaty-blue,  the  inner  secondaries  with  greenish ;  crown  of  head, 
sides  of  neck,  throat  and  fore-neck  black  with  a  gloss  of  blue, 
and  relieved  by  a  large  white  patch,  which  occupies  the  cheeks 
and  ear-coverts,  and  is  very  conspicuous ;  rest  of  under  surface 
of  body  yellow,  the  centre  of  the  breast  and  abdomen  glossy 
blue-black ;  flanks  greenish ;  vent  white ;  thighs  and  under  tail 
coverts  black;  under  wing-coverts  white;  axillaries  yellow;  bil 
black;  feet  leaden-grey;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length, 
inches;  oilmen,  0-5;  wing,  2-85;  tail,  2-4;  tarsus,  075. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  distinguished  b] 
the  narrower  and  duller  black  streak  down  the  centre  ot 
the  abdomen.  Total  length,  5^3  inches;  wing,  2^85;  tarsus, 
0-8. 

Young, — Coloured  like  the  adults,  but  much  more  dingy  it 
appearance,  with  the  patch  on  the  hind-neck  and  sides  of  fk< 
yellow  instead  of  white,  and  the  central  streak  on  the  under- 


THE   GREAT   TIT.  131 

parts   dusky  black,  and   not   so   strongly  marked  as  in  the 

adults. 

NOTE. — The  Great  Tit  is  the  largest  of  the  family  in  England,  and  is 
easily  distinguished  by  the  black  head  and  the  black  line  which  parts  the 
centre  of  the  yellow  breast. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — May  be  considered  a  constant  resi- 
dent in  all  three  kingdoms,  though  it  becomes  rarer  in  the 
north  of  Scotland,  and  is  only  an  accidental  visitor  to  certain 
islands  of  the  north,  such  as  the  Isle  of  Skye  and  the  Shet- 
lands. 

Kange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Great  Tit  is  distributed 
over  Europe,  and  extends  eastward  through  Asia  across  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  being  found  in  Palestine,  Persia,  and  Central 
Asia,  but  does  not  occur  in  any  part  of  the  Indian  Region,  being 
replaced  by  allied  forms  in  the  Himalayas,  in  China,  and  the 
Japanese  Islands.  Its  northernmost  range  is  the  Arctic  Circle 
in  lat.  66}40,  and  it  gradually  decreases  towards  the  east.  Thus 
Mr.  Seebohm  describes  its  occurrence  in  the  valley  of  the 
Yenesei  up  to  lat  58°,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  the  most  nor- 
therly point  known  is  Middendorffs  record  of  55°. 

Habits. — The  Great  Tit  is  a  very  cheery  bird,  and  is  found  in 
all  kinds  of  places,  visiting  along  with  the  Blue  Tit  even  the 
parks  in  the  centre  of  London.  It  can  at  any  time  be  enticed 
into  gardens  and  the  neighbourhood  of  houses,  by  the  simple 
expedient  of  suspending  some  morsels  of  fat,  or  little  bladders 
of  lard,  and  it  is  while  clinging  to  these,  in  every  imaginable 
attitude,  that  the  graceful  motions  of  this  active  little  bird  can 
best  be  studied.  During  the  breeding  season  it  is  rather  shy,  and 
does  its  best  to  escape  observation,  but  in  the  winter  it  becomes 
much  more  in  evidence,  and  its  bright  colours  render  it  a 
somewhat  conspicuous  object  as  it  frequents  the  woods  or  the 
bushes  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  house.  Even  in  winter  it  is 
often  found  in  pairs  flying  about  in  the  undergrowth  of  the 
woods,  but  it  not  unfrequently  joins  in  a  merry  party  of  other 
Tits,  Creepers,  and  Nuthatches  as  they  course  through  the 
woods  on  a  fine  winter's  day.  This  habit  of  assembling  is  not 
confined  to  Tits  in  this  country,  for  we  remember  on  one  oc- 
casion in  the  pine-woods  of  Simla,  where  there  was  generally 
silence  and  an  absence  of  bird-life,  how  pleasing  it  was  to 

K    2 


132 


LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


hear  in  the  distance  the  approach  of  a  party  of  Tits  and  to  see 
them  pass  along  with  some  of  their  friends,  the  Creepers,  within 
a  few  yards'  distance.  Like  the  Bullfinches  and  Chaffinches, 
the  Tits  are  not  regarded  by  gardeners  with  a  friendly  eye,  on 
account  of  the  number  of  buds  which  they  are  said  to  destroy 
in  the  spring,  but  they  are  generally  most  useful  birds,  and 
devour  a  vast  number  of  insects,  the  young  being  entirely  fed 
on  grubs  and  small  caterpillars.  ,  , 

Nest.  —  This  is  often  an  extraordinary  structure.  It  is  always 
placed  in  a  hole,  generally  of  a  wall,  or  in  a  tree,  and  Mr. 
Seebohm  says  that  the  deserted  nests  of  Crows  and  Magpies 
are  sometimes  utilised,  while  it  is  occasionally  found  among 
the  sticks  in  the  foundation  of  Rooks'  nests,  and,  according 
to  Mr.  Dixon's  observations,  it  has  been  known  to  nest  in  a 
hole  in  the  ground.  The  variation  in  the  nesting  place  of  the 
Great  Tit  is  altogether  extraordinary,  for,  while  Montague  asserts 
that  the  eggs  are  sometimes  deposited  on  the  powdered  wood 
at  the  bottom  of  a  hole  without  any  attempt  at  a  nest,  there  is 
no  bird,  which,  for  its  size,  can  build  a  more  laborious  structure. 
Given  a  hollow,  no  matter  of  what  dimensions,  the  Great  Tit 
will  accumulate  materials  and  fill  it  up  to  within  a  short  dis- 
tance of  the  top.  There  is  a  certain  railing  in  Hyde  Park  where 
a  defect  in  the  iron-work  has  left  a  small  hole  in  one  of  the 
posts.  This  is  the  annual  nesting  place  of  a  pair  of  these  little 
birds.  Some  day,  we  have  no  doubt,  the  interior  of  this 
post  will  be  found  to  be  filled  nearly  to  the  brim  with  moss, 
and  we  have  no  hesitation  in  betraying  the  secret  of  the  birds, 
as  it  will  not  easily  be  detected,  and  it  was  only  by  accident 
that  we  discovered  the  nesting  place.  Passing  in  a  cab,  we 
saw  a  Great  Tit  alight  on  the  post,  and,  apparently  surmising 
that  we  were  not  likely  to  arrest  our  journey  to  search  for  its 
nest,  the  bird  turned  sharply  round,  and  disappeared  like  a 
flash  of  lightning  backwards  down  the  hole. 

An  instance 
built  a  nest  in 

inside  of  the  latter  for  several  feet  with  moss.  Another 
curious  selection  of  a  nesting  place  is  to  be  seen  in  the  Natural 
History  Museum  at  South  Kensington.  The  bird  selected  the 
inside  of  a  wooden  post-box  at  Rowfant,  in  Sussex,  and  occupied 


has  been  known  where  a  pair  of  Great  Tit 
a  disused  pump,  and  gradually  filled  up  th 


PLATE  XV. 


BLUE     TITMOUSE 


THE   BLUE   TIT.  133 

it  for  three  years  in  succession,  filling  up  more  than  half  the 
box  with  moss,  regardless  of  the  letters  which  were  posted 
every  day,  and  dropped  on  to  the  back  of  the  sitting  bird.  The 
latter  never  moved  when  the  box  was  opened  to  take  out  the 
letters.  Another  favourite  breeding  place  of  the  Great  Tit  is 
the  inside  of  a  large  flower-pot  or  the  stand  of  a  statue  in  a 
garden.  Both  these  situations  demand  a  great  deal  of  labour 
in  filling  up  the  inside  to  the  required  height,  and  we  have 
known  one  instance  where  the  hollow  pedestal  of  a  statue  in 
the  pleasure-grounds  of  Sir  Edward  Shelley's  seat  at  Avington 
was  selected.  Inside  this  pedestal  the  birds  had  filled  up  the 
base  with  moss  to  the  extent  of  nearly  a  foot,  and  had  excavated 
more  than  one  nest.  There  were  only  two  young  ones  in  one 
of  the  nests.  A  few  years  ago  a  second  instance  of  multiple 
nests  of  the  Great  Tit  came  under  our  notice,  when  a  pair 
occupied  a  large  flower-pot.  This  pot,  with  the  base  filled  up 
with  moss,  and  its  three  nests,  is  now  in  the  British  Room  at 
the  British  Museum.  Mr.  Dallen,  who  found  the  nest,  declared 
that  there  were  eggs  in  all  three  of  the  cups,  but  we  fancy  that 
they  must  have  been  placed  there  by  someone  who  had  ex- 
amined the  nest,  and  not  by  the  birds  themselves,  especially  as 
there  is  every  appearance  of  the  three  nests  having  been  used  in 
successive  years.  There  is,  therefore,  some  method  in  the  mad- 
ness of  these  little  birds,  for,  when  once  the  wide  base  of  the 
flower-pot  has  been  filled  with  moss,  there  is  always  a  foun- 
dation in  which  to  sink  another  nest  in  the  following  year. 

Er  :s. — From  five  to  nine  in  number,  sometimes,  according 
to  Mr.  Seebohm,  as  many  as  eleven  being  laid.  Ground- 
colour white  or  creamy-white,  with  numerous  red  spots  and 
faint  underlying  grey  spots.  As  a  rule  the  rufous  spots  and 
dots  are  universally  distributed  over  the  egg,  but  occasionally 
form  a  ring  round  the  larger  end.  The  variation  in  intensity 
of  the  rufous  colour  is  very  marked  in  a  series,  but,  as  a  rule, 
the  eggs  in  the  same  clutch  are  all  similar.  Axis,  075  inch; 
diam.,  o'6. 

II.  THE   BLUE   TIT.       PARUS   CffiRULEUS. 
(Plate  XV.} 

Farus  caruleiiS)  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  341  (1760);  Macg.,  Br.  B., 
ii.,  p.  431   (1839);  Dresser,  B.  fiur.,  iii.,  p.  131,  pi.  113, 


134  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

figs.  i,  2  (1871);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  483  (1874); 
B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  27  (1883) ;  Gadow,  Cat.  B.  Brit. 
Mus.,  viii.,  p.  27  (1883) ;  Seeb ,  Brit.  B.,  i.,  p.  468  (1883) ; 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  101  (1889);  Wyatt,  Brit.  B.,  pi.  8, 
fig.  i  (1894). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  light  green ;  the  wings 
and  tail  blue,  the  greater  coverts  tipped  with  white,  forming  a 
bar,  the  inner  secondaries  also  tipped  with  white ;  crown  of 
head  blue,  the  forehead  whitish,  the  crown  also  surrounded 
with  a  ring  of  greyish -white,  followed  by  a  band  of  blue,  which 
commences  behind  the  eye  as  a  narrow  stripe  and  widens  out 
on  the  nape  as  a  broad  band,  the  latter  extending  down  the 
sides  of  the  neck,  and  occupying  the  chin  and  throat ;  behind 
this  blue-black  band  is  an  indistinct  patch  of  greyish- white ; 
the  whole  of  the  cheeks,  sides  of  face,  and  ear-coverts  greyish- 
white  ;  remainder  of  under  surface  of  body  yellow,  greener  on 
the  flanks,  whiter  on  the  centre  of  the  breast  and  abdomen  ;  in 
the  centre  of  the  breast  a  streak  of  dusky  blue ;  under  wing- 
coverts  yellow ;  quill-lining  white ;  bill  dusky  horn-colour ; 
feet  leaden-blue ;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  4^5  inches ; 
culmen,  0*35  ;  wing,  2*5  ;  tail,  1*85  ;  tarsus,  0-65. 

Adult  Female. — Like  the  male,  but  a  trifle  duller  in  colour. 

Young. — Much  more  dingy  than  the  adults ;  the  crown  and 
neck-markings  dusky  olive ;  the  whole  of  the  sides  of  the 
face,  which  are  white  in  the  adult,  are  pale  yellow  in  the  young, 
the  under  surface  being  entirely  of  the  latter  colour,  without 
any  central  streak  of  dusky  blue  on  the  breast. 

Bange  in  Great  Britain.  —  Universally  distributed  throughout 
the  three  kingdoms,  and  very  common  in  Ireland.  It  is  also 
found  throughout  Scotland,  even  to  the  far  north,  but  has  not 
yet  been  recognised  in  the  Outer  Hebrides.  A  western  migra- 
tion from  the  Continent  takes  place  in  autumn,  when  numbers 
of  Blue  Tits  pass  over  Heligoland,  and  the  birds  arrive  on  oui 
east  coasts  in  quantities. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Found  generally  throughout 
Europe,  reaching  eastward  to  the  Ural  Mountains  and  the 
Caucasus,  in  Russia  as  high  as  61°  N.  lat,  and  in  Norway 
even  further  north,  to  64°.  To  the  south  of  the  Mediterranean 


THE    BLUffi   TIT.  135 


136 


LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


E^gs. — From  five  to  eight  in  number,  sometimes  as  many  a! 
twelve  being  found.  The  eggs,  as  might  be  expected,  are  smal 
editions  of  those  of  the  Great  Tit,  but  the  reddish  markings 
are  much  less  developed,  and  are  represented  in  many  cases  by 
a  sprinkling  of  tiny  dots,  which  are  sometimes  also  collected  at 
the  large  end  of  the  egg,  leaving  the  small  end  unspotted. 
Axis,  o-6  inch;  diam,  0*5. 

III.  THE  EUROPEAN  COAL-TIT.   PARUS  ATER. 

Pants  ater,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  341  (1766);  Gadow,  Cat 
B.  Brit.  Mus.,  p.  40  (1883,  pt);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Ur, 
B.,pt.  iv.  (1887,  pt). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  slaty-blue,  a  little  tinged 
with  olive  on   the  rump   and   upper  tail-coverts  j  lesser  am 
median   wing-coverts   slaty-blue  like   the   back ;   the   greats 
coverts  dusky,  externally  washed  with  slaty-blue,  and,  like  the 
median  series,  tipped  with  white,  forming  a  double  wing-bar; 
quills  dusky-brown,    externally  edged   with   olive,   the   inner 
secondaries   tipped   with   dingy   white  ;    tail  feathers  dusky, 
washed  with  ashy-grey ;  crown  of  head  and  hind-neck  glossy 
blue-black,  divided  in  the  centre  from  the  nape  to  the  hind- 
neck  by  a  broad  patch  of  white ;  lores,  cheeks,  and  sides  of 
face  white,  extending   down   the   sides   of  the   neck ;  entire 
throat  black,  spreading  on  to  the  sides  of  the  upper  breast; 
breast  and  abdomen   greyish-white,  the   sides   of  body  an( 
flanks,  as  well  as  the  under  tail-coverts,  isabelline ;  under  wins 
coverts  and  quill-lining  white  ;  bill  black  ;   feet  leaden-grej 
iris  hazel.    Total  length,  4-2  inches  ;  culmen,  0-35  ;  wing,  2-45 
tail,  1 7  5  ;  tarsus,  0*6. 

Adult  Female. — Not  to  be  distinguished  from  the  male 
colour,  but  the  gloss  on  the  head  a  little  less  marked.  T< 
length,  4-2  inches;  wing,  2-4. 

Young. — Similar  to  the  adults,  but  yellow  below  ;  a  littl 
more  rufescent  on  the  flanks ;  the  white  sides  of  the  face  an( 
nape-patch  of  the  adults  replaced  by  pale  yellow  ;  the  black 
the  head,  more  dingy,  and  the  black  of  the  throat  and  ches 
represented  in  the  young  birds  by  a  patch  of  dusky  black  01 
the  throat  only. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — An  occasional  visitor  from  the  Coi 


PLATE 


1     COAL    TIT        2     MARSH    TIT 


THE  COAL-TITS.  137 

tinent  to  the  east  coast.  We  have  seen  some  specimens  killed 
in  summer  in  the  British  Islands  which  were  scarcely  to  be  told 
from  the  grey-backed  Coal-Tits  of  the  Continent,  and  Mr. 
Howard  Saunders  doubts  the  migration  of  the  true  P.  ater  to 
our  shores,  and  believes  that  we  have  grey-backed  as  well  as 
olive-backed  individuals  in  our  islands.  We  have  carefully 
looked  through  the  series  of  Coal-Tits  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  on  comparing  the  series  of  true  P.  ater  with  a  number  of 
P.  britannicus^  we  find  no  difficulty  in  recognising  them  at  any 
season  of  the  year.  British  birds  occasionally,  during  the 
breeding  season,  when  the  plumage  gets  worn,  lose  somewhat 
of  their  olive-brown  dress,  which  is  so  distinct  in  winter,  and 
are  greyer  than  at  the  latter  season,  but  they  never  attain  the 
clear  slaty-blyje  colour  of  their  continental  relatives,  and  we  re- 
iterate the  opinion  which  we  held  in  1872,  when  we  first 
described  the  British  bird  as  distinct,  that  the  two  forms  are 
well  worthy  of  recognition. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. —  Generally  distributed  in 
Europe,  but  replaced  in  Algeria  by  Pants  ledouci,  and  in  Cyprus 
by  P.  Cypriotes.  It  is  found  as  high  north  as  65°  N.  lat.  in  Scan- 
dinavia, and  extends  throughout  Europe  and  Northern  Asia, 
the  form  of  Eastern  Siberia  and  Japan  having  a  slightly  longer 
crest  and  being  distinguished  as  P.  pekinensis.  In  the  Hima- 
layas several  representative  species  of  Coal-Tits  are  found. 

Habits. — Similar  to  those  of  P.  britannicus. 

Nest. — Similar  to  that  of  P.  britannicus. 

Eggs. — Six  to  ten  in  number,  scarcely  distinguishable  from 
those  of  the  Blue  Tit ;  white,  spotted  with  rufous  in  exactly 
the  same  way  as  the  eggs  of  the  latter  bird,  but  the  red  mark- 
ings on  some  of  the  eggs  occasionally  very  faint,  and,  in  most 
clutches,  showing  two  shades  of  rufous.  Axis,  0-6-07  inch ; 
diam,  0*5. 

IV.  THE  COAL-TIT.       PARUS  BRITANNICUS. 

(Plate  XVI. ,  Fig.  i.) 

Parus  ater  (nee.  L.),  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  440  (1839)  '>  Newt, 
ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  489  (1874  pt.)  ;  Gadow,  Cat.  B.  Brit. 
Mus.,  viii.,  p.  40  (1883  pt.)  ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.. 
pt.  iv.  (1887);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  97  (1889,  pt.). 


138  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Parus  britanntcus,  Sharpe  and  Dresser,  B.   Eur.,  iii.,  p.  93,  pi. 

107,  fig.  2  (1872);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  26  (i883); 

Seeb.,  Brit.  B.,  i.,  p.  472  (1883);  Wyatt,  Brit.  B.,  pi.  4, 

fig-  3  (1^94). 

Adult  Male. — Similar  to  P.  ater,  but  distinguished  by  the 
olive-brown,  instead  of  slaty-blue,  back,  and  by  the  richer  buff- 
colour  of  the  sides  of  the  body.  Total  length,  3*9  inches ; 
culmen,  0*4  ;  wing,  2*35;  tail,  1*65  ;  tarsus,  0-65. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour.  Total  length, 
3-8  inches;  wing,  2-35. 

Young. — Differs  from  the  adult  exactly  as  the  young  of  P. 
ater  differs  from  the  adults,  having  the  white  parts  of  the  plu- 
mage pale  sulphur-yellow. 

NOTE.— Like  the  Great  Tit,  the  present  species  has  a  black  head,  a  white 
nape-patch,  white  cheeks,  and  a  black  throat.  It  may,  however,  always 
be  distinguished  from  that  species  by  its  much  smaller  size  and  plain- 
coloured  breast,  the  under  surface  not  being  yellow  as  in  the  Great  Tit,  nor 
has  it  the  very  evident  black  band  down  the  centre  of  the  breast  and 
abdomen. 

Bange  in  Great  Britain. — Found  nearly  everywhere,  but  in  most 
places  not  so  plentiful  as  the  other  species  of  British  Tits.  It 
is  met  with  especially  in  Scotland,  as  far  north  as  Sutherland- 
shire  and  Caithness,  but  is  not  found  in  the  Outer  Hebrides, 
nor  in  the  Shetland  or  Orkney  Isles. 

Habits. — In  most  parts  of  England  the  Coal-Tit  is  a  rare 
bird,  or  at  least  is  not  so  often  noticed  as  the  other  species. 
Since  the  severe  winter  of  1881  there  are  many  places,  where 
the  Coal-Tit  was  comparatively  plentiful,  which  know  it  no 
more,  whereas  in  the  same  districts  the  Marsh-Tit  has  increased 
in  numbers.  Near  London  the  latter  bird  is  not  often  seen, 
but  Coal-Tits  frequent  our  garden  at  Chiswick  every  winter, 
and  share  the  food  which  we  supply  for  Tits  in  general.  In 
the  pine-woods  of  Scotland,  however,  the  Coal-Tit  is  a  com- 
mon species,  and  its  call-note  is  often  heard,  without  which 
signal  it  would  be  easy  to  pass  the  bird  over,  as  it  is  not  only 
of  such  small  size  as  to  escape  observation,  but  it  frequents  the 
thickest  woods  and  is  not  easily  seen.  Occasionally  it  comes 
to  the  outside  of  a  fir-tree,  when  it  may  be  observed  hanging 
on  tp  a  cone  and  extracting  its  food.  As  is  the  case  with  most 


THE   MARSH-TIT.  139 

Tits,  the  food  consists  mainly  of  insects,  and  its  ways  of  feeding 
are  like  those  of  its  relations,  save  that  it  frequents  the  birch- 
woods  more  particularly  than  the  latter.  We  have  also  procured 
specimens  on  the  alder-trees  in  winter,  when  the  bird  was  in 
company  with  Siskins  and  Redpolls. 

Nest. — A  loosely-made  structure  of  grasses  and  moss,  and 
plentifully  lined  with  feathers.  Like  that  of  other  Tits,  it  is 
placed  in  a  hole,  either  of  a  tree  or  a  wall.  We  have  ourselves 
found  but  few  nests  of  this  species  in  the  south  of  England,  and 
borrow  the  following  account  from  Mr.  Seebohm  :  "  Birch- 
woods  are  favourite  haunts  of  this  bird  during  the  breeding- 
season,  when  the  abundance  of  holes  suitable  for  nesting  pur- 
poses are  most  probably  the  chief  attraction.  Here,  it  may  be, 
where  a  large  limb  has  fallen  into  premature  decay,  leaving  a 
hollow  cavity  in  the  parent  stem,  or  where  a  trunk  has  been 
riven  by  the  storm,  the  bird  will  build  its  nest.  It  will  also 
select  a  hole  in  a  large  pine-tree,  or  in  the  decaying  alders  near 
the  stream.  Orchard-trees  are  more  rarely  chosen  ;  but  a  hole 
in  some  stump  of  a  hedgerow  is  a  favourite  place.  The  birch" 
will  also  occasionally  seek  out  a  nesting-site  in  the  ground, 
generally  a  hole  under  some  half-exposed  root  or  old  stump. 
In  some  cases  the  bird  will  enlarge  a  hole  for  itself." 

Eggs.— Five  to  eight  in  number,  sometimes  nine.  White, 
spotted  with  rufous,  the  underlying  dots  being  lighter  rufous 
occasionally,  the  rufous  markings  very  thickly  distributed, 
generally  towards  the  larger  end  of  the  egg.  As  with  the  other 
Tits,  occasional  clutches  are  very  faintly  marked. 

\.    THE   MARSH-TIT.       PARUS   DRESSERI. 

(Plate  XVL,  Fig.  2.) 
Parus  palustris  (nee.  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  341);  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii., 

p.  445  (l839);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  99,  pi.  108  (1871); 

Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  495  (1874);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  27 

(1883);  Seeb.,  Brit.  B.,  i.,  p.  476  (1883);  Gadow,  Cat.  B. 

Brit.  Mus.,  viii.,  p.  49   (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B., 

pt.    vi.    (1888) ;  Saunders,  Man.,    p.    99    (1889) ;  Wyatt, 

Brit.  B.,  pi.  8,  fig.  3  (1894). 
Parus  palustris  dresseri,  Stejn.,  Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  ix.,  p. 

?oo  (1886). 


140 


LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  ruddy  brown,  paler  and 
more  isabelline  on  the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts;  wings  light 
brown,  the  feathers  externally  edged  with  the  brown  colour  of 
the  back,  slightly  tinged  with  olive  on  the  quills,  the  greater 
coverts  with  a  faint  tip  of  whitish,  forming  an  indistinct  wing- 
bar  ;  tail-feathers  ashy-brown  with  olive-brown  margins ;  crown 
of  head  glossy  blue-black,  forming  a  cap  which  extends  back- 
wards down  the  nape  ;  eyelids  black,  dotted  with  white ;  sides 
of  face  and  ear-coverts  ashy-white,  like  the  under  surface  of  the 
body,  the  sides  of  which  are  clear  isabelline  buff;  chin  and 
upper  throat  black ;  thighs,  axillaries,  and  under  wing-coverts 
like  the  sides  of  the  body,  the  latter  white  near  the  edge  of  the 
wing ;  quill-lining  ashy-white  ;  bill  black  ;  feet  leaden-grey ; 
iris  hazel.  Total  length,  4-5  inches;  oilmen,  0-35  ;  wing,  2-45; 
tail,  1*95  ;  tarsus,  0-6. 

Adult  Female. —  Similar  to  the  male  in  colour.  Total  length, 
4-5  inches  ;  wing,  2-4. 

Young. — Has  the  colours  of  the  adult,  but  has  the  cap  duller 
black,  not  glossy,  and  confined  to  the  crown  of  the  head,  not 
extending  down  the  nape;  the  white  colour  of  the  under-parts 
very  pure,  and  the  light  tips  to  the  greater  wing-coverts  forming 
a  distinct  bar. 

NOTE. — Dr.  Stejneger  has  separated  our  British  Marsh-Tit  as  a  sub- 
species on  account  of  its  darker  colour,  more  olive  back,  clearer  and 
more  bumsh-brown  rump,  much  browner  flanks  and  shorter  tail,  the 
outer  pair  of  tail-feathers  being  shorter  than  the  others.  On  comparing 
a  series  of  specimens  from  different  localities  of  Europe  we  find  that 
Dr.  Stejneger's  conclusions  are  borne  out  to  a  small  extent.  The 
differences  in  the  case  of  the  Marsh-Tits  are  not  so  marked  as  in  the 
Coal-Tits,  and  as  the  former  group  vary  much  with  locality  and  altitude,  it 
may  be  that  connecting  links  will  be  found  between  our  British  bird  and 
its  continental  ally. 

With  regard  to  the  shortness  of  the  outer  tail-feathers  in  the 
British  bird,  we  find  no  difference,  in  this  respect,  between  P. 
dresseri  and  P.  palustris  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  supposed  difference  in  length  of  tail ;  our 
series  in  the  British  Museum  does  not  confirm  Dr.  Stejneger's 
supposition.  As  regards  the  darker  brown  colour,  this  is  un- 
doubtedly a  feature  of  the  British  Marsh-Tit,  and  the  rump  is 
more  clearly  marked  than  in  the  continental  bird ;  the  flanks 


THE  MARSH-TIT.  141 

are  also  more  rufescent  or  buff.  On  these  characters  only 
can  the  British  race  be  recognised,  and  we  find  some  French 
examples  exhibiting  a  similar  tendency  to  dark  coloration. 

Bange  in  Great  Britain — Generally  distributed,  and  even  com- 
mon in  some  counties  of  England.  In  Scotland  it  becomes 
very  local  in  its  distribution,  but,  according  to  Mr.  William 
Evans,  it  breeds  as  far  as  Dunipace,  near  Stirling,  where  Mr. 
Harvie  Brown  has  pointed  out  to  us  the  portion  of  his  estate  fre- 
quented by  the  species.  In  Ireland  the  only  counties  where 
it  is  met  with  are  Antrim,  Kildare,  and  Dublin. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Parus  palustris  is  generally 
distributed  in  South  and  South-western  Europe,  but  is  decidedly 
rare  in  the  Mediterranean  countries,  though  it  occurs  as  far 
eastward  as  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  In  Scandinavia  north- 
ward of  about  61°  N.  lat,  as  far  as  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  in 
North-west  Russia,  according  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  is  found  the 
Alpine  form,  Parus  borealis^  which  is  also  noticed  in  equally 
high  latitudes  in  Switzerland.  Mr.  Trevor  Battye  says  that  in 
Sweden,  where  both  species  occur,  the  two  birds  have  perfectly 
different  notes  and  habits.  From  North-eastern  Russia  and 
across  Siberia  to  China  and  Japan,  there  are  other  races  which 
have  been  recognised  by  modern  ornithologists,  and  certainly 
some  of  these  are  not  more  worthy  of  recognition  than  the 
English  race,  which  has  been  called  P.  dresseri. 

Habits. — The  name  of  "  Marsh  "-Tit  is  by  no  means  an  ap- 
posite designation  of  this  bird,  for  it  is  not  a  marsh-haunting 
species  any  more  than  the  other  British  Tits,  and  we  have 
found  it  often  far  away  from  any  water,  in  the  midst  of  the 
woodlands,  consorting  with  other  species  of  Tits,  Creepers,  and 
Nuthatches.  Although  we  cannot  say  that  we  have  ever  seen  it 
in  the  suburbs  of  London,  like  the  Coal-Tit,  it  frequents  every 
kind  of  locality  in  the  country,  and  is  seen  in  gardens,  in  the 
undergrowth  of  woods,  or  in  bushes  which  fringe  the  country 
lanes.  It  seems  to  be  somewhat  of  a  migratory  bird,  as  it  ap- 
pears on  the  east  coast  in  autumn,  and  it  is  one  of  the  Tits 
which  passes  over  Heligoland. 

The  food  of  the  Marsh-Tit  consists  principally  of  insects,  but 
it  is,  like  the  other  members  of  the  family,  really  omnivorous, 
and  in  parts  of  the  country  where  the  bird  is  common  it  can  be 


142  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

attracted  to  the  vicinity  of  houses  by  hanging  up  a  bone  or  a 
piece  of  fat.  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  says  that  this  little  bird 
prises  off  the  scales  of  the  rough  bark  of  a  Scotch  fir  in  the 
pursuit  of  its  insect  food. 

Nest. — Apparently  a  neater  construction  than  that  of  most 
Tits,  though  composed  of  the  same  materials,  viz.,  moss,  wool, 
and  hair.  A  willow-tree  is  often  selected  for  its  home,  and  the 
nest  is  not,  as  a  rule,  far  from  the  ground.  In  a  decayed  tree  it 
will  often  excavate  its  own  hole,  which  is  as  neatly  rounded  as 
that  of  a  Woodpecker,  and  there  is  frequently  a  second  exit  from 
the  nest.  The  entrance  hole  is  always  remarkably  small,  as 
may  be  imagined  from  the  kindly  way  in  which  the  bird  takes 
to  a  human  skull  when  the  latter  is  put  up  into  a  tree  for  its 
benefit,  as  we  have  known  done  by  our  friends,  Wm.  Birket 
Foster  and  Bryan  Hook ;  the  occipital  foramen,  the  hole  at 
the  back  of  the  skull,  forms  the  entrance  to  this  strange  abode, 
and  the  skull  being  turned  upside  down,  the  nest  of  the  Tit  is 
amply  sheltered  by  the  palate  of  the  deceased. 

Eggs. — From  five  to  eight  in  number.  Ground-colour  white, 
like  china,  rather  thickly  spotted  with  red  and  reddish-brown, 
the  overlying  spots  being  the  brighter.  Sometimes  the  egg  is 
dotted  all  over  with  rufous,  but  very  often  the  spots  are  col- 
lected at  the  larger  end.  Axis,  0-6-0-65  inch;  diam.,  0-45-0-5. 

THE  CRESTED  TITS.     GENUS  LOPHOPHANES. 
Lophophanes,  Kaup.,  Naturl.  Syst.,  p.  92  (1829). 

Type,  L.  cristatus  (Linn.). 

The  type-species  of  this  genus,  L.  cristatus,  shows  such  a 
preponderance  of  crest  over  the  ordinary  members  of  the  genus 
Farus,  that  it  can  scarcely  be  said  to  belong  properly  to  the 
latter  genus,  and  the  Crested  Tit  is  only  one  of  many  large 
tufted-species  which  are  found  over  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe  and  of  the  New  World.  In  the  latter,  they  range  as  far 
south  as  Mexico,  and  in  the  Old  World  outside  Europe  there  are 
several  species  in  the  Himalayan  chain. 

I,  THE  CRESTED   TIT.      LOPHOPHANES   CRISTATUS. 

Pants  cristatus,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  340  (1766);  Macg.,  Br. 
B.,  ii.,  p.  450  (1839);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  499  (1874); 


tHE   CRESTED   Til.  143 

tl.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  28  (1883) ;  Gadow,  Cat.  B.  Brit. 
Mus.,  viii.,  p.  27  (1883);  Seeb.,Brit.  B.,  i.,  p.  481  (1883); 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  103  (1889) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit. 
B.,  pt.  xvi.  (1890);  Wyatt,  Brit.  B.,  pi.  4,  fig.  i  (1894). 
Loplwphanes  cristatus.  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  151,  pi.  115 
(1871). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  olive-brown,  clearer  and 
more  fulvescent  on  the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  ;  wing- 
coverts  and  quills  ashy-brown,  washed  with  the  same  colour  as 
the  back,  the  primaries  edged  with  ashy;  tail-feathers  ashy, 
edged  with  brown  ;  head  crested  ;  sides  of  face,  as  well  as  the 
sides  of  the  neck,  ashy-white ;  the  feathers  of  the  crown  black, 
tipped  with  white,  the  crest-feathers  long,  black,  with  a  white 
edging;  behind  the  ear-coverts  a  crescentic  patch  of  black; 
throat  black,  connected  to  the  nape  by  a  line  of  black,  which 
crosses  the  sides  of  the  neck ;  remainder  of  under  surface  of 
body  ashy-white,  with  the  flanks  and  sides  of  the  body  ruddy 
isabelline,  as  well  as  the  under  tail-coverts ;  thighs  and  under 
tail-coverts  white ;  bill  black ;  feet  leaden-grey ;  iris  hazel. 
Total  length,  4*3  inches;  culmen,  0*45;  wing,  2'6  ;  tail,  1*9; 
tarsus,  0-75. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour,  but  has  a  little 
less  black  on  the  throat,  and  a  shorter  crest.  Total  length, 
4-4  inches  ;  wing,  2-5. 

NOTE. — Between  the  Scotch  specimens  in  the  British  Museum  and  others 
from  the  Continent  we  cannot  find  any  difference  in  colour,  and  they  all 
clearly  belong  to  one  and  the  same  species. 

Ean^e  in  Great  Britain. —  Resident  only  in  the  forests  which 
clothe  the  valley  of  the  Spey  and  the  adjacent  rivers.  In 
other  parts  of  Scotland,  and  also  in  various  localities  in  Eng- 
land the  Crested  Tit  has  occurred  in  isolated  instances. 
Some  of  these  appear  to  be  authentic,  but  only  two  cases  of 
the  occurrence  of  the  bird  in  Ireland  have  been  recorded. 

Ean^e  outside  the  British  Islands — The  present  species  is  an- 
inhabitant  of  the  pine-forests  of  Europe,  its  northern  range 
being  about  64°  N.  lat,  and  extending  to  the  Volga ;  it  has 
also  been  found  in  Turkey,  but  has  not  been  noted  from  Asia 
Minor,  Greece,  or  Italy  south  of  the  Alps. 

Saints. — Although  principally  known   as    an   inhabitant   of 


t44  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY 

conifer  woods,  the  Crested  Tit  is  likewise  said  to  affect  birch- 
trees,  and  in  winter  to  wander  into  plantations  and  gardens  ; 
in  some  parts  of  the  Continent  it  breeds  in  oak-trees,  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  Gibraltar  in  the  cork-woods. 

Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  in  the  pine-woods  of  Arcachon,  in 
South-western  France,  it  is  the  commonest  bird,  and  is  often 
found  in  company  with  other  Tits,   Gold-Crests,  Fire-Crests, 
and  Creepers.     He  says  :    "  They  are  very  active  birds,  flitting 
from  branch  to  branch,  running  over  the  pine-cones,  in  search 
of  insects  ;  and  they  seem  to  have  taken  a  leaf  out  of  the  book 
of  their  associates  the  Creepers,  and  may  often  be  seen  on  the 
trunks  of  the   pines,  where   they  search   for  insects   in  the 
crevices  of  the  bark.     Sometimes  they  run  up  the  stems  of  the 
pines    exactly  as   the    Creepers  do.     It   is    not   difficult    toj 
recognise  the  Crested  Tit  on  the  wing.     In  the  bright  sun 
shine,  which  is  such  a  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Arcachon 
winters,  the  white  edges  of  the  black  feathers  of  its  head  an 
generally  very  conspicuous  when  flying,  and  often  enough  when 
the  little  bird  is  hanging  under  a  branch  of  a  lofty  pine,  th< 
outline  of  its  erected  crest  is  easy  to  see  against  the  sky.    The 
surest  way,  however,  of  detecting  its  presence  is  to  listen  to  it 
note.    The  call-note  is  a  not  very  loud  st,  si,  si,  which  seems  tc 
be  common  to  many  of  the  Tits ;  but  this  is  often  followed  by 
a  spluttering  note  difficult  to  express  on  paper,  which,  as  far  a 
I  know,  is  peculiar  to  the  Crested  Tit.    It  is  a  lame  attempt  a 
a  trill,  a  sort  of  phtr,  re,  re,  re,  ree.      The  pine-trees  in  th 
Arcachon  forest  are  tapped  for  their   resin.     Three   or  fou 
longitudinal  scores  are  made  on  the  trunks  ;    and  these   are 
lengthened  as  they  dry  up  until  they  reach  a  considerable 
height  from  the  ground.     When  the  tree  gets  old  the  weathe 
rots  the  part  where  the  bark  has  been  removed,  and  the  trunk 
swells  out  and  cracks,  and  all  kinds  of  convenient  nooks  anc 
crannies  are  formed,  where  Tits  and  other  birds,  who  like  such 
situations  for  their  nests,  can  breed.    Some  of  these  trees  in  the 
old  forests  of  La  Teste  attain  a  diameter  of  four  and  even  fiv< 
feet ;  and  occasionally  one  comes  across  a  fine  old  oak.     The 
Crested  Tits  seem,  however,  to  prefer  the  pines ;  and  althougl 
the  GREAT  and  the  COAL-TITS  are  very  fond  of  searching  fo 
insects  on  the  ground  amongst  the  fallen  oak-leaves,  I  hav< 
never  seen  the  CRESTED  TIT  on  the  ground.     In  the  pine-forest 


THE    LONG  TAILED    TITS.  145 

"of  Pomernnia  and  of  the   Alps    I   found   this    bird    equally 
common.''' 

Nest. — A  very  rough  and  inartistic  mass  of  dry  grass,  with  a 
little  moss  or  wool,  and  occasionally  a  feather  or  two.  The 
nest  is  nearly  always  placed  in  the  hole  of  a  tree,  which  the 
bird  sometimes  excavates  for  itself.  At  other  times  it  nests  in 
the  foundations  of  large  nests  (Crows,  or  birds  of  prey),  or  even 
occupies  deserted  nests  of  Crows  or  Magpies,  or  even  that  of  a 
Squirrel  or  a  Wren,  according  to  Mr.  Seebohm. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  seven  in  number.  The  general  app:ar- 
ance  of  the  eggs  separates  them  at  a  glance  when  they  are 
placed  side  by  side  with  those  of  the  other  British  species  of 
Tits,  on  account  of  the  rufous  marking  being  so  pronounced. 
The  eggs  are  very  pretty,  and  have  a  white  or  pinkish -white 
ground,  with  bright  purplish-red  underlying  spots,  and  over- 
lying spots  of  brighter  red,  sometimes  confluent,  and  forming 
a  patch  at  the  larger  end.  The  majority  of  clutches  are  boldly 
marked,  and  there  are  not  so  mnny  pale  clutches  of  eggs  as  are 
met  with  in  all  the  species  hitherto  considered.  Axis, 
c'6-0'65  inch  ;  diam.,  o'45-o'5. 

THE    LONG-TAILED    TITS.      GENUS    /EGITIIALUS.* 

digit halus,  Hermann,  Obs.  Zool.,  i.,  p.  214  (1804). 

Type,  y^i.  caudatus  (Linn.). 

The  long  tail  is  the  principal  character  of  the  genus 
jEgithalus  ;  it  is  always  longer  than  the  wing,  whereas  in  the 

*  However  annoying  it  may  be  to  have  to  change  well-known  generic 
and  specific  names,  there  is  no  help  for  it,  when  the  names  are  beyond 
question  correct.  Thus  we  consider  that  Dr.  Stejneger  has  proved  his 
point  (Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  ix.,  p.  382,  1886)  with  regard  to  the  super- 
se^sion  of  Acredula  of  Koch  by  sEgithalus  of  Hermann.  The  "Obser- 
vationes  "  of  the  latter  author  is  a  work  far  more  entitled  to  respect  than 
the  nominal  lists  of  Forster,  Leach,  and  others,  and  it  is  not  Hermann's 
fault,  but  thai  of  his  successors,  that  his  generic  name  was  not  recognised 
sooner.  sEgithxlus  was  employed  for  the  Penduline  Tits  by  Boie  in  1822, 
but,  being  preoccupied,  must  be  replaced  by  Remiza  of  Stejneger  (I.e., 
p.  387).  We  do  not  agree  with  Dr.  Stejneger  that  the  "  Pipria  (?)  curopad" 
of  Hermann  was  the  British  species,  usually  called  Acredula  vagans 
(Leach).  The  only  species  known  in  Switzerland  appears  to  be  the  true 
sE.  caii.latus  (L.),  cf.  Fatio  &  Studer,  Cat.  Ois.  Suisse,  p.  22. 


14  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

genus  Parus  the  wing  is  longer  than  the  tail.  It  is  a  Palrcarctic 
genus,  and  the  uniting  of  the  Himalayan  genus  jEgithaliscus  with 
sEgithalus  seems  to  us  to  be  a  great  mistake,  as  from  the 
measurements  given  by  Dr.  Gadow  himself  in  the  British 
Museum  "  Catalogue  of  Birds,"  the  wing  and  tail  are  evidently 
equal  in  length  in  sE git hali sens.  The  range  of  the  genus 
/Egithahfs  may,  therefore,  be  said  to  extend  over  Europe,  and 
eastwards  through  Siberia  to  the  Pacific  and  to  the  Japanese 
islands.  It  is  a  very  curious  fact,  often  remarked  upon  by  ornitho- 
logists, that  in  Japan,  so  far  away  from  Great  Britain,  there  re- 
occur certain  striking  elements  of  the  British  Avi-fauna.  Many 
species  are  precisely  the  same,  others  are  closely  allied  and  re- 
presentative. Thus  our  English  Siskin  and  Brambling  are 
found  in  Japan,  while  our  Greenfinch  is  replaced  by  a  closely 
allied  form.  Our  Hawfinch  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the 
bird  of  the  Japanese  islands,  and  in  the  case  of  the  Long- 
tailed  Tit,  the  Japanese  species,  sEgithalus  trivirgatus,  is  more 
like  its  British  ally,  j£.  vagans,  than  the  white-headed  form,  AZ. 
caudatus^  which  is  the  species  of  the  intervening  area  from 
Scandinavia  to  Eastern  Siberia,  though  Mr.  Seebohm  recog- 
nises a  Siberian  form,  JE.  macrurus. 

AL.  vagans,  the  British  species,  was  at  first  supposed  to  be 
confined  to  Great  Britain,  but  it  certainly  extends  over  France 
and  into  Northern  Italy,  to  judge  by  the  specimens  in  the 
British  Museum,  but  little  really  is  known  of  its  distribution. 
In  the  Rhine  Provinces  of  Germany,  Count  von  Berlepsch 
has  found  a  form  which  he  pronounces  to  be  intermediate 
between  ^£.  vagans  and  ^.  caudatus  of  Northern  Europe.  He 
has  very  kindly  sent  several  specimens  to  the  Museum,  and 
we  must  say  that  we  are  not  yet  convinced  of  the  intergrada- 
tion  of  the  two  races.  The  young  of  both  are  indistinguishable, 
and  have  a  black  band  on  each  side  of  the  crown.  In  adult 
<£.  caudatus  this  entirely  disappears,  and  the  head  becomes 
snow-white,  while  in  ^E.  vagans  the  black  band  becomes  per- 
manent in  the  adults,  and  is  one  of  the  features  of  the  species. 
The  specimens  which  are  considered  to  be  intermediate  be- 
tween the  two  forms  have  a  white  head  with  more  or  less 
remains  of  a  lateral  stripe  on  the  crown.  This  may  very  well 
be  the  remains  of  the  immature  plumage,  and  does  not  neces- 
sarily afford  evidence  of  interbreeding  or  even  of  the  imperfect 


THE    LONG-TAILED   TITS.  147 

segregation  of  the  two  forms.  The  specimens  sent  to  the 
British  Museum  by  our  friend  Count  von  Berlepsch  have  the 
other  character  of  the  true  AL.  candatus,  viz.,  the  whiter  second, 
aries,  and  there  is  nothing,  therefore,  to  show  that  they  are  not 
the  immature  birds  of  the  northern  race,  <&.  caudatus. 

In  Spain  and  the  greater  part  of  Italy  a  distinct  species  of 
Long-tailed  Tit,  ^£.  irbii^  occurs.  How  far  this  form  extends 
into  France  has  never  yet  been  determined,  but  that  it  occurs 
in  that  country  is  shown  by  a  specimen  which  we  ourselves 
shot  at  Mongeron  (Seine-et-Oise),  not  far  from  Paris. 

The  members  of  the  genus  digithahis  do  not  breed  in  holes, 
but  make  a  moss  nest  in  the  open,  and  in  this  feature  the 
genus  sEgithaliscus  follows  suit. 

I.  THE   LONG-TAILED   TIT.      ^EGITHALUS  VAGANS. 

Medstura  vagans,  Leach,  Cat.  Mamm,  &c.,   Brit.  Mus.,  p.   17 

(1816). 
Medstura  rosea,  Blyths  ed.  White's  Nat.  Hist.  Selborne,  p.  1 1 1 

(1836). 

Mtcistura  longicaudata,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  454  (1839). 
Acrcdula  caudata  (nee.  Linn.),  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  Br.  B.,  i ,  p.  504^ 

(1874);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  iv.  (1887);  Saun- 

ders,  Man.,  p.  93  (1889). 
Acredula  rosea,  Sharpe,   Ibis,  1868,  p.  300;  Dresser,  B.  Eur., 

iii.,  p.   63,  pi.   103  (1872);  B.  O.  U.    List  Br.  B.,  p.  25 

(1883);  Gadow,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  viii.,  p.  61   (1883); 

Wyatt,  Brit.  B.,  pi.  7  (1894). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  black  and  rose-colour  above,  the 
hind-neck  and  mantle  being  glossy  black  ;  the  scapulars,  lower 
back,  and  rump  rosy,  always  more  or  less  mottled  with  the 
blackish  bases  to  the  feathers ;  upper  wing-  and  tail-coverts 
black  ;  quills  black,  the  inner  secondaries  rather  broadly  edged 
with  white;  tail-feathers  black,  the  three  outer  ones  white  along 
the  outer  web  and  diagonally  across  the  tip,  the  white  increasing 
j  towards  the  outermost ;  crown  of  head  dull  white ;  lores  and  a 
I  broad  eyebrow  black,  extending  in  a  band  along  the  side  of  the 
:  crown  ;  feathers  round  the  eye  purer  white  ;  ear-coverts,  cheeks, 
and  throat,  ashy-white,  with  some  blackish  streaks  on  the  fore- 
neck  ;  remainder  of  under  surface  of  body  light  rosy,  the  under 

L   2 


r4  LLOYi/3    NATURAL    HISTORY. 

tail -coverts  deeper  a'irl  more  chestnut  ;  imder  wing-coverts  and 
quill-lining  white  ;  bill,  black ;  feet,  dark  brown  ;  iris,  hazel ; 
eyelids  red.  Total  length,  5-5  inches;  oilmen,  0*3;  wing, 
2-45;  tail,  3-2  ;  tarsus,  0-65. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  5-2  inches; 
wing,  2-35. 

Young. — Differs  from  the  adult  in  being  duller,  blackish-brown 
where  the  adult  is  black,  and  not  having  any  of  the  rosy  colour 
on  the  back  and  under-parts. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain — Generally  distributed  over  the  three 
kingdoms,  becoming  rarer  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  but  not 
yet  recorded  from  the  Outer  Hebrides,  and  apparently  not 
known  in  the  Orkney  and  the  Shetland  Isles.  In  the  latter 
Dr.  Saxby  once  observed  a  party  of  four  Long-tailed  Tits 
in  Unst,  in  April,  1860,  but  whether  they  were  the  British 
form,  <d£.  vagans,  or  the  Continental  ;£.  caudatus,  was  not 
decided. 

Habits. — No  more  restless  little  birds  exist,  and  to  a  casual 
observer  they  might  well  appear  to  be  "here  to-day,  and  gone 
to-morrow."     Although  to  a  certain  extent  they  are  the  com- 
panions of  the  winter  assemblages  of  Tits,   GoMcrests,  and 
Nuthatches,  which  are  seen  in  the  woods,  they  more  often  con- 
stitute little  flocks  of  their  own,  consisting  doubtless  of  the  old 
birds  and  their  progeny,  which  is  numerous  enough  to  enable  a 
single  family  to  make  quite  a  respectable  appearance  as  regards 
numbers.     The  note  of  the  Long-tailed  Tit  is  unmistakable, 
for  besides  the  zi-zi  utterance,  which  seems  to  be  characteristic  of 
all  Tits,  it  has  a  kind  of  "  churring  "  note  peculiar  to  itself.    Al- 
though they  frequent  the  tops  of  trees  in  pursuit  of  their  insec 
food,  they  are  as  frequently  found  far  away  from  the  woods,  i 
hedgerows  and  scattered  bushes,  where  the  parties  keep  we 
together,   and  when   the   leader  flies  off  to  another   feedin 
ground,  the  rest  follow  him  in  line,  with  a  rapid  and  undulatin 
flight.     They  build  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  and  beaut 
ful  nests  in  the  world,  a  domed  structure  of  soft  moss,  with 
hole  in  the  side  near  the  top,  and  some  naturalists  have  statec 
that  there  is  a  second  entrance  to  this  remarkable  structur 
which  the  little  creatures  build.     This  we  have  not  verifiec 
from  personal  experience,  but  we  have  seen  the  two  paren 


THE    LONG-TAILKD    TITS.  149 

V 

birds  covering  their  numerous  progeny  at  night,  with  their  long 
tails,  which  seem  such  a  weighty  matter  to  carry  in  the  daytime, 
tucked  up  side  by  side  in  the  nest,  and  resting  against  the  back 
of  the  latter.  They  are  said  to  protrude  sometimes  from  the 
entrance  hole. 

Nest. — An  oval  structure,  large  in  comparison  with  the  size 
of  the  tiny  architects,  beautifully  soft,  and  made  principally  of 
moss,  lined  with  feathers,  and  covered  thickly  with  lichens, 
grey  moss,  and  spiders'  webs.  If  placed  on  a  moss-covered 
bough,  like  that  of  the  Chaffinch,  the  outside  aspect  of  the  nest 
might  prevent  its  detection,  but  the  nest  of  the  Long-tniled 
Tit  is  generally  easy  to  find,  for,  unlike  the  rest  of  its  family,  it 
does  not  seek  the  shelter  of  a  hole  in  the  wall  or  in  a  tree.  On 
the  contrary,  the  bird  builds  in  various  situations,  more  or  less 
in  the  open,  and  often  quite  early  in  the  year,  even  before  the 
leaves  have  covered  the  trees.  All  kinds  of  places  are  selected, 
a  thorn-hedge,  where  its  discovery  would  seem  certain,  or  a  furze- 
bush  or  holly-tree  where  the  nest  is  more  concealed.  Sometimes 
the  bird  builds  at  a  great  height  from  the  ground,  but  as  a  rule 
the  nest  is  low  down,  and  within  easy  reach.  As  an  instance 
of  the  warm  lining  which  the  bird  provides  for  its  nest,  Gould 
states  that  he  counted  no  less  than  2000  feathers  of  various  sorts 
in  one  which  he  took  to  pieces. 

Eggs — From  six  to  ten  or  eleven  in  number.  Ground-colour 
pearly-  or  pinkish-white,  very  finely  sprinkled  with  light  red 
dots,  and  having  underlying  dots  of  purple.  Sometimes  the 
eggs  are  spotless.  Axis,  0*55-0-6  inch;  diam.,  0-45-0-5. 

II.  THE  WHITE-HEADED  LONG-TAILED  TIT.  ^EGITHAI,US  CAUDATUS. 

Pints  caudatus,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.  i.,  p.  342  (1766). 
Acredula  caudata,  Koch,  Syst.  Baier.  Zool.,  p.  199  (1816). 

Adult  Male.— -Rather  larger  than  sE.  vagans,  and  distinguished 
by  the  pure  white  head  without  the  black  band  on  each  side  of 
the  crown  ;  the  inner  secondaries  very  broadly  edged  with  white, 
the  innermost  white,  with  a  longitudinal  black  streak  down  the 
shaft.  Bill,  feet,  and  iris  as  in  ^£.  varans.  Total  length,  5-8 
inches;  culmen,  0*25  ;  wing,  2-65  ;  tail,  3*25;  tarsus,  0-7. 

AdnHFema1  e.— Similar  to  the  male  in  colour.  Total  length, 
6  inches  ;  wing,  2*4. 


15d  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Young — Duller  than  the  adults,  and  wanting  the  rose-colour, 
the  entire  back  being  black,  and  the  under-parts  ashy-white; 
on  each  side  of  the  crown  a  dusky  band. 

Range  in  Great  Britain — Purely  an  accidental  visitor  from  the 
Continent.  More  than  one  example  has  been  said  to  have  been 
seen,  in  company  with  our  own  British  species,  but  such  evi- 
dence is  absolutely  unreliable,  for  we  can  confidently  assert 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  distinguish  the  two  birds  on  a 
tree,  as  we  have  ourselves  verified  by  shooting  both  species  in 
winter  on  the  Continent. 

Kange  outside  the  British  Isles. — An  inhabitant  of  Northern  Eu- 
rope below  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  ranging  into  Central  Europe  in 
winter.  The  birds  of  Russia  and  Siberia  have  longer  tails, 
and  specimens  from  high  latitudes  are  purer  in  colour,  but  we 
believe  that  it  is  virtually  the  same  species  from  Scandinavia 
to  Kamtschatka,  and  the  occurrence  of  the  White-headed  Long- 
tailed  Tit  in  the  northern  island  of  Japan  is  of  peculiar  interest 
as  showing  the  affinity  of  the  Avi-fauna  of  tins  island  to  that  of 
Siberia,  the  southern  islands  having  a  resident  species,  ^E".  tri- 
virgatus. 

Habits. — These  appear  to  be  the  same  as  those  of  our  British 
bird. 

Nest. — Like  that  of  At.  vagans. 

Eggs. — Not  to  be  distinguished  from  those  of  ^E.  vagans 

THE  REEDLINGS.     FAMILY  PANURID/E. 
This  family  contains  but  a  single  genus. 

PanuruS)  Koch,  Syst.  Baier.  Zool.,  p.  202  (1816). 

Type,  P.  biarmicus  (Linn.). 
These  curious  little  birds  have  been  called  "  Bearded  Tits/' 
but  it  is  questionable  whether  they  are  Paridce  at  all.  Some 
naturalists  have  even  considered  them  to  be  an  aberrant  kind 
of  Bunting.  They  have  not  the  feathered  nostril  of  the 
Tits,  but  rather  an  open  nostril,  oval,  not  rounded,  with  a 
covering  skin  or  operculum,  which  is  absent  in  the  Paridcz. 
But  the  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  genus  Panurus  is  its 
plumage,  which  is  unlike  that  of  any  Palaearctic  Tit,  but  which 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  Reed-birds  of  the  Lower  Hima- 
layas and  China,  the  genera  Paradoxornis^  Cholornis,  &c.  It  is 


THE   REEDLING.  15! 

true  that  the  long  tail  of  the  Bearded  Tit  somewhat  recalls  that 
of  the  species  &githalus;  it  is  strongly  graduated,  and  consists 
of  twelve  feathers,  the  first  one  very  short. 

It  may  be  said  that  there  is  only  a  single  species  of  Bearded 
Reedling,  though  an  eastern  form  has  been  called  Panurus 
sibiricus,  Bp.  This  is  a  pale  race  from  Central  Asia,  but  its 
li.nht  plumage  is  sometimes  approached  by  specimens  from 
other  localities. 

I.  THE  BEARDED    REEDLING.      PANURUS   BIARMICUS. 

Pants  biarmicus,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  342  (1766). 

Calamophilus  biarmicus,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  iii.,  p.  694  (1840); 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  49,  pi.  102  (1871^ 
Panurus  biarmicus,  Newt.  ed.  Yarrell,  i.,  p.  511  (1874) ;  B.  O. 

U.  List.  Br.  B.,  p.  24  (1883)  ;  Gadow,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus., 

viii.,  p.  77    (1883);   Seeb.,  Br.    B.,    i.,  p.  492   (1883); 

Saunders,  Man.,  p.  91   (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B., 

pt.  xxiv  (1893). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  cinnamon-rufous,  the 
upper  tail-coverts  vinous ;  the  tail  pale  vinous  chestnut,  the 
three  outer  feathers  white  at  the  ends  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance, and  blackish  towards  the  bases ;  scapulars  externally 
hoary-whitish;  wings  cinnamon-rufous,  the  median  coverts 
black,  the  inner  greater  coverts  and  inner  secondaries  black  in 
the  centre,  the  inner  webs  of  the  latter  white,  forming  a  broad 
band  on  either  side  of  the  back  ;  the  edge  of  the  wing  and  the 
outer  aspect  of  the  primaries,  white ;  head  and  sides  of  face 
pearly-grey,  the  forehead  hoary ;  lores  and  feathers  in  front  of 
the  eye  black,  continued  down  the  cheeks  into  a  kind  of 
moustache  ;  throat  and  breast  greyish-white  with  a  rosy 
tinge;  the  thighs  and  abdomen  sandy-buff;  sides  of  breast 
rosy,  extending  on  to  the  sides  of  the  neck  ;  sides  of  body 
and  flanks  cinnamon ;  under  tail-coverts  black ;  under  wing- 
coverts  white,  as  also  the  quill-lining,  with  a  sandy  tinge, 
especially  on  the  latter;  bill  yellow;  feet  black;  iris  pale 
yellow.  Total  length,  67  inches;  culmen,  0*4;  wing,  2*4; 
tail,  3-3  ;  tarsus,  o'8. 

Adult  Female  — Not  so  brightly  coloured  as  the  male ;  and  not 
|  nearly  so  suffused  with  rosy  pink  underneath;  the  head  is 


i52  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISIORY. 

brown  like  the  back  ;  the  lores  and  moustache  are  ashy-white, 
and  there  is  none  of  the  black  which  distinguishes  the  male ; 
the  under  tail-coverts  are  cinnamon-buff,  like  the  flanks. 
Total  length,  5-8  inches;  wing,  2-35. 

Young. — Resemble  the  female  in  not  having  any  black  mous- 
tache, but  they  differ  in  being  more  tawny  buff,  with  the  middle 
of  the  back  black,  and  a  black  stripe  on  either  side  of  the 
crown.  Even  after  the  first  moult,  young  birds  retain  a  good 
deal  of  black  striping  on  the  head  and  back,  and  even  full- 
plumaged  adult  males,  with  grey  head  and  black  moustache, 
sometimes  show  some  traces  of  black  on  the  back. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Said  to  be  found  at  the  present  time 
only  in  two  counties  of  England,  viz.,  Devonshire  and  Norfolk. 
The  destruction  of  many  of  its  reedy  haunts  by  the  drainage  c  f 
the  fens  has  doubtless  been  the  prime  cause  of  the  decreasing 
numbers  of  this  species,  which  used  to  breed  in  Sussex,  Kent, 
Essex,  and  the  fen-lands  of  Cambridgeshire,  Huntingdonshire, 
and  Lincolnshire.  On  the  Broads  of  Norfolk  (and  possibly 
of  Suffolk),  the  Bearded  Reedling  still  occurs,  but  in  diminishing 
numbers. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Extends,  in  suitable  localities, 
from  France  and  Spain,  eastwards  as  far  as  North-eastern  Thibet, 
frequenting  marshes  and  swamps,  and,  as  mentioned  above, 
becoming  gradually  paler  towards  the  eastern  portions  of  its 
range.  It  does  not  extend  north  of  Pomerania  in  Europe,  nor 
does  it  cross  the  Mediterranean.  To  its  Dutch  and  German 
habitats  it  is  a  summer  visitor,  differing  in  this  respect  from  our 
British  bird,  which  is  resident,  and  does  not  seem  to  migrate 
at  all. 

Habits. — It  is  now  very  difficult  to  observe  the  habits  of  the 
Bearded  Reedling  in  this  country,  as  it  is  only  in  certain 
favoured  localities  in  Norfolk,  where  the  bird  is  protected,  that 
there  is  any  likelihood  of  meeting  with  it  in  a  state  of  nature. 
It  is  now  almost  equally  rare  in  many  parts  of  Holland,  in 
which,  not  long  ago,  it  could  have  been  seen  in  numbers. 
The  primary  cause  of  the  disappearance  of  the  species  is  the 
same  in  both  instances,  viz.,  the  draining  and  reclaiming  of  the 
fens  and  meres;  but  it  must  also  sadly  be  confessed  that  in 
England  the  unrestrained  zeal  of  the  collector  and  private 


THE   GOLD-CRESTS.  153 

dealer  in  birds  and  eggs  has  largely  contributed  to  the  threat- 
ened extermination  of  the  species. 

The  Bearded  Reedling  is  never  found  away  from  marshes 
or  reedy  localities,  but  even  in  its  natural  haunts  it  is  not 
easily  observed,  as  it  often  skulks  away  into  the  undergrowth 
of  smaller  reeds  and  sedges  when  approached.  In  summer  its 
food  consists  of  insects  and  tiny  mollusca,  but  in  winter  it 
feeds  upon  the  seeds  of  the  reeds,  a  mode  of  sustenance  un- 
like that  of  Tits,  with  which  family  this  species  has  been 
associated  by  most  writers.  Mr.  Seebohm  states  that  the  long 
tail  of  the  bird  is  somewhat  in  the  way  in  windy  weather,  and 
it  then  keeps  entirely  to  the  shelter  of  the  reeds.  The  call- 
note,  he  says,  "appears  to  be  a  musical  ping  ping,  something 
like  the  twang  of  a  banjo;  the  alarm-note  is  said  to  be  a 
chir-r-r,  something  like  the  scold  of  a  Whitethroat ;  and  the 
cry  of  distress  is  a  plaintive  ee-ar,  ee-ar" 

Mr.  Howard  Saunders  observes  that  even  in  the  winter  the 
birds  are  lively  and  musical,  and  at  that  season  they  may  be  seen 
in  flocks  of  from  forty  to  fifty  together,  often  roving  from  the 
frozen  inland  waters  to  those  which  are  kept  open  owing  to  the 
influence  of  the  tide. 

Nest. — Placed  in  a  bunch  of  reeds  »ot  far  from  the  ground. 
It  is  somewhat  deep,  and  composed  of  flat  grass,  and  is  lined 
with  fine  grass  and  the  down  or  flowers  of  the  reeds  themselves. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  seven  in  number,  china-white  in 
ground-colour,  and  varying  much  in  size.  They  are  rather 
large  for  the  size  of  the  bird,  and  are  faintly  dotted  and 
streaked  with  dark  brown,  the  streaks  and  lines  somewhat  re- 
sembling those  on  the  eggs  of  a  Bunting.  There  is  no  at- 
tempt at  a  cluster  of  spots  round  the  large  end.  Axis,  0-6-07 
inch ;  diam.,  0-55-0-6. 

THE   GOLD-CRESTS.     FAMILY   REGULID^E. 

The  little  birds  which  constitute  this  family  have  been  con- 
sidered by  some  ornithologists  to  be  akin  to  the  Warblers, 
by  others  to  the  Tits.  To  us  they  seem  to  be  an  isolated 
family,  not  distantly  related  to  the  Tits,  but  not  to  be  included 
within  the  confines  of  the  family  Paridce,  nor  to  be  admitted 
into  the  Sylviida.  The  diminutive  size,  the  brilliant  crest,  the 


X54  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

fluffy  plumage,  and  the  peculiar  nests  which  the  Gold-Crests 
make,  are  all  characteristic  of  the  family  Regulidce^  the  mem- 
bers of  which  have  also  a  most  peculiar  nostril.  This  is  oval, 
situated  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  and  has  a  slight  operculum, 
the  whole  being  covered  with  a  little  stiff  plume,  this  last 
character  being  peculiar  to  the  Gold-Crests. 

THE   GOLD-CRESTS.     GENUS    REGULUS. 

ReguluS)  Koch,  Syst.  Baier.  Zool.,  p.  199  (1816). 

Type,  R.  regulus  (Linn.). 

The  genus  Regulus  is  the  sole  representative  of  the  family. 
It  contains  about  six  species,  which  are  found  in  the  northern 
and  temperate  parts  of  the  Old  and  New  World,  extending  as 
far  south  as  Mexico  in  the  latter.  In  the  Old  World  the  genus 
Regulus  is  principally  Palaearctic,  as  it  is  found  almost  through 
out  the  entire  extent  of  this  region,  and  occurs  also  in  the 
Himalayas,  where  a  species  indistinguishable  from  the  English 
bird  is  met  with.  The  Common  Gold-Crest  of  our  islands 
represents  one  section  of  the  genus  Regulus^  while  the  Fire-Crest 
represents  another  section,  distinguished  by  the  golden  patch 
on  the  side  of  the  neck.  In  Madeira  a  separate  form  of  Fire- 
Crest,  R.  maderensiSj  is  found,  and  in  the  Canaries  another 
form,  R.  teneriffcB ;  while  in  the  Azores  occurs  the  long-billed 
Regulus  azorensis,  the  last-named  being  an  outlying  representa- 
tive of  the  Gold-Crest. 

I.   THE   GOLD-CREST.       REGULUS    REGULUS. 

(Plate  XVI L,  Fig.  I.) 

Motactila  regulus,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  338  (1766). 

Regulus  auricapillus,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  408  (1839). 

Regulus  cristatus,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  449  (1873);  Dresser, 

B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  453,  pis.  71  and  72,  fig.  2  (1874) ;  B.  O.  U. 

List.   Br.  B.,   p.  14  (1883);    Gadow,   Cat.  B.  Brit.   Mus., 

viii.,  p.  80  (1883) ;  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  453  (1883) ;  Lilford, 

Col.   Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.   iv.  (1887);  Saunders,   Man.,  p.   55 

(1889). 

Adult  Male — General  colour  above  green,  inclining  to  lighter 
and  more  yellowish-green  on  the  lower  back,  rump,  and  upper 
tail-coverts,  all  of  which  parts  are  mottled  with  ashy-whitish 
spots,  more  or  less  concealed ;  lesser  wing-coverts  like  the 


PLATE    XVII 


1    GOLDCBEST         2    FIflECBBST 


THE   GOLD  CRESTS.  155 

back ,  median  and  greater  coverts  dusky,  externally  edged 
with  green  and  tipped  with  yellow  or  yellowish-white,  forming  a 
double  wing-bar  ;  quills  blackish,  edged  with  yellow,  turning 
to  white  near  the  base  of  the  primaries;  the  base  of  the 
secondaries  yellow,  followed  by  a  band  of  black,  forming  a 
conspicuous  pattern  ;  the  inner  secondaries  tipped  with  white  ; 
tail-feathers  ashy-brown  with  greenish-yellow  margins ;  on  the 
crown  a  beautiful  patch  of  brilliant  orange,  flanked  on  both 
sides  by  a  band  of  black  feathers,  streaked  with  yellow ;  fore- 
part of  coronal  patch  also  bright  yellow ;  forehead  dingy  olive  ; 
lores  ashy-white  ;  eyebrow  and  sides  of  face  dingy  olive ;  cheeks 
and  throat  isabelline-buff,  the  chin  whitish;  breast  and  centre 
of  body  ashy-white,  tinged  with  yellow,  the  flanks  and  sides  of 
body  greenish-olive ;  under  wing-  and  tail-coverts  white  with 
yellowish  tips ;  quilts  ashy  below,  edged  with  whitish  ;  bill 
nearly  black;  feet  brown  ;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  37  inches  ; 
culmen,  0*4;  wing,  2*15;  tail,  1*5;  tarsus,  0*65. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  rather  duller  and 
greener  in  colour,  and  at  once  distinguished  by  the  colour  of 
the  crest,  which  is  bright  yellow,  instead  of  orange,  with  a  very 
broad  streak  of  black  on  either  side  of  the  crest. 

Young. — Coloured  like  the  adults,  but  are  much  duller,  and 
entirely  lack  the  bright  crown,  this  part  of  the  head  being  dull 
green  like  the  rest  of  the  upper-parts  ;  under  surface  of  body 
ashy-white. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — Almost  universal  throughout  the  three 
kingdoms,  and  breeding  wherever  it  is  found,  except  in  the 
Outer  Hebrides,  the  Orkneys,  and  Shetland  Isles.  The 
numbers  of  our  indigenous  birds  are  vastly  increased  by  the 
arrival  on  our  eastern  coasts  of  numbers  of  Gold-Crests  from 
the  Continent.  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  has  thus  summarised 
some  of  the  facts  of  the  migration  of  this  species  :  "  In  autumn 
immense  flocks  sometimes  arrive  on  our  east  coast,  extend- 
ing quite  across  England,  and  the  Irish  Channel,  and  into 
Ireland.  In  1882  the  migration-wave  of  this  description  com- 
mencing on  August  the  6th,  and  lasting  for  ninety-two  days, 
reached  from  the  Channel  to  the  Faroes ;  in  1883  the  migration 
lasted  eighty-two  days;  and  again,  in  1884,  for  a  period  of 
eighty-seven  days.  Sinnliai  ' waves'  passed  over  Heligoland, 


156  LLOYD'S  NATUHXL  HISTORY. 

with  the  exception  of  the  last  year,  when,  strange  to  say,  the 
numbers  were  below  the  average.  An  unusual  spring  '  rush } 
took  place  in  1882.  On  such  occasions  bushes  in  gardens  on 
the  coast  are  covered  with  birds  as  with  a  swarm  of  bees ; 
crowds  flutter  round  the  lanterns  of  lighthouses ;  and  the 
rigging  of  fishing-smacks  in  the  North  Sea  is  thronged  with 
weary  travellers.  In  April  a  return  migration  occurs." 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Generally  distributed  through- 
out Europe,  in  most  parts  being  resident,  but  in  the  north  it  is 
a  migratory  species.  It  is  found  as  far  as  the  Arctic  Circle  in 
Scandinavia,  in  North  Russia  to  63°  N.  lat.,  and  eastwards  up 
to  60°.  It  appears  to  vary  slightly  towards  the  Pacific,  and  in 
the  Japanese  islands  the  Gold-Crest  has  a  greyish  nape.  This 
Japanese  form  is  approached  in  character  by  the  Himalayan 
Gold-Cresr,  and  at  the  present  time  Regulus  regulus  is  recog- 
nised as  the  dominant  form  of  the  Palaearctic  region,  with  cer- 
tain variations  in  its  eastward  habitat,  which  are  not  considered 
worthy  of  specific  recognition.  Thus  Mr.  Gates  states  that 
the  Himalayan  Gold-Crest  cannot  be  separated  from  the  Euro- 
pean bird,  and  Mr.  Seebohm  will  not  allow  that  the  Japanese 
race  is  specifically  distinct. 

Habits. — In  speaking  of  the  Tits,  the  Creepers,  and  the  Nut- 
hatches, we  have  referred  to  the  sociable  companionship  which 
induces  these  birds  to  unite  together  in  family  parties  during 
the  winter.  There  is  still  one  other  companion  of  these 
winter  gatherings,  the  little  Gold-Crest,  the  smallest  of  European 
birds,  and  consequently  the  smallest  of  our  British  species.  It 
is,  however,  a  very  active  and  vigorous  little  bird,  quite  as 
sprightly  as  the  Tits  with  which  it  consorts,  and  remarkable 
for  its  loud  call-note,  which  is  singularly  piercing  for  such  a 
small  creature  to  utter.  Its  song  is  decidedly  superior  to  that 
of  the  Tits,  and  is  more  Warbler-like,  though  somewhat  weak. 
The  Gold-Crest  may  be  found  in  almost  any  situation,  in 
pursuit  of  the  tiny  insects  which  constitute  almost  its  sole 
sustenance,  and  in  winter  it  is  found  in  the  open  woods,  flying 
in  company  with  its  friends  the  Tits  and  Creepers,  and 
foraging  through  the  bushes  and  undergrowth  as  well  as  the 
oaks  above.  At  all  times,  however,  it  shows  a  preference  for 
yew-trees  or  firs,  either  for  their  nesting  association  or  for 


THE   GOLD-CRESTS.  157 

particular  insects  which  it  finds  in  those  trees.  Yew-avenues, 
therefore,  and  fir-woods  are  sure  to  be  tenanted  by  plenty  of 
Gold-Crests,  whose  note  quickly  leads  to  their  detection,  and 
the  birds  may  be  seen  hanging  on  to  slender  twigs  or 
climbing  about  the  branches  like  little  Mice,  the  males  now 
and  then  stopping  to  emit  a  musical  little  song. 

Nest. — This  is  a  beautiful  structure  of  green  moss,  usually 
suspended,  like  a  hammock,  under  a  branch  of  a  pine-  or 
yew-tree,  and  very  well  concealed;  but,  according  to  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders,  it  has  occasionally  been  found  on  the  upper  surface 
of  a  branch,  and  even  in  a  low  bush.  Besides  the  green  moss, 
of  which  the  nest  is  generally  composed,  other  materials,  such 
as  spiders'  webs  and  hair,  are  interwoven  in  the  nest,  and  the 
latter  is  also  interlaced  with  the  foliage  of  the  bianch  on  which 
it  is  hung,  while  the  inside  is  softly  lined  with  feathers. 

Eggs. — From  five  to  eight  in  number.  Ground-colour 
dark  isabelline,  or  creamy-white,  with  a  darker  ring  round  the 
larger  end.  In  the  isabelline-coloured  eggs  this  darker  portion 
appears  uniform,  the  spots  being  so  thickly  clustered  together 
as  to  produce  this  effect.  In  the  whiter  eggs  the  large  end  is 
distinctly  spotted  with  reddish-brown,  forming  an  irregular 
zone,  in  which  appear  dark  underlying  markings.  Axis,  0*5- 
0-55  inch  ;  diam.,  0-4-0-45.  (Plate  XXX.,  Fig.  2.) 

IT.    THE    FIRE-CREST.       REGULUS    IGNICAPILT/US. 

(Hate  XV1L,  Fig.  2.) 
Sylvia    ignicapiUa,  Brehm,  in   Tcmm.   Man.   d'Orn.,  p.    231 

(1820). 

Regulus  ignicapHtus,  Macg.,  Br.  ?..,  ii.,  p.  416  (1839);  Newt. 
ed  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  456  (1873);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  459, 
pi.  72  (1874);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  458  (1883);  B.  O.  U. 
List  Br.  B.,  p.  15  (1883);  Gadow,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus., 
viii.,  p.  83  (1883)  ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  v.  (1887) ; 
S  mnders,  Man.,  p.  57  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — Bright  yellowish-green  above  ;  the  wings  and 
tail  as  in  R.  regulus,  the  wing-bars  being  very  distinct ;  crown 
golden-orange,  with  a  buff  forehead  and  a  broad  band  of  black 
along  each  side  of  the  crown  ;  feathers  through  the  eye  blackish, 
with  a  conspicuous  streak  of  white  between  it  and  the  black 


T5S  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

band  of  the  crown,  running  parallel  to  the  latter  streak  ;  ear- 
coverts  bluish-grey  on  the  upper  margin,  the  rest  of  the  sides  of 
the  face  isabelline-buff  like  the  threat  and  sides  of  body,  the 
breast  and  centre  of  body  ashy-whitish  ;  on  each  side  of  the 
neck  a  patch  of  golden-yellow  ;  bill  and  feet  dark  brown  ;  iris 
hazel.  Total  length,  4  inches;  culmen,  0-4;  wing,  2-2;  tail 
i -5 5  ;  tarsus,  0-6. 

Adult  Female.— As  with  the  Gold-Crest,  the  hen  bird  of  the 
Fire-Crest  differs  from  her  mate  by  the  less  brilliant  crown. 

Note. — The  Fire- Crest,  as  its  name  implies,  has  a  more 
brilliantly-coloured  crown  than  the  Gold-Crest,  and  is  easily 
distinguished  by  the  golden-yellow  patch  on  the  sid^  of  the 
neck,  and  by  the  white  eyebrow,  which  is  very  well  marked  in 
1?.  ignicapillns. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — A  winter  visitant,  probably  of  more 
frequent  occurrence  than  is  generally  supposed.  Its  capture 
has  been  recorded  in  nearly  all  the  eastern  and  southern 
counties  of  England,  but  its  occurrence  in  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land has  not  yet  been  established.  The  Fire-Crest  is  quite  as 
migratory  as  the  Gold-Crest,  and  in  Heligoland  in  1876  there 
were  even  more  killed  of  the  former  than  of  the  latter  during 
our  visit,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  Gold-Crest  comes  to  England 
on  migration  in  much  larger  numbers  than  its  ally. 

Kange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Fire-Crest  is  a  bird  of 
much  more  restricted  range  than  the  Gold-Crest,  and,  although 
found  in  Western,  as  well  as  in  Central  and  Southern  Europe, 
it  does  not  extend  to  Scandinavia,  nor  does  it  occur  north- 
east of  the  Baltic  Provinces,  though  it  is  found  in  Southern 
Russia  and  Asia  Minor  also. 

Habits. — These  are  stated  to  be  similar  to  those  of  the  Gold 
Crest,  though  many  writers  consider  it  a  more  restless  bird, 
and  in  its  ways  it  has  been  compared  to  a  Willow-Warbler. 
Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  it  affects  the  pine-trees  more  per- 
tinaciously than  the  Gold-Crest,  and  does  not  descend  so  much 
to  the  undergrowth.  Its  food  consists,  like  that  of  the  Gold- 
Crest,  almost  entirely  of  insects. 

Nest. — Like  that  of  the  last-named  bird,  and  similarly  slung, 
under  a  bough. 

Eggs. — Form  five   to  ten,    sometimes   even   exceeding   the 


THE    SHRIKES.  159 

letter  number.  They  are  distinguished  from  those  of  the  Gold- 
Crest  by  their  reddish  tinge,  which  almost  amounts  to  pale 
chocolate.  Most  clutches  show  a  faint  ring  round  the  larger 
end  of  the  egg,  where  the  reddish  dots  are  clustered  together, 
but  in  many  specimens  the  whole  of  the  egg  is  dusted  with 
tiny  dots.  Axis,  0*55  inch  ;  diam.,  0*4. 

III.    THE   RUBY-CREST.      REGULUS    CALENDULA. 

An  example  of  this  American  species  is  in  the  British 
Museum,  by  which  institution  it  was  acquired  with  the  rest  of 
the  Gould  collection  after  Mr.  John  Gould's  death.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  shot  by  the  late  Mr.  Dewar,  near  Loch 
Lomond,  in  1852,  but  the  history  of  this  specimen  seems 
scarcely  authenticated. 

THE  SHRIKES.     FAMILY  LANIID^E. 

The  "  Butcher"-birds,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  from  the 
way  in  which  some  of  them  impale  small  animals,  insects,  &c., 
on  thorns,  are  a  somewhat  large  assemblage  of  insectivorous 
birds,  which  have  generally  a  hooked  bill  with  a  notch  near  the 
end  of  the  upper  mandible.  This  resemblance  to  the  bill  of  a 
Hawk  caused  many  of  the  older  naturalists  to  class  the  family 
near  the  Accipitres,  or  Birds  of  Prey.  The  likeness  is,  howeverj— 
merely  superficial,  and  a  study  of  the  other  characters  proves 
that  the  Shrikes  are  thoroughly  Passerine  birds.  Osteologically 
considered,  the  skull  of  a  Shrike  has  certain  features  which, 
distinguish  it  from  the  majority  of  the  Passeres,  and  the  princi- 
pal character  is  the  spiny  process  which  forms  the  prolongation 
of  the  inner  posterior  angle  of  the  palatine-bones.  Another 
characteristic  of  the  Shrikes  is  the  barred  plumage  of  the  nest- 
lings, which  in  the  bulk  of  the  Passerine  birds  are  uniform  in 
colour,  or  else  spotted  or  streaked.  The  Shrikes  are  a  very 
numerous  family,  and  in  some  form  or  another  are  spread 
over  nearly  the  whole  extent  of  the  globe.  The  genus  Lanius, 
however,  embraces  the  northern  forms  of  the  family,  with  which 
alone  the  present  work  is  concerned. 

THE   TRUE    SHRIKES.       GENUS    LANIUS. 
Lanius,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  134  (1766). 

Type,  L.  cxcubitor,  Linn. 
The  characters  enumerated  above  are  those  which  distm- 


160  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

guish  the  True  Shrikes,  as  far  as  the  European  species  have  to 
be  considered.  There  are  about  fifty  species  of  Lanius,  and 
these  are  found  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
Africa,  North  America,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Cemuil 
America.  The  Grey  Shrikes  constitute  a  well-marked  section 
of  the  genus,  and  the  parti-coloured  Shrikes  another  section. 
In  this  work  are  enumerated  five  British  species,  three  be- 
longing to  the  grey  section  of  the  genus,  and  two  to  the  parti- 
coloured section. 

I.  THE    LESSER    GREY    SHRIKE.       LANIUS    MINOR. 

Lanius  minor,  Gm.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  308(1788) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr., 
i.,  p.  205  (1872);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  393,  pi.  149 
(1872);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  603  (1883);  B.  O.  U.  List 
Br.  B.,  p.  38  (1883) ;  Gadow,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  viii.,  p. 
235  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  141  (1889);  Lilford,  Col. 
Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xv.  (1890). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  clear  blue-grey  or  slaty- 
blue,  the  scapulars  like  the  back;  wings  black,  the  lesser  wing- 
coverts  ashy-grey,  with  a  large  patch  of  white  at  the  base  of  the 
primaries,  forming  a  big  speculum  ;  tail-feathers  black,  the  four 
centre  ones  not  tipped  with  white,  the  next  pair  on  each  side 
white  at  the  base  and  having  a  white  spot  at  the  tip,  the  two 
outer  tail  feathers  entirely  white  with  a  blackish  shaft-streak 
.  head  slaty-blue  like  the  back ;  a  broad  frontal  band,  feathers 
round  the  eye  and  the  ear-coverts,  black  ;  cheeks  and  thrca 
white,  as  well  as  the  abdomen  and  under  tail-coverts  :  the 
breast  and  sides  of  the  body  delicate  rosy  pink  ;  under  wing 
coverts  and  axillaries  whitish,  ashy  on  their  inner  webs ;  the 
quill-lining  white,  with  a  dusky  patch  near  the  edge  of  the 
wing,  formed  by  the  dark  lower  primary  coverts  ;  bill  and  fee 
black  ;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  8'5  inches  ;  wing,  4*6  ;  cul 
men,  0*65  ;  tail,  3-2  ;  tarsus,  ro. 

Adult  Female. — Scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  the  male,  bti 
having  the  frontal  band  less  broad  and  pronounced.  Tota 
length,  8 -5  inches  ;  wing,  4*7. 

Young. — Differs  from  the  adults  in  being  browner,  the  uppe 
surface  being  brownish-grey,  freckled  with  a  few  cross-lines  o 
blackish  or  dusky-brown  on  the  head  and  back  ;  the  lores  an< 


THE    SHRIKES  l6l 

ear-coverts  dusky-blackish;  their  penultimate  tail-feather  with  a 
good  deal  of  black  on  the  inner  web,  the  outermost  one  being 
entirely  white,  as  in  the  adults. 

NOTE.— In  addition  to  the  black  forehead  of  the  adult,  this  species  may 
always  be  recognised,  at  any  age,  by  the  very  short  first  primary,  which  is 
less  than  one-third  of  the  second  primary.  In  adult  birds,  too,  there  is 
always  a  beautiful  rosy  blush  on  the  breast. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  rare  visitor  in  autumn  and  spring, 
having  been  captured  four  times,  viz.  :  in  November,  1851,  in  , 
the  Scilly  Isles;  near  Great  Yarmouth  in  the  spring  of  1869, 
and  again  in  the  spring  of  1875  j  an^  in  September,  1876,  near 
Plymouth. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — A  summer  visitor  to  most 
parts  of  Europe,  but  not  reaching  Scandinavia  regularly,  though 
it  is  occasionally  found  in  Holland,  Belgium,  Denmark,  and 
South  Sweden.  Eastwards  it  is  found  as  far  as  Persia,  Turkes- 
tan, and  South-western  Siberia.  It  winters  in  Africa,  extend- 
ing down  the  Nile  Valley,  and  doubtless  passing  through  the 
Lake  Regions  till  it  comes  to  the  Lower  Congo,  Damara  Land, 
and  the  Transvaal. 

Habits. — Mr.  Seebohm  writes  :  In  both  Greece  and  Asia — 
Minor  I  occasionally  met  with  this  bird ;  but  it  was  nowhere 
so  common  as  either  the  Woodchat  or  the  Red-backed  Shrike; 
nor  did  it,  like  the  latter  bird,  ascend  into  the  pine-regions.  It 
seemed  also  to  be  very  rare  in  the  forests  of  olives  which  fill 
many  of  the  plains.  The  ground  it  preferred  was  the  outskirts 
of  cultivation,  where  trees  and  bushes  of  various  kinds — small 
oaks,  hollies,  oleanders,  pomegranates,  white  and  pink  roses, 
and  abundance  of  clematis — struggle  for  existence  amongst 
the  broken  rocks.  Here  and  there  a  little  patch  is  cultivated 
with  wheat,  tobacco,  or  Indian  corn,  with  a  tree  or  two  in  the 
middle  (olive,  almond,  or  walnut) ;  and  abundance  of  cleared 
places  grown  over  with  rank  vegetation  attest  the  former 
presence  of  a  dying-out  civilisation.  In  these  places  the 
Lesser  Grey  Shrike  was  to  be  seen,  occasionally  perched 
|  conspicuously  on  the  top  of  a  bush.  It  also  frequented  the 
gardens  near  the  villages,  and  is  said  to  regale  itself  on  the 
\  cherries,  figs,  and  mulberries  which  grow  in  the  hedges  that 
divide  them  from  each  other.  Its  principal  food  is  un- 


1 62  LLOYD'S    NATURAL    HISTORY. 

doubtedly  beetles  (which  swarm  to  a  incredible  extent  in  these 
climates),  butterflies,  grasshoppers,  and  other  insects.  The 
flight  of  this  Shrike,  like  that  of  its  congeners,  is  undulatory, 
but  easy  and  comparatively  noiseless;  and  it  skims  through  the 
air  like  a  Partridge  for  a  moment  or  two  before  it  alights  on 
some  perch,  on  to  which  it  drops  with  a  scuffle  of  the  wings. 
The  song  of  the  Lesser  Grey  Shrike  is  a  not  unmusical 
chatter,  something  like  the  twitter  of  the  Swallow  or  Starling, 
but  louder  and  mixed  with  some  harsher  notes.  It  has  a 
variety  of  notes,  some  very  harsh,  which  are  probably  alarm 
notes,  and  others  somewhat  plaintive,  which  may  be  call-notes. 
'This  bird  is  said  occasionally  to  impale  insects  on  thorns,  as 
most  of  its  congeners  are  in  the  habit  of  doing." 

Nest. — Like  that  of  other  Shrikes,  composed  of  moss  with 
twigs  and  rootlets,  and  lined  with  wool,  hair  and  a  few  feathers. 
Mr.  Seebohm  describes  one  taken  by  himself  in  Greece  as 
follows :  "  With  the  exception  of  a  twig  or  two,  a  piece  of 
flag-like  rush,  and  a  little  wool  at  the  foundation,  the  whole 
nest  is  composed  of  a  downy-leaved  cudweed  (Gnaphalium 
dtoicum),  some  in  flower  and  some  in  seed,  and  most  of  them 
puUed  up  by  the  root." 

Eggs. — From  four  to  seven  in  number.  The  ground-colour 
varies  from  greenish-white  to  pale  greenish-blue.  In  both 
these  types  of  egg  the  markings  are  much  the  same,  being 
brown  or  greenish-brown,  with  the  underlying  markings  of 
light  purplish-grey  very  distinctly  indicated.  In  nearly  every 
case  the  markings  cluster  more  thickly  round  the  larger  end  of 
the  egg,  but  sometimes  the  whole  of  the  egg  is  spotted.  Axis, 
o'Q-i'o  inch;  diam.,  o*7-o-75. 

II.   THE   GREAT   GREY   SHRIKE.      LANIUS    EXCUBITOR. 

Lanius  excubitor,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  135  (1766) ;  Macg.,  Br.  B., 
iii.,  p.  492  (i8-;o);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  375,  pi.  145 
(1871);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  199  (1872);  Seebohm,  Br. 
B.,  i.,  p.  598  (1883) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  37  (1883); 
Gadow,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  viii.,  p.  237  (1883);  Lilford, 
Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  viii.  (1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  139 
(1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  blue-grey  or  French-grey; 


THE    SHRIKES  163 

the  scapulars  externally  white,  and  the  lower  rump  and  upper 
tail-coverts  somewhat  lighter  grey,  the  sides  of  the  rump  pure 
white  ;  wings  black,  with  two  white  wing-patches,  one  formed  by 
the  white  bases  to  the  primaries,  and  the  second  by  the  white 
bases  of  the  outer  secondaries  ;  all  the  latter  tipped  with  white 
and  having  a  considerable  amount  of  white  near  the  base  of 
the  inner  web,  some  of  the  inner  primaries  having  a  small 
white  spot  at  the  ends,  and  the  outer  primaries  narrowly 
fringed  with  whitish ;  tail-feathers  black,  tipped  with  white, 
this  white  tip  obsolete  on  the  centre  feathers,  but  gradually  in- 
creasing in  extent  towards  the  outermost,  which  is  also  white 
along  the  outer  web ;  crown  of  head  like  the  back,  and  the  v 
sides  of  the  neck  also  grey ;  the  base  of  the  forehead  somewhat 
whiter,  and  a  slight  streak  of  white  over  the  eye  ;  lores,  eyelid, 
and  ear-coverts,  black;  cheeks  and  under  surface  of  body, 
white,  with  a  faint  grey  shade  on  the  breast  and  sides  of  body ; 
under  wing-coverts  and  quill-lining  white ;  bill  black,  the  base 
of  the  under  mandible  lighter  ;  feet  and  claws  brownish-black  ; 
iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  9  inches ;  oilmen,  0*9  ;  wing, 
4-4;  tail,  4-35;  tarsus,  1-05. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to   the  male,   but    with    the    white 
patches  on  the  wing  a  trifle  smaller.     Total  length,  8-5  inches^ 
wing,  4-5. 

Young.— Differs  from  the  adult  in  having  the  scapulars  grey 
like  the  back,  the  whole  of  the  upper  surface  being  washed 
with  brown  ;  wings  as  in  the  adult,  but  the  wing-coverts  tipped 
with  brown  ;  lores  and  ear-coverts  brownish-black  ;  under  sur- 
face of  body  ashy-whitish,  the  breast  suffused  with  brown,  with 
darker  brown  margins  to  the  feathers. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  winter  visitor,  having  occurred  in 
all  three  kingdoms,  and  being  regularly  met  with  in  England 
every  cold  season. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — A  resident  species  in  most 
countries  of  Europe  below  the  Baltic,  but  a  summer  visitor 
only  to  Scandinavia  and  North  Russia,  ranging  in  the  former 
country  up  to  lat.  70°  N.  Its  eastern  range,  according  to  Mr. 
Seebohm,  extends  to  the  Ural  Mountains  and  the  River  Volga, 
where  it  interbreeds  with  Pallas's  Grey  Shrike,  L.  sibiricus,  in 
the  former  lor^lty,  and  with  the  white- winged  Grey  Shrike, 

M    2 


1 64  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Z.  kucopterus,  on  the  Volga.  Professor  Collett  has  also 
recorded  the  hybridising  of  L.  excubitor  and  Z.  sibiricus  in 
Norway. 

Habits. — As  the  Great  Grey  Shrike  only  visits  England  in  the 
winter,  there  is  no  opportunity  of  observing  its  nesting  habits 
in  this  country,  and  although  a  belief  exists  that  in  Willoughby's 
time,  towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  a  Butcher- 
bird, which  may  have  been  the  present  species,  was  to  be 
found  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  England,  as  for  instance, 
in  the  Peak  of  Derbyshire,  there  has  never  been  any 
authentic  record  of  the  breeding  of  the  species  in  Great 
Britain.  In  the  parts  of  Europe  where  the  Great  Grey 
Shrike  nests,  it  is  a  very  conspicuous  object,  generally  select- 
ing a  perch  in  the  open,  from  whence  it  can  keep  a  good 
look  out  and  perceive  danger  from  a  distance.  So  wary  is  it 
that  in  Germany  it  is  called  the  "Sentinel,"  and  at  Valkens- 
vaard,  in  Holland,  the  bird's  prodigious  power  of  sight  is  made 
use  of  by  the  falconers  when  they  are  trapping  Hawks  on 
passage.  Long  before  the  eye  of  a  man  can  detect  the 
approach  of  a  Falcon,  the  latter  is  detected  by  the  Shrike, 
but  it  is  even  then  some  little  time  before  the  appearance  of 
a  speck  on  the  far  horizon  shows  the  accuracy  of  the  Shrike's 
vision,  and  enables  the  fowler  to  b2  ready  with  his  nets  and 
his  lure  for  the  approaching  bird.  In  many  respects  the 
Shrike  resembles  a  bird  of  prey,  and  it  is  even  said  to  hover 
in  the  air  like  a  Kestrel,  or  to  fly  down  a  small  bird,  like  a 
Merlin.  It  has  its  so-called  "larder,"  like  other  Butcher- 
birds, and  Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  it  has  probably  a  dozen 
"larders"  in  various  parts  of  the  district  haunted  by  it. 
He  writes :  "  Like  many  birds  of  prey,  he  has  his  favourite 
feeding-place,  some  convenient  spot  in  a  hedgerow,  probably 
chosen  because  the  footing  is  good,  and  the  thorns  sharp; 
and  to  this  place  he  brings  his  prey  during  the  day,  and  there 
an  accumulation  of  the  remains  of  his  meals  are  discovered. 
I  remember  finding  one  of  these  so-called  '  larders '  in  a 
hedge  on  a  roadside  a  few  miles  from  Valkensvaard,  close 
to  a  gate.  The  thorns  were  very  long  and  sharp,  and  there 
were  the  dried-up  remains  of  half-a-dozen  mice  which  had 
evidently  been  eaten  except  the  feet,  tail,  and  part  of  the  skin. 


••**?•• 


THE   SHRIKES.  165 

Like  many  of  the  birds  of  prey,  the  Great  Grey  Shrike  throws 
up  pellets,  and,  according  to  Nauman,  remains  of  beetles 
and  grasshoppers,  frogs,  lizards,  and  blind-worms  are  found 
among  its  castings  in  summer  time,  but  in  winter  only  bones 
of  mice  and  feathers  of  birds  are  found  in  the  Shrike's 
pellets." 

Nest. — Composed  of  twigs,  grass,  and  moss,  with  a  lining 
of  roots,  wool,  and  hair.  It  is  a  somewhat  clumsily  built 
structure. 

Eggs. — From  five  to  seven  in  number.  The  ground-colour 
is  either  pale  greenish-white  or  brownish-white,  the  latter 
being  the  more  usual  type  of  the  two.  A  few  have  the 
ground-colour  white,  without  any  greenish  tinge.  The  spots 
are  rather  heavy  and  of  an  olive-brown  or  greenish -brown  tint, 
sometimes  distributed  over  the  egg,  but  in  other  instances 
clustering  round  the  larger  end,  and  occasionally  clouding  the 
whole  of  the  egg.  Axis,  i'o-i'i  inch  ;  diam.,  o'75-o'8. 

III.   PALLAS'S   GREAT   GREY   SHRIKE.      LANIUS  SIBIRICUS. 

Lanius  major  ("  nee.  Wilkes,"  teste  Stejneger),  Pallas,  Zoogr. 

Ross.  Asiat,  i.,  p.  402  (1811);  Gadow,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus., 

viii.,  p.  239  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Brit.  B.,  i.,  p.  595  (1883); 

Saunders,  Man.,  p.  139  (1889). 
Lanius  sibiricus^  Bogd. ;  Stejneger,  Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  xvi., 

p.  217. 

(Plate  XVIII.} 

Adult  Male. — Similar  to  Z.  excubitor,  but  having  only  one 
white  wing-patch,  formed  by  the  white  base  of  the  primary- 
quills,  the  secondaries  entirely  black  at  the  base  and  not  show- 
ing any  trace  of  the  second  white  patch  so  conspicuous  in  true 
Z.  excubitor ;  there  seems  to  be  also  less  white  on  the  inner 
webs  of  the  inner  secondaries  underneath,  and  the  lower  primary 
coverts  are  also  somewhat  more  pronounced  ashy-brown ;  bill, 
feet,  and  iris,  coloured  as  in  Z.  excubitor.  Total  length,  9-5 
inches;  culmen,  075;  wing,  4*5;  tail,  4*4;  tarsus,  1-05. 

Adult  Female — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour. 


*. 


l6&  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Young. — Similar  to  the  adults,  but  having  a  brown  shade 
over  the  grey  of  the  upper  parts,  and  slightly  obscuring  the 
white  scapulars;  the  under  surface  regularly  barred  with 
fine  crescentic  markings  on  the  feathers,  excepting  OB  the 
throat,  abdomen,  and  under  tail-coverts,  which  are  all  pure 
white. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Like  the  foregoing  species,  it  is  an 
autumn  and  winter  visitant,  and  appears  to  be  quite  as  common 
as  Lanius  excubitor  in  some  years. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Extends  from  Eastern  Siberia 
south  of  lat.  65°  N.,  as  far  west  as  Northern  Russia.  In  many 
of  its  western  habitats  it  is  said  to  interbreed  with  L.  excubitor. 
Much  has  been  written  about  the  distribution  of  this  species, 
and  the  various  allied  forms.  Mr.  Dresser  has  contributed  a 
long  article  to  the  "Ibis"  for  1892  (pp.  374-380),  which  does  not 
seem  to  lay  down  any  definite  conclusions.  Much  more  to 
the  purpose  are  the  remarks  of  Mr.  Stejneger  (l.c.\  who,  as 
usual,  puts  forward  some  tangible  results  of  his  work.  Two 
propositions  are  set  before  us,  either  to  consider  that  there  is 
but  one  species  of  Great  Grey  Shrike,  ranging  over  the  whole 
of  the  Palsearctic  and  Nearctic  Regions,  including  L.  excubitor^ 
L.  sibiricus  (L.  major,  auct.),  and  even  L.  borealis  of  Nortl 
America — or  to  recognise  three  forms,  L.  excubitor  from  Cen- 
tral and  Southern  Europe,  L.  sibiricus^  which  ranges  from  th( 
Japanese  Sea  all  through  Northern  Siberia  and  Northern  Russia 
to  Norwegian  Finmark,  and  L.  borealis,  confined  strictly  to 
North  America.  This  latter  conclusion,  which  commends 
itself  also  to  Dr.  Stejneger,  seems  to  be  the  most  scientific 
explanation  of  the  distribution  of  the  three  races  of  Grej 
Shrike  under  consideration.  It  is  the  present  race  which  \\ 
figured  in  the  plate  (XVIII). 

Habitg. — These  appear  to  be  similar  to  those  of  L.  excubitor. 

Nest. — Not  yet  described,  but  doubtless  similar  to  that  of  th< 
foregoing  species. 

Eggs. — Of  these  nothing  has  as  yet  been  recorded,  but  they 
will  doubtless  be  found  to  resemble  those  of  L.  excubitor 


I 


tilE   SHRIKES.  167 

IV.   THE    RED-BACKED    SHKIKE.       LANIUS  COLLURIO. 

Lanius  collu rio,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  136  (1766);  Macg ,  Br.  B., 
iii.,  p.  505  (1840);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  399,  pi.  150 
(1871)  ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarn,  i.,  p.  209(1872);  B.  O.  U.  List 
Br.  B.,  p.  38  (1883);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  606(1883), 
Gadow,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  viii.,  p.  286  (1883);  Lilford, 
Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  v.  (1887);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  143 
(1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  vinous  chestnut ;  the 
rump  grey ;  the  upper  tail-coverts  reddish-brown,  greyer  at  the 
tips;  wing-coverts  like  the  back;  primary-coverts  and  quills 
dusky  brown,  edged  with  rufous,  more  broadly  on  the  inner 
secondaries ;  tail-feathers  blackish,  with  a  narrow  white  tip,  all 
but  the  centre  feathers  white  for  more  than  the  basal  half,  the 
outer  feather  edged  with  white  externally,  the  shafts  of  all 
blackish ;  head  and  hind  neck  delicate  blue-grey,  becoming 
lighter  towards  the  forehead,  which  has  a  black  line  at  the 
base,  joined  to  the  lores  and  ear-coverts,  which  are  also  black ; 
above  this  black  line  is  a  narrow  line  of  whitish,  extending 
above  the  ear-coverts  ;  cheeks  and  under  surface  of  body 
vinous  pink,  becoming  whiter  on  the  lower  abdomen  and  under 
tail-coverts  ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  whitish ;  bill  and 
feet  black ;  iris,  dark  hazel.  Total  length,  7  inches ;  culmen, 
0-65;  wing,  3*6;  tail,  3*0;  tarsus  0-9. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  considerably  from  the  male.  Reddish- 
brown  above,  instead  of  chestnut,  and  having  the  rufous  colour 
on  the  wings  of  the  same  tint ;  the  grey  of  the  head  duller, 
and  washed  with  brown  ;  lores  and  eyebrows  buffy-white, 
and  the  ear-coverts  rufous,  instead  of  black ;  tail-feathers 
brown,  with  only  a  little  whitish-red  near  the  base  of  the  outer 
ones,  which  are  narrowly  tipped  with  white,  the  outermost 
white  along  the  outer  web  ;  throat  and  abdomen  white ;  the 
cheeks,  fore-neck,  and  breast,  as  well  as  the  sides  of  the  body, 
yellowish-buff,  with  crescentic  bars  of  brown.  Total  length, 
7  inches ;  wing,  3*65. 

Young. — Like  the  old  female,  but  more  chestnut,  and  with 
blackish-brown  ear-coverts  ;  the  under  surface  of  the  body  as  in 
the  adult  hen  bird,  but  the  upper  surface  also  mottled  with 
pale  tips  and  crescentic  bars  of  black  on  all  the  feathers. 


1 63  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Range  in  Great  Britain, — A  summer  visitor,  occurring  over  the 
greater  part  of  England  and  Wales,  but  of  irregular  occurrence 
in  the  northern  counties  and  in  Eastern  Scotland.  The  records 
of  its  having  bred  in  the  latter  kingdom  are  apparently  not 
authentic.  The  late  Dr.  Saxby  records  his  having  seen  in 
Shetland  a  female  bird,  with  three  young  birds  able  to  fly  well, 
on  the  9th  of  June,  1870.  This  has  been  commented  upon 
by  the  author  of  the  excellent  "  Manual  of  British  Birds  "  as 
being  extraordinary,  if  a  fact,  "  seeing  that  even  in  the  south  of 
England  eggs  are  hardly  laid  by  the  middle  of  May,  and 
require  a  fortnight's  incubation."  Mr.  O.  V.  Aplin,  however, 
who  has  written  a  careful  account  of  the  distribution  of  the 
Red  backed  Shrike  in  Great  Britain,  suggests  that  Saxby  was 
too  careful  an  observer  to  have  made  a  mistake,  and  that  the 
month  of  "  July  "  was  probably  intended.  A  misprint  of  this 
kind  is  very  possible,  as  Saxby's  work  was  published  after  his 
death.  In  Ireland  only  one  instance  of  the  bird's  occurrence 
has  been  noted,  near  Belfast,  in  August,  1878. 

Mr.  Aplin  sums  up  its  distribution  in  England  as  follows : 
"One  may  almost  say  that  lat.  53°  marks  off  the  country  south 
of  which  the  Red-backed  Shrike  is  a  common  summer  migrant ; 
but  a  boundary-line  drawn  here  would  have,  of  course,  to  be 
deflected  in  places.  Turning  to  the  south-west  we  find  the 
species  rare  in  Pembrokeshire,  Cornwall,  and  South-west 
Devon.  Possibly  45°  W.  long,  might  be  laid  down  as  a 
western  boundary,  beyond  which  the  bird  ceases  to  be  a 
regular  and  common  visitor,  but  as  in  the  case  of  its  northern 
confines  no  very  strictly  defined  marches  can  be  prescribed." 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands, — Generally  distributed  through- 
out Europe,  as  far  as  64°  N.  lat.,  but  is  very  rare  as  a  breeding 
bird  in  the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean,  being  found  only  in 
the  mountainous  parts  of  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  and  Palestine, 
and  thence  through  Northern  Persia  to  Central  Asia,  as  far  as 
the  Altai  Mountains.  The  principal  winter  home  of  the  species 
appears  to  be  Southern  Africa,  and  it  doubtless  migrates  by 
way  of  the  Nile  Valley  and  East  Africa  to  its  winter  quarters. 
It  has  even  been  said  to  breed  during  its  absence  from  Europe, 
but  we  think  that  there  is  some  mistake  with  regard  to  this 
assertion.  Mr.  F.  J.  Jackson,  however,  noticed  this  species 


THE    SHRIKES.  169 

on  the  plains  of  Eastern  Africa  sitting  about  on  the  thorny 
bushes,  and  behaving  much  as  the  species  does  in  England, 
and  he  considered  that  it  was  likely  they  were  about  to  nest, 
as  they  were  in  beautiful  spring  plumage.  As  is  well  known, 
however,  many  of  our  migratory  species  gain  their  most  bril- 
liant plumage  before  they  leave  their  winter  quai  ters,  and  come 
to  Europe  only  after  their  breeding-dress  is  perfectly  donned ; 
and  up  to  the  present  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  nesting  of 
the  Red  backed  Shrike  in  any  part  of  Africa.  Another  winter 
home  of  the  species  is  the  Persian  Gulf,  where  it  has  been 
found  by  Mr.  W.  D.  Gumming,  and  it  also  visits  India,  in  the 
extreme  north-west  of  which  country  it  has  been  found  in  the 
cold  season. 

Habits. — There  is  much  that  reminds  us  of  a  Flycatcher  in 
the  way  in  which  the  present  species  captures  its  food,  for  it  has 
undoubtedly  favourite  perches,  on  which  it  sits,  and  to  which 
it  returns  after  the  capture  of  an  insect.  It  is  frequently  to  be 
seen  on  telegraph-wires,  whence  it  keeps  a  sharp  look-out  in 
every  direction,  and  a  favourite  resort  is  a  field  of  freshly- 
cut  grass.  It  also  captures  a  good  many  mice  and  small  birds, 
not  pursuing  them  in  the  open  like  birds  of  prey,  but  dropping 
down  on  them  suddenly.  In  the  British  Museum  is  a  very 
good  specimen  of  the  larder  of  a  Red-backed  Shrike,  taken  with 
the  nest  of  the  bird  by  Lord  Walsingham  in  Norfolk,  and 
showing  the  way  in  which  the  Shrike  spits  insects  and  birds  on 
thorns,  and  the  species  has  been  known,  according  to  Captain 
Clark-Kennedy,  to  hang  up  birds  even  bigger  than  itself,  such 
as  Blackbirds  and  Thrushes,  as  well  as  Tits  of  several  kinds, 
Robins  and  Hedge-Sparrows,  while  it  will  also  occasionally 
seize  young  Partridges  and  Pheasants.  Wherever  the  bird 
occurs  it  is  somewhat  local,  and  Mr.  Aplin,  in  the  paper  above 
referred  to,  says  that  the  distribution  of  the  Red-backed  Shrike 
"  seems,  within  certain  limits,  to  be  determined  mainly  by  the 
nature  of  the  soil  and  climate,  and  the  bearing  of  these  upon 
the  insect  life  of  a  particular  district.  The  favourite  food  of 
'this  Shrike  during  its  residence  with  us  consists  of  large-bodied 
insects,  especially  beetles  and  bees;  and  I  believe  that  the 
comparative  abundance  or  scarcity  of  that  food  in  any  given 
district  largely  determines  the  numerical  strength  or  weakness 
of  this  species  therein.  A  warm  soil  (e.g.,  sand,  gravel,  lime- 


17&  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

stone,  or  chalk)  is  attractive,  though  not  absolutely  necessary 
to  this  Shrike,  which  is  also  affected  indirectly  by  climate. 
The  *  tall  tangled  hedge-row  '  or  *  Bullfinch,'  so  often  insisted 
upon  as  attractive  to  this  bird,  is  certainly  not  essential  to  its 
welfare,  although  the  Butcher-bird  is  undoubtedly  fond  of  these 
big  hedges  with  their  long  thorns  for  impaling  prey,  and  the 
convenient  nesting  sites  they  afford,  but  they  will  not  of  them- 
selves induce  the  Shrike  to  adopt  a  particular  district.  In 
North  Oxfordshire  and  in  Northamptonshire  tall  hedges  are 
common,  but  this  Shrike  is  not ;  and  I  gather  from  a  recent 
writer  that  even  in  '  High  Leicestershire '  the  Butcher-bird  is 
decidedly  scarce.  On  the  other  hand,  open  commons,  and 
huge  wild  sides  of  sheltered  valleys,  if  they  are  furnished  with 
scattered  bushes  and  overgrown  clumps  of  the  same,  are  often 
favourite  localities.  It  likes  also  to  haunt  the  neighbourhood 
of  gardens,  and  late  in  July  and  in  August  it  often  brings  its 
young  brood  into  both  pleasure-  and  kitchen-gardens." 

The  note  of  the  present  species  is  a  kind  of  chack,  generally 
uttered  as  the  bird  sits  on  its  perch,  and  is  accompanied  by  a 
jerk  of  the  head  to  one  side  or  the  other,  Besides  the  small 
birds  spoken  of  above,  the  Red-backed  Shrike  feeds  principally 
on  insects,  and  devours  humble-bees,  as  well  as  other  kinds  of 
bees  and  wasps,  but  it  will  also  catch  lizards  and  mice. 

Nest. — A  ragged  and  untidy  structure,  composed  of  tangled 
moss  and  roots,  lined  with  dry  grasses,  wool,  and  a  little 
hair ;  it  is  generally  found  in  a  thorny  hedge  or  a  thickly- 
wooded  dell.  Judging  from  the  specimens  exhibited'  in  the 
British  Museum,  the  young  birds  must  have  some  difficulty  in 
keeping  in  the  nest  provided  for  them,  as  jsoon  as  they  get 
to  any  size. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number,  and  very  variable  in 
colour  and  markings.  The  ground-colour  is  mainly  of  two 
types,  creamy-white  or  greenish-white.  The  former  varies  from 
a  rich  cream-colour  to  a  clay-white,  or  even  rufescent.  The 
markings  consist  of  clearly  defined  spots  of  rufous,  with  numer 
ous  and  distinct  underlying  spots  qf  violet-grey.  There  is  in 
most  cases  a  tendency  to  form  a  ring,  generally,  but  not  invari 
ably,  at  the  large  end  of  the  egg,  which  is  sometimes  covere( 
by  confluent  spots,  which  form  a  cloud.  In  the  greenish-white 


THE   SHRIKES.  17  1 

type  of  egg,  the  tint  varies  from  olive  to  pale  green,  and  the 
markings  are  brown,  the  underlying  spots  being  violet-grey,  the 
latter  being  very  large  and  distinct ;  there  is  the  same  tendency 
to  form  a  ring  near  the  larger  end  as  in  the  cream-coloured 
type,  but  many  eggs  have  the  spots  distributed  over  the  whole 
surface.  Axis,  o'8-o'95  inch  ;  diam,  0-65-07.  (Plate  XXXI., 
Fig  4-) 

V.    THE   WOODCHAT.       LANIUS   POMERANUS. 

Lanius  rutilus,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  hi.,  p.  502  (1840) ;  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xv.  (1890). 
Lanius  auriculatus,  P.  L.  S.  Mull. ;   Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  in.,  p. 

407,  pi.  151  (1871);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  215  (1872), 

Gadow,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  viii.,  p.  283  (1883). 
Lanius  pomeranus,  Scop.;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  38  (1883); 

Saunders,  Man.,  p.  145  (1889) 
Lanius  ru/us,  Briss. ;  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  610  (1883). 

Adult  Male. — Back  black,  with  conspicuously  white  scapulars; 
lower  back  bluish-grey  ;  the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  white; 
wings  black,  with  a  large  white  speculum  formed  by  the  white 
bases  to  the  primaries ;  tail-feathers  black,  with  a  narrow  white 
tip,  the  bases  of  the  feathers  white,  scarcely  visible  on  the 
centre  ones,  but  extending  gradually  towards  the  outer  ones, 
which  are  more  broadly  tipped  with  white,  the  outermost  one 
white  along  its  outer  web ;  crown  of  head  and  hind-neck  rich 
chestnut ;  a  broad  frontal  band,  as  well  as  the  feathers  round 
the  eye  and  the  ear-coverts  black,  extending  in  a  band  down 
the  sides  of  the  neck;  a  basal  spot  of  white  on  each  side  of  the 
base  of  the  /orehead ;  cheeks  and  under  surface  of  body,  in- 
cluding the  under  wing-coverts,  creamy-white;  the  lower  primary- 
coverts  dusky  blackish,  forming  a  patch  near  the  edge  of  the  wing ; 
quills  dusky  below,  white  along  the  inner  webs  ;  bill  and  feet 
black;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  7-5  inches;  oilmen,  0*75; 
wing,  4-0;  tail,  3-1 ;  tarsus,  1-05. 

Adult  Female, — Similar  to  the  male,  but  browner,  the  parts 
which  are  black  in  the  male  being  blackish-brown  in  the 
female;  the  frontal  band,  as  well  as  the  ear-coverts,  and  the 
sides  of  the  neck  mixed  with  brown,  and  therefore  not  so 


*72  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

distinct  as  in  the  male  ;  otherwise  as  in  the  latter  sex.     Total 
length,  7-5  inches;  wing,  3-9. 

Young — Paler  brown  than  the  adult  female,  the  scapulars 
and  margins  of  the  wing-coverts  and  quills  sandy-buff;  rump 
and  upper  tail-coverts  also  sandy-buff;  crown  and  hind-neck 
pale  rufous,  mottled  with  sandy-buff  and  dusky  cross-lines ; 
ear-coverts  dusky  blackish  ;  no  black  on  the  forehead  ;  under- 
parts  white,  freckled  with  narrow  dusky  lines  on  the  chest. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  rare  and  occasional  visitor  to  the 
southern  and  eastern  counties  of  England.     Two  instances 
its  breeding  near  Freshwater,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  are  apparently 
well  established.     It  has  occurred  as  far  west  as  Cornwall,  an< 
as  far  north  as  Northumberland  and  Cumberland,  but  there  are 
no  Scotch  or  Irish  records. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — A  summer  visitor  throughou 
the  greater  part  of  Europe,  being  very  common  in  the  countrie 
of  the  Mediterranean.  It  ranges  as  high  north  as  the  Bald 
and  the  valley  of  the  Vistula,  and  it  is  found  as  far  to  the  east 
ward  as  the  Caucasus  and  Western  Persia,  and  occurs  frequentl] 
in  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  Palestine.  Its  winter  home  lies  ii 
North-eastern  Africa  and  in  Senegambia,  and  the  bird  pro 
bably  migrates  to  a  certain  extent  across  the  Sahara.  It  doe 
not  follow  the  usual  route  of  migration  down  the  Nile  Valley 
so  far  south  as  the  Red-backed  Shrike,  as  the  Woodchat  is  no 
found  in  Southern  Africa  at  all,  and  is  replaced  on  the  wes 
coast  of  Africa  by  a  distinct  species,  L.  rutilans 

Habits — Resemble  those  of  other  Shrikes,  feeding  largely  on 
insects,  especially  grasshoppers  and  beetles.  The  note  is  saic 
to  be  a  harsh  krah  hack  krah,  but,  according  to  Mr.  Howarc 
Saunders,  the  male  has  a  low  and  rather  pretty  song  in  spring 
and  shows  great  capacity  for  imitating  the  notes  of  other  birds 
The  Woodchat  is  a  very  conspicuous  object  in  the  countries 
frequents,  its  white  breast  being  easily  seen,  as  it  sits  on  the  top 
most  twig  of  a  bush  or  tree,  on  which  it  mounts  guard.  It  is  sak 
to  display  great  affection  for  its  young.  Mr.  Seebohm  writes 
"  In  Greece  and  Asia  Minor  I  found  the  Woodchat  very  com 
mon.  With  the  exception  of  the  Black-headed  Bunting  I  founc 
more  of  its  nests  than  those  of  any  other  bird.  It  is  only  a 


THE   SHRIKES.  173 

summer  visitor  to  both  of  these  countries,  belonging  neither  to 
the  earliest  nor  to  the  latest  birds  of  passage.  It  arrives  about 
the  first  of  April,  at  least  three  weeks  after  the  Swallows,  whose 
range  extends  into  the  Arctic  Regions,  but  three  weeks  before 
the  Tree-Warblers  (Hypotais  elaica  and  H.  olivetorum\  whose 
range  does  not  extend  north  of  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean. 
It  is  a  very  conspicuous  bird,  and  cannot  easily  be  overlooked, 
and  is  very  common  in  the  olive-forests.  As  you  descend  the 
mountains,  the  olives  in  the  valley  look  like  a  dense  forest, 
often  extending  twenty  miles  or  more  ;  but  when  you  descend 
into  them  you  find  that  the  trees  are  planted  at  some  distance 
from  each  other,  and  that  a  considerable  cultivation  of  vines, 
mulberries,  and  sometimes  Indian  corn,  is  carried  on  between 
them.  But  it  is  perhaps  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  hills,  where 
the  trees  are  more  stunted  and  the  ground  is  less  cultivated, 
that  the  Woodchat  is  oftenest  to  be  seen.  Perched  conspicu- 
ously upon  the  top  of  a  bush,  or  even  a  lofty  tree,  it  appears 
ever  to  be  on  the  watch  for  the  chance  of  pouncing  down  upon 
some  unwary  insect  that  may  come  within  its  range.  Its  song 
is  by  no  means  unmusical,  and  very  gentle  to  proceed  from 
such  raptorial  jaws.  It  reminded  me  very  much  of  the 
twittering  of  a  Swallow  or  the  warble  of  a  Starling.  Some  of  its 
call-notes,  however,  are  loud  and  harsh  enough  ;  and  I  at  first 
thought  that  it  was  imitating  the  notes  of  other  birds  in  order  to 
attract  them  within  reach;  but  inasmuch  as  the  greater  number 
of  notes  it  apparently  imitated  were  of  birds  far  too  powerful 
for  it  to  grapple  with,  such  cannot  be  the  case.  The  first  nest 
I  found  in  Greece  was  at  Delphi,  not  very  far  from  the  ruins  of 
the  Temple  of  Apollo.  This  nest  contained  six  eggs  on  the  5th 
of  May.  Higher  than  2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  the 
bird  became  much  rarer ;  and  in  the  pine-region,  4,000  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  its  place  seemed  to  be  entirely  taken  by 
the  Red-backed  Shrike ;  but  as  soon  as  we  descended  below 
the  pine-region  it  again  became  extremely  common  ;  and  we 
found  the  greater  number  of  full  clutches  during  the  last 
fortnight  of  May." 

Nest, — Compact  and  well-built,  and  placed  in  the  fork  of  a 
tree,  generally  without  any  attempt  at  concealment.  In 
Greece  Mr.  Seebohm  found  the  nest  almost  invariably  in  the 
fork  of  an  olive-tree,  and  "  composed  principally  of  cudweed 


J74  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

(GnaphaUum),  a  little  hairy-stemmed,  hairy-leaved,  plant  with 
three  or  four  small  thistle-like  flowers,  growing  from  two  to 
four  inches  high. '  These  the  Woodchats  pulled  out  by  the  roots, 
and  wove  together  into  a  compact  warm  nest,  which  did  not 
differ  very  much  in  colour  from  the  bark  of  the  olive-trees. 
Occasionally  a  twig  or  two  was  introduced ;  but  for  the  most 
part  the  cudweed,  with  its  flowers  and  its  root,  was  foundation, 
wall,  and  lining  for  the  nest." 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number.  They  present  the  same 
divergent  colours  as  do  the  eggs  of  the  Red-backed  Shrike 
some  of  the  eggs  have  the  ground-colour  greenish-white,  wit! 
coarse  spots  and  markings  of  greenish-brown  and  underlying 
mottling  and  spots  of  pale  violet-grey ;  these  markings  are 
sometimes  distributed  over  the  larger  end  of  the  egg,  and  have 
a  tendency  to  form  a  ring.  In  another  type  of  egg  the  ground 
colour  is  clay-brown  with  olive-brown  mottlings  and  spots,  am 
very  distinct  underlying  spots  of  violet-grey.  In  a  third  typ 
the  colour  is  creamy-buff,  of  a  more  or  less  rich  tint,  the  over 
lying  spots  being  reddish-brown  with  very  distinct  under-lyini 
spots  and  mottlings  of  grey :  these  grey  spots  are  as  distinc 
as  in  the  greenish-white  type  of  egg,  but  the  over-lying  marking 
are  darker.  Axis,  0-85-0-95  inch  ;  diam.,  0-65-0-7. 


THE    CHATTERERS.     FAMILY    AMPELID^E. 

These  birds,  familiarly  known  as  Wax-wings,  must  not  b 
confounded  with  the  American  Chatterers,  or  Cotingida.  Th 
peculiar  wax-like  appendages  to  the  quills  and  tail-feathers  ar 
the  chief  external  characteristics  of  the  family,  and  on  tha 
account  the  name  of  Wax-wings  would  have  been  the  mor 
suitable  one ;  but  there  are  in  America  certain  genera,  such  a 
Phainoptila  and  Ptilogonys,  which  are  apparently  referable  tc 
the  same  family  as  Ampelis,  but  which  do  not  possess  the  wax 
like  appendages  to  the  wings  and  tail,  and,  therefore,  the  nam 
of  "  Wax  "-wing  is  inapplicable  to  them.  The  Ampelida  hav 
only  nine  primaries  in  the  wing,  the  bill  swollen  with  a  roundec 
nostril,  and  are  also  remarkable  for  a  long  silky  crest 


THE   WAX-WINGS.  175 

THE  WAX-WINGS.     GENUS   AMPELIS. 
Ampelis,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  297  (1766). 
Type,  A.garru/us,  Linn. 

I.   THE   WAX-WING.       AMPELIS   GARRULUS. 

(Plate  XIX.) 

Amfelis  garriilus.  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  297  (1766)  ;  Dresser,  B. 
Eur.,  Hi.,  p.  429,  pi.  155  (1873);  Newt.  ed.  Yarn,  i.,  p. 
523  (1874);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  39  (1883);  Seeb., 
Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  3  (1884) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  x.,  p. 
212  (1885);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  vi.  (1888); 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  147  (1889). 
Bombycilla  garntla,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  iii.,  p.  533  (1840). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  drab-brown,  greyer  towards  the 
rump,  and  pure  grey  on  the  upper  tail-coverts;  wing-coverts 
like  the  back,  the  bases  grey ;  primary-coverts  black,  tipped 
with  white ;  quills  black,  white  at  the  tip,  and  yellow  towards 
the  end  of  the  outer  web ;  the  secondaries  grey,  with  a  subter- 
minal  blackish  shade  before  the  white  tip,  the  innermost 
secondaries  browner,  the  white-tipped  feathers  with  produced 
and  flattered  shafts  forming  a  wax-like  appendage  ;  tail  grey, 
tipped  with  yellow,  with  a  broad  subterminal  bar  of  black,  and,. 
in  old  individuals,  a  tiny  shaft-tip  of  wax-like  red ;  head  and 
an  ample  crest  drab-brown  ;  fore  part  of  crown  and  region 
above  the  eyes  chestnut ;  the  base  of  the  forehead,  region  of  the 
eye,  black,  extending  above  the  latter  to  the  nape ;  sides  of 
face  and  ear-coverts  pale  rufous-drab,  a  little  more  chestnut  on 
the  hinder  cheeks  ;  on  the  fore  part  of  the  cheeks  a  white  spot ; 
a  narrow  line  of  white  above  the  ear-coverts ;  throat  black ; 
remainder  of  under  surface  light  drab,  greyer  on  the  breast  and 
abdomen,  the  vent  inclining  to  yellowish-white ;  under  tail- 
coverts  deep  chestnut ;  thighs  ashy-grey ;  bill  black,  paler  at 
the  base;  feet  and  claws  black;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  7*25 
inches;  culmen,  0*6 ;  wing,  4*6;  tail,  2*55;  tarsus,  075. 

Adult  Female. — Only  differs  from  the  male  in  having  a  smaller 
crest,  and  the  wax-like  appendages  fewer  in  number  on  the 
wings,  and  never  apparently  developed  on  the  tail.  Total 
length,  7  inches ;  wing,  4*4. 

Yo:m». — Not  like  the  adults,  being  dark  olive-brown  above, 
the  feathers  edged  with  whity-brown  ;  head  brown,  with  a 


i76 


LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


frontal  band  of  black,  and  margined  behind  with  a  narrow  lin< 
of  white ;  ear-coverts  and  cheeks  brown,  with  a  white  spot  or 
the  fore  part  of  the  latter ;  a  narrow  moustachial  line  of  black 
under-parts  white,  tinged  with  yellow,  which  becomes  mor 
marked  on  the  vent ;  the  throat,  breast,  and  flanks  browi 
streaked  with  pale  fulvous  edges  to  the  feathers. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — An  irregular  visitant  in  autumn  an< 
winter,  sometimes  coming  in  large  numbers,  though  it  occui 
nearly  every  year.  The  years  when  great  invasions  have 
taken  place  in  this  country  have  been  recorded  as  follows 
1830-31,  1834-35,  1849-50,  1866-67,  and  1872-73;  but  th< 
earliest  notice  of  the  species  in  England  dates  back  to  1681, 
when  an  account  of  its  occurrence  near  York  was  published  ii 
the  "  Philosophical  Transactions."  The  Wax-wing  has  occurred 
in  nearly  every  part  of  England  and  Scotland,  but  the  Irisl 
records  are  fewer.  As  might  be  expected,  the  bulk  of  th( 
specimens  are  obtained  in  our  eastern  counties,  where,  in 
some  of  the  years  above-mentioned,  large  numbers  have  been 
shot.  During  the  migration  of  the  winter  of  1872  many  were 
noticed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  north  of  London. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Wax-wing  is  a  circum- 
polar  bird,  and  is  an  inhabitant  of  high  northern  latitudes  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America.  In  the  temperate  portions 
of  the  latter  continent  its  place  is  taken  by  an  allied  species, 
the  Cedar-bird  (Ampelis  cedrorum\  which  is  smaller,  and  is 
distinguished  by  its  white  under  tail-coverts  and  olive-yellow 
flanks. 

The  Wax-wing  is  found  in  winter  in  most  of  the  countries  of 
Europe,  though  of  irregular  occurrence ;  it  has  not  yet  been 
found  in  the  Pyrenees  or  the  Spanish  peninsula,  but  has  been 
known  to  reach  the  south  of  France,  and  the  northern  provinces 
of  Italy,  as  well  as  of  Turkey.  At  the  same  time  of  year  it  visits 
Central  Asia,  North  China,  and  the  northern  island  of  Japan. 
Its  breeding  quarters  are  the  pine  regions  in  the  north  of  the 
Old  and  New  Worlds,  about  the  line  of  the  Arctic  Circle.  It 
has  been  recorded  as  nesting  in  North-eastern  Norway,  in  Lap- 
land, in  Finland,  and  Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  he  met  with  it 
during  the  breeding  season  in  the  valleys  of  the  Petchora  and 
the  Yenesei.  Although  the  species  occurs  in  the  interior  of 


±HE   WAX-WINGS.  177 

Alaska,  apparently  somewhat  plentifully,  only  once  has  its  nest 
been  found  in  the  territory  ;  this  was  by  Kennicott,  near  Fort 
Yukon,  in  July,  1861.  The  species  must  surely  nest  elsewhere 
in  the  Arctic  portions  of  North  America,  as  it  has  been  ob- 
served on  the  Anderson  river  during  the  breeding-time ;  but 
at  present  the  Alaskan  record  is  the  only  one  for  the  whole  of 
North  America. 

HaMts. — Although  such  a  common  bird  in  collections,  very 
little  has  been  recorded  of  the  habits  of  the  Wax-wing,  and  even 
those  naturalists  who  go  in  search  of  the  nest  do  not  always 
succeed  in  finding  it,  for  both  in  summer  and  winter  the  bird 
appears  to  be  very  erratic  in  its  choice  of  a  home,  being  plentiful 
in  some  years  in  certain  districts  and  then  not  appearing  again  in 
the  neighbourhood  for  a  long  time.  In  its  motions  the  Wax- 
wing  is  a  very  active  bird,  and  is  a  beautiful  creature  in  life,  the 
crested  head  and  the  yellow  bands  on  the  wings  and  tail 
rendering  it  very  conspicuous.  The  food  consists  of  insects 
during  the  summer,  varied  with  a  few  berries,  but  in  the 
autumn  and  winter  the  bird  subsists  on  berries  of  such  plants 
as  privet,  white-thorn,  guelder-rose  and  dog-rose ;  at  this  time 
of  year  they  become  very  fat,  and  are  sold  in  large  numbers 
for  food  in  the  Russian  markets,  being  occasionally  sent  overto 
London. 

Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  a  pair  of  birds  which  he  kept  in  con- 
finement were  most  voracious  eaters,  and  their  cage  required 
cleaning  several  times  a  day.  They  were  very  active  and  rest- 
less, and  even  when  perched  at  rest  seemed  to  be  continually 
moving  their  heads.  If  alarmed  they  would  stretch  out  their 
necks  to  almost  double  the  usual  length.  They  were  remark- 
ably silent  birds,  the  only  note  heard  by  him  being  a  "rir-ir-ir- 
ir-re"  very  similar  to  a  well-known  note  of  the  Blue  Tit. 
Occasionally  this  succession  of  notes  was  repeated  so  rapidly 
as  to  form  a  trill  like  the  song  of  the  Redpoll. 

Nest — According  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  the  nest  is  a  large  and 
very  compact  structure,  the  outside  diameterof  one  in  hisposses- 
sion  being  seven  inches  and  the  inside  four  inches;  it  is  about 
mr  inches  high  outside,  and  nearly  two  inches  deep.  The  foun- 
tion  is  made  of  twigs  of  spruce-fir  and  reindeer-moss.  The 
itself  is  composed  of  feathers  and  black  hair-lichen,  inter- 


IjS  LLOYD^S    NATURAL    HISTORY. 

woven  together  with  very  slender  twigs  and  a  little  moss  and 
inner  bark,  the  feathers  being  most  numerous  in  the  lining. 

Eggs — From  five  to  six  and  occasionally  seven  in  number. 
They  are  quite  unmistakable,  being  of  a  lilac-grey  or  stone- 
grey  ground-colour,  with  spots  of  black  or  blackish-brown, 
varying  in  size  and  intensity,  but  pretty  equally  distributed 
over  the  surface  of  the  eggs,  and  accompanied  by  underlying 
spots  of  violet-grey,  more  or  less  distinctly  indicated.  Axis, 
0*95-1*05  inch;  diam.,  o-65-o*75. 

THE  WARBLERS.     FAMILY  SYLVIID^. 

This  is  one  of  the  largest  families  of  birds  in  the  Old  World, 
and  embraces  within  its  limits  an  assemblage  of  widely  differ- 
ing forms.  Thus  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  lay  down  charac- 
ters by  which  a  student  of  ornithology  may  recognise  a 
Sylviine  bird,  when  he  sees  one  alive  or  has  a  specimen  in  his 
hand.  The  form  of  bill  is  no  certain  indication,  for  the  form 
of  this  organ  varies  greatly  in  the  Warblers,  as  it  does  in  the 
Thrushes.  In  most  instances  the  bill  is  rather  long,  furnished 
with  a  small  notch  before  the  end  of  the  upper  mandible,  and 
having  rictal  bristles  at  the  gape.  In  many  Warblers,  how- 
ever, the  rictal  bristles  and  the  notch  in  the  bill  are  obsolete, 
while  the  latter  organ  is  in  many  forms  so  flattened  that 
the  birds  might  well  be  taken  for  Flycatchers.  Warblers  can, 
however,  be  distinguished  from  Thrushes  by  the  scuteiiation 
of  the  tarsus,  the  members  of  the  latter  family  always  having 
a  plain  surface  to  the  tarsus  both  before  and  behind,  while 
in  the  Warblers  there  are  indications  of  scales  on  the  front 
aspect  of  the  tarsal  envelope. 

There  is,  however,  one  great  and  fundamental  difference 
between  the  Sylviidcs  and  the  Turdidce,  first  insisted  upon  by 
Mr.  Seebohm  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  "  Catalogue  of  Birds," 
and  that  difference  consists  in  the  nature  of  the  plumage  of 
the  young  birds.  Warblers  never  have  spotted  young,  the 
latter  resembling  the  adults  in  plumage,  or  at  least  differing 
very  slightly  from  the  latter.  Accompanying  this  peculiarity 
of  the  immature  plumage,  there  ensues  a  corresponding  differ- 
ence in  the  method  of  moulting  in  the  two  families.  Thus  a 
young  Warbler,  during  the  first  autumn  of  its  life,  goes 


THE   WARBLERS,  179 

through  an  entire  moult,  but  the  plumage  thus  acquired  is  not 
very  different  from  the  one  it  wore  before,  and  its  first  winter 
dress  is  very  similar  to  that  of  its  parents.  If  there  is  any 
variation  in  the  winter  plumage  of  the  adult  and  young  birds, 
it  generally  consists  in  the  under  surface  of  the  latter  having  a 
tinge  of  yellow.  Before  returning,  however,  to  its  breeding 
place  in  the  following  spring,  a  migratory  Warbler  (and  most 
Warblers  are  migratory)  goes  through  another  complete  moult 
in  its  winter  quarters,  so  that  the  spring  plumage  of  both  old 
and  young  bird  is  precisely  the  same.  In  the  Thrushes,  as 
will  be  seen  later  on,  the  method  of  moulting  and  the  plumage 
of  the  young  birds  is  different  from  that  of  the  Warblers. 

THE  TRUE  WARBLERS.     GENUS  SYLVIA. 
Sylvia,  Scop.,  Ann.  I.   Hist.  Nat.,  p.  154  (1769). 
Type,  S.  sylvia  (Linn.). 

The  classification  of  the  Warblers  depends  as  much  on  the 
style  of  plumage  as  upon  structural  characters,  and  it  is  not 
surprising,  therefore,  to  find  that  it  is  a  task  of  extreme  diffi- 
culty to  classify  these  birds  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  The^ 
monographic  work  done  by  Mr.  Seebohm  in  the  "  Catalogue 
of  Birds  "  is  of  great  assistance  in  the  study  of  the  Warblers, 
but  it  is  remarkable  that  the  characters  assigned  for  the  dif- 
ferentiation of  such  obviously  distinct  forms  as,  for  instance,  a 
Garden-Warbler  and  a  Reed- Warbler,  should  be  of  so  trivial  a 
character. 

Thus,  if  we  summarise  the  peculiar  features  which  are  sup- 
posed to  be  distinctive  of  the  genus  Sylvia  we  find  that  they 
amount  to  the  following  :  Bill  typical,  not  flattened  like  that  of 
a  Reed- Warbler,  but  somewhat  slender,  with  rounded  culmen 
and  exposed  nostrils,  and  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible  paler  ; 
the  bastard-primary  considerably  less  than  half  the  second  quill, 
but  extending  well  beyond  the  primary-coverts,  occasionally 
not  reaching  to  this  distance ;  the  axillaries  never  yellow,  but 
either  white  or  grey  or  brown ;  the  bill  from  the  gape  to  the 
tip  less  than  the  length  of  the  middle  toe  and  claw;  the 
nctal  bristles,  three  in  number,  weak,  and  the  supplementary 
hairs  nearly  obsolete,  according  to  Mr.  Gates,  who  also  gives  as 

N    2 


180  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

characters  that  the  feathers  of  the  forehead  are  decomposed 
and  rough,  the  tarsus  stout  and  short,  and  the  tail  very  slightly 
graduated. 

The  true  Warblers  all  appear  to  subsist  on  insects  during 
the  summer,  and  to  feed  largely  on  berries  during  the  autumn, 
before  they  migrate. 

I.    THE   BARRED    WARBLER.        SYLVIA    NISORIA. 

Motacilla  nison'a,  Bechst.,  Naturg.  Deutschl.,  iv.,  p.  580,  pi. 

xvii.  (1795). 
Sylvia  nisoria,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,ii.,  p.  435,  pi.  68  (1874);  Seeb., 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  6  (1881) ;  id.  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p. 

387   (1883);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  13  (1883);  Saun- 

ders,  Man.,  p.  51  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt. 

xv.  (1890). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  greyish-brown,  the  head 
and  rump,  as  well  as  the  upper  tail-coverts  being  greyer  than 
the  back,  and  the  wing-coverts  and  quills  browner,  especially 
the  inner  secondary  quills,  which  are  broadly  tipped  with  white; 
the  upper  surface  barred  with  greyish-white,  with  which  colour 
the  feathers  are  margined  and  tipped,  and  the  pale  tips  to  the 
feathers  are  made  more  distinct  by  a  subterminal  bar  of  dark 
brown ;  under  surface  of  body  greyish-white,  the  sides  of  the 
body  and  flanks  slightly  washed  with  brown,  a  shade  of  which 
colour  also  appears  on  the  breast  and  under  tail-coverts;  under 
wing-coverts  and  axillaries  also  greyish-white,  barred  across 
with  dark  grey ;  bill  dark  brown,  the  base  of  the  lower  man- 
dible pale  ;  feet  and  claws  slaty-brown  ;  iris  pale  yellow.  Total 
length,  6-5  inches;  culmen,  0-55  ;  wing,  3-3  ;  tail,  2-5 ;  tarsus, 
0-85. 

Adult  Female — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour.  Total  length, 
6-3  inches;  wing,  3*35. 

Winter  Plumage. — Similar  to  the  summer  plumage,  but  a  little 
browner. 

Young Like  the  adults,  but  uniform  underneath  and  browner 

on  the  upper  surface,  which  is  slightly  mottled  with  lighter 
brown  or  buff  edges  to  the  feathers,  the  wing-coverts  and  inner 


THE   WARBLERS.  l8l 

secondaries  distinctly  edged  with  buffy-white;  the  under  surface 
washed  with  ochreous  buff  on  the  breast  and  sides. 

NOTE. — The  Barred  Warbler  may  be  distinguished  from  all  the  other 
European  species  by  the  barring  of  the  upper  and  under  surface,  and  there 
is  no  other  species  which  has  the  upper  and  under  tail-coverts  barred.  The 
wing  is  very  pointed,  the  second  and  third  primaries  being  the  longest,  and 
about  equal  in  length ;  the  first  or  bastard-primary  is  very  small,  and  falls 
short  of  the  primary-coverts  by  about  O'4  inch.  The  rictal  bristles  are  few 
in  number  and  slender. 

Bange  in  Great  Britain — A  rare  accidental  visitor,  but  perhaps 
occurring  more  frequently  than  is  generally  supposed.  The  first 
specimen  recorded  as  British  was  exhibited  by  Professor  Newton 
at  a  meeting  of  the  Zoological  Society,  in  March,  1879.  In  1884 
three  specimens  were  procured  :  one  by  the  Rev.  H.  H.  Slater, 
on  the  coast  of  Yorkshire,  at  the  end  of  August,  and  another 
near  Blakeney,  in  Norfolk,  in  the  beginning  of  September ; 
the  third  specimen  was  shot  on  the  i6th  of  August,  in  the  Isle 
of  Skye.  In  1884  a  specimen  was  procured  at  Belmullet,  in 
Ireland;  another  in  Norfolk,  in  1888;  and  two  more  specimens 
were  obtained  in  Yorkshire  in  1892  and  1893  respectively. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands — The  northern  breeding-range 
of  this  species  appears  to  be  Denmark  and  Southern  Sweden, 
nor  is  it  known  to  breed  west  of  the  Rhine.  Throughout 
Central  Europe  it  is  a  summer  visitor,  and  extends  as  far  east  as 
Turkestan  and  Kashgar,  in  Central  Asia.  Mr.  Howard  Saunders 
considers  that  the  vicinity  of  Nice  is  about  the  western  limit  of 
this  Warbler's  migration,  "and  in  Italy  it  appears  to  be  re- 
stricted to  the  northern  and  north-eastern  provinces." 

One  winter  home  of  this  species  appears  to  be  North-eastern 
Africa.  It  has  not  been  found  in  any  part  of  the  Indian  pen- 
insula, but  occurs  in  winter  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  which  locality 
is,  in  all  probability,  the  winter  residence  of  the  Barred  Warblers 
which  breed  in  Central  Asia. 

Habits — The  present  species  is  a  rather  late  arrival  at  its 
breeding  quarters  in  Europe,  though  it  is  said  that  the  spring 
migration  lasts  for  about  eight  weeks,  from  towards  the  end  of 
March  to  about  the  middle  of  May ;  but  more  than  half  of  the 
summer  migrants  have  arrived  before  this  species  is  seen. 
Owing  to  its  skulking  habits  it  is  not  easy  of  observation,  but  is 
more  readily  detected  by  its  song,  which  is  said  to  be  like  that 


1 8a  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY, 

of  a  Whitethroat,  but  in  some  of  its  melody  to  rival  that  of  the 
Black-cap.  Like  the  latter  bird  it  evinces  great  partiality  for 
elderberries  in  the  autumn.  Naumann  renders  the  call-note 
of  the  Barred  Warbler  as  chek,  and  like  the  Whitethroat  it  has 
a  sort  of  snarling  rhar  when  alarmed ;  like  the  last-named 
bird  it  ascends  into  the  air  for  a  short  distance,  and  sings  while 
descending. 

Negt. — Unlike  that  of  most  Warblers,  being  a  somewhat  bulky 
structure  and  not  semi-transparent,  like  those  of  its  allies.  Mr. 
Seebohm  says  that  it  is  "composed  of  dried  grass-stalks  and 
roots,  with  generally  some  small-leaved  plants,  cobwebs,  thistle- 
down, or  other  woolly  material  mixed  with  it.  Outside  it  is 
rough  enough;  but  inside  it  is  very  neat  and  round,  rather 
deep,  and  lined  with  a  few  fine  roots,  cobwebs,  or  horse-hair. 
The  nest  is  well  concealed,  and  is  usually  built  on  a  thorn-bush, 
not  far  from  the  ground.  It  is  said  to  be  sometimes  almost  on 
the  ground;  but  an  instance  has  been  recorded  of  a  nest  being 
built  on  the  topmost  twigs  of  a  birch  at  a  height  of  25  feet  from 
the  ground." 

Eggs — From  four  to  five  in  number,  rarely  six.  They  can- 
not well  be  confounded  with  those  of  any  other  European 
Warbler,  as  they  are  so  very  faintly  marked  in  comparison  with 
most  Warblers'  eggs.  Where  they  are  plainly  marked,  they 
resemble  most  the  eggs  of  the  Common  Whitethroat.  The 
ground-colour  is  creamy-white  or  very  pale  olive,  faintly  spotted 
and  mottled  with  greenish-brown,  but  the  spots  so  slightly  indi- 
cated as  to  appear  in  most  cases  obsolete,  and  the  only  visible 
marking  are  the  underlying  spots  of  violet-grey.  Where  the 
overlying  spots  are  obvious,  they  are  distributed  over  the  whole 
egg,  but  cluster  more  particularly  round  the  larger  end,  the 
underlying  grey  spots  being  for  the  most  part  hidden.  Axis, 
0-8-0-9  incn;  diam.,  0-55-0-65. 

II.  THE  WHITETHROAT.       SYLVIA   SYLVIA. 

(Plate  XX.,  Fig.  i.) 

Motadtta  sylvia,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  330  (1766). 

Sylvia  dnerea,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  350  (1839);    Seeb.,  Cat. 

B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  8  (1881) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  u 

(1883) ;  Seeb.,  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  405  (1883) ;  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  i  (1885) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  41  (iS8p) 


THE   WARBLERS.  183 

Sylvia  rufa,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  406  (1873);    Dresser,  B. 
Eur.,  ii.,  p.  377,  pi.  57  (1876). 

Adult  Male. — Greyish-brown  above,  with  the  wings  rather 
darker,  the  head  ashy-grey,  contrasting  somewhat  with  the 
back,  the  upper  tail-coverts  also  ashy-grey ;  the  tail-feathers 
dark  greyish- brown,  the  outer  ones  paler  and  broadly  edged 
with  white;  wing-coverts  edged  with  pale  chestnut,  and  the 
innermost  secondaries  with  broad  chestnut  edges ;  under  sur- 
face of  the  body  white,  the  breast  pinkish  or  vinous,  contrasting 
with  the  pure  white  of  the  throat  and  abdomen,  the  flanks 
rather  browner;  axillaries  and  under  wing-coverts  pale  grey; 
quill-lining  light  brown  ;  bill  dark  brown,  paler  at  the  base  of 
the  lower  mandible ;  feet  and  claws  pale  brown ;  iris  light 
hazel.  Total  length,  5*6  inches;  culmcn,  0*55;  wing,  27; 
tail,  2 -3  ;  tarsus,  o'S. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  rather  browner,  the 
head  and  upper  tail-coverts  being  more  greyish-brown  like  the 
back  ;  the  under  surface  of  the  body  is  whiter,  the  pink  tinge 
of  the  breast  being  less  distinct,  or  altogether  absent.  Total 
length,  5-5  inches;  wing,  2-8. 

Winter  Plumage. — The  grey  of  the  head  and  the  pink  colour 
on  the  breast  entirely  disappears  in  the  male,  which  is  exactly 
like  the  female  at  this  season  of  the  year.  The  birds  in  winter 
plumage  are  rather  browner  than  they  are  in  summer,  and,  like 
the  young,  have  the  head  like  the  back. 

Young. — Browner  than  the  adults,  the  head  being  like  the 
back,  the  rufous  on  the  wing-coverts  strongly  pronounced  ; 
throat  and  abdomen  white  ;  the  lower  throat,  breast,  and  sides 
of  the  body  sandy-buff,  without  any  tinge  of  pink. 

NOTE. — The  Whitethroat  can  always  be  distinguished  at  any  age  by  its 
very  small  first,  or  bastard,  primary  quill,  which  never  extends  beyond  the 
tips  of  the  primary-coverts.  The  upper  and  under  tail-coverts  are  never 
barred  as  in  the  preceding  species,  and  the  pale  chestnut  edgings  to  the 
wing-coverts  and  quills  are  also  a  distinguishing  character. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor,  arriving  early  in 
April.  It  is  found  everywhere  in  Engand,  Wales,  and  Ireland, 
and  also  over  the  greater  part  of  Scotland,  excepting  the  north- 


1 84  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

ern  portion,  and  the  Outer  Hebrides.    It  is  an  occasional  visitor 
only  to  the  Orkneys  and  Shetland  Isles. 

Range  ontside  the  British  Islands. — Occurs  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  Europe,  but  is  rarer  in  the  Mediterranean  countries, 
where  it  is  known  chiefly  as  a  winter  visitor,  or  more  especially 
as  a  migrant.  Its  breeding  range  extends  as  high  as  65°  N. 
lat.  in  Scandinavia,  and  to  60°  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  it 
apparently  extends  eastwards  as  far  as  Persia  and  Turkestan, 
but  in  the  latter  country  it  is  probably  replaced  by  an  allied 
race,  Sylvia  fuscipika,  which  inhabits  the  Altai  and  Tianschan 
Mountains,  and  it  is  this  race  which  winters  in  North-western 
India.  The  specimens  in  the  British  Museum  show  the 
slightly  darker  head,  from  which  the  eastern  race  takes  its 
name;  but  they  seem  to  be  approached  in  this  respect  by  many 
European  examples,  though  Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  they  are 
not  only  larger  birds,  as  a  rule,  but  lay  larger  eggs. 

In  winter  the  Whitethroat  migrates  by  the  Nile  Valley, 
through  North  eastern  Africa,  to  the  Cape  Colony  and  Damara 
Land. 

Habits. — This  is  a  very  lively  little  bird,  and  one  of  the  best 
known  of  our  summer  visitors,  arriving  towards  the  end  of 
April,  and  leaving  for  its  African  winter  home  in  the  end  of 
September.  It  is  found  in  all  sorts  of  situations,  and  builds 
its  nest  in  a  variety  of  places,  but  is,  perhaps,  more  often  seen 
in  the  hedge-rows  than  anywhere  else,  particularly  where 
brambles  or  beds  of  nettles  clothe  the  sides.  In  the  latter  it 
often  places  its  nest,  suspended  in  the  stalks  and  well  hidden 
from  sight ;  it  is  doubtless  this  fact  that  has  gained  for  the  bird 
the  name  of  "  Nettle-Creeper  "  in  many  districts.  In  North- 
amptonshire we  always  knew  it  as  the  "  Hay-Chat,"  and 
another  myth  connected  with  its  nestng  in  our  schoolboy 
days  in  the  above-named  county,  was  that  when  one  could 
see  through  the  nest,  the  latter  was  ready  for  eggs.  As  its 
framework  is  very  slight,  the  nest  is  always  more  or  les 
transparent.  As  a  rule,  the  Whitethroat  is  easily  observed, 
and  is  a  frequent  object  in  any  walk  in  the  country  near 
London,  especially  in  the  market-gardens  in  the  western 
suburbs,  and  the  white  throat  of  the  bird  renders  him  at  once 
conspicuous,  as  he  flies  across  the  road  on  to  the  top  of  a 


THE   WARBLERS.  185 

hedge,  and,  with  a  flick  of  his  tail,  disappears  on  the  other 
side.  The  feathers  of  the  head  are  also  much  puffed  out, 
giving  the  appearance  of  its  being  too  big  for  the  little  body  of 
the  bird.  The  female  is  less  frequently  seen,  as  she  keeps 
much  more  to  the  lower  parts  of  the  hedges,  or  to  the  thickest 
brambles  and  bushes.  The  male,  on  the  other  hand,  often 
springs  up  into  the  air  like  a  Tit-Lark,  and  descends  singing  to 
his  perch,  often  in  a  jerking  manner,  with  his  tail  expanded. 
In  the  autumn,  like  other  Warblers,  it  devours  numbers  of  cur- 
rants and  berries,  and  Mr.  Dixon  states  that  it  also  eats  the 
corn  when  it  is  in  a  soft  and  milky  state.  We  have  known 
them  to  work  great  havoc  in  a  row  of  peas.  During  the 
summer,  however,  the  food  of  the  Whitethroat  consists  almost 
entirely  of  insects,  and  it  eats  large  numbers  of  Daddy  Longlegs, 
and  it  may  often  be  observed  flying  off  from  its  perch  and 
catching  insects  in  the  air,  like  a  Flycatcher. 

Nest. — A  very  slight,  but  deep,  structure,  composed  of  dry 
grass-stems  and  bents,  and  lined  with  thin  roots  and  horse-hair. 
It  is  generally  placed  low  down  in  the  overhanging  boughs  of  a 
white-thorn  or  other  bush,  or  amongst  the  smaller  bramble- 
stems,  or,  as  said  before,  suspended  in  the  nettles. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number.  The  ground-colour 
varies  much.  The  predominant  colour  is  olive,  the  ground- 
colour of  the  egg  being  brownish-white,  thickly  speckled  with 
olive-brown,  and  very  plainly  spotted  with  violet-grey,  of  which 
the  underlying  spots  are  really  composed,  but  in  many  instances 
these  are  so  distinct  that  they  appear  to  constitute  the  over- 
lying spots,  and  are  generally  congregated  at  the  larger  end  of 
the  egg.  Other  types  of  eggs  have  the  ground-colour  greenish- 
white,  and  the  spots  are  greenish-brown  and  violet-grey,  never 
£o  strongly  indicated  as  in  the  first-mentioned  variety.  A 
rarer  type  of  egg  has  the  ground-colour  light  green,  with  tiny 
brown  dots  and  larger  markings  of  violet-grey.  One  remark- 
able clutch  from  Epping  Forest,  in  the  Salrin-Godman  collec- 
tion, has  the  greenish-white  ground-colour  of  the  eggs  almost 
entirely  obscured  by  blotches  of  reddish-brown,  while  the 
darker  markings  are  almost  black,  and  are  congregrated  at  the 
large  end  of  the  egg  in  great  blotches.  Axis,  0*7-0*8  inch  • 
diam.,  Q'5-0'6. 


1 36  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

III.  THE  LESSER  WHITETHROAT.     SYLVIA  CURRUCA. 

(Plate  XX.,  Fig.  2.) 

Motacilla  curruca,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  329  (1766). 
Sylvia  garrula,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  357  (1839). 
Sylvia  curruca,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  410  (1873) ;  Dresser,  B. 

Eur.,  ii.,  p.  383,  pi.  58  (1876);  Seeb.,  Cat  B.  Brit.  Mus., 

'v.,  p.  16  (1881);  id.  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  410  (1883);  B.  O. 

U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  12  (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt. 

ii.  (1886);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  43  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  pale  ashy- brown  or  Mouse- 
grey  ;  the  head  light  slaty-grey,  contrasting  with  the  back ; 
lores,  sides  of  face,  and  ear-coverts  dusky  ash-colour ;  the  eye- 
lid whitish  ;  over  the  eye  a  faintly  indicated  eyebrow  of  hoary- 
grey;  wing-coverts  like  the  back,  the  greater  series  externally 
lighter  and  more  sandy-brown ;  quills  sepia-brown,  with  a  pale 
fringe  to  the  tips,  externally  lighter  brown,  the  secondaries  more 
sandy-brown  like  the  greater  coverts ;  tail-feathers  sepia-brown, 
edged  with  ashy,  the  outer  feathers  dingy  ashy-whitish  along  the 
outer  web  and  near  the  end  of  the  inner  one ;  under  surface  ol 
body  pure  white,  with  a  pinkish  blush  on  the  fore-neck  and 
breast,  deepening  into  rosy-isabelline  on  the  sides  of  the  body 
and  flanks  ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  white,  with  a  rosy 
isabelline  tinge  on  the  latter,  and  on  the  quill-lining ;  bil 
dusky  grey,  pale  at  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible ;  feet  anc 
claws  leaden-grey;  iris  light  brown.  Total  length,  5-2  inches 
culmen,  0-35;  wing,  2'6;  tail,  2*15;  tarsus,  0-85. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  in  colour  to  the  male,  but  having  the 
brown  of  the  back  a  little  further  extended  on  to  the  crown 
Total  length,  5  inches;  wing,  2-55. 

Winter  Plumage- — Scarcely  differs  from  the  summer  plumage 
but  is  a  little  browner  on  the  breast  and  flanks,  without  any 
pinkish  tinge. 

Young. — Resembles  the  adults,  but  is  still  more  plainly  washec 
with  brown  below,  and  has  the  white  on  the  outer  tail-feather 
much  more  marked,  the  greater  portion  being  white  with  a 
black  shaft,  and  leaving  an  oblique  black  mark  along  the  greater 
part  of  the  inner  web. 


PLATE       XX 


i    WH1TETHROAT        2      LESSER  WHLTETHROAT 


THE    WARBLERS.  187 

NOTE. — The  Lesser  \Vhitethroat  is,  as  its  name  implies,  a  smaller  bird 
than  the  Common  Whitethroat,  though  not  to  any  remarkable  extent,  for 
the  wing  in  the  smaller  species  measures  2*45  to  2*65  inches,  while  in 
S.  sylvia  it  measures  2-5  to  2 '9,  so  that  large  examples  of  the  former 
exceed  in  length  of  wing  small  examples  of  the  latter.  The  Lesser  White- 
throat  belongs  to  the  group  of  Warblers,  which  have  the  first,  or  bastard- 
primary,  longer  than  the  primary-coverts,  thus  differing  from  the  ordinary 
Whitethroat  and  Garden  Warbler,  but  agreeing  in  this  respect  with  the 
Blackcap  and  Orphean  Warbler.  The  wing,  however,  is  less  than  three 
inches  in  length,  and  the  grey  head  likewise  distinguishes  the  Lesser  White- 
throat  from  the  above-mentioned  species. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Not  so  universally  distributed  as  the 
Whitethroat,  though  it  is  found  over  the  southern  and  midland 
counties  of  England,  becoming  gradually  rarer  towards  the 
north  and  west.  In  Durham,  Northumberland,  and  Cumber- 
land it  is  scarce,  and  according  to  notes  published  by  Mr. 
Howard  Saunders  in  his  "  Manual  "  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Robert 
Service,  it  is  "seldom  met  with  in  Kirkcudbrightshire,  although 
better  known  in  Dumfriesshire  and  down  by  the  borders,  where 
its  nest  has  been  twice  obtained ;  it  is  said  to  breed  sparingly 
and  locally  as  far  as  Stirlingshire ;  but  in  the  northern  counties, 
and  in  the  outlying  islands,  the  evidence  tends  to  show  that 
it  is  at  most  a  rare  straggler."  One  specimen  has  been  recorded 
as  shot  in  Aberdeenshire,.  on  the  4th  of  November,  a  somewhat 
extraordinary  date,  but  confirmed  by  the  capture  of  a  specimen 
near  Brighton  in  the  same  month,  while  the  late  Dr.  Saxby  saw 
a  specimen  in  Unst  in  September.  Only  a  single  occurrence 
in  Ireland  is  known. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands' — The  present  species  is  known 
to  breed  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  extending 
northward  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle,  but  not  to  the  limit  of 
forest-growth.  It  is  also  found  as  far  east  as  Asia  Minor  and 
Palestine,  but  to  the  eastward  its  place  is  taken  by  Sylvia 
affinis  from  the  Lower  Volga  and  Northern  Persia  to  Siberia 
and  even  North-eastern  China.  The  winter  home  of  the 
Lesser  Whitethroat  is  in  Africa,  but  it  does  not  go  so  far  south 
as  6".  sylvia  ;  it  visits  North-eastern  and  Northern  Africa,  and 
Mr.  Howard  Saunders  states  that  it  likewise  winters  sparingly  in 
South-eastern  Spain. 

Habiu. — These  differ  somewhat  from  those  of  the  Common 


1 88  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Whitethroat,  inasmuch  as  the  Lesser  Whitethroat  is  a  more 
retiring  bird,  and  does  not  place  itself  so  much  in  evidence 
as  its  ally.  It  is  quite  as  unobtrusive  as  the  Garden  Warbler, 
and,  like  that  species,  frequents  the  most  secluded  localities. 
It  arrives  in  England  somewhat  later  than  S.  sylvia^  and  as 
the  foliage  is  then  more  advanced,  this  may  be  one  reason 
why  the  Lesser  Whitethroat  is  less  noticed  than  that  species. 
Like  the  latter  it  frequents  hedgerows  and  lanes,  but  is  mor 
often  seen  in  the  higher  trees  than  the  Whitethroat.  Its  fc 
consists  of  insects,  in  pursuit  of  which  it  hops  from  twig  to  t 
and  examines  all  the  leaves,  after  the  fashion  of  Warblers  ;  it 
also  varies  its  diet  with  fruit,  and  is  said  to  be  especially  fom 
of  cherries  and  red  currants,  while  we  can  affirm  that,  like  tl 
Whitethroat,  it  is  capable  of  doing  considerable  damage  amon< 
the  peas.  In  the  autumn  it  feeds  on  berries.  The  song  of  tl 
Lesser  Whitethroat  is  described  by  Mr.  Seebohm  as  "  a  mono- 
tonous trill,  sometimes  like  the  first  notes  of  the  song  of  the 
Yellow  Bunting,  but  it  is  frequently  preceded  by  a  few  notes, 
which,  though  they  are  not  very  varied  nor  very  loud,  are  by  no 
means  unmusical,  and  somewhat  resemble  the  twittering  of  a 
Swallow.  Its  call-note  resembles  the  syllable  check  several  times 
repeated  and  sometimes  varied  with  a  more  guttural  cry."  Like 
other  Warblers,  it  utters  a  harsh  grating  note  when  alarmed  or 
disturbed  near  its  nesting-place. 

Nest. — Not  so  deep  as  that  of  the  Common  Whitethroat, 
very  similar  in  construction,   though  somewhat  more  coarsel 
made.     The  materials  are  fine  grass-stems,  and  spiders'  wet 
or  the  cocoons  of  caterpillars  are  used  to  bind  it  together,  while 
the  linings  consist  of  fine  rootlets  or  horsehair.  It  is  sometime 
placed  in  the  higher  branches  of  a  tall  hedgerow  or  in  bustu 
but  is  also  to  be  found  in  brambles  or  furze. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number.  The  ground-colour  is  chir 
white,  spotted  with  light  brown  or  greenish-brown,  and  havii 
very  distinct  underlying  blotches  and  spots  of  violet-gn 
generally  forming  a  ring  near  the  larger  end  of  the  egg. 
some  instances  the  darker  markings  are  accompanied  by  al 
solutely  black  spots,  distributed  irregularly  over  the  egg.  Axis 
Q-65-0'75  inch  ;  diam.,  0-5-0-55. 


THE    WARBLERS.  189 

\ 

IV     THE    ORPHEAN    WARBLER.       SYLVIA    ORPHEUS. 

Sylvia  orphea^  Temm.;   Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,   p.   423  (1873); 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  411,  pi.  64  (1874) ;  B.  O.  U.  List 

Br.  B.,  p.  12  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  45  (1889);    Lil- 

ford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  xv.  (1890). 
Sylvia  orpheus,  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.   Brit.   Mus.,  v.,  p.   14  (1881); 

id.  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  390  (1883). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  slaty-grey,  a  little  clearer 
on  the  hind-neck  ;  wing-coverts  like  the  back ;  the  bastard- 
wings,  primary-coverts,  and  quills  blackish-brown,  edged  with 
ashy-grey  ;  tail-feathers  blackish,  edged  with  ashy,  and  slightly 
tipped  with  white,  increasing  in  extent  towards  the  outermost, 
which  is  white  along  the  outer  web  and  at  the  tip  of  the  inner 
web  for  a  considerable  extent ;  head  dusky  blackish,  including 
the  lores  and  ear-coverts,  forming  a  cap  which  extends  as  far 
as  the  nape ;  cheeks,  throat,  and  under  surface  of  body  white ; 
the  sides  of  the  breast  and  flanks  ashy-grey  with  a  slight 
pinkish  tinge,  becoming  browner  on  the  lower  flanks ;  thighs 
creamy-white ;  under  tail-coverts  white,  mottled  with  ashy-grey 
centres  to  the  feathers  ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  ashy- 
white,  with  greyish  bases;  bill  dark  brown  with  a  yellowish-- 
base to  the  lower  mandible ;  feet  and  claws  leaden-grey ;  iris 
pale  yellow.  Total  length,  6-3  inches;  culmen,  o'6 ;  wing, 
3- 1  ;  tail,  2-4;  tarsus,  0-85. 

Adult  Female. — Rather  browner  than  the  male,  and  not  so  dis- 
tinctly grey;  the  flanks  more  isabelline-buff;  the  breast  washed 
with  creamy-buff;  the  head  not  so  distinctly  black  as  in  the 
male,  and  in  many  specimens  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  back  in  colour.  Total  length,  57  inches  ;  wing,  3-15 

Young  in  Autumn  Plumage. — After  the  first  moult,  the  young 
birds  are  very  like  the  old  females,  but  have  the  quills  externally 
browner ;  the  head  is  a  little  greyer  and  more  dusky  than  the 
back,  and  the  black  lores  and  ear-coverts  are  indicated  by  a 
dusky  shade.  The  principal  characteristic  of  the  young  bird  is 
the  colour  of  the  under-parts,  the  throat  being  white  with  a 
pinkish  tinge,  the  fore-neck  and  chest  rosy  isabelline,  deepen- 
ing into  clear  vinous  on  the  sides  of  the  body,  flanks,  and 


190  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

especially  rich  in  coiour  on  the  under  tail-coverts ;  axillaries 
vinous  like  the  flanks ;  under  wing-coverts  white. 

NOTE. — The  large  size  of  the  Orphean  Warbler  is  one  of  its  chief  charac- 
ters when  compared  with  that  of  the  Whitethroats,  as  the  wing  is  three 
inches  in  length,  but  it  might  possibly  be  confounded  with  the  Blackcap 
which  sometimes  equals  it  in  length  of  wing.  Like  the  latter  species  it  has 
the  first,  or  bastard,  primary-quill  rather  long,  equalling  the  length  of  th£ 
primary-coverts,  or  extending  as  much  as  O'2  inch  beyond  them,  and  the 
second  primary  is  equal  to  the  fifth,  whereas  in  the  Blackcap  it  is  a  little 
longer  than  the  sixth.  The  white  throat,  however,  will  always  distinguish 
the  Orphean  Warbler ;  in  the  Blackcap,  the  throat  is  ashy-grey. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  two  reported  occurrences  of  this 
species  in  England  are  scarcely  satisfactory  for  its  recognition 
among  British  Birds,  and  the  statements  that  the  nest  and  eggs 
have  been  taken  in  this  country  are  quite  unreliable.  Sir 
William  Milner  had  in  his  collection  a  specimen  said  to  have 
been  shot  near  Wetherby,  in  Yorkshire,  in  July,  1 848,  but,  not 
withstanding  that  a  pair  of  birds  was  stated  to  have  been  seen, 
the  authority  for  the  genuineness  of  the  occurrence  is  not  al 
that  could  be  wished.  The  second  instance  of  the  capture  o: 
an  Orphean  Warbler  is  said  to  have  taken  place  near  London 
when  a  young  bird  was  caught  at  Holloway,  in  June,  1866,  wai 
kept  alive  by  Sergeant-Major  Hanley  for  nearly  six  months,  anc 
was  identified  as  belonging  to  the  present  species  by  the  late 
Mr.  Edward  Blyth.  It  would  have  been  more  satisfactory  if  the 
history  of  this  specimen  had  been  followed  up,  as  is  necessary 
in  the  cases  of  all  birds  which  may  be  kept  as  cage-birds  at  any 
of  our  military  stations  in  the  Mediterranean,  and,  like  the 
Calantlra  Lark,  gain  a  footing  in  the  list  of  "  British  "  species 
The  occurrence  of  the  present  bird  in  England  is  the  less  likely 
to  happen,  when  it  is  considered  that  no  specimen  has  ever 
been  recorded  from  the  countries  opposite  to  our  own  shores. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Orphean  Warbler  is 
principally  a  bird  of  the  south  of  Europe,  being  found  in  all 
the  Mediterranean  countries  as  far  east  as  Asia  Minor  and 
Palestine,  though  Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  the  birds  of  these 
countries  are  intermediate  between  the  west-European  birds 
and  the  Indian  Orphean  Warbler  (Sylvia  jerdoni).  It  is  a  j 
common  bird  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  extends  northward  I 
into  France,  breeding  sparingly  in  the  Brenne  district,  and! 


THE   WARBLERS.  tgi 

more  frequently  in  Potiou,  while  it  also  occurs  as  far  as  the 
Vosges  and  Luxembourg :  it  has  also  occurred  at  Heligoland. 
In  Italy  it  is  somewhat  local,  but  is  found  plentifully  in  Greece. 
Its  winter  home  appears  to  be  North-eastern  Africa,  and  it  has 
also  been  met  with  in  Senegambia. 

Habits. — In  these,  says  Mr.  Howard  Saunders,  there  is 
nothing  particular  to  record  as  different  from  those  of  the  other 
Warblers.  Mr.  Seebohm  states  that  he  was  disappointed  in  the 
song,  which  is  louder  and  harsher  than  that  of  the  Blackcap, 
and  its  alarm-note  is  very  loud,  as  loud,  he  says,  as  that  of  a 
Blackbird.  Lord  Lilford  has  given  the  following  account  of 
the  bird  in  Spain  :  "  I  found  it  exceedingly  common  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Madrid  and  Aranjuez.  In  these  localities  I 
generally  met  with  it  frequenting  the  avenues  of  elm  and 
deciduous  bushes  in  the  gardens  and  open  country,  as  a  rule 
avoiding  thickly-wooded  districts ;  in  Andalucia,  on  the  other 
hand,  our  bird  appeared  especially  to  frequent  the  pine-woods, 
and  the  willows  that  grow  thickly  along  certain  portions  of  the 
Guadalquivir.  The  nests  that  we  found  were  placed  at  various 
heights,  from  five  to  twenty  feet  from  the  ground,  often  resting 
on  the  young  growers  from  the  trunks  of  the  elms,  and  perhaps 
as  often  in  the  forks  of  willows,  tamarisks,  and  olive-trees. 
The  nest  is  very  much  more  substantially  built  than  that  of  the 
other  Warblers  of  this  family.  The  song  of  the  bird,  though 
more  powerful  than  that  of  our  Blackcap,  cannot,  in  my 
opinion,  be  compared  with  it  for  melody  or  sweetness.  In 
fact,  I  have  always  been  puzzled  to  know  why  the  name  of 
'Orpheus'  should  have  been  bestowed  on  this  species."  % 

tfest. — Generally  placed,  without  any  attempt  at  concealment, 
the  branch  of  a  tree,  at  about  four  or  five  feet  from  the 
ound,  or  near  the  top  of  a  bush,  and  found  by  Capt. 
illoughby  Verner  in  the  summit  of  young  cork-trees  near 
ibraltar,  at  a  height  of  twelve  feet.  The  nest,  says  Mr.  See- 
dim,  is  a  tolerably  substantial  one,  and  deep,  composed  of 
y  grass  and  leafy  stalks  of  plants.  Inside  it  is  built  of" 
icr  grasses,  and  sparingly  lined  with  thistle-down,  or  the 
>wer  of  the  cotton-grass. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  five  in  number.     They  look  at  first 
jht  like  large  eggs  of  the  Lesser  Whitethroat,  though  there 


19*  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

are  some  variations  in  the  type  of  egg  from  those  of  the  latter 
species.  The  ground-colour  is  white  or  greenish- white,  and 
the  spots  vary  from  olive-brown  to  black,  in  the  latter  case 
being  dotted  over  the  egg.  The  underlying  spots  and  blotches 
are  violet-grey,  but  often  pinkish-grey.  As  with  many  of  the 
eggs  of  this  group  of  Warblers,  the  grey  blotches  are  very 
prominent,  and  sometimes  overwhelm  the  fainter  overlying 
spots.  One  type  of  egg  has  almost  the  appearance  of  a  Pied 
Wagtail's,  both  the  overlying  and  underlying  dots  being  very 
small,  and  a  little  more  clustered  round  the  larger  end.  Axis, 
o*75-o'8  inch;  diam.,  0-55-0-6.  In  Spain  the  Cuckoo  is  very 
partial  to  the  nests  of  this  Warbler,  and  lays  eggs  exactly  like 
those  of  the  birds  it  victimises  (cf.  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  46). 

V.  THE   BLACKCAP.       SYLVIA   ATRICAPILLA. 

Motacilla  atricapilla^  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  332  (1766). 

Sylvia  atricapilla,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  339  (1839);  Newt.  ed. 

Yarr.,  i.,  p.  418  (1873);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  421,  pi. 

66  (1875) ;  Seebohm,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  23  (1881); 

id.  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  394  (1883) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B., 

p.  12   (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  i.  (1885); 

Saunders,  Man.,  p.  47  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  light  olive-brown,  a  little 
greyer  towards  the  rump  and  on  the  upper  tail-coverts  ;  wing-j 
coverts  like  the  back ;  quills  sepia-brown,  edged  with  oliven 
brown,  greyer  on  the  primaries ;  tail-feathers  sepia-brown, 
edged  with  ashy-grey ;  crown  of  head  glossy  black,  extending 
as  far  as  the  nape  and  forming  a  cap  ;  hind-neck  and  sides  ofl 
head  slaty-grey,  like  the  ear-coverts  and  sides  of  the  face  and 
lores  ;  eyelid  whitish ;  throat,  breast,  and  abdomen  ashy-white^ 
the  fore-neck,  chest,  and  sides  of  body  light  slaty-grey,  be 
coming  tinged  with  brown  on  the  lower  flanks,  and  darker 
brown  on  the  thighs ;  under  tail-coverts  white  with  dusk) 
ashy  centres ;  axillaries  and  under  wing- coverts  ashy  with  n 
tinge  of  isabelline ;  quills  dusky  below,  with  an  ashy  lining 
bill  dark  brown ;  feet  and  ciaws  leaden  grey ;  iris  hazel* 
Total  length,  5*8  inches;  culmen,  0*45  ;  wing,  2-95  ;  tail,  2-25  j 
tarsus,  o'8. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  distinguished  b]| 
having  the  cap  rufous  or  rusty-brown,  the  hind  neck  beinj; 
grey  as  in  the  male.  Total  length,  5-5  inches;  wing,  2 '8. 


THE   WARBLERS.  193 

Young. — Both  males  and  females  are  alike  in  having  the 
cap  rusty-coloured,  therein  resembling  the  old  female.  The 
back  is  more  olive-brown  than  in  the  old  birds,  and  there  is 
no  grey  on  the  neck,  which  is  coloured  like  the  back.  There 
is  considerable  doubt  as  to  the  way  in  which  the  young  male 
gains  his  first  full  black-headed  plumage,  and  Mr.  Seebohm 
mentions  his  having  secured  a  specimen  in  Heligoland,  on  the 
2nd  of  October,  which  had  a  black  head,  but  with  every 
feather  edged  with  rusty-brown.  Such  specimens  are  not  un- 
frequently  shot  in  the  winter  quarters  of  the  species,  and  if,  as 
must  undoubtedly  be  the  case,  the  Blackcap,  like  other 
Warblers,  goes  through  an  entire  spring  moult,  the  blackish 
head  would  be  worn  through  the  first  winter,  and  the  black 
cap  assumed  in  the  following  spring  by  a  moult,  or,  as  Nau- 
mann  declares,  by  a  partial  change  of  feathers.  This  is, 
however,  by  no  means  the  invariable  method  of  passing  from 
the  young  plumage  to  that  of  the  adult,  for  there  is,  in  the 
collection  of  the  British  Museum,  a  young  male  caught  at 
Lancing  on  the  i3th  of  August,  which  is  in  full  moult,  and  has 
nearly  assumed  the  perfect  black  head  of  the  adult,  without 
any  brown-tipped  feathers.  The  birds  which  exhibit  the  last- 
named  peculiarity  may  be  those  of  later  broods. 

NOTE.— The  black  cap  of  the  male,  and  the  rufous  cap  of  the  female 
distinguish  the  Blackcap  from  all  the  other  Warblers,  except  the  Orphean 
Warbler,  which  also  has  a  black  head.  As  already  stated  the  grey  throat 
of  the  Blackcap  will  always  distinguish  it  from  that  species.  In  the 
wing  the  fourth  and  fifth  primary-quills  are  equal  and  longest,  and  the 
second  primary  is  a  little  longer  than  the  sixth  ;  the  first,  or  bastard, 
primary,  extends  about  0-15  inch  beyond  the  primary  coverts. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor,  found  throughout 
England  and  Wales,  but  becoming  rarer  in  Scotland,  visiting, 
however,  the  northern  parts  and  the  Orkneys  and  Shetland 
Isles  on  the  autumn  migration,  but  not  breeding,  as  a  rule, 
beyond  the  Firths  of  Clyde  and  Forth.  In  Ireland  it  also 
nests,  and  appears  to  be  more  or  less  sparingly  distributed. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Pretty  generally  distributed 
throughout  Europe,  during  the  summer  ranging  north  to  66° 
in  Scandinavia,  in  Russia  to  62°,  and  in  the  Ural  Mountains 
to  57°  N.  lat.  In  the  collection  of  Dr.  Slovzow,  at  Omsk, 
is  a  specimen  said  to  have  been  obtained  in  the  neighbour- 
i  o 


194 


LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


hood,  but,  according  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  its  westward  range  is  the 
yoth  degree  of  east  longitude.  It  is  found  in  the  Caucasus 
and  Western  Persia,  and  winters  in  North- eastern  Africa  and 
Senegambia. 

Habits.— The  Blackcap  arrives  in  this  country  at  the  end  of 
April  or  early  in  May,  and  apparently  begins  at  once  to  build 
its  nest,  as  we  have  found  hard-set  eggs  as  early  as  the  i2th  of 
May.  Its  song,  more  sustained  than  that  of  the  Nightingale, 
rivals,  if  it  does  not  surpass,  that  of  the  latter  bird's,  and  the 
song  generally  commences  in  the  same  way — first  a  few  notes, 
sounding  some  distance  off,  and  then  bubbling  forth  into  beauti- 
ful and  sustained  melody.  Both  male  and  female  take  turns  at 
incubation,  and  Mr.  Dixon  says  that  the  former  even  sings 
while  sitting  on  the  eggs.  This  we  have  never  heard,  but  we 
have  several  times  found  the  male  bird  sitting  on  the  nest,  and 
generally  loth  to  quit  his  charge.  When  disturbed,  the  bird 
flits  off  suddenly  and  quietly,  retiring  into  the  bushes  and 
scolding  vehemently  in  the  usual  harsh  voice  of  the  Warblers. 
The  female,  on  the  other  hand,  will  evince  great  anger,  and 
often  come  close  to  the  intruder,  scolding  and  hissing.  The 
birds,  if  often  disturbed,  will  forsake  the  nest,  even  when  the 
eggs  are  far  advanced  towards  hatching,  and  will  also  not  lay 
eggs  in  a  nest  if  the  latter  be  much  disturbed  by  touching  it 
The  food  of  the  Blackcap  consists  chiefly  of  insects,  but  also 
of  a  few  berries,  and  many  observers  believe  that  the  latter 
constitute  more  of  its  food  than  insects.  In  the  autumn  they 
devour  elderberries  to  a  great  extent,  and  on  migration  they 
even  stop  in  the  suburban  districts  of  London,  and  may  then 
be  seen  in  small  parties  on  the  elder-bushes.  The  Blackcap 
undoubtedly  remains  sometimes  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Great 
Britain  during  the  winter,  being  enabled  to  subsist  by  the 
abundance  of  berries. 

Best. — This  is  placed  in  various  situations, — in  brambles,  in 
hedges,  and  small  bushes,  and  in  the  branches  of  small  trees  in 
the  undergrowth.  We  have  also  found  it  in  the  "  growers  "  of 
an  elm- tree  in  a  dark,  ever-green  shrubbery.  In  the  British 
Museum  is  a  nest,  found  by  ourselves,  in  Sussex,  suspended  in 
a  privet-bush  overhanging  a  ditch,  at  a  very  little  height  from 
the  ground.  The  nest  is  a  slightly-made,  cup-shaped  struct 


THE    WARBLERS.  195 

consisting  chiefly  of  dry  grass,  with  a.  little  moss,  a  few  cob- 
webs, and  a  scanty  lining  of  horsehair. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number.  There  is  great  variation 
in  the  colours  and  markings.  The  most  common  type  is 
olive-brown  or  'dull  white  tinted  with  olive-brown,  and  then 
smudged,  as  it  were,  with  darker  olive  all  over  the  egg,  and 
clouded  with  grey  round  the  larger  end.  This  type  of  egg  has 
also  some  blackish-brown  spots  or  blotches  scattered  promiscu- 
ously over  the  surface.  A  scarcer  type  has  the  ground-colour 
white,  and  the  overlying  spots  and  blotches  are  very  faintly 
indicated,  the  underlying  grey  markings  predominating.  A 
very  handsome  egg  is  sometimes  found,  which  is  salmon-pink, 
streaked  or  spotted  with  underlying  reddish-brown  markings, 
with  a  spot  or  streak  of  blackish-brown  scattered  here  and  there. 
Axis,  075-0-85  inch  ;  diam.,  0-55-0-6.  In  the  Canaries  a 
curious  egg  is  laid  by  the  Blackcap,  pale  greenish-white, 
with  a  ring  of  tiny  dark  greenish  dots  round  the  larger  end. 
Mr.  Meade-Waldo  procured  several  clutches  of  this  form  of  egg. 

VI.  THE   GARDEN-WARBLER.       SYLVIA   SIMPLEX. 

t  MotciciUa  salicaria.  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  330  (1766). 
Sylvia  simplex,  Lath.,  Gen.  Syn.  Suppl,  i.,  p.  287  (1787). 
Sylvia  hortensi^   Bechst.  ;  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  345  (1839) ; 

Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  10  (1881);  id.  Hist.  Br. 

B.,  p.  400  (1883);  B.-O.U.  ListBr.  B.,  p.  13  (1883);  Lil- 

ford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  ii.  (1886) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  49 

(1889). 
Sylvia  salicana,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  414  (1873)  ;  Dresser,  B. 

Eur.,  ii.,  p.  429,  pi.  67  (1876). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  warm  olive-brown,  the 
wing-coverts  like  the  back ;  quills  dark  brown,  edged  with 
olive-brown  like  the  back,  the  secondaries  slightly  paler  at  the 
ends  ;  tail-feathers  brown,  with  olive-brown  margins  ;  the  head 
like  the  back,  with  a  slight  shade  of  ashy-grey  on  the  sides  of 
the  neck ;  lores  and  eyelids  ashy-whitish  ;  the  ear-coverts  pale 
olive-brown,  lighter  than  the  back;  above  the  eye  a  faint  streak 
of  buff;  throat,  breast,  and  sides  of  body,  ochreous-buff, 
deepening  on  the  flanks  and  vent  j  the  centre  of  the  breast, 


196  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

abdomen,  and  under  tail-coverts  greyish-white,  the  latter  with 
dusky  centres  ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  orange-buff; 
quills  dusky  below,  ashy-whitish  along  the  inner  web;  bill 
dark  brown,  the  lower  mandible  pale  at  the  base;  feet  and 
claws  leaden-grey  ;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  6  inches ;  culmen, 
0-5  ;  wing,  3-0;  tail,  2-15  ;  tarsus,  075. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  plumage.  Total  length, 
6  inches  ;  wing,  3*0. 

In  Autumn  Plumage  the  upper  parts  incline  to  russet-brown 
rather  than  to  olive-brown,  and  the  buff  of  the  under  surface 
of  the  body  is  deeper  in  tint  and  more  reddish,  the  white  of 
the  breast  being  very  pure. 

Young  Birds  resemble  the  autumn  plumage  of  the  adults. 

NOTE. — The  Garden-Warbler  is  very  easily  recognised  by  its  sober 
coloration,  the  buff  colour  of  the  throat  and  chest  distinguishing  it  from  those 
of  other  species,  which  have  the  head  coloured  like  the  back.  It  has  the 
same  shaped  wing  as  the  Whitethroat,  the  first,  or  bastard,  primary  being 
very  small,  and  falling  short  of  the  primary-coverts  by  O'l  or  0*2  inch. 
The  second  primary-quill  is  nearly  equal  to  the  third.  In  shape  and  bulk 
the  Garden  Warbler  is  about  the  same  as  the  Blackcap,  but  the  black  or 
rufous  caps  always  serve  to  distinguish  the  latter. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor  to  most  parts  of 
England,  more  locally  distributed  than  the  Blackcap,  though 
in  the  Solway  district  of  Scotland  Mr.  R.  Service  says  that 
it  is  more  abundant  than  the  last-named  species.  Its 
breeding  range  does  not  extend  beyond  Pembrokeshire  and 
Breconshire,  in  Wales,  nor  is  the  bird  known  to  breed  in  the 
west  of  Cornwall.  In  Scotland  it  seems  to  be  less  generally 
distributed,  though  recorded  from  Banffshire  and  from  the 
Shetlands  during  the  autumn  migration.  In  Ireland  it  is  a 
rare  and  local  bird,  and  has  been  recorded  as  breeding  only  in 
the  counties  of  Antrim,  Fermanagh,  and  Tipperary,  and  pos- 
sibly in  Cork. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Found  everywhere  through- 
out Europe,  nesting  as  far  north  as  70°  N.  lat.  in  Scandinavia, 
and  to  about  65°  in  Russia,  but  it  does  not  extend  east  beyond 
85°  E.  long.,  according  to  Mr.  Seebohm  ;  its  most  easterly 
record  being  apparently  the  vicinity  of  Omsk,  in  Siberia,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  which  town  specimens  are  said  to 


THE  WARELKRS.  197 

have  been  procured  by  Professor  Slovzow.  In  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains its  range  is  given  as  50°  N.  lat.  It  occurs  in  the  Caucasus 
and  North-western  Persia,  and  breeds  in  Palestine,  according 
to  Canon  Tristram.  In  winter  it  migrates  to  Africa,  as  it  has 
been  found  in  Damara  Land,  the  Transvaal,  and  the  eastern 
Cape  Colony.  The  route  taken  by  the  species  is  mostly  by  the 
Nile  Valley  and  through  Equatorial  Africa,  as  it  has  been  pro- 
cured by  Emm  Pasha  at  Tingasi,  and  has  also  been  obtained  in 
Nyassa  Land ;  it  occurs,  moreover,  on  the  Gold  Coast. 

HaMtg. — The  Garden-Warbler  is  a  somewhat  later  arrival 
than  the  bulk  of  our  summer  birds,  only  reaching  our  islands 
in  the  beginning  of  May,  and  leaving  again  in  September.  Its 
unobtrusive  plumage  and  retiring  habits  render  it  much  less 
observable  than  the  Blackcap,  which  in  form  and  habits  it  so 
closely  resembles.  Its  song  is  scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  the 
last-named  species,  and,  like  the  Blackcap  and  the  Nightingale, 
it  seldom  sings  in  the  open  or  from  a  perch,  but  generally  from 
the  thick  undergrowth,  in  which  it  loves  to  skulk.  Some- 
times, however,  it  may  be  seen  to  fly  out  into  the  air  in  pursuit 
of  an  insect,  of  which  its  food  almost  entirely  consists,  though 
it  also  devours  berries  and  fruits.  This  is  certainly  the  case  in 
autumn,  when  the  birds  may  often  be  seen  on  elder-bushes 
devouring  the  berries,  in  company  with  Blackcaps.  At  other 
times  of  the  year,  however,  these  two  species  do  not  consort 
together,  but,  on  the  contrary,  seem  to  occupy  different  locali- 
ties, so  that  where  the  Blackcaps  are  common  there  are  few 
Garden-Warblers,  and  vice  versa. 

Nest. — Generally  placed  near  the  ground  in  some  secluded 
spot,  and  usually  so  well  concealed  that  neither  the  eggs  nor 
the  sitting  bird  can  be  seen.  Sometimes  it  is  suspended  in 
nettles,  like  that  of  the  Whitethroat,  and  at  other  times  among 
the  thin  twigs  of  the  briars  which  are  overhung  with  foliage,  so 
as  to  conceal  the  nest.  The  latter  is  very  slightly  constructed 
of  dry  grasses  and  a  few  small  rootlets,  with  a  little  moss  or  a 
few  cobwebs,  and  lined  with  horsehair. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number,  more  rarely  six.  In  general 
appearance  the  eggs  are  just  like  those  of  the  Blackcap,  but,  as 
a  rule,  the  markings  appear  to  be  bolder  and  coarser  than  is 
usual  in  that  species.  The  red  type,  which  is  such  a  beautiful 


198  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

variety  in  the  eggs  of  the  Blackcap,  is  seldom  found,  and  there 
is  only  a  single  specimen  of  a  red  egg  in  the  British  Museum, 
which  was  taken  by  Mr.  Gould  at  Taplow,  and  is,  therefore, 
doubtless  authentic.  The  ground-colour  is  white,  or  stone- 
colour,  with  plentiful  spots  and  blotches  of  greenish-brown, 
the  underlying  grey  blotches  being  generally  subdued,  but  in 
some  cases  prominent  and  clouding  the  larger  end,  though  in 
some  rare  instances  the  markings  are  very  few  and  scattered. 
Axis,  07-0*85  inch;  diam,  o'55~o'6. 

THE  FURZE- WARBLERS.     GENUS  MELIZOPIIILUS. 
Melizophilus,  Leach,  Syst.  Cat.  Mainm.  and  Birds,  Brit.  Mus., 

p.  25  (1816). 

Of  the  genus  Melizophilus,  two  species  are  known,  the 
English  M.  undatus,  and  the  Sardinian  Warbler,  M.  sardus. 
Both  of  these  birds  resemble  Whitethroats  in  form,  especially 
the  species  of  Sylvia  of  Southern  Europe,  such  as  S.  subalpina> 
and  they  lay  eggs  of  a  Whitethroat  type,  but  they  may  con- 
veniently be  separated  from  the  genus  Sylvia  on  account  of 
their  longer  tail,  which  exceeds  the  wing  in  length. 

I.    THE   DARTFORD   WARBLER.       MELIZOPHILUS    UNDATUS. 

Motacilla  undata,  Bodd,  Tabl.,  pi.  Enl.,  p.  40  (1783). 
Melizophilus  provindalis,  Macg.,  Br.   B.   ii.,   p.   383  (iS3< 

Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  iv.  (1887). 
Melizophilus   undatus,    Newt.    ed.   Yarr.,    i.,   p.   398  (1873);     '• 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  441,  pi.  69  (1873);  B.  O.  U.  List 

Br.  B,  p.  14  (1883). 
Sylvia  provinciate ,  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  31  (1881); 

id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  414  (1883). 
Sylvia  undata,  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  53  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  dark  slaty-grey  washe 
with  brown ;  the  crown,  sides  of  the  face  and  sides  of  necl 
slaty-grey  like  the  back,  this  colour  also  extending  on  to  the 
sides  of  the  upper  breast ;  wing-coverts  like  the  back ;  the 
quills  sepia-brown,  edged  with  lighter  brown,  rufescent  on  the 
margins  of  the  secondaries ;  tail-feathers  blackish,  edged  with 
slaty-grey,  the  outer  feather  white  on  the  outer  web,  and  edged 
with  white  round  the  tip  of  the  inner  web ;  under  surface  of 


; 

>ck 


THE   FURZE-WARBLERS.  199 

body  vinous  chestnut,  the  abdomen  pure  white ;  the  feathers 
of  the  throat  and  fore-neck  tipped  with  hoary  white,  these  tips 
forming  a  faint  moustachial  streak  along  the  cheeks ;  under 
tail-coverts  ashy  grey,  with  hoary  margins  ;  under  wing-coverts 
and  axillaries  dark  slaty-grey ;  bill  dark  brown,  with  a  pale  base 
to  the  lower  mandible ;  feet  and  claws  pale  brown ;  iris  orange 
yellow.  Total  length,  5  inches;  culmen,  0-5;  wing,  2'o;  tail, 
2-4;  tarsus,  075. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour,  but  paler  below, 
inclining  more  to  cinnamon-rufous  than  chestnut.  Total  length, 
5  inches ;  wing,  2*0. 

Winter  Plumage. — Much  darker  than  in  summer,  being  more 
of  a  sooty  brown,  the  hoary  white  tips  to  the  feathers  of  the 
throat  more  distinct,  these  wearing  off  a  good  deal  during 
the  breeding  season. 

Young. — Dusky  chocolate-brown  above,  the  edges  of  the 
wing-coverts  and  quills  more  rufous-brown  ;  under  surface  of 
body  pale  tawny  buff,  the  sides  and  flanks  being  sooty  brown, 
the  throat  clearer  tawny  buff. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  resident  bird  in  the  southern  coun- 
ties, having  been  known  to  breed  in  nearly  every  one  of  them 
from  Kent  to  Cornwall,  and  it  is  even  said  to  occur  in  the 
midlands,  its  most  northern  breeding  record  being  one  on  Mr. 
Dixon's  sole  authority  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sheffield.  As 
Mr.  Howard  Saunders  very  properly  says,  it  is  such  a  skulking 
bird  that  it  may  very  easily  be  overlooked  even  by  a  practised 
observer.  In  many  parts  of  the  south  of  England  it  has  be- 
come much  rarer  of  late  years,  having  been  apparently  ex- 
tinguished by  the  severe  and  prolonged  cold  of  some  recent 
winters,  such  as  that  of  iSSi. 

-  Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Dartford  Warbler  may 
be  said  to  be  a  bird  principally  of  the  Mediterranean,  whence 
it  extends  into  France.  It  is  common  in  most  parts  of  Spain 
and  Portugal,  as  well  as  in  Southern  France,  but  it  does  not 
appear  to  be  resident  in  any  part  of  Europe  east  of  Italy, 
though  it  has  been  recorded  from  Palestine  and  Lower  Egypt. 
In  the  Balearic  Islands,  as  well  as  in  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  and 
also  in  Liguria  its  place  is  taken  by  the  Sardinian  Warbler, 


2oo  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Melizophihis  sardus.  It  appears  to  be  resident  in  most  of  the 
countries  which  it  inhabits,  but  must  be,  to  a  certain  extent, 
migratory  in  some  parts  of  its  range,  especially  as  it  is  known 
to  ascend  the  mountains  in  Southern  Europe  for  the  purpose 
of  nesting,  and  to  descend  to  the  low  country  in  winter. 

Habits. — The  Dartford  Warbler,  wherever  found,  seems  in 
England  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  furze-covered  districts,  at 
least  during  the  breeding  season,  and  it  is  only  in  the  winter  that 
it  may  be  found  in  such  places  as  turnip-fields  or  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  coast.  It  is  pronounced  by  every  observer  to  be  a  bird 
of  feeble  flight,  and  it  is,  therefore,  curious  to  note  that  on  two 
occasions  specimens  have  been  procured  in  Heligoland.  Mr. 
Howard  Saunders  says  that  in  its  habits  it  is  a  restless  little  bird, 
flitting  from  the  top  of  one  furze-bush  to  another,  with  a  quiet 
and  undulating  flight,  alighting  in  a  very  abrupt  manner  as  if 
the  action  were  the  result  of  an  afterthought,  the  tail  being 
spread  for  an  instant  as  if  to  aid  the  bird  in  an  effort  to  retain 
its  balance.  On  the  wing  the  bird  looks  very  dark,  in  fact,  like 
a  black,  long-tailed  Wren.  The  note  which  he  most  often  heard 
uttered  was  a  pit-it-chou,  whence  the  French  name,  "  Pitchou  " ; 
but  he  says  that  it  has  a  scolding  note,  cha-cha,  when  the  bird 
is  irritated.  Mr.  Seebohm  gives  the  following  note  on  the 
habits  of  the  species  as  observed  by  him  in  winter  near  Biarritz, 
where  the  birds  were  frequenting  the  reeds  on  the  banks  of  a 
small  lake.  "  The  first  sight  I  had  of  one  was  that  of  a  little  dark 
bird  with  a  fan-like  tail  suddenly  appearing  amongst  the  reeds, 
crossing  a  small  patch  where  they  had  been  cut  down,  and  as 
suddenly  and  silently  disappearing  amongst  the  reeds  on  the 
opposite  side.  Occasionally,  as  we  walked  on  the  bank  of  the 
lake,  we  heard  a  loud,  clear,  melodious  pitch-oo  repeated  once 
or  twice  amongst  the  reeds.  The  note  was  so  musical  that  for  a 
moment  one  might  imagine  that  a  Nightingale  was  beginning 
to  strike  up  a  tune.  Now  and  then  we  saw  the  bird  appear  for 
a  moment  above  the  reeds,  as  if  thrown  up  by  a  battledore  \ 
but  it  dropped  down  again  and  disappeared  as  suddenly.  We 
have  rarely  seen  so  skulking  a  bird.  Once  only  it  flew  up 
from  the  reeds  and  perched  in  a  willow  near  a  pair  of  furze- 
bushes.  Like  most  other  Warblers,  this  bird  is  very  active, 
scarcely  resting  for  a  moment,  except  when  warbling  its  hurried 
little  song  from  the  top  of  a  furze-bush.  It  flits  up  the  bush, 


THE    RUFOUS    WARBLERS.  2OI 

dodging  in  and  out  the  side  branches  in  search  of  insects, 
perching  for  a  moment  on  the  topmost  spray  ;  but  before  you 
have  time  to  get  your  binocular  on  to  the  bird,  the  latter 
catches  sight  of  your  movement,  and  drops  down  into  the 
furze  as  if  shot." 

Nest. — This  is  a  very  neatly  constructed  cup,  rather  deep,  and 
more  strongly  built  to  outward  appearance  than  that  of  most 
Warblers.  It  is  made  of  fine  grass-stalks,  very  neatly  inter- 
twined and  supported  by  a  little  moss  and  wool,  with  the 
grass-stalks  sticking  out  in  every  direction.  The  inner  lining  is 
of  finer  grass-stems  with  a  little  horsehair. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number.  The  markings  partake  of 
the  character  of  the  Whitethroat's  eggs,  but  those  of  the  Dart- 
ford  Warbler  are  more  regularly  and  thickly  clouded  with  spots. 
The  general  type  of  egg  has  the  ground-colour  greenish-white, 
almost  hidden  by  spots  of  greenish-brown,  thickly  sprinkled  all 
over  the  egg,  though  in  some  cases  clouding  the  larger  end. 
The  underlying  grey  markings  are  also  distinct.  In  the  lighter 
type  of  egg  the  ground-colour  is  greenish-white,  spotted  with 
greenish-brown  all  over  the  egg,  but  more  thickly  at  the  larger 
end,  where  the  grey  underlying  markings  are  distinct.  Axis, 
07-075  inch;  diam.,  0*5. 

THE  RUFOUS  WARBLERS.   GENUS  AEDON, 

Aedon,  Boie,  Isis,  1826,  p.  972. 

Type;  A.  galactodes  (Temm.). 

The  Rufous  Warblers,  formerly  named,  by  a  curious  mis- 
apprehension of  the  habits  of  the  birds,  the  Rufous  "  Sedge- 
Warblers,"  are  two  in  number,  and  they  are  aptly  called  by 
Salvadori  the  Nightingale  of  Africa  and  the  Nightingale  of  the 
Levant.  The  first  is  a  bird  of  the  Mediterranean  countries, 
while  the  second,  Aedon  familiaris,  is  the  Eastern  representa- 
tive of  the  genus,  and  instead  of  migrating  north  and  south 
like  A.  galactodes,  its  movements  are  east  and  west,  as  it  is  said 
to  occur  in  Italy,  which  brings  its  range  across  that  of  A.  galac- 
todes. Count  Salvadori,  however,  does  not  regard  its  occur- 
rence in  Italy  as  completely  proved. 

The  Rufous  Warblers  are  both  species  of  somewhat  large  size. 


202  LLOYDS    NATURAL    HISTORY. 

They  have  sometimes  been  placed  with  the  True  Warblers  in  the 
genus  Sylvia,  but  they  are  totally  different  in  colour  from  the 
members  of  that  genus,  are  inhabitants  of  dry  countries,  and 
have  much  longer  feet  than  is  usual  in  the  genus  Sylvia  ;  they 
also  have  the  rictal  bristles,  according  to  Mr.  E.  W.  Gates, 
placed  in  a  horizontal  row,  without  any  supplementary  bristles, 
as  in  the  above-named  genus. 

I.    THE   RUFOUS   WARBLER.      AEDON   GALACTODES. 

Aedon  galactodes  (Temm.),  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i..  p.  355  (1873); 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  547,  pi.  85  (1874);    B.  O.  U. 

List  Br.  B.,  p.  18  (1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.;  pt. 

xi.  (1889) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  67  (1889). 
Sylvia  .galactodes,  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  34  (iSSi); 

id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  418  (1883). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  light  cinnamon-rufous,  the 
whole  of  the  upper  surface  being  uniform,  but  the  rufous 
colour  deepening  towards  the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts, 
which  incline  to  darker  cinnamon-rufous  or  light  chestnut; 
the  four  centre  tail-feathers  are  not  tipped  with  white,  but  have 
a  blackish-brown  spot  at  the  end,  reduced  to  a  small  shaft-spot 
on  the  two  middle  feathers  ;  all  the  other  tail-feathers  with  a 
broad  white  spot  at  the  ends,  increasing  in  size  on  the  outer 
ones,. and  having  a  large,  subterminal  spot  of  black  ;  lesser  and 
median  wing-coverts  like  the  back,  but  inclining  to  whity- 
brown  on  their  edges  ;  the  greater  coverts  dusky,  inclining  to 
rufous  externally  and  to  whity-brown  on  the  margins  ;  primary 
coverts  and  quills  dusky-brown,  edged  with  rufous  like  the 
back,  the  secondaries  fringed  with  whitish  round  their  ends ; 
head  like  the  back,  with  a  creamy  buff  eyebrow  ;  a  dusky 
streak  from  the  lores  through  the  eye;  sides  of  face  sandy- 
buff,  the  ear-coverts  a  little  browner ;  a  faint  moustachial  line 
of  dusky  brown  ;  cheeks  and  under  surface  of  body  sandy-buff, 
inclining  to  creamy-white  on  the  throat,  breast,  abdomen,  and 
under  tail-coverts ;  flanks  washed  with  cinnamon,  as  also  the 
under  wing-coverts  ;  quill-lining  rufous  ;  bill  brown,  the  lower 
mandible  yellowish  horn-colour ;  feet  and  claws  brown  ;  iris 
hazel.  Total  length,  6-5  inches ;  culmen,  6-65 ;  wing,  3-45  ; 
tail,  2 '8;  tarsus,  n. 


THE    RUFOUS    WARBLERS.  203 

Adult  Female. — Similar  in  colour  to  the  male.  Total  length, 
6-5  inches;  wing,  3-4. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  rare  and  accidental  visitor  from  the 
south,  having  occurred  on  three  occasions  only,  and  always  in 
the  autumn.  One  was  shot  by  the  late  Mr.  Swaysland,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1854,  near  Brighton  ;  a  second  specimen,  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  was  procured  in  a  half-starved  condition,  and 
\vithout  its  tail,  at  the  Start,  in  Devonshire,  by  Mr.  W.  D. 
Llewellyn,  in  September,  1869;  while  the  third  instance  oc- 
curred near  Slapton,  in  Devonshire,  in  October,  1876,  and  is 
vouched  for  by  a  well-known  naturalist,  Mr.  H.  Nicholls. 

Kange  outside  the  British  Islands- — The  Rufous  Warbler  is  found 
in  most  of  the  Mediterranean  countries  from  Morocco  to  Pales- 
tine, and  it  winters  to  the  southward  in  Abyssinia.  In  summer 
it  visits  the  southern  parts  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and,  more 
rarely,  Italy.  It  is  also  found  in  Palestine  in  summer  as  far  as 
Beyrout,  but  to  the  north  of  the  Lebanon  only  the  Grey-backed 
Warbler,  A.faniiliariS)  occurs,  and  this  species  takes  the  place 
of  A.  gatactodes,  from  Greece,  eastwards  through  Asia  Minor 
and  the  Caucasus  to  Turkestan,  wintering  in  N.W.  India  and 
probably  in  Arabia,  as  it  is  known  to  extend  to  Eastern  Africa. 

HaMts. — In  some  works  this  species  is  described  as  a  very 
wary  bird,  while  in  others  its  tameness  is  referred  to  as  remark- 
able. Mr.  Dixon,  in  Algeria,  had  the  greatest  difficulty  in  pro- 
curing a  specimen,  while  Canon  Tristram  speaks  of  it  as  "  seen 
everywhere"  in  Palestine,  "on  upland  and  lowland  alike,  ex- 
panding, jerking,  and  fanning  its  tail,  with  its  conspicuous  white 
bar,  on  the  bare  fig-trees,  among  olives,  on  the  top  of  any  little 
shrub,  or  on  the  pathway  in  front  of  the  horseman,  hopping 
fearlessly  on  at  his  close  approach."  In  Southern  Spain, 
according  to  Mr.  Howard  Saunders,  it  is  not  at  all  shy,  until 
it  becomes  conscious  of  being  watched  and  followed;  it  is 
very  lively  in  its  habits,  constantly  flirting  its  tail,  whence  the 
Spanish  name  of  "  Alza-cola"  and  "Alza-rabo." 

Nest. — Mr.  Osbert  Salvin  has  given  the  following  account  of 
the  birds,  as  observed  by  him  in  Algeria  in  1858:  "Near 
Am  Djendeli  I  used  frequently  to  notice  the  present  species 
about  the  trees  that  overhung  the  dry,  stony  watercourses  that 
run  from  the  hills  into  the  plain  beneath.  We  never  found  a 


204  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

nest,  however,  in  one  of  the  above-mentioned  p>aces ;  and  it 
would  seem  that  the  bird  prefers  a  moister  soil  for  its  breeding 
haunts,  such  as  is  afforded  by  the  lowlands  near  Ain  Djendeli, 
where  the  tamarisk-trees  grow  on  the  banks  of  the  Chemora 
and  the  small  Ain  or  spring.  The  nest  we  found  usually  placed 
conspicuously  in  the  fork  or  on  a  branch  of  one  of  these  trees, 
and  with  apparently  no  attempt  at  concealment.  The  heights 
at  which  the  structure  is  placed  vary  from  one  to  six  feet  from 
the  ground.  In  one  instance  I  found  a  nest  among  the  roots 
of  a  tree  in  a  bank-side,  in  a  place  where  one  would  have 
expected  in  England  to  have  found  the  nest  of  a  Robin.  The 
materials  employed  are  the  dead  shoots  of  the  tamarisk,  which 
form  the  outside — the  inside  and  the  lining  being  usually  Coot's 
or  Duck's  feathers,  mingled  with  wool  or  camel's-hair ;  and, 
in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  a  small  piece  of  serpent's  skin  is 
loosely  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  nest."  It  is  curious  that  the 
presence  of  this  piece  of  snake-skin  is  also  mentioned  by  Mr. 
Howard  Saunders,  Canon  Tristram,  as  well  as  by  Mr.  Seebohm, 
who  found  it  in  the  nests  of  A.  familiaris  in  Greece,  where  the 
natives  declared  it  was  woven  by  the  birds  into  the  nest  as  a 
charm,  to  prevent  natives  from  sucking  their  eggs. 

Eggs. — Three  to  five  in  number.  The  ground-colour  varies 
from  dull  white  to  bluish-grey,  profusely  marked  with  overlying 
streaks  and  spots  or  blotches  of  reddish-brown,  being  more 
densely  clustered  round  the  larger  end,  and  with  underlying 
spots  of  violet-grey  ;  one  type  is  of  a  pale  blue  colour  with  tiny 
spots  of  reddish-brown  uniformly  scattered  all  over  the  egg. 
Axis,  0-85-0-95  inch ;  diam.,  0-65-07. 

THE  WILLOW-WARBLERS.      GENUS  PHYLLOSCOPUS. 

Phylloscopus,  Boie,  Isis.,  1826,  p.  972. 

Type,  P.  sibilator  (Beehst.). 

The  members  of  the  genus  Phylloscopus  are  small  birds  of 
delicate  form  and  colour,  the  principal  tints  of  the  latter  being 
green  and  yellow.  Four  species  of  the  genus  occur  in  Eng- 
land, three  as  breeding  birds  from  the  south,  and  one  as  an  acci- 
dental visitor  from  the  far  east.  The  bill  is  somewhat  like  that 
of  some  of  the  Flycatchers,  which  these  little  Warblers  to  a 
certain  extent  resemble  in  their  habits.  The  bill  is  beset 


THE   WILLOW- WARBLERS.  205 

with  small  rictal  bristles,  and  there  are  some  supplementary 
bristles  in  front  of  the  rictal  series.  The  tail  is  slightly  forked, 
and  consists  of  twelve  tail-feathers.  The  axillaries  and  under 
wing-coverts  are  yellow,  a  character  which  will  distinguish  them 
from  all  the  other  English  Warblers. 

I.   THE   WOOD-WARBLER.       PHYLLOSCOPUS   SIBILATOR. 

Motodlla  sibilatrix,  Bechst,  Naturg.,   Deutschl.,   iv.,   p.   688 


Phyllopneuste  sylvicola,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  364  (1839). 
Phylloscopus  sibilatrix.    Newt.    ed.  Yarr.,   i.,  p.  427   (1873); 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  497,  pi.  77  (1876) ;  Seeb.,  Cat.  B. 

Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  54  (1881);  id.  Br.  B.,  p.  436  (1883); 

B.   O.  U.  List.  Br.   B.  p.  17(1883);   Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 

Brit.  B.,  pt.  iii.  (1885) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  65  (1889). 
Phylloscopus  sibilator,  Salvad.  Elench.  Ucc.  Ital.,  p.  133  (1886). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  yellowish-green,  rather 
clearer  on  the  head  and  rump ;  wing-coverts  dusky-brown, 
edged  with  yellowish-green,  inclining  to  paler  yellow  towards 
the  ends  of  the  greater  series ;  primary-coverts  and  quills  dusky- 
brown,  edged  with  yellowish-green,  more  broadly  on  the  inner 
secondaries,  which  are  fringed  with  whitish  at  their  ends,  a 
small  white  fringe  being  also  present  at  the  tip  of  the  primary- 
quills  ;  tail-feathers  dusky-brown,  edged  with  yellowish-green 
and  narrowly  fringed  with  white  at  the  ends ;  sides  of  face 
clearer  yellow ;  a  very  broad  eyebrow  of  sulphur-yellow  ex- 
tending from  the  base  of  the  forehead  to  above  the  ear-coverts, 
and  followed  by  a  dusky  streak  through  the  eye  from  the  lores 
to  the  upper  margin  of  the  ear-coverts  ;  under  surface  of  body 
white,  the  sides  ashy-grey  washed  with  sulphur-yellow;  the 
throat  clear  sulphur-yellow,  followed  by  a  faint  greyish  tinge 
on  the  breast ;  axillaries  pale  yellow ;  under  wing-coverts 
whitish,  tinged  with  yellow  ;  bill  brown,  the  base  of  the  lower 
mandible  pale  horn-colour ;  feet  and  claws  light  brown  ;  iris 
hazel.  Total  length,  4'8  inches;  culmen,  o'6 ;  wing,  3-1; 
tail,  2*0;  tarsus,  07. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  rather  greener  and  the 
throat  not  so  pure  yellow.  Total  length,  47  inches ;  wing, 


206  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Young. — Like  the  adults,  but  greener,  and  the  j^ellow  of  thi 
throat  more  diffused  and  extending  over  the  fore-neck  an< 
upper  breast. 

Winter  Plumage — Does  not  differ  appreciably  from  the  summer 
plumage. 

NOTE.— The  Wood-Warbler  is  the  largest  of  the  three  species  which 
breed  in  Great  Britain,  and  is  brighter  in  colour  than  the  Willow- Warbk 
or  the  Chiffchaff,  neither  of  which  have  such  a  clear  yellow  eyebrow  c_ 
throat,  the  latter  contrasting  markedly  with  the  white  breast  and  abdomen. 
The  first,  or  bastard,  primary  is  shorter  than  the  primary-coverts,  and 
measures  only  o'3  to  0-4  inch.  The  second  primary  is  always  longer 
than  the  fifth. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor  to  most  parts  of 
England  and  Wales,  and  also  found  over  the  greater  part  of 
Scotland,  having  been  seen  in  Caithness  and"  in  the  Outer 
Hebrides,  on  North  Uist.  The  most  northerly  breeding  place 
yet  recorded  in  our  islands  is  the  south-east  of  Sutherlandshire, 
where  it  is  said  to  nest  by  Messrs.  Buckley  and  Harvie-Brown. 
In  Ireland  it  is  only  known  as  a  rare  visitor,  but  doubtless 
breeds  in  certain  parts  of  the  country. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — Found  over  the  greater  part 
of  Europe  in  summer,  but,  to  a  certain  extent,  local  in  its  dis- 
tribution. Thus  it  has  never  been  found  in  Norway,  but 
occurs  in  Sweden  up  to  the  vicinity  of  Upsala,  is  common  in 
the  Baltic  Provinces,  and  extends  to  Finland,  and  even  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  Archangel.  Its  eastern  limit  in  Russia 
appears  to  be  the  district  of  Kazan,  but  further  south  it  has 
been  found  in  Lenkoran.  In  Turkey  it  also  breeds,  but  is 
only  a  migrant  in  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  and  Palestine.  In 
Italy  it  nests  on  the  mountains  of  the  northern  and  central 
provinces,  but  is  principally  known  as  a  spring  migrant  to  that 
country.  The  same  may  be  said  regarding  Spain,  but  in  Por- 
tugal the  species  is  almost  unknown,  though  Mr.  Tait  says 
"  there  is  one  in  the  Lisbon  Museum,  obtained  at  Barranhos  " 
(Ibis,  1887,  p.  92).  It  nests  sparingly  in  North-eastern  Africa. 
The  winter  home  of  the  Wood-Warbler  appears  to  be  in 
North-eastern  Africa,  but  it  also  winters  in  Western  Africa,  ! 
having  been  procured  at  the  Gold  Coast  by  Captain  Shelley  j 
and  Mr.  T.  E.  Buckley. 


THE    \VILLO\V-WARBLERS.  .  207 

Halnts. — The  Wood-Warbler  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
little  birds  which  visit  England  in  the  spring.  It  appears 
about  the  end  of  April,  and  its  presence  is  at  once  made 
known  by  its  cheery  song.  Its  name  of  "  Wood- Warbler,"  or 
"  Wood-Wren,"  is  in  every  way  appropriate,  for  it  is  essentially 
a  bird  of  the  woods,  and  it  is  just  when  the  latter  are  putting 
forth  their  fresh  green  leaves  that  the  Wood-Warbler  appears  in 
our  midst.  By  listening  for  the  trill  of  the  little  songster  he  can 
soon  be  discovered,  sitting  probably  for  an  instant  on  a  bough  at 
some  distance  from  the  ground,  and  then  flying  off  to  the  slender 
twigs  to  examine  the  leaves  above  and  below  in  search  of 
insects.  Then  he  will  sometimes  fly  out  from  the  tree  and 
catch  a  passing  insect,  after  the  manner  of  a  Flycatcher ;  and, 
returning  to  its  perch,  break  out  into  song  again.  When  the 
birds  first  arrive,  several  are  to  be  heard  in  the  same  wood, 
answering  each  other's  song,  and  trilling  joyously.  Sometimes 
the  bird  begins  to  sing  in  mid-air  as  he  is  flying  from  one  tree 
to  another,  and  finishes  his  song  as  he  lights  on  his  new  perch, 
and  in  every  movement  the  Wood- Warbler  is  an  embodiment 
of  grace  and  elegance,  while  its  easy  flight  often  resembles 
that  of  a  Butterfly.  The  song  is  imitated  by  Mr.  Seebohm  by  the 
following  words,  chit-chit  chit-chit  chitre  tr-tr-tr-tr-tre ;  this_ 
really  gives  a  very  good  idea  of  the  opening  note,  which  is  pro- 
nounced as  if  the  bird  were  bubbling  over  with  the  idea  of  a 
song  and  could  not  get  it  out  quickly  enough ;  but  the  mellow- 
ness of  the  final  trill  cannot  be  produced  by  any  form  of  words, 
and  must  be  heard  to  be  appreciated  and  remembered.  The 
female  is  a  very  shy  bird,  and  is  not  often  seen ;  but  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  nest  is  often  pointed  out  by  the  singing  of 
the  male  bird,  who  warbles  continually  near  the  spot  until  the 
hatching  of  the  eggs  gives  him  a  more  important  occupation. 
But  even  if  the  vicinity  of  the  nest  be  discovered,  it  is  by  no 
means  easy  to  find  the  nest  itself,  for  it  is  always  well  con- 
cealed on  the  ground  hidden  among  the  grass,  and  scarcely 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  surroundings. 

Nest. — Partly  domed  over,  and  made  of  grass,  with  a  few 
dead  leaves  or  a  little  moss,  but  is  lined  with  horsehair,  not 
with  feathers,  as  in  the  allied  species  of  Warbler. 

Eggs. — From  five  to  seven.      Ground-colour  white,  thickly 


208 


LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


dotted,  and  in  some  instances  blotched  with  purplish-brown, 
and  having  tolerably  distinct  underlying  spots  of  violet-grey. 
In  some  clutches  the  purplish-brown  markings  are  so  thickly 
collected  together  as  to  cloud  the  larger  end  of  the  egg,  and 
there  is  very  seldom  an  attempt  at  a  ring  round  the  latter. 
Axis,  0-6-07  inch ;  diam.,  0-5-0-56. 

II    THE   WILLOW-WARBLER.       PHYLLOSCOPUS   TROCHILUS. 

Motadlla  trochilus.  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  338  (1766). 
Phyllopneuste  trochilus^  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  371  (1839). 
Phylloscopus  trochilusy  Newt.  ed.  Yarn,  i.,  p.  432  (1873) ;  Dres 

ser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  491,  pi.  76,  fig.  2  (1879);  Seeb.,  Cat. 

B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  56  (1881);  id.  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  43^ 

(1883);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  16  (1883);  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  v.  (1887);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  63  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  olive-greenish,  somewhat 
clearer  on  the  rump ;  the  head  like  the  back ;  lesser  wing- 
coverts  like  the  back,  the  rest  of  the  wing-coverts  and  quills 
dusky  brown,  edged  with  the  same  colour  as  the  back ;  tail 
dusky  brown,  externally  with  narrow  greenish  margins,  and 
ashy-white  edges  to  the  inner  webs,  with,  in  freshly  moulted 
specimens,  a  narrow  whitish  margin  extending  to  the  tips  of 
the  feathers ;  head  like  the  back,  with  a  tolerably  distinct  eye- 
brow of  dull  sulphur-yellow;  eyelid  also  yellow;  lores  and  sides 
of  face  dull  olive-greenish ;  sides  of  neck  like  the  back ;  throat 
and  fore-neck  ashy-whitish,  with  streaks  of  pale  sulphur-yellow, 
with  which  the  feathers  are  margined;  breast  and  abdomen  purer 
white,  the  under  tail-coverts  also  whitish,  but  washed  with 
yel!ow  near  the  vent ;  the  flanks  inclining  to  olive  buff,  and 
slightly  washed  with  yellow ;  thighs  yellow ;  under  wing-coverts 
and  axillaries  sulphur-yellow,  as  also  the  edge  of  the  wing; 
quills  dusky  below,  ashy-whitish  along  the  inner  margin ;  bill 
dark  brown,  with  a  slightly  paler  base  to  the  lower  mandible ; 
feet  and  claws  brown ;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  4-8  inches ; 
culmen,  0-5;  wing,  27;  tail,  2*1;  tarsus,  o'8. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  4-6  inches; 
wing,  2-45. 

Young. — After  the  autumn  moult  the  young  birds  are  much 


THE   WILLOW-WARBLERS.  209 

more  olive-brown  above  than  the  adults,  and  entirely  yellow 
below.  Before  the  first  autumn  moult  the  colour  is  a  dull 
olive-brown  above,  the  throat  and  breast  dingy  ashy-brown; 
the  abdomen  white,  with  a  wash  of  sulphur-yellow  in  the 
middle;  the  feet  very  pale. 

Winter  Plumage. — The  adults  in  winter  have  the  plumage  very 
like  that  of  the  spring,  but  rather  more  yellow. 

NOTE. — The  Willow- Warbler  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  Wood- 
Warbler  by  its  smaller  size  and  duller  coloration.  The  third  and  fourth 
primaries  are  the  longest  quills,  and  the  second  primary  is  intermediate 
between  the  fifth  and  sixth.  It  is  with  the  Chiffchaff  that  the  Willow- 
Warbler  is  often  confounded,  but,  as  will  be  seen  below,  the  wing  of  the 
Chiffchaff  is  much  more  rounded,  and  the  proportion  of  the  quills  is  quite 
different.  In  the  Willow- Warbler  the  wing  is  much  more  pointed,  as  befits 
a  bird  of  such  extended  migration.  The  feet  are  also  much  paler  in  the 
Willow- Warbler  than  in  the  Chiffchaff. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor  to  nearly  every  por- 
tion of  the  British  Islands,  though  somewhat  local  in  the  west 
of  England  and  parts  of  Wales.  It  is  only  known  as  a  straggler 
in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetland  Isles.  It  arrives  in  England  about 
the  beginning  of  April,  and  departs  in  September. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Occurs  in  nearly  every  part 

I  of  Europe,  but  in  many  countries  only  on  migration.      Its 

breeding  range  extends  to  the  extreme  north  of  Scandinavia, 

and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Petchora  and  the  Yenesei  Mr.  See- 

jbohm  found  the  species  up  to  yoQ  N.  lat.     In  the  northern 

[countries  of  Europe  it  breeds,  but  chiefly  in  the  mountains, 

iand  is  decidedly  local,  while  for  its  eastern  range  Dr.  Pleske 

gives  ample  data  to  show  that  it  nests  in  most  of  the  provinces 

}f  Russia,  and  even  in  the  Caucasus  and  the  isolated  woods  of 

he  Kirghis-steppes.    The  principal  winter  home  of  the  Willow- 

kVarbler  is  Africa,  where  it  is  found  not  only  on  the  west  coast 

)ut  also  in  South  Africa  down  to  the  Cape  Colony  itself.     It 

bccurs  in  most  collections  from  the  Transvaal,  and  it  is  also 

net  with  in  Damara  Land  during  the  cold  season  in  the  north. 

t  is  even  said  to  winter  in  some  of  the  Mediterranean  countries, 

I  nd  certainly  does  so  in  the  oases  of  the  Sahara. 

Habits. — Although  the  Willow- Warbler  is  frequently  noticed 
i  the  woods,  especially  on  its  first  arrival  in  spring,  it  is  by  no 
:    leans  so  exclusively  a  denizen  of  them  as  the  Wood-Warbler. 
i  t 


216  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

It  is  equally  to  be  found  in  gardens  and  orchards,  and  even 
in  the  parks  and  shrubberies  of  towns.  In  the  suburbs  of  Lon- 
don it  is  a  common  visitor  during  the  spring  and  autumn 
migration,  and  is  to  be  seen  at  the  last-named  time  of  year 
feeding  with  the  Blackcaps  on  the  elderberries.  The  song  of 
the  Willow- Warbler  is  more  feeble  than  that  of  the  Wood- 
Warbler,  but  is  of  the  same  trilling  character,  though  the  song 
is  not  so  prolonged  and  is  in  a  descending  scale.  After  the 
breeding  season  and  the  autumnal  moult  has  been  accomplished, 
the  bird  recommences  to  sing,  but  as  a  rule  at  that  season  of 
the  year  it  is  generally  silent,  uttering  only  its  "  whit  "-like 
call-note,  and  searching  diligently  for  food,  not  only  in  the 
inland  woods,  but  more  particularly  in  the  trees  by  the  river- 
side. It  is  at  this  time  of  year  that  it  more  especially  merits 
the  name  of  "  Willow  "-Warbler,  for  it  is  a  very  common  thing 
in  the  Thames  Valley  to  see  little  parties  of  these  birds  feed- 
ing among  the  willows  in  August. 

Nest. — As  with  the  Wood-Warbler,  the  nest  of  this  species 
placed  on  the  ground,  and  is  very  difficult  to  discover.  Wit 
both  of  them  the  best  way  is  to  beat  the  ground  with  a  sticl 
and  so  drive  out  the  hen-bird  from  the  nest.  Not  only  is  the 
entrance  to  the  nest  very  small,  but  the  materials  of  which  it  is 
composed  greatly  assimilate  to  the  surroundings  and  aid  in  its 
concealment.  The  nest  is  half-domed,  the  rim  of  the  entrance  | 
being  built  at  an  angle  of  about  45°. 

A  nest  taken  in  Sussex  is  now  before  us.     It  is  neatly  con-; 
structed  when  taken  away  from  its  ragged  surroundings,  and  is  I 
composed  principally  of  dry  grass-stems,  with  a  good  deal  of 
moss  near  the  top,  and  a  few  dead  leaves  interwoven ;  on  the 
outside  are  also  a  few  feathers,  among  them  one  from  the 
breast  of  a  Cuckoo.     Inside  the  nest  is  scantily  lined  with 
feathers. 

Eggs. — Five  to  eight  in  number.  Ground-colour  white,  01 
creamy-white,  either  numerously  sprinkled  with  reddish  dots.; 
or  having  the  spots  larger,  more  scattered,  and  sometimes  ir 
the  form  of  blotches  or  tiny  streaks,  generally  at  the  larger  enci 
of  the  egg.  The  shape  of  the  egg  varies  considerably,  beinj 
sometimes  elongated,  and  at  other  times  almost  round,  but  th< 
spots  are  always  reddish.  Axis,  o'C-o'y  inch  ;  diam.,  0*4 5-0*5 


THE   WILLOW-WARBLERS.  211 

The  late  Mr.  Swaysland,  of  Brighton,  used  to  affirm  that 
there  was  a  second  species  of  Willow-Warbler  in  England,  which 
built  a  nest  off  the  ground,  sometimes  at  a  height  of  a  few  feet, 
had  a  different  song,  and  laid  a  different  coloured  egg.  At  our 
request  he  procured  us  a  nest  of  this  "intermediate"  Willow- 
Warbler,  as  he  called  it.  The  nest  was  taken  from  the  rubbish 
and  the  runners  near  the  base  of  a  tree.  It  is  similarly  con- 
structed to  the  one  described,  but  has  perhaps  not  quite  so 
many  stems  of  dead  grass.  The  eggs  are  sprinkled  all  over  with 
reddish  spots,  belonging  to  the  type  first-mentioned  above,  while 
those  which  he  forwarded  as  the  eggs  of  the  true  Willow- 
Warbler  are  more  sparsely  dotted  with  darker  and  larger  spots, 
as  in  the  second  type  of  egg  mentioned  in  the  description.  We 
have  not  been  able  to  detect  any  difference  in  the  colour  of  the 
birds  which  Mr.  Swaysland  sent  as  belonging  to  the  two  forms 
of  Willow- Warbler,  but  the  subject  is  worth  the  attention  oi 
some  of  our  field-naturalists ;  though  the  explanation  is  pro- 
bably that,  like  the  Chiffchaff,  the  Willow-Warbler  not  un- 
frequently  builds  its  nest  away  from  the  ground. 

III.    THE   CHIFFCHAFF.       PHYLLOSCOPUS    MINOR. 

Sylvia  rufa  (nee.  Bodd.),  Bechst.,  Orn.  Taschenb.,  i.,  p. 

(1802). 

Trochilus  minor,  Forst.,  Syn.  Cat.  Br.  B.,  p.  54  (1817). 
Phyllopneuste   hippolais   (nee.  L.),   Macg.,   Br.   B.,   n,  p.  379 

(1839)- 
Phylloscopus  collybita  (V.),  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  437  (1873) ; 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  p.  488,  pi.  76  (1879). 
Phylloscopus  ruf us  (Bechst),  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.   Brit.  Mus.,  x.,  p. 

60  (1881);  id.'  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  435  (1883);  B.  O.  U.  List 

Br.  B.,  p.  16  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  61  (1889). 
Phylloscopus  collybista,   Salvad.,    Elench.   Ucc.  Ital.    p.     134 

(1886). 
Phylloscopus  minor,  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.,  Br.  B.,  pt.  v.  (1887). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  dull  olive-green,  slightly 
:learer  olive  on  the  rump;  wing-coverts  and  quills  dusky  brown, 
•_'d  with  olive-green  like  the  back ;  tail-feathers  also  dusky 
jrown,  very  slightly  margined  with  olive ;  crown  of  head  uni- 
omi  with  the  back ;  a  narrow  eyebrow  of  greyish-white,  slightly 

p  7 


212  LLOYDS    NATURAL    HISTORY. 

tinged  with  yellow,  extending  from  the  base  of  the  bill  to  just 
behind  the  eye ;  sides  of  face  dingy  olive,  with  a  dusky  line 
through  the  eye ;  under  surface  of  body  dingy  olive-yellow, 
whiter  on  the  centre  of  the  breast,  abdomen,  and  under  tail- 
coverts,  the  latter  washed  with  olive-yellow;  under  wing-coverts 
and   axillaries   rather  brighter   greenish-yellow ;   quills  dusky 
below,  ashy-whitish  along  the  edge  of  the  inner  webs  ;  bill  dark 
brown,  the  lower  mandible  slightly  paler ;  feet  and  claws  dar 
brown,  almost  black;  iris  hazel.      Total  length,  4-6  inches 
culmen,  o'5  ;  wing,  2 '8  ;  tail,  1*9  ;  tarsus,  o'8. 

Adult  Female — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  4-5  inches 
wing,  2-4. 

Autumn  Plumage. — Much  more  fulvescent  in  tint  than  in  sum 
mer,  the  eyebrow  being  fulvous,  and  the  throat,  chest,  an< 
sides  of  the  body  also  of  this  colour,  with  a  few  yellow  streak 
on  the  throat  and  breast. 

Young. — Similar  to  the  adults,  but  entirely  olive-yellow  undei 
neath,  the  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries,  and  the  edge  c 
the  wings,  being  brighter  yellow. 

NOTE. — The  Chiffchaff  can  be  easily  recognised  by  the  shape  of  th 
wing,  which  is  much  more  rounded  than  in  the  Willow- Warbler  or  Wooc 
Warbler,  and  has  the  second  primary,  i.e.,  the  first  long  primary  in  th 
wing,  about  equal  in  length  to  the  sixth.  The  general  colour  is  mor 
dingy,  and  the  size  is  rather  smaller  than  that  of  the  Willow-Warblei 
Both  in  life  and  in  a  prepared  skin  the  feet  are  much  darker,  appearin 
black  in  the  skin  of  a  Chiffchaff,  and  brown  in  a  Willow-Warbler.  Th 
character  and  that  of  the  more  rounded  wing  of  the  Chiffchaff  render  th 
two  birds  easily  recognisable  one  from  the  other. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — An  early  summer  visitor,  arriving  in, 
the  middle  of  March,  and  leaving  in  September  and  October.; 
Chiffchaffs  occasionally  remain  in  England  during  the  winter, 
and  Mr.  Robert  Read  has  presented  to  the  British  Museum 
a  specimen  obtained  by  him  in  Somersetshire  on  the  27th  o| 
December,  1892.  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  says  that  the  birc 
winters  mostly  in  the  south-western  counties,  when  it  elects  t( 
stay  in  England  during  the  cold  weather.  In  all  parts  of  Greaj 
Britain  it  is  a  rarer  bird  than  the  Willow- Warbler,  but  is  com* 
moner  in  some  districts  than  others,  being  rare  or  local  in  Nor 
folk,  Lancashire,  and  in  the  north-west  of  Yorkshire,  but  agaii 
more  plentiful  in  the  northern  counties  of  England,  and  th< 


THE   WILLOW-WARBLERS.  213 

south  of  Scotland  ;  it  is  a  common  bird  in  Ross-shire,  has  been 
found  in  Caithness,  but  is  only  known  as  a  straggler  in  the 
Outer  Hebrides  and  in  the  Orkneys.  In  Ireland  it  is  by  no 
means  rare. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. —  Found  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  Europe,  but  nesting  less  frequently  in  the 
Mediterranean  countries  than  in  the  north ;  in  Italy  it  breeds 
only  in  the  mountains.  It  does  not  quite  reach  the  Arctic 
Circle  in  summer,  occurring  in  Scandinavia  as  high  as  65°  N. 
lat,  and  in  Russia  attaining  the  same  latitude.  Its  eastern 
range  extends  to  the  government  of  Perm,  where  it  is  replaced 
by  the  Siberian  Chiffchaff,  Phylloscopus  tristis^  which  also  takes 
its  place  in  the  Petchora  Valley.  According  to  Pleske,-  our 
ChiffcharT  breeds  in  the  government  of  Orenburg,  north  of  the 
Ural  river,  but  in  Central  and  Southern  Russia  is  only  seen  on 
migration,  and  it  is  also  a  migrant  to  the  valleys  of  the  Amu 
Darya,  wintering  in  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  Palestine, 
and  as  far  south  as  Abyssinia.  In  the  Canary  Islands  it  is  re- 
placed by  an  allied  species,  Phylloscopus  fortunatus. 

Habits. — These  resemble  those  of  the  other  members  of  the 
genus,  but  the  ChiffcharT  is  less  easily  observed  than  either  the 
Wood  or  Willow- Warblers,  as  it  seldom  sings  in  the  open,  but  is 
more  a  frequenter  of  shrubberies  and  ivy-clad  woods,  in  which 
it  manages  to  conceal  itself  effectually.  Its  tell-tale  note,  from 
which  the  name  of  Chiffchaff  is  derived,  betrays  its  presence, 
but  the  bird  is  by  no  means  easy  of  observation,  except  in  the 
vicinity  of  its  nest.  Its  food  consists  of  small  insects  and 
caterpillars,  in  pursuit  of  which  it  searches  the  leaves  diligently 
like  the  Willow- Warbler,  and  it  is  quite  as  active  as  the  latter 
bird,  though  it  has  not  such  a  rapid  flight,  owing  doubtless  to 
its  more  rounded  and  less  migratory  wing. 

Nest. — This  is  generally  placed  on  the  ground.  It  is  half 
domed  as  a  rule,  but  not  invariably,  and  is  composed  of  dried 
grass,  rather  roughly  put  together  on  the  outside,  but  more 
neatly  on  the  inside  of  the  nest,  which  is  usually  lined  with 
feathers.  No  moss  is  used,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Willow- 
Warbler,  and  the  feather-lining  is  sometimes  very  scanty,  as  is 
also  the  case  occasionally  with  the  nest  of  the  last-named 
species.  The  Chiffchaff  often  builds  in  the  open,  by  the  side 


214  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

of  a  public  road,  and  will  place  its  nest  in  a  stunted  bush  about 
a  foot  from  the  ground.  On  one  occasion  we  found  a  nest  in 
a  shrubbery,  at  Avington  Park,  built  in  among  the  growers  of 
an  elm-tree  among  the  dead  leaves  and  rubbish,  at  a  height  of 
quite  four  feet  from  the  ground.  The  nest  was  shaped  like 
that  of  a  Wren,  and  opened  outwards,  but  was  built  of  the 
usual  rough  grass  of  the  Chiffchaff's  nest.  That  there  shoulc 
be  no  mistake  about  the  species  to  which  the  nest  belonged 
we  caught  the  hen-bird  in  a  butterfly-net,  as  she  quitted  the 
nest,  and  the  skin  is  in  the  British  Museum  at  this  day,  for,  on 
finding  that  the  eggs  were  just  hatching  out  and  could  not  be 
blown,  we  sought  to  let  the  little  captive  go,  but  found  that  she 
had  died  of  fright  in  the  net,  and  we  were,  therefore,  obligee 
to  make  a  specimen  of  her  for  the  Museum. 

Eggs.  —  From  five  to  seven  in  number.  Ground  -  colour 
china-white  or  creamy-white.  As  with  the  Willow-Wren,  there 
are  two  distinct  types  of  eggs,  one  with  numerous  small  dots 
and  one  with  more  scattered  but  larger  spots  and  blotches.  The 
spots  are  deep  chocolate  or  reddish-brown,  or  more  often 
purplish-brown,  almost  black.  Underlying  spots  of  violet-grey 
are  seen  in  many  eggs,  but  there  is  seldom  an  indication  of  a 
ring  round  the  larger  end.  Axis,  0-6-0-65  mcn  >  diam,  0-45- 


IV.THE   YELLOW-BROWED   WILLOW-WARBLER.       PHYLLOSCOPUS 
SUPERCILIOSUS. 

Motatilla  superciliosci)  Gm.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  975  (1788). 
Phylloscopus  super  ciliosiiS)  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  443  (1873); 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  469,  pi.  474  (1874)  ;  Seeb.,  Cat. 

B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  68  (1881)  ;  id.  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  441 

(1883)  ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  15  (1883)  ;    Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  v.  (1887);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  59  (1889). 

Adult  Male.  —  General  colour  above  olive-green,  gradually  be- 
coming lighter  and  more  yellowish-green  on  the  lower  back, 
rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts,  so  that  the  head  appears  some- 
what more  dingy  than  the  back  ;  down  the  centre  of  the  crown 
an  indistinct  line  of  yellow;  lesser  and  median  wing-coverts  | 
like  the  back,  the  latter  with  yellow  tips  forming  a  band  ;  the 
greater  coverts  dusky  brown,  externally  yellowish-green  and 


THE    WILLOW- WARBLERS.  215 

pale  yellow  at  the  tips,  forming  a  second  wing-band  ;  primary- 
coverts  and  quills  dusky  brown,  externally  greenish-yellow, 
these  margins  not  reaching  to  the  base  of  the  secondaries,  so 
that  there  appears  a  dusky  patch  on  the  wing  formed  by  the 
primary-coverts,  and  a  second  one  at  the  base  of  the 
secondaries,  caused  by  the  absence  of  yellow  margins ;  the 
inner  secondaries  more  broadly  edged  with  white  ;  tail-feathers 
dusky  brown,  edged  with  yellowish-green,  and  with  a  narrow 
pale  fringe  along  the  tip  of  the  feathers  ;  sides  of  face  dusky 
olive,  with  a  dusky  line  through  the  eye  and  along  the  upper 
edge  of  the  ear-coverts ;  eyelid  and  a  distinct  eye-stripe  pale 
yellow;  under  surface  of  body  ashy-whitish,  clearer  on  the 
abdomen,  with  streaks  of  yellow  on  the  breast ;  the  flanks 
greenish,  washed  with  yellow  ;  under  wing-coverts  white, 
washed  with  yellow ;  axillaries  and  edge  of  wing  bright  sul- 
phur-yellow ;  quills  dusky  below,  whitish  along  the  inner  web  ; 
bill  dark  brown,  paler  at  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible ; 
feet  and  claws  brown  ;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  3 '8  inches ; 
oilmen,  0-4;  wing,  2'i  ;  tail,  i'4$ ',  tarsus,  07. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  3-5 
inches ;  wing,  2*15. 

Winter  Plumage. — Decidedly  more  olive  than  in  the  summer 
time,  when  the  plumage  gets  bleached  and  worn,  and  presents 
an  ashy  appearance.  The  central  streak  on  the  crown  becomes 
whiter  and  more  distinct,  as  does  also  the  eyebrow,  but  the 
double  wing-bar  is  never  completely  abraded  or  lost. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  present  species  has  occurred  oc- 
casionally in  the  British  Islands,  some  seven  specimens  having 
now  been  met  with  since  the  first  was  procured  by  the  late  Mr. 
John  Hancock,  in  Northumberland,  on  the  26th  of  September, 
1838.  Since  that  date  the  species  has  been  procured  in  Lin- 
colnshire, Gloucestershire,  the  Scilly  Islands,  in  the  Shetlands, 
and  even  in  County  Kerry  in  Ireland. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — This  is  a  Siberian  species 
which  wanders  westward  in  autumn,  when  it  has  been  met 
with  near  Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Leyden,  and  has  occurred  at 
least  sixty  times  in  Heligoland,  over  which  island  it  appears  to 
pass  nearly  every  autumn  on  migration,  between  the  last  week 


2 1 6-  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

in  September  and  the  end  of  October  or  the  first  week  in 
November.  According  to  Dr.  Pleske,  the  Yellow-browed 
Warbler  nests  throughout  the  whole  of  Siberia,  from  the  Valley 
of  the  Ob  to  the  Sea  of  Ochotsk,  but  has  not  yet  been  founc 
in  Kamtschatka.  It  winters  in  Southern  China,  the  Burmese 
countries,  and  in  India. 

HaMts. — Mr.  Seebohm  describes  his  meeting  with  this  species 
on  the  Yenesei.  He  writes  :  "  On  the  willows  of  the  steep  bank 
of  the  river  little  birds  were  feeding,  industriously  picking  up 
insects  on  the  naked  branches,  and  sometimes  making  flights  in 
the  air  to  catch  a  gnat  upon  the  wing.  Presently  I  heard 
plaintive  '  weest,'  which  reminded  me  of  Heligoland  ;  and  on 
shooting  the  bird  I  picked  up  a  Yellow-browed  Willow 
Warbler,  as  I  expected.  There  was  quite  a  little  party  of 
these  diminutive  creatures ;  and  they  were  so  tame  after  their 
long  journey  that  I  watched  them  for  some  time  hopping  from 
twig  to  twig,  diligently  seeking  for  food.  I  was  often  within 
four  feet  of  one  of  them,  and  could  distinctly  see  the  white 
eye-stripe,  and  the  two  bars  across  the  wing.  .  .  .  But 
although  the  Yellow-browed  Warbler  was  thus  early  in  arriving 
(June  2),  it  did  not  appear  to  be  in  any  hurry  to  commence 
building  operations.  It  soon  became  very  common,  frequent- 
ing almost  exclusively  the  pine-forests  on  the  banks  of  the 
Koorayika  and  the  Yenesei.  It  was  not  particularly  shy; 
and  on  more  than  one  occasion  I  watched  it  for  some  time  at 
a  distance  of  only  a  few  feet.  On  one  occasion  only  I  heard  it 
make  any  attempt  at  a  song;  this  was  on  the  2ist  of  June. 
The  bird  was  perched  on  the  extreme  summit  of  a  spruce,  and 
stood  shivering  its  wings,  uttering  a  few  plaintive  notes,  most 
of  them  poor  feeble  variations  of  its  call-note.  On  the  26th 
of  June  I  was  fortunate  enough  to  find  its  nest.  Curiously 
enough  I  was  this  time  also  in  company  with  a  Heligolander, 
Mr.  Boiling,  the  ship-builder  of  Yen-e-saisk.  Late  in  the  eve- 
ning we  were  strolling  through  the  forest  between  the 
Koorayika  and  the  Yenesei.  As  we  were  walking  along  a 
little  bird  started  up  near  us,  and  began  most  persistently  to 
utter  the  well-known  cry  of  the  Yellow- browed  Warbler.  As  it 
kept  flying  around  us  from  tree  to  tree,  we  naturally  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  it  had  a  nest  near.  We  searched  for  some 
time  unsuccessfully,  and  then  retired  to  a  short  distance  and 


THE   TREE-WARBLERS.  '217 

sat  down  upon  a  tree-trunk  to  watch.  The  bird  was  very  un- 
easy, but  continually  came  back  to  a  birch  tree,  from  which  it 
frequently  made  short  flights  towards  the  ground,  as  if  it  were 
anxious  to  return  to  its  nest,  but  dare  not  do  so  whilst  we 
were  in  sight.  This  went  on  for  about  half  an  hour,  when  we 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  nest  must  be  at  the  foot  of  the 
birch-tree,  and  we  commenced  a  second  search.  In  less  than 
five  minutes  I  found  the  nest,  with  six  eggs.  It  was  built  in  a 
slight  tuft  of  grass,  moss  and  bilberries,  semi-domed,  exactly 
like  the  nest  of  our  Willow-Warblers." 

Nest.  —  Composed  of  dry  grass  and  moss,  and  lined  with  rein- 
deer-hair, according  to  Mr.  Seebohm. 

Eggs.  —  The  above  named  author  describes  these  as  having  the 
ground-colour  pure  white,  spotted  very  thickly  at  the  large  end, 
in  the  form  of  an  irregular  zone,  with  reddish-.brown,  and  more 
sparingly  on  the  remainder  of  the  surface  ;  some  of  the  spots 
underlying  and  paler,  but  not  grey,  and  on  one  or  two  of  the 
eggs  they  are  confluent.  Axis,  o-6  inch  ;  diam.,  0*45.  Mr. 
Seebohm  remarks  :  "  The  markings  are  well-defined,  like 
those  on  the  eggs  of  the  Chiffchaff  ;  but  the  colour  is  decidedly 
more  like  that  of  the  Willow-Warblers,  while  they  approach 
much  more  closely  the  eggs  of  the  Indian  Willow-  Warbler,  P. 
iiy  both  in  colour  and  size." 


THE  TREE-WARBLERS.     GENUS  HYPOLAIS. 

Hypolais,  C.  L.  Brehm,  Isis,  1828,  p.  1283. 

Type,  H.  hypolais  (L.). 

Certain  groups  of  Warblers  have  a  typical  coloration  of 
egg,  known  to  every  ornithologist.  Thus  anyone  can  tell  the 
peculiar  egg  of  a  Cettia,  which  is  of  a  brick-red  colour,  and  this 
style  of  coloration  runs  through  the  eggs  of  all  the  species 
allied  to  Cetti's  Warbler.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  genus  Hypolais^  for  the  eggs  of  these  birds  are 
equally  peculiar,  having  the  ground-colour  of  a  purplish-grey  or 
salmon-pink.  All  the  members  of  the  genus  are  like  Willow- 
Warblers  in  general  aspect,  but  they  have  a  much  longer  and  flat- 
ter bill,  approaching  that  of  the  Reed-Warblers  (Acrocephalus)  in 
shape,  and  having  three  weak  rictal  bristles,  with  some  supplemen- 


218  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

tary  bristles,  as  in  most  Warblers,  but  in  Hypolais  these  are  very 
small,  and  all  but  obsolete.  The  tail  is  only  slightly  rounded. 
In  the  two  species  which  are  found  in  Central  Europe  the  colour 
of  the  under  surface  is  yellow,  but  in  all  the  other  species  of  the 
genus  the  tints  are  of  the  plainest  description,  being  brown  or 
grey,  with  the  under  surface  white.  These  plain-coloured 
species,  however,  never  approach  the  shores  of  England,  and  are 
not  likely  to  occur  here,  but  of  the  two  yellow-breasted  species 
of  Europe,  one  has  been  found  within  our  limits,  and  the  other, 
H.  polyglotta,  is  an  inhabitant  of  Western  France,  and  might 
easily  occur  in  England.  It  may,  therefore,  be  worth  while  to 
mention  that  the  two  species  may  be  distinguished  by  the  pro- 
portions of  the  primaries.  In  H.  icterina  the  second  primary 
(/.£.,  the  first  long  one)  reaches  a  point  between  the  fourth  and 
fifth,  and  in  H.  polyglotta  it  extends  to  between  the  sixth  and 
seventh.  In  the  latter  bird  the  legs  are  pale  brown  instead  of 
bluish-grey,  and  the  first,  or  bastard,  primary  is  long,  and  exceeds 
the  primary-coverts  by  0*1  to  0*25  inch,  whereas  in  H.  icterina  it 
is  generally  shorter  than  the  primary- coverts,  and  never  extends 
more  than  0-05  inch  beyond  them. 

I.    THE   COMMON   TREE-WARBLER.       HYPOLAIS    HYPOLAIS. 

Motatilla  hypolais.  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  330  (1766). 
Hypolais  icterina^  Newt  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  361  (1873);  Dresser, 

B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  321,  pi.  81  (1874) ;  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit  Mus., 

v.,  p.  77  (iS8i);B.  O.   U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.   17   (1883); 

Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.  pt.  iii.  (1886);  Saunders,  Man., 

p.  69  (1889). 
Hypolais  hypolais,  Seeb.,  Hist  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  381  (1883). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  olive-green,  the  head  like 
the  back ;  lesser  and  median  wing-coverts  like  the  back ;  the 
greater  series,  primary-coverts  and  quills  light  brown,  edged  with 
ashy-olive,  a  little  yellower  on  the  primaries,  the  inner  secon- 
daries with  very  pale  margins ;  tail-feathers  light  brown,  with 
olive-green  edges,  and  with  a  narrow  whitish  fringe  along  the 
inner  web  and  round  the  tips  in  fresh  feathers  ;  ear-coverts  a 
little  paler  than  the  back  ;  lores  dusky,  surmounted  by  a  yellow 
eye-stripe,  which  extends  from  the  base  of  the  bill  behind  the 
eye ;  eyelid  and  under  surface  of  body  yellow,  deepening  on 


THE   TREE-WARBLERS.  219 

the  chest;  the  sides  of  the  upper  breast  washed  with  olive- 
green,  the  flanks  also  slightly  washed  with  greenish  ;  axillaries 
and  edge  of  wing  yellow ;  under  wing-coverts  white,  washed 
with  yellow ;  quills  dusky-brown  below,  whitish  along  the  inner 
web  ;  bill  dark  brown  above,  yellow  below  (in  skin),  the  lower 
mandible  horn-colour  in  life  ;  feet  and  claws  pale  lead-colour  ; 
iris  hazel.  Total  length,  5-2  inches ;  culmen,  0-55  ;  wing,  2-95  ; 
tail,  2*0 ;  tarsus,  o-8. 

Adult  Female. — Does  not  differ  from  the  male  in  colour.  Total 
length,  5 -4  inches;  wing,  3-0. 

NOTE. — The  large  size,  the  flattened  and  Flycatcher-like  bill  with  its 
yellow  lower  mandible,  and  the  bright  yellow  under  surface,  seem  to  dis- 
tinguish this  species  from  any  of  the  Willow-Warblers  in  this  country. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Only  an  accidental  visitor,  which  has 
not  occurred  more  than  half-a-dozen  times.  This  is  the  more 
curious,  as  the  species  ranges  on  migration  to  the  south  of 
Africa  like  the  Willow-Warbler,  and,  on  its  return  to  Europe, 
is  plentiful  almost  within  sight  of  the  shores  of  Great  Britain. 
Of  the  five  recorded  examples  of  H.  hypolais  in  this  country, 
four  have  occurred  in  summer,  viz.,  at  Holderness,  in  Lincoln- 
shire, in  May,  1891  ;  near  Dover,  in  June,  1848;  near  New- 
castle, in  June,  1889;  and  in  co.  Dublin  in  June,  1856,  the 
only  autumn-killed  example  being  the  one  procured  by  Mr. 
Power,  near  Blakeney,  in  Norfolk,  in  September,  1884. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — In  the  south  of  Europe  this 
Warbler  arrives  towards  the  end  of  April,  but  does  not  reach  its 
northern  habitats  till  the  early  part  of  May.  It  is  generally  dis- 
tributed over  Central  Europe,  and  inhabits  Denmark,  Holland, 
Belgium,  and  the  north-east  of  France  during  the  summer,  and 
ranges,  so  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  believes,  to  about  the  line  of 
the  Somme,  to  the  west  of  which  river,  as  indeed  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  France  and  the  Peninsula,  it  is  replaced  by 
H.  polyglotta.  In  Southern  Scandinavia  the  Tree- Warbler 
is  common,  but  becomes  rarer  to  the  northward,  reaching  67° 
N.  lat.  in  Norway,  and  about  65°  in  Sweden.  It  occurs  near 
Archangel,  and  is  found  in  the  Ural  Mountains  up  to  57°  N. 
lat.  Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  it  has  been  found  to  the  east  of 
the  Urals,  in  the  valley  of  the  Tobol  river ;  but  Dr.  Pleske  re- 
marks that  if  the  species  really  occurs  in  Siberia  it  can  only  be 


220  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

exceptionally  the  case.  Its  northern  range  in  Russia  is  coin 
cident  with  that  of  the  birch  region,  according  to  Dr.  Pleske, 
who  says  that  it  has  twice  been  noted  from  the  Caucasus,  and 
Mr.  Seebohm  has  received  a  specimen  from  Lenkoran.  It 
passes  through  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  North-east  Africa  in 
migration,  making  its  way  to  South  Africa  and  Damara  Land, 
where  it  passes  the  winter.  H.  polyglotta  preserves  its  western 
character  as  a  species  even  in  the  winter  season,  and  migrates 
to  Senegambia. 

Habits. — These  are  well  described  by  Mr.  Seebohm,  who, 
however,  does  not  think  much  of  the  bird's  song,  nor  will  he 
allow  that  it  deserves  the  name  often  given  to  it  of  the  "  Melo- 
dious Willow- Warbler."  In  Germany  it  is  called  "  Spottvogel," 
or  "Mocking  Bird,"  from  its  supposed  adaptation  of  the  notes 
of  other  birds.  Mr.  Seebohm  says  :  <f  Perhaps,  on  the  whole, 
the  song  of  the  Common  Tree- Warbler  comes  nearest  to  that 
of  the  Marsh -Warbler;  but  it  often  reminds  you  strongly  of  the 
song  of  the  Sedge-Warbler.  At  other  times  you  may  trace  a 
fancied  resemblance  to  the  chirping  of  the  Sparrow,  the  scold- 
ing of  the  Whitethroat,  or  the  scream  of  the  Swift;  but  all  rattled 
off  at  such  a  rate,  one  after  the  other,  and  repeated  so  often, 
that  it  arrests  the  attention  at  once.  I  have  heard  it  in  widely- 
different  localities,  and  very  often  ;  but  in  spite  of  its  wonderful 
variety,  I  think  the  song  is  original,  and  can  see  no  reason  for 
supposing  the  bird  to  be  more  of  a  '  mocking '  bird  than  a  Song- 
Thrush  or  a  Nightingale.  Some  writers  have  compared  the  song 
to  that  of  the  Nightingale ;  but  in  quality  of  voice,  in  the  rich- 
ness of  its  tones,  and  the  melody  of  its  notes,  it  is  immeasurably 
inferior  to  that  bird,  and  the  best  one  can  say  of  its  voice  is 
that  it  is  a  very  high  soprano.  If  it  were  a  common  bird,  one 
might  say  that  it  screamed,  or  even  shrieked :  the  song  does 
not  fill  the  ear  like  that  of  the  Nightingale." 

"  The  Common  Tree- Warbler  is  essentially  a  lover  of  isolated 
trees.  He  does  not  seem  to  care  very  much  for  the  thick 
forest,  but  delights  to  sing  his  song  and  build  his  nest  in  the 
trees  in  the  gardens  and  the  hedgerows.  Like  the  Robin,  he 
seems  to  like  to  be  close  to  the  houses ;  and,  like  that  bird,  he 
has  the  reputation  of  being  very  quarrelsome  and  very  jealous 
of  the  approach  of  any  other  of  his  species  on  his  special  do- 


THE   REED-WARBLERS.  221 

main.  His  alarm  note  is  a  tek-tek-tek,  often  heard  in  an  angry 
tone.  In  its  habits  the  bird  combines  the  actions  of  a  Tit  with 
those  of  a  Flycatcher,  feeding  for  the  most  part  on  insects ;  but 
in  autumn  it  is  said  to  vary  the  diet  with  ripe  cherries,  currants, 
elderberries,  etc." 

Nest. — Described  by  Mr.  Seebohm  as  a  very  beautiful  struc- 
ture, generally  built  in  the  fork  of  a  small  tree,  eight  or  ten  feet 
from  the  ground.  He  says  that  the  nest  is  quite  as  handsome 
as  that  of  the  Chaffinch,  but  slightly  smaller,  more  slender,  and 
deeper.  It  is  composed  of  dry  grass,  deftly  interwoven  with 
moss,  wool,  spiders'  webs,  thistle-down,  strips  of  bark,  and 
lichens,  lined  with  fine  roots,  grass-stalks,  and  horsehair. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number,  rarely  six.  They  are  pinkish 
stone-colour,  with  spots,  and  lines,  and  scratches,  of  black  or 
purplish-brown.  The  clutches  vary  in  the  extent  of  the  spot- 
ting, some  being  sprinkled  with  fine  dots,  while  others  are  more 
boldly  spotted,  like  those  of  a  Bunting.  In  the  latter  small 
underlying  dots  are  visible,  but  in  the  smaller  spotted  eggs 
the  underlying  dots  are  scarcely  perceptible.  Axis,  0*65-075 
inch ;  diam.,  0-5-0-6. 

THE  REED-WARBLERS.  GENUS  ACROCEPHALUS. 

Acrocephalus,  Naum.,   Nat.   Land-  und  Wasser-  Vog.,  nordl. 
Deutschl.  Nachtr.,  iv.,  p.  199  (1811). 

Type,  A.  turdoides  (Meyer). 

The  Reed-Warblers  form  a  very  natural  group  of  birds,  found 
in  nearly  every  portion  of  the  Old  World.  They  have  a  larger 
bill  than  the  majority  of  the  Warblers,  having  this  organ  rather 
depressed  and  widened  near  the  base,  the  rictal  bristles  strong 
and  well-developed,  and  arranged  in  a  horizontal  row.  The 
wing  and  tail  are  about  equal  in  length,  the  latter  being  more 
rounded  than  in  Hypolais,  but  not  so  much  as  in  Locustella. 
The  outer  feathers  are  more  than  three-quarters  the  length  of 
the  tail.  The  first,  or  bastard,  primary  is  so  small  that  it  does 
not  reach  to  the  tip  of  the  primary-coverts,  and  is  less  than  a 
third  of  the  length  of  the  second.  It  is,  however,  a  little 
longer  in  birds  of  the  year. 


222  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

1.  THE  AQUATIC  WARBLER.    ACROCEPHALUS  AQUATICUS. 

Motacilla  aquatica,  Gm.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  953  (1788). 

Acrocephalus  aquaticus,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  380  (1873); 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  591,  pi.  89  (1876);  Seeb.,  Cat.  B. 
Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  89  (1881);  id.  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  357 
(1883);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  20  (1883);  Lilford, 
Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  ix.  (1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  79 
(1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  tawny-buff,  becoming 
clearer  on  the  lower  back,  rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts,  the 
whole  of  the  upper  parts  broadly  streaked  with  black  centres 
to  the  feathers,  less  distinct  on  the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts ; 
wing-coverts  blackish,  edged  with  pale  tawny-buff,  the  inner- 
most secondaries  similarly  coloured  ;  primary-coverts  and  quills 
dark  brown,  with  narrow  tawny-brown  margins,  broader  on  the 
secondaries,  which  appear  more  uniformly  rufous  near  the 
bases ;  tail-feathers  dark  brown,  with  narrow  tawny  edges ; 
crown  of  head  pale  tawny-buff  in  the  centre,  with  a  broad 
black  streak  along  each  side  of  the  crown,  followed  by  a  broad 
eye-brow  of  pale  buff;  cheeks  and  under  surface  of  body  light 
tawny-buff,  a  little  whiter  on  the  throat  and  abdomen,  and 
deeper  on  the  sides  of  the  body  and  under  tail-coverts ;  under 
wing-coverts  and  axillaries  whitish,  slightly  tinged  with  buff; 
bill  very  slender,  dark  brown  above,  paler  on  the  lower  man- 
dible ;  feet  pale  clay-yellow ;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  5  inches  ; 
oilmen,  0*55;  wing,  2*4;  tail,  2*0;  tarsus,  0-85. 

In  Summer  Plumage  there  are  some  narrow  blackish  streaks  on 
the  fore-neck  and  sides  of  the  body.  This  is  rather  an  unusual 
circumstance  with  a  Warbler,  the  possession  of  streaks  on 
the  under  parts  being  generally  considered  to  be  a  sign  of 
immaturity. 

NOTE. — The  Aquatic  Warbler  can  only  be  mistaken  for  the  Sedge- 
Warbler  in  this  country,  and  from  this  bird  it  is  easily  recognised  by  the 
broad  mesial  streak  on  the  crown,  flanked  by  the  two  black  bands  which 
extend  above  the  pale  eyebrow  for  the  whole  length  of  the  crown.  The 
bird  is  hardly  a  true  Acrocepkalus,  for  its  bill  is  small  and  weak,  and  more 
like  that  of  the  Grasshopper  Warbler.  The  first,  or  bastard,  primary  is 
very  small,  and  does  not  reach  to  the  end  of  the  primary-coverts.  The 
second  and  third  primary-coverts  are  equal  and  longer  than  the  fourth. 

Kange  in  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  visitor,  but  one  which 


THE  REED-WARBLERS.  223 

may  very  easily  have  been  overlooked  and  mistaken  for  the 
Sedge-Warbler.  Three  authentic  instances  of  its  occurrence 
have  been  recorded,  the  first  specimen  having  been  identified 
by  Professor  Newton  in  Mr.  Borrer's  collection.  This  bird  was 
shot  near  Hove,  in  October,  1853.  Mr.  Harting  received  a 
second  example  from  Leicestershire,  obtained  in  the  summer 
of  1864,  and  there  is  a  third  specimen,  killed  near  Dover,  in  the 
Museum  of  the  latter  town. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Aquatic  Warbler  breeds 
in  most  portions  of  Central  Europe,  as  far  as  the  south  of  Den- 
mark and  the  Baltic  Provinces,  but  is  of  rare  occurrence  in 
Holland  and  Belgium,  and  only  visits  Northern  France  on 
migration.  It  also  occurs  in  Heligoland  occasionally.  In 
Italy,  as  well  as  in  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  it  breeds,  but  is  recorded 
by  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  as  an  autumn  migrant  only  in 
Spain.  In  Poland  and  South  Russia  it  also  occurs,  reaching 
to  the  Ural  Mountains  as  high  as  56°  N.  lat.  The  winter  home 
is  probably  North  Africa. 

HaMts. — Arrives  at  its  nesting  quarters  towards  the  end  of 
April,  a  week  or  two  before  the  Sedge-Warbler,  and  breeds  a 
little  earlier  than  that  bird.  Lord  Lilford  has  found  it  to  be 
less  of  a  reed-loving  species  than  the  Sedge- Warbler,  and  Mr. 
Seebohm  says  that  its  home  is  more  in  the  swamps,  neglecting 
the  large  reed-beds,  and  choosing  the  ditches,  ponds,  and  banks 
of  lakes  and  rivers,  which  abound  in  coarse  aquatic  vegetation, 
and  being  especially  partial  to  sedges,  in  which  it  delights  to 
hide.  "Tangled  masses  of  wild-roses,  brambles,  and  thorn- 
bushes  are  also  places  where  it  is  often  found.  Like  all  its 
congeners  it  is  an  active  and  restless  bird,  and  is  remarkably 
cautious  and  sly,  concealing  itself  on  the  least  approach  of  dan- 
ger. It  is  said  never  to  hop,  but  on  a  branch  or  on  the  ground 
to  run  almost  like  a  Mouse.  The  song  is  described  as  like  that 
of  the  Sedge-Warbler,  but  is  not  so  long,  and  lacks  the  clear 
flute-like  notes  of  the  latter  bird."  (Seebohm^  I.e.) 

Nest. — Placed  near  the  ground,  sometimes  at  a  height  of  a 
foot  or  so,  but  never  actually  upon  it,  never  suspended  in  reeds, 
but  built  in  a  bunch  of  sedge  or  water-plants,  or  in  a  thorn-  or 
willow-bush  overgrown  with  rank  herbage.  It  is  suspended 
between  the  stalks  of  the  adjacent  plants,  which  are  woven  into 


224  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

its  sides.  The  material  consists  of  coarse  grass,  with  finer  grass 
and  roots,  and  always  neatly  lined  with  horsehair.  Spiders' 
webs,  the  flowers  of  the  cotton-grass,  and  occasionally  feathers, 
are  also  used  in  the  construction  of  the  nest. 


3. — From  four  to  five.  Like  the  eggs  of  the  Sedge- 
Warbler,  next  described.  Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  there  is  no 
character  by  which  they  can  be  distinguished  from  the  eggs  of 
the  latter  bird,  excepting  that  perhaps  they  are  a  trifle  smaller, 
and  not  so  yellow  in  tint.  Axis,  0-67-07  inch;  diam.,  0*5- 
0-52. 

II.  THE    SEDGE-WARBLER.      ACROCEPHALUS    PHRAGMITIS. 

(Plate  XXL    Fig.  I.) 

Sylvia  phragmitis,  Bechst.  Orn.  Taschenb.,  p.  186  (1802). 
Calamoherpt phragmiliS)  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  390  (1839). 
Acrocephalus  schcznobanus   (L.),    Newt.    ed.  Yarr.,  L,    p.   376 
(1873) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  597,  pi.  90,  fig.  2  (1876). 
Acrocephalus  phragmitis,  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  91 
(1881);  id.  Hist.  Br.  B.,  p.  352  (1883);  B.  O.  U.  List 
Br.  B.,  p.   20  (1883);    Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.   B.,  pt.  2 
(1886);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  77  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  russet-brown,  with  dusky 
brown  centres  to  the  feathers,  the  crown  like  the  back,  but  the 
rump  and  upper  tail  coverts  more  distinctly  tawny  and  nearly 
uniform ;  lesser  wing-coverts  like  the  back,  the  median  and 
greater  series,  as  well  as  the  innermost  secondaries  blackish, 
edged  externally  with  tawny-buff ;  primary-coverts  brown, 
blackish  at  the  ends,  forming  an  indistinct  alar  speculum ; 
quills  and  tail-feathers  dark  brown,  with  tawny  edgings,  the 
latter  with  faint  margins  to  the  tips  of  the  feathers,  more  dis- 
tinctly seen  underneath ;  a  very  well  marked  eyebrow  extend- 
ing from  the  lores  to  above  the  ear-coverts,  and  accompanied 
by  a  less  defined  black  band  along  the  side  of  the  crown ; 
lores  dusky;  ear-coverts  dull  tawny-buff;  throat  and  centre  of 
breast  and  abdomen  white  ;  fore-neck,  chest,  and  sides  of  body 
tawny-buff,  deepening  in  colour  on  the  flanks  and  under  tail- 
coverts  ;  axillaries  like  the  breast ;  under  wing-coverts  white, 
with  a  slight  tinge  of  tawny-buff;  quills  dusky  below,  whitish 
along  the  edge  of  the  inner  web ;  bill  dark  brown  above,  with 


E  XXI 


1  REED  WARBLER    ?.  SEDGE  WARBLER 


THE    REED-WARBLERS. 


225 


the  mandible  paler;  feet  pale  brown;  iris  hazel.    Total  length, 
5  inches;  oilmen,  0-55  ;  wing,  2-5  ;  tail,  1-85;  tarsus,  cr8. 

Adult  Female. — A  little  duller  in  colour  than  the  male,  and 
less  rufous  on  the  rump.  Total  length,  5  inches;  wing,  2-35. 

Young. — Similar  to  the  adults,  but  with  a  yellowish  tinge 
below,  and  distinguished  by  dusky  triangular  spots  on  the  fore- 
neck. 

In  Winter  Plumage,  i.e.,  after  the  autumn  moult,  the  general 
colour  of  the  under  surface  is  much  more  rufescent  both  in 
young  and  old  birds,  the  young  ones  still  retaining  the  spots 
on  the  fore-neck.  The  eye-brow  is  more  suffused  with  buff. 

NOTE. — The  Sedge-Warbler  is  easily  recognised  from  the  Reed-Warbler 
by  its  striped  upper  surface,  and  by  its  distinct  eyebrow.  There  are  many 
minor  characters  for  differentiation,  such  as  its  more  slender  bill,  rufescent 
rump,  &c.,  as  well  as  pronounced  distinctions  in  the  song,  method  of  nest- 
ing, colour  of  eggs,  &c.  From  the  Aquatic  Warbler  the  Sedge-Warbler  is 
easily  recognised  by  the  light  band  down  the  centre  of  the  crown  and  the 
striped  rump  of  the  former  species. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor,  apparently  breeding 
everywhere,  though  becoming  more  local  in  the  northern  parts, 
and  not  recorded  from  the  Shetlands  or  the  Hebrides.  In 
Ireland  it  is  a  very  well-known  visitor  throughout  the  island. 

Kange  outside  the  British  Islands.  —  Distributed  generally  over 
Europe,  breeding  nearly  everywhere,  except  in  some  of  the 
Mediterranean  countries,  in  the  southern  portion  of  which  it  is 
only  known  as  a  migrant.  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  says  that  he  did 
not  actually  find  it  breeding  in  Southern  Spain,  but  he  has  speci- 
mens procured  at  Malaga  as  late  as  the  25th  of  July.  These  may 
be,  however,  early  migrants  on  their  way  south.  To  the  north- 
ward it  has  been  found  as  high  as  70°  N.  lat.  in  Norway, 
but  eastwards  it  does  not  reach  quite  such  a  high  latitude, 
occurring  near  Archangel  and  again  in  the  Petchora  up  to  68°, 
and  on  the  Ob  and  Yenesei  rivers  to  67°  N.  lat.  Dr.  Pleske 
states  that  it  is  only  known  as  a  migrant  in  the  Crimea,  but 
nests  sparingly  in  the  Caucasus  as  well  as  in  the  Altai  moun- 
tains and  Northern  Turkestan,  though  in  the  valley  of  the 
Amu-Darya  and  on  the  western  shores  of  the  Caspian  it  is 
only  a  migrant. 

The  winter  home  of  the  Sedge-Warbler  is  in  South  Africa, 
i  Q 


226  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

whither  it  migrates  apparently  by  the  eastern  side  of  the  conti 
nent,  as  it  has  been  obtained  in  East  Africa  on  passage. 

HaMts. — Although  not  often  seen  by  the  ordinary  observer 
the  Sedge- Warbler's  note  is  familiar  to  most  dwellers  in  th 
country,  and  those  who  do  not  know  the  bird  by  sight  are 
well  acquainted  with  its  noisy  and  chattering  song,  which  can  be 
heard  from  early  morning  till  late  at  night,  and  even  when  dark 
ness  has  fallen,  the  Sedge-Warbler  and  its  companion,  the  Reed 
Warbler,  may  be  heard  singing,  keeping  company  with  th 
richer  notes  of  the  Nightingale.  It  does  not,  as  its  name 
would  imply,  confine  its  habitat  to  the  sedges,  for  it  is  founc 
in  all  kinds  of  situations,  seldom  very  far  from  water, 
will  hunt  for  food  by  the  side  of  a  lake  or  river,  keeping  wel 
out  of  sight,  excepting  when  it  is  tempted  to  ascend  to  the  toj. 
of  a  reed  or  small  bush  and  give  forth  its  song  as  it  works  its 
way  up.  It  may,  however,  be  just  as  often  met  with  in  a  reed] 
ditch,  and  as  often  as  not  in  bushes  and  shrubberies  at  somi 
little  distance  from  the  water,  to  the  neighbourhood  of  which 
however,  it  always  returns  before  long.  In  the  autumn  th 
family  parties  frequent  the  willows  and  reed-beds  in  th 
Thames  Valley,  and  the  young  birds  may  often  be  seer 
running,  like  little  Mice,  over  the  masses  of  dead  rushes  anc 
plants  which  collect  in  some  of  the  reed-beds  and  back 
waters.  The  song  of  the  Sedge- Warbler  is  unmistakable,  anc 
is  uttered  from  the  depths  of  its  retreat.  A  stone  thrown  in  tc 
start  the  bird  generally  results  in  setting  it  off  singing,  and  it  i< 
very  difficult  to  dislodge  it  and  drive  it  into  the  open.  Wher 
not  alarmed,  however,  it  may  often  be  seen  flying  across  th 
rivers  to  the  other  bank,  or  taking  short  excursions  to  the 
neighbouring  hedge-rows.  Most  of  the  notes  of  the  song  arc 
harsh  and  not  altogether  musical,  but  some  of  them  are  ver) 
clear  and  pleasing.  When  alarmed  it  gives  vent  to  a  kind  o 
lichurr"-\\\<g  note,  especially  when  anyone  approaches  the 
vicinity  of  the  nest. 

Nest. — This  is  not  suspended  between  reeds  like  that  of  the 
Reed- Warbler,  but,  when  built  among  the  rushes,  is  either  sup- 
ported on  dead  cross-stems  of  the  latter,  or  it  is  placed  on  an 
overhanging  branch.  Occasionally  it  is  placed  in  a  bush 
some  height  from  the  ground,  generally  at  a  little  distance 


THE    REED- WARBLERS.  227 

from  the  latter,  and  more  rarely  on  the  ground  itself,  concealed 
among  the  herbage.  It  is  an  artless  structure,  somewhat 
shallow,  composed  of  dry  grass-stems,  pieces  of  dead  water- 
plants,  with  a  little  hair  for  the  lining,  and  some  scraps  of 
vegetable  down.  Mr.  Robert  Read  draws  our  attention  to  the 
fact  that  there  is  nearly  always  a  feather,  and  sometimes  two, 
left  projecting  over  the  eggs  in  the  nest,  and  serving  to  hide  the 
latter  from  view.  This  is  especially  the  case  when  the  nest  is 
built  low  down  in  a  damp  situation.  The  nest  is  often  found 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  any  water,  sometimes  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  away. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number,  and  very  uniform  in  ap- 
pearance. The  ground-colour  is  greenish-white,  but  this  is 
seldom  to  be  seen,  owing  to  the  uniform  clouding  of  the  eggs, 
which  vary  from  olive  to  brown  or  stone-grey.  The  mottlings, 
when  present,  are  yellowish-brown  or  dark  brown,  occasionally 
reddish-brown,  and  there  is  generally  a  hair-like  line  of  black 
at  the  larger  end,  these  pencilled  lines  being  more  characteris- 
tic of  the  uniform  clutches  than  of  the  mottled  ones.  Axis, 
o-7-o'8  inch;  diam.,  o'5-o'55.  Mr.  Robert  Read  informs  us 
that  he  has  taken  eggs  of  this  bird,  near  Glasgow,  of  a  beauti- 
ful salmon-pink  colour. 

III.  THE   GREAT   REED  WARBLER.  ACROCEPHALUS   TURDOIDES. 

Turdus  arundinaceusy  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  296  (1766). 
Acroccphalus  arundinaceus  (L.),   Newt.    ed.  Yarr.,   i.,   p.    364 

(1873)  ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  379,  pi.  88  (1878). 
Acrocephalus  turdoidcs  (Meyer),  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v. 

p.  95  (iSSi);  id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  361  (1883);  B.  O.  U.   List 

Br.  B.,  p.  19  (1883);    Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  ii. 

(1886) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  75  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above,  brown,  rather  more  dingy 
on  the  head,  and  a  little  more  rufescent  on  the  lower  back  and 
rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts  ;  wing-coverts  like  the  back,  the 
bastard-wing  darker  brown  and  contrasting  with  the  rest  of  the 
coverts ;  primary-coverts  and  quills  dark  brown,  edged  with 
rufescent-brown ;  tail-feathers  lighter  brown,  with  whitish 
fringes  at  the  ends,  and  margined  with  reddish-brown ;  lores, 
sides  of  face,  and  ear-coverts  ashy-brown,  dusky  in  front  of  the 

Q  2 


228  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

eye,  with  a  distinct  white  eyebrow,  reaching  from  the  nostrils 
to  a  little  beyond  the  eye  ;  eyelid  also  whitish  ;  cheeks,  throat 
and  under  surface  of  body  white,  the  breast  and  sides  of  tin 
body  tawny-buff,  as  well  as  the  thighs  and  under  tail-coverts 
under  wing-coverts,  axillaries,  and  quill-lining,  rich  tawny-buff 
bill  dark  brown,  the  lower  mandible  lighter  and  more  yellow  a 
the  base  and  at  the  gape ;  feet  pale  horn-colour ;  iris  brown 
Total  length,  7-8  inches;  culmen,  o'8  ;  wing,  3-6  ;  tail,  2-95 
tarsus,  1-3. 

Adult  Female. — Does  n'ot  differ  from  the  male  in  colour 
Total  length,  7-5  inches;  wing,  3-6. 

In  Autumn  and  Winter  Plumage  the  colours  are  a  little  mor 
fulvescent,  especially  on  the  eyebrow  and  on  the  under 
parts. 

Younj  Birds,  after  the  autumn  moult,  are  decidedly  mor 
tawny  than  in  summer,  and  have  some  indistinct  streaks  on  th 
lower  throat  and  fore-neck.  During  the  nesting  season,  th 
plumage  gets  much  abraded  and  worn,  so  that  the  throat  an 
breast  become  bleached  white,  and  the  narrow  whitish  tips  t 
the  quills  and  tail-feathers  wear  off. 

Kange  in  Great  Britain. — A  rare  and  occasional  visitor,  th 
authentic  instances  of  its  appearance  not  exceeding  half-a 
dozen,  while  many  supposed  records  are  unworthy  of  credence 
as  is  the  case  with  all  the  statements  of  its  breeding  in  thi 
country.  Not  that  there  is  any  reason  why  the  species  shoul 
not  do  so,  for  it  is  common  on  the  Continent  in  countrie 
almost  within  sight  of  England. 

Bange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The     Great     Reed-Warbl( 
nests    throughout  the  greater  part  of  Europe  south  of  th 
British  Islands  and  the  Baltic,  and  is  only  an  accidental  visito 
to  the  south  of  Sweden.     On  the  western  shores  of  the  Balti 
Sea  it  occurs,  according  to  Dr.  Pleske,  as  far  north  as  59° 
W.  lat,  thence  its  range  tends  southward  to  54°  on  the  Volgj 
and  rises  again  in  the  Urals  to  57°,  but  the  above-named  autho 
believes  that  its  frontier  line  in  the  Volga  district  may  requir 
rectification  in  a  northerly  direction.     It  breeds  as  far  east  as^ 
Turkestan,  and  through  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  and  Palestine.   To 
the  eastward  it  crosses  the  range  of  Acroctphalus  stentoreus,\ 


THE   REED-WARBLERS.  229 

which  is  a  resident  form  in  Egypt,  Persia,  Transcaspia,  and 
Turkestan.  The  winter  home  of  the  Great  Reed- Warbler  ex- 
tends south  to  the  Transvaal  in  Africa,  but  it  would  also  appear 
to  follow  many  of  the  river-systems  in  the  last-named  continent, 
as  the  late  Mr.  Jameson  procured  it  on  the  Aruwhimi  river, 
and  it  has  also  been  met  with  on  the  Lower  Congo. 

Habits. — In  the  reed-covered  marshes  affected  by  this  bird, 
it  is  very  easily  discovered  by  its  powerful  song  and  large  size, 
which  identify  it  at  once  when  it  flies.  It  often  sings  as  it 
ascends  a  reed  to  the  top,  its  note  commencing  with  a  harsh 
"caragh)  caragh"  and  then  continuing  like  an  enlarged  edition 
of  the  Sedge-Warbler's  song.  When  it  has  attained  to  the 
summit  of  the  reed,  it  finishes  its  song,  and  flies  off  for  a 
little  distance,  again  drops  like  a  stone  into  the  reed-bed,  and 
commences  to  sing  again.  When  threading  our  way  through 
the  Hansag  marshes  in  Hungary,  after  the  International  Con- 
gress of  Ornithologists  in  1891,  we  saw  and  heard  numbers  of 
these  birds,  and  afterwards  obtained  specimens  in  a  little  patch 
of  reeds  near  the  Neusiedier  lakes,  where  there  were  several 
pairs  of  them.  It  has  several  croaking  notes  which  it  intro- 
duces into  its  song,  and  it  is  heard  late  into  the  evening.  Its 
food  consists  of  insects,  but  it  is  also  said  to  feed  on  elder- 
berries in  the  autumn. 

Nest. — Suspended  in  reeds,  and  very  skilfully  attached  to  the 
latter.  It  is  made  of  dead  reeds,  with  a  few  roots  interwoven, 
and  lined  with  grass-stems  and  the  flower  of  the  reed.  Some- 
times a  little  moss  or  the  leaves  of  other  water-plants  are 
added. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number,  and  very  handsome. 
The  ground-colour  varies  from  pale  blue  to  greenish-blue  or 
greenish-white,  and  the  eggs  are  very  boldly  blotched  and 
spotted.  The  blotches,  which  are  generally  at  the  larger  end 
of  the  egg,  are  greenish  or  reddish-brown,  sometimes  clouding 
the  larger  end  entirely ;  in  many  cases  they  are  so  dark 
as  to  appear  almost  black.  The  underlying  markings  of 
violet-grey  are  strongly  pronounced,  and  often  partake  of  the 
nature  of  blotches,  almost  as  large  as  the  brown  overlying 
markings.  Axis,  o'8-ro;  diam.,  o*6-o-65. 


230  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

IV.  THE  REED-WARBLER.     ACROCEPHALUS  STREPERUS. 

(Plate  XXL,  Fig.  2.) 

Sylvia   strepera,   Vieill.,    N.    Diet.    d'Hist.    Nat.,  xi.,   p.    182 

(1817). 

Calamoherpe  arundinacea,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  395  (1839). 
Acrocephalns  strepcrus^   Newt.   ed.   Yarr.,   i.,   p.   369   (1873); 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  567,  pi.  87  (1877) ;  Seeb.,  Cat.  B. 

Brit  Mus.,  v.,  p.  102  (iSSi) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  18 

(1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.,  Br.  B.,  pt.  iii.  (1886) ;  Saunders, 

Man.,  p.  71  (1889). 
Acrocephalus  arundinaceus,  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  367  (1883). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  rufescent  olive-brown,  the  lower 
back,  rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts  showing  a  slight  inclination 
to  ruddiness  in  the  tint  of  the  brown ;  wing-coverts  like  the 
back,  the  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts  and  quills  dusky  brown, 
edged  with  the  same  colour  as  the  back ;  tail-feathers 
brown,  edged  with  lighter  brown,  and  having  a  faint  indication 
of  a  pale  fringe  at  the  tips  ;  crown  slightly  more  dingy  than  the 
back,  but  like  the  mantle,  lores,  and  ear-coverts  dusky  brown, 
with  a  faint  streak  of  whitish  above  the  eye ;  cheeks,  throat, 
and  under-parts  white,  with  a  fulvescent  tinge  on  the  breast  and 
sides  of  the  body,  the  flanks  browner  ;  under  tail-coverts  white, 
with  a  slight  fulvous  tinge,  as  also  the  under  wing-coverts, 
axillaries,  and  quill-lining ;  bill  dark  brown  above,  the  under 
mandible  paler ;  feet  and  claws  purplish-brown  ;  iris  brown. 
Total  length,  5-1  inches;  culmen,  o'6  ;  wing,  2-5;  tail,  2-0; 
tarsus,  0-9. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour.  Total  length, 
5-4  inches;  wing,  2-5. 

Young. — More  dingy  and  reddish-brown  than  the  adults  ;  the 
under  surface  of  the  body  fulvescent,  and  inclining  to  tawny- 
buff  on  the  flanks ;  the  throat  dingy  fulvous ;  and  the  abdo- 
men ashy  white. 

Range  in  Great  Britain.  —  Generally  distributed  over  the 
southern  and  midland  counties,  becoming  somewhat  rarer 
in  the  south-west,  but  fairly  common  in  Wales.  To  the 
north  it  becomes  gradually  rarer  and  more  local,  and  authen- 
tic records  from  Scotland  and  Ireland  are  wanting. 


PLATE 


I.  SONG-THRUSH       2  BJ.ACKBIRD 


THE   REED-WARBLERS.  231 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  northern  limit  of  the 
range  of  the  Reed-Warbler  in  Europe  appears  to  be  about  58°  N. 
lat.,  but  the  species  extends  into  Southern  Sweden ;  else- 
where, below  that  line,  it  appears  to  breed  regularly,  and  appar- 
ently winters  in  certain  of  the  Mediterranean  countries,  and 
passes  through  Egypt  and  Nubia,  but  its  winter  quarters  in  Africa 
are  not  yet  determined.  From  the  southern  part  of  the 
Baltic  Provinces,  according  to  Dr.  Pleske,  its  breeding  range 
extends  across  Russia  to  the  government  of  Kief,  and  it 
probably  nests  in  the  Crimea,  as  it  certainly  does  in  Trans- 
ca-casia,  the  eastern  districts  of  the  Volga,  and  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains, the  Transcaspian  countries  to  Turkestan,  and  the 
southern  slopes  of  the  Altai  Mountains.  Its  eastern  limit  is 
Baluchistan,  and  we  have  seen  specimens  collected  by  Mr. 
Gumming  at  Fao,  on  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Habits. — The  Reed- Warbler  is  common  enough  in  summer 
in  the  south  of  England,  and  is  abundant  in  the  Thames 
Valley ;  but,  from  its  retiring  habits,  it  is  not  often  seen.  Its 
song  is,  however,  a  constant  feature  in  a  walk  by  the  river-side, 
and  is  heard  not  only  from  the  dense  reed-beds,  but  also 
from  the  willows  and  alder-trees,  in  both  of  which  situations 
the  nest  is  often  built.  In  fact,  we  have  more  often  found 
the  nest  of  the  Reed- Warbler  in  willows  near  Cookham  than 
in  reeds,  and  it  is  sometimes  placed  at  a  considerable  height 
from  the  ground.  In  the  south  of  England,  however,  in  the 
reed-covered  ditches  which  Mr.  Seebohm  so  well  describes  as 
the  haunt  of  the  Reed- Warbler  in  his  "History  of  British  Birds," 
the  nest  is  nearly  always  suspended  between  the  stems  of 
reeds,  and  so  common  is  the  bird  in  this  locality  that  he 
found  eleven  nests  in  the  course  of  a  couple  of  hours. 

When  the  weather  is  hot  and  the  nights  calm,  the  Reed- 
Warbler,  like  the  Nightingale,  sings  nearly  through  the  night, 
and  its  song  is  always  more  frequently  heard  towards  the 
twilight.  It  resembles  that  of  the  Sedge- Warbler,  and  is  of 
the  same  chattering  nature,  but  is  not  so  loud  or  so  harsh  in 
quality.  As  a  rule,  the  bird  is  an  inveterate  skulker,  and 
seldom  quits  its  retreat,  unless  driven  from  it  by  repeated 
efforts,  and  its  presence  is  generally  made  known  only  by  its 
song,  or  by  the  shaking  of  the  reeds  as  it  hops  from  one  to 


232  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

the  other.  When  the  young  are  able  to  fly,  however,  the 
Reed-  Warblers  are  often  to  be  seen  in  the  bushes,  accom- 
panied by  their  families,  and  in  certain  places  they  form  quite 
a  little  colony,  the  old  birds  feeding  the  young  of  the  second 
brood,  while  the  first  brood  are  flying  about  in  the  neighbour- 
hood also.  The  species  is  even  said  to  nest  far  away  from 
water  ;  and  Mr.  Mitford  says  that  he  has  known  them  to  build 
in  lilac-bushes  in  his  garden  at  Hampstead. 

Nest.  —  Made  of  dry  grass  and  roots,  with  a  little  wool  or 
thistle-down.  When  built  in  the  reeds,  some  of  the  latter  are 
generally  intertwined  in  the  nest. 

Eggs.  —  From  four  to  six  in  number.  Ground-colour, 
greenish-white  or  greyish-white,  and  thickly  mottled  and 
spotted  with  greenish-brown,  often  collecting  round  the  larger 
end  of  the  egg,  and  forming  a  broad  ring.  The  underlying 
spots  of  violet-grey  are  so  mixed  with  the  overlying  mark- 
ings as  to  be  difficult  of  observation,  but  they  are  in  reality 
very  numerously  represented.  Axis,  07-075  inch;  diam., 


V.  THE   MARSH-WARBLER.        ACROCEPHALUS    PALUSTRIS. 

Sylvia  palustris,  Bechst,  Orn.  Taschenb.,  p.  186  (1802). 
Acrocephalus  palustris,  Dresser,  B.   Eur.,   ii.,  p.   573,  pi.  87, 

fig.   2    (1876);   Seeb.,  Cat.  B.    Brit.   Mus.,   v.,    p.    101 

(1881);  id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  375  (1883);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br. 

B.,  p.  19  (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  iii.  (1886); 

Saunders,  Man.,  p.  93  (1889). 

Adult  Male.  —  Similar  to  the  Reed-  Warbler,  and  very  difficult 
to  distinguish  from  that  species,  but  it  may  be  recognised  by 
the  olive  tone  of  the  plumage,  which  does  not  show  the  red- 
dish-brown colour  of  the  rump,  which  is  always  more  or  less 
perceptible  in  the  Reed-  Warbler.  The  feet  are  also  said  to  be 
pale  horn-brown,  instead  of  slaty-brown  as  in  the  last-named 
bird.  Mr.  Se^bohm  gives  the  measurements  of  the  wing  in  the 
Reed-  Warbler  as  from  2*35-27  inches,and  of  the  Marsh-  Warbler 
from  2  '45  to  2*8  ;  but  we  find  that  in  the  few  undoubted  speci- 
mens of  the  latter  bird  in  the  British  Museum  the  wing  is  de- 
cidedly longer  in  A.  palustris  than  in  A.  streperus,  and  extends 
further  down  the  tail;  that  is  to  say,  its  tip  reaches  to  at  least  two- 


THE   REED-WARBLERS.  233 

thirds  of  the  extent  of  the  tail,  so  as  to  be  almost  level  with  the  out- 
stretched feet ;  whereas  in  A.  streperus  the  wing  is  much  shorter, 
only  reaching  about  half  the  extent  of  the  tail,  and  falling  far 
short  of  the  outstretched  feet.  These  characters  depend  much 
upon  the  preparation  of  the  skins  ;  but  we  have  compared  only 
those  which  seem  to  have  their  natural  proportions  preserved. 
The  colour  of  the  legs,  said  to  be  different  in  life,  is  not  visible 
in  the  dried  skin,  and  the  character  which  seems  to  us  to  be  the 
most  constant  is  the  olive-colour  of  the  upper-parts  in  A.palustris 
and  the  want  of  the  rufous  shade  on  the  lower  back  and  rump. 
Many  specimens  presented  to  the  British  Museum  as  Marsh- 
Warblers  seem  to  us  to  be  only  Reed- Warblers  after  all.  ( Cf. 
also  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  93).  Total  length  of  A.  palustris,  5-5 
inches  ;  wing,  2-9.  The  proportions  of  the  quills  are  the  same  in 
both  species,  the  bastard-primary  not  reaching  beyond  the 
primary  coverts,  and  the  second  primary  exceeding  the  fifth  in 
length.  We  have  carefully  gone  over  the  series  of  both  these 
Reed- Warblers  in  the  British  Museum,  and  endorse  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders'  definition  of  the  Marsh- Warbler  as  being  more  of  a 
"  greenish  olive-brown  "  in  tint,  with  a  sulphur-buff  instead  of 
rufous-buff  colour  on  the  flanks  and  upper  breast.  The  same 
observer  says  that  the  feet  are  pale  brownish  flesh- colour  in 
life  instead  of  being  purplish-brown. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — At  present  only  known  from  a  few 
isolated  instances  of  its  capture,  and  identified  more  by  the 
eggs  and  the  nest  than  by  actual  birds  shot  in  this  country. 
It  may,  however,  occur  more  frequently  than  has  been  sup- 
posed, and  it  is  quite  possible  that  Marsh-Warblers  are  doing 
duty  for  Reed- Warblers  in  many  collections,  as  the  two  birds 
are  so  difficult  to  separate.  It  is  said  to  visit  the  vicinity  of 
Taunton,  in  Somersetshire,  every  spring,  and  the  nest  has 
been  taken  in  Oxfordshire  and  near  Bath,  and  also  in  Cam- 
bridgeshire. Mr.  Robert  Read  has  three  nests  and  eggs  taken 
near  Yeovil.  Mr.  Saunders  says  that  he  has  seen  an  undoubted 
nest  of  this  bird  in  Mr.  Bond's  collection,  but  we  agree  that 
the  birds  which  our  late  friend  presented  to  us  at  the  Museum 
as  "  Marsh  "-Warblers  from  the  above-mentioned  county  are 
really  only  Reed- Warblers. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Marsh-Warbler  occupies 


2 34  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

in  Europe  almost  exactly  the  same  range  as  its  congener,  the 
Reed- Warbler,  and  breeds  everywhere  south  of  Denmark  and 
the  Baltic  Provinces,  but  is  a  somewhat  less  western  bird  in  its 
distribution,  as  there  are  parts  of  Western  France  whence  the 
bird  is  not  recorded,  and  no  examples  have  yet  been  identified 
from  the  Spanish  peninsula.  Its  eastward  range  is  given  by 
Dr.  Pleske  as  reaching  to  the  Ural  Mountains  and  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Ekaterinburg.  Mr.  Seebohm  considers  that  it  ranges 
further  to  Turkestan  and  Persia,  but  more  information  and  a 
larger  series  of  specimens  are  needed  for  the  correct  definition 
of  the  range  of  this  species.  It  is  said  to  winter  in  N.E.  Africa 
as  far  as  the  Equatorial  Provinces,  and  it  reaches  Natal  on  its 
winter  journey.  With  regard  to  the  occurrence  of  the  species 
in  Africa,  we  have  re-examined  the  specimen  shot  by  Captain 
Shelley  in  Natal,  and  there  is  little  question  that  we  have 
rightly  identified  the  species. 

Habits. — Arrives  in  its  nesting  quarters  about  the  middle  o 
May,  and  departs  at  the  end  of  August.  The  bird  is  said  to 
be  much  more  restless  than  the  Reed-Warbler,  sitting  in  the 
open  and  singing,  and  taking  long  flights  from  tree  to  tree.  Its 
song  is  superior  to  that  of  the  allied  species,  and  much  more 
melodious,  being,  according  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  almost  as  rich  as 
that  of  the  Nightingale,  and  decidedly  more  varied,  though  not 
so  loud.  Sometimes,  he  adds,  we  might  imagine  that  we  were 
listening  to  the  song  of  a  Reed- Warbler  with  an  unusually  rich 
voice;  but  more  often  the  melody  recalls  the  song  of  the 
Swallow,  the  Lark,  or  that  of  the  Tree- Warblers ;  while  we 
might  also  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  singer  had  hac 
lessons  from  a  Nightingale  or  a  Bluethroat. 

Nest. — According  to  Naumann,  the  nest  is  never  placed  over 
water,  but  always  on  more  or  less  firm  ground,  so  that  it  can 
always  be  reached  by  the  hand,  if  the  situation  chosen  be  by  the 
side  of  a  stream.  The  nest  is  often  placed  at  some  little  distance 
from  the  water  in  low  bushes  overgrown  with  reeds,  or  in  nettles 
and  other  water-plants.  If  the  Reed- Warbler  is  found  in  the 
same  neighbourhood,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  nests  of  the  two 
species  are  differently  situated,  the  Marsh-Warbler's  being  in 
the  herbage  near  the  water,  the  Reed- Warbler's  in  the  reeds 
over  the  water.  The  nest  is  composed  of  round  grass-stalks 


THE   GRASSHOPPER    WARBLERS.  235 

and  lined  with  horsehair ;  in  some  nests  a  little  moss  or  dry 
leaves  are  occasionally  found. 

Eggs. — From  five  to  seven  in  number.  Many  of  the  eggs 
referred  to  this  species,  and  said  to  resemble  those  of  the  Reed- 
Warbler  are  undoubtedly  nothing  but  light  varieties  of  the 
eggs  of  the  latter  bird.  The  eggs  of  the  Marsh- Warbler  are 
in  fact  unmistakable,  being  of  a  china-white  or  greenish-white 
ground,  with  the  underlying  markings  of  violet-grey  or  pur- 
plish-grey, very  strongly  developed,  and  quite  as  prominent  as 
the  overlying  spots.  These  consist  of  greenish-brown  blotches, 
sometimes  light  brown,  and  with  purplish-black  spots  in  strong 
contrast.  Axis,  o"j-o'S  inch;  diam.,  o'5-o'55. 

THE  GRASSHOPPER   WARBLERS.       GENUS    LOCUSTELLA. 

Locustella^  Kaup,  Natiirl.  Syst.,  p.  115  (1829). 

Type,  L.  navia  (Bodd.). 

The  species  of  Locustella^  of  which  some  eight  different  kinds 
are  known,  are  all  inhabitants  of  the  Pabearctic  Region,  breed- 
ing in  the  northern  parts,  and  wintering  in  Africa,  India,  and 
the  Burmese  countries,  and  even  as  far  to  the  south-east  as  the 
Molucca  Islands. 

They  very  much  resemble  the  Reed- Warblers  in  structure 
and  general  appearance,  but  they  have  a  more  rounded  tail, 
the  outer  feathers  being  very  much  shorter  than  the  centre 
ones,  and  the  under  tail-coverts  are  very  long.  The  bill  is 
slender  and  not  flattened ;  the  rictal  bristles  are  weak  and 
scarcely  perceptible.  The  first  primary  is  very  small,  and  does 
not  reach  to  the  end  of  the  primary-coverts,  and  the  second 
primary-quill  is  the  longest 

I.   THE   GRASSHOPPER    WARBLER.       LOCUSTELLA    N^EVIA. 

MotadUa  navia,  Bodd.,  Tabl.  PI.  enl.,  p.  35  (1783). 
Sylvia  locustella^  Lath.,  Ind.  Orn.,  ii.,  p.  515  (1790). 
Sibilatrix  locustella^  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  399  (1839). 
Acrocephalus  ncevius^    Newt.    ed.   Yarn,   i.,   p.    384    (1874); 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  611,  pi.  91  (1874). 
Locustella  locustella,  Seeb.,  Cat.  Brit.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  115 

(1881);  id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  340  (1883). 


236  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Locustella  nczvia,  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  20  (1883) ;  Lilford, 
Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  ix.  (1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  81 
(1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  olive-brown,  all  the 
feathers  centred  with  dark  brown,  producing  a  mottled  ap- 
pearance, the  markings  being  smaller  on  the  head,  almost 
obsolete  on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  and  not  very  distinct  on  the 
lower  back  and  rump,  disappearing  entirely  on  the  upper  tail- 
coverts  ;  lesser  and  median  wing-coverts  like  the  back,  the 
greater  series,  as  well  as  the  primary-coverts  and  quills,  dusky- 
brown,  externally  olive-brown,  the  margins  rather  broader  on 
the  innermost  secondaries ;  tail  feathers  dark  brown,  with 
olive-brown  margins,  and  ribbed  across  with  dusky  bars,  very 
distinct  in  certain  lights  ;  lores  and  sides  of  face  dark  brown  ; 
over  the  eye  a  very  faint  line  of  whitish  ;  cheeks,  throat,  centre 
of  breast  and  abdomen  whitish ;  the  sides  of  the  throat,  breast, 
and  sides  of  the  body  brown,  washed  with  buff;  under  tail- 
coverts  buffy-white,  with  dark  centres;  axillaries  and  under 
wing-coverts  ashy-fulvous,  the  latter  with  dusky  centres ;  bill 
dark  brown,  paler  on  the  lower  mandible ;  feet  flesh-colour  or 
pale  brown  ;  iris  clear  brown.  Total  length,  5*3  inches  ;  cul- 
men,  0-5  ;  wing,  2*3  ;  tail,  2'o ;  tarsus,  0-85. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour  and  markings, 
but  somewhat  warmer  brown  above,  and  more  fulvescent 
below.  Total  length,  5*4  inches;  wing,  2*4. 

Young. — Slightly  more  rufescent  and  not  so  clear  olive-brown 
above  than  the  adults,  and  tinged  with  sulphur-yellow  on  the 
throat  and  breast,  with  numerous  tiny  spots  of  blackish-brown  on 
the  lower  throat  and  fore-neck ;  the  under  tail-coverts  are  ru- 
fescent, with  ashy  whitish  tips  and  dark  brown  centres  to  the 
feathers.  Even  after  the  spring  moult  there  are  often  remains 
of  the  stripes  on  the  fore-neck,  and  the  under  parts  are  dis- 
tinctly suffused  with  yellow.  Such  specimens  are  probably 
birds  of  the  previous  year. 

NOTE. — The  Grasshopper  Warbler  is  easily  recognised  by  its  striped 
back  and  olive-brown  colour.  The  only  Warblers,  therefore,  with  which 
it  might  be  at  first  confused  are  the  Sedge- Warbler  and  Aquatic  Warbler, 
both  of  which  have  striped  backs.  They  are,  moreover,  not  only  more 


THE   GRASSHOPPER   WARBLERS.  237 

tawny-coloured  birds,  but  can  be  recognised  at  once  by  their  broad  whitish 
eyebrow.  The  obsolete  rictal  bristles  and  the  more  graduated  tail  also 
serve  to  distinguish  a  Locustdla. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Found  in  summer  nesting  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  England  and  Wales,  and  being  numerous 
in  the  northern  counties  of  Northumberland  and  Durham,  while 
it  becomes  rarer  further  north,  though  its  range  is  known  to  ex- 
tend to  Arisaig  below  the  Sound  of  Sleat,  according  to  Mr. 
Howard  Saunders,  and  further  to  the  Isle  of  Skye.  In  Ireland 
it  is  also  found,  and  breeds  in  the  eastern  and  southern  districts. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands.  —  Nests  throughout  Central 
Europe  to  the  south  of  the  Baltic  and  throughout  Central  and 
Southern  Russia,  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Caucasus, 
according  to  Pleske,  who  says  that  it  also  extends  to  Turkes- 
tan and  the  southern  slope  of  the  Altai  Mountains.  It  is 
supposed  to  winter  in  Northern  Africa,  and  also  in  Southern 
Europe ;  but  it  has  not  been  recorded  from  Greece  or  Asia 
Minor,  is  only  known  to  occur  on  migration  in  Italy,  only  an 
autumn  and  winter  bird  in  Southern  Spain,  as  stated  by  Mr. 
Howard  Saunders. 

HaMts. — This  bird  is  a  greater  skulker  than  any  of  the  othei 
Warblers,  and  it  is  more  difficult  to  procure  than  any  of  them.  Its 
nest  is  always  well  concealed,  and  the  actions  of  the  bird  are  more 
like  those  of  a  Mouse,  as  it  threads  its  way  through  the  grass, 
when  disturbed  from  its  home.  It  is,  therefore,  one  of  those 
species  whose  presence  would  never  be  detected  were  it  not 
for  its  extraordinary  song,  which  resembles  the  note  of  a  Grass- 
hopper, except  that  it  is  more  powerful  and  is  continued  for  a 
longer  period,  sometimes  for  as  long  as  two  minutes  together. 
Mr.  Seebohm  does  not  agree  that  the  sound  is  ventriloquial, 
but  we  have  always  found  it  to  be  somewhat  difficult  to  trace 
down  on  the  few  occasions  that  we  have  noticed  the  species  in 
Berkshire,  and  it  is  certainly  the  case  with  the  allied  species, 
LocustellafluviatiliS)  in  Hungary.  The  Grasshopper  Warbler 
is  sometimes  found  in  considerable  numbers  together  on  its 
arrival  in  spring,  and  Mr.  Gates  records  the  same  fact  with 
some  of  the  Eastern  species,  which  winter  in  Burma.  Even 
in  the  nesting  season  many  pairs  frequent  the  same  district. 

The  species  is  sometimes  to  be  observed  in  the  early  morn- 


238  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

ing,  when  it  ascends  to  the  top  of  a  reed  or  bush  to  utter  its 
monotonous  song,  which  is  often  to  be  heard  in  the  twilight, 
and  even  after  darkness  has  set  in.  It  by  no  means  affects 
entirely  marshy  or  even  swampy  places,  though  the  fens  of 
Cambridgeshire  are  still  one  of  the  strongholds  of  the  species  in 
England  \  but  it  is  often  found  in  shady  plantations  or  frequent- 
ing hedgerows.  The  flight  is  uncertain  and  dipping,  the  bird 
carrying  its  tail  spread  and  depressed,  and  dropping  suddenly 
into  the  densest  herbage,  where  it  creeps  away  like  a  Mouse. 

Nest. — On  the  ground  or  close  to  it,  and  occasionally  ap- 
proached by  a  kind  of  "run,"  or  "creep," as  Lord  Lilford  calls 
it,  but  it  is  as  often  situated  in  a  clump  of  grass,  or  at  the 
bottom  of  a  hedgerow,  and  is  by  no  means  invariably  well- 
concealed,  though,  as  a  rule,  it  is  very  difficult  to  find,  unless 
its  site  is  betrayed  by  the  flight  of  the  hen-bird  from  the  nest.  In 
Somersetshire,  the  nest,  so  Mr.  Robert  Read  tells  us,  is  found 
amongst  clover  and  vetches,  and  one  nest  in  his  collection  was 
built  in  a  large  stalk  of  cow-parsnip.  He  has  also  found  it  in 
hawthorn-  or  blackthorn-bushes  in  a  site  similar  to  that  of  the 
Common  Whitethroat. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  seven.  Pinkish  in  general  appearance, 
sprinkled  all  over  with  dots  of  reddish-brown,  and  varying  in 
shape  from  round  to  long  ovals.  The  grey  underlying  mark- 
ings consist  of  dots  which  are  sprinkled  in  exactly  the  same 
manner  as  the  overlying  ones.  Occasionally  the  effect  is  very 
dark,  the  eggs  appearing  nearly  uniform  pinkish-brown,  while 
others  are  very  light,  showing  the  white  ground  very  distinctly, 
and  having  the  spots  collected  round  the  larger  end  so  as  to 
form  a  ring.  Axis,  0-65-0-8  inch  ;  diam.  0-5-0-6. 

II.  SAVI'S   WARBLER,       LOCUSTELLA   LUSCINIOIDES. 

Svlvia  luscinioideS)  Savi,  Nuovo  Giorn.  de  Letterati,  vii.,  p.  341, 
(1824). 

Acrocephalus  lusdnioides^  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  389  (1874). 

Locustella  lusdnioides^  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  ii.,  p.  627,  pi.  93 
(1875);  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  112  (1881),  id 
Br.  B.  i.,  p.  346  (1883);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  21 
(1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  ii.  (1886);  Saunders, 
Man,,  p.  83  (1889). 


THE   GRASSHOPPER   WARBLERS.  239 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above,  uniform  russet-brown,  the 
wing-coverts  like  the  back ;  quills  sepia-brown,  externally 
russet-brown,  like  the  back ;  the  outer  edge  of  the  bastard- 
wing  feathers  and  the  first  long  primary  (/>.,  second  quill) 
ashy ;  tail  dark  brown,  slightly  paler  on  the  margins,  and 
ribbed  with  dusky  cross-bars  under  certain  lights ;  head  like 
the  back ;  sides  of  face  lighter  brown  than  the  head ;  eyelid 
and  a  faint  eyebrow  whitish ;  cheeks,  throat,  and  centre  of 
breast  and  abdomen  dull  white;  lower  throat  and  chest,  as 
well  as  the  sides  of  the  body  and  under  tail-coverts,  pale 
fulvous-brown,  deepening  on  the  flanks  and  under  tail-coverts ; 
under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  light  fulvous-brown,  like  the 
breast ;  quills  dusky-brown  below,  ashy  along  the  inner  webs  ; 
bill  dark  brown,  the  lower  mandible  paler  and  light  horn-brown  ; 
feet  clear  horn-colour,  yellowish-brown  in  skin;  iris  yellowish 
brown.  Total  length,  5*8  inches;  culmen,  0*55;  wing,  2*5; 
tail,  2'2  ;  tarsus,  0*9. 

Adult  Female. — Somewhat  darker  and  more  rufous-brown  than 
the  male,  especially  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body.  Total 
length,  57  inches,  wing,  27. 

NOTE. — Although  it  is  not  very  probable  that  a  specimen  of  Savi's 
Warbler  will  again  be  captured  in  England,  a  few  notes  as  to  its  distinctive 
characters  may  be  useful.  Although  it  agrees  with  the  Grasshopper 
Warbler  in  having  the  rictal  bristles  nearly  obsolete  and  in  the  graduated 
tail,  it  is  always  recognisable  from  that  species  by  its  uniform  plumage  and 
generally  more  russet  colour.  In  the  uniformity  of  the  upper  surface  it 
approaches,  therefore,  the  Reed-Warblers  (Acrocephalus),  but,  in  addition 
to  the  different  structure  of  the  tail,  Savi's  Warbler  may  always  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  vinous  buff  or  reddish  colour  of  the  lower  flanks  and 
under  tail-coverts,  while  it  is  of  a  much  darker  brown  above  than  any  of 
the  true  Reed- Warblers* 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Formerly  a  regular  visitor  to  the  Fen 
districts  of  England,  but  no  longer  to  be  found  there,  owing  to 
the  drainage  and  reclamation  of  the  meres,  which  it  inhabited. 
It  appears  never  to  have  been  an  abundant  species,  and  British- 
killed  examples  exist  in  very  few  collections.  Its  breeding 
places  were  confined  to  the  counties  of  Norfolk,  Cambridge- 
shire, and  Huntingdonshire,  and  the  last  recorded  instance  of 
its  occurrence  in  England  was  in  Norfolk  in  June,  1856. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands^ — Locally   distributed    through 


240 


LLOYD  S    NATURAL   HISTORY. 


Central  and  Southern  Europe,  wherever  its  peculiar  kind  of 
habitat  still  exists,  but  in  Holland,  where  the  bird  was  once 
common,  the  same  causes  of  its  restriction  have  been  at  work, 
and,  owing  to  the  extensive  drainage  of  recent  years,  it 
become  much  rarer. 

It  inhabits  the  Camargue  in  Southern  France,  is  found  again 
in  Andalucia  in  Spain,  in  Tuscany  and  Venetia  in  Italy,  in 
Austrian  Galicia,  and  from  Poland  through  Central  and 
Southern  Russia,  east  to  the  Delta  of  the  Volga,  and  occurring 
also  in  Transcaspia  and  Turkestan,  whence  the  specimens  are 
somewhat  paler  in  colour.  In  Palestine  it  has  been  once 
noticed  by  Canon  Tristram,  but  in  the  Egyptian  Delta  is  not 
rare,  and  it  breeds  in  the  marshes  of  Algeria  and  Morocco, 
and,  according  to  Canon  Tristram,  in  the  oases  of  the  Sahara, 
as  far  south  as  32°  N.  lat. 

Habits. — Savi's  Warbler  is  said  to  be  less  shy  than  the  other 
species  of  Reed-Warbler,  and  does  not  sing  so  much  at  night 
as  the  latter.  Its  song,  which  is  a  monotonous  whirr,  is  to  be 
heard  all  day  when  the  weather  is  fine,  but  the  bird  becomes 
silent  if  the  weather  is  boisterous  or  the  nights  are  cold.  It 
frequents  large  reed-beds,  and  diligently  climbs  up  reed  after 
reed,  but  is  only  to  be  seen  when  it  perches  on  the  top  of  one 
of  them  to  run  off  its  monotonous  reel,  as  Mr.  Seebohm  puts 
it.  The  call-note  is  a  short  Krr.  From  its  note  it  used  to  be 
called  the  "Red  Craking  Reed- Wren"  or  "Reel-bird"  by  the  fen- 
men,  just  as  the  Grasshopper  Warbler  is  called  the  "  Reeler  " 
at  the  present  day.  From  the  account  of  the  bird's  habits 
published  by  Count  Casimir  Wodzicki  we  learn  that  both  sexes  I 
take  part  in  the  construction  of  the  nest,  and  the  male  takes  j 
part  in  the  duties  of  incubation.  It  is  a  decidedly  quarrel- 
some bird. 

Nest. — As  with  other  Reed-Warblers,  the  nest  is  carefull] 
concealed.  It  is  not,  however,  suspended  on  reeds,  but  is 
placed  on  the  tangled  blades,  or  in  a  tuft  of  spiky  rush,  and 
according  to  Count  Wodzicki,  resembles  that  of  a  miniature 
Crake.  It  is  a  compound  of  flat  leaves  of  grass,  generally  "sweet 
grass,"  with  narrower  leaves  for  the  lining.  The  English  nest 
in  the  British  Museum  is  entirely  composed  of  dead  rushes  and 


THE   THRUSHES.  241 


flags,  beautiful  and  compactly  intertwined.  The  lining  is  also 
of  twisted  reeds,  which,  with  the  exception  of  a  fragment  of 
moss,  seem  to  constitute  the  entire  material  of  which  the  nest 
is  composed. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number.  Ground-colour  dull 
white  or  brownish-white,  thickly  sprinkled  with  light  brown 
overlying  and  violet-grey  underlying  spots,  which  collect  round 
the  larger  end  of  the  egg,  and  form  a  more  or  less  defined  dark 
zone.  In  many  of  the  eggs  the  dark  appearance  of  the  large 
end  is  due  to  the  predominance  of  the  underlying  spots.  Axis 
o'75-o'S  inch  ;  diam.,  o'55-O'6. 

THE   THRUSHES.     FAMILY   TURDID^. 

The  Thrushes  are  by  many  naturalists  considered  to  be  th«r 
highest  of  all  birds  in  the  natural  system,  on  account  of  their 
powers  of  song,  which  place  them  at  the  head  of  the  "  Oscincs? 
or  "  songsters."  They  are  certainly  highly-developed  birds,  and 
possess  great  perfection  of  structure.  Many  of  them  evince 
affinities  with  the  Flycatchers,  while  others  are  allied  to  Warblers. 
There  is,  however,  one  character  which  separates  the  Thrushes 
from  the  latter  family,  and  that  is  the  spotted  plumage  of  the 
young  birds,  a  peculiar  feature,  by  which  we  learn  that  the 
Nightingale,  the  Robin,  and  the  Chats  are  all  Thrushes, 
though  for  so  many  years  they  have  been  associated  with  the 
Warblers  in  works  on  natural  history.  The  latter  birds,  too, 
have  a  double  moult,  in  autumn  and  again  in  spring,  whereas 
the  Thrushes  moult  but  once  in  the  year,  viz.,  in  the  autumn, 
when  the  young  birds  throw  off  their  spotted  plumage  and 
assume  that  of  the  adults. 

The  tarsus  in  the  Turdidcz  is  plain  on  both  aspects,  with  the 
entire  laminae  smooth  and  without  scutellations,  though  in  a 
few  instances  young  birds  show  a  slight  tendency  to  a  scute, 
but  this  only  occurs  in  a  very  few  species. 

Thrushes  may  be  said  to  be  cosmopolitan  in  their  range,  and 
they  occur  even  in  the  Pacific  Islands,  where  very  few  forms 
which  flourish  in  the  Palaearctic  and  Nearctic  Regions  find  a 
home.  In  fact,  the  Thrushes  are  even  more  universally  distri- 
buted over  the  earth's  surface  than  the  Crows.  In  America, 


Robins  and  Chats,  Nightingales  and  Redstarts  are  wanting, 
but  their  places  are  taken  by  the  Blue-Birds  (SiaZia)  and  other 
forms. 

The  bill  in  the  Turdidce  varies  considerably  in  shape,  being 
sometimes  flattened  and  beset  with  many  bristles  like  a  Fly- 
catcher's, but  the  nostrils  are  always  exposed,  not  covered  with 
hairs  as  in  the  last-named  family.  There  is  a  slightly-indicated 
notch  near  the  end  of  the  upper  mandible. 

The  family  has  been  divided  by  Mr.  Seebohm,  who  has  mad( 
the  Turdidce.  his  special  study,  into  two  main  groups,  one  with 
a  white  pattern  extending  across  the  under  surface  of  the  wings 
and  the  second  without  any  such  patch.  The  genus  Oreocichla 
with  White's  Thrush,  and  GeocichZa,  with  the  Siberian  Thrush 
come  under  the  first  heading.  All  the  other  Thrushes  are 
divided  by  him  into  three  sections, — i,  the  True  Thrushes 
Turdus,  in  which  both  male  and  female  are  alike  in  plumage 

2,  the  Blackbirds,  in  which  the  sexes  differ  in   colour;  am 

3,  the  Robins,  Chats,  and  Redstarts,  in  which  the  sexes  ma] 
or  may  not  differ  in  colour,  but  in  which  the  bill  is  dark,  not 
pale   as   in  the   Blackbird  group.     Mr.  Gates   separates  the 
Turdidce  into  five  sub-families,  but  the  characters  are  some 
what   artificial,    and   we   do  not  agree  with  his   conclusions 
entirely.     (Cf.  Gates,  Faun.  Brit.  Ind.  Birds,  ii.,  p.  57.) 

THE  GOLDEN  THRUSHES.  GENUS  OREOCICHLA. 

Oreocichla,  Gould,  P.  Z.  S.,  1837,  p.  145. 

Type,  O.  varia  (Pall.). 

There  is  a  certain  character  in  the  mottled  plumage  of 
W'hite's  Thrush  and  its  allies  which  separates  them  from  all 
the  other  members  of  the  family,  and  renders  it  convenient  to 
recognise  them  as  belonging  to  a  separate  genus  from  Turdns 
and  Merula.  They  have  the  white  pattern  on  the  inner  face  of 
the  wing,  as  in  the  Ground-Thrushes  (Geocichla),  and,  as  in  the 
latter  birds,  the  axillaries  are  of  a  different  colour  from  the 
under  wing-coverts.  The  sexes  are  alike  in  colour,  and  the 
under  surface  of  the  body  is  "lunulated,"  with  distinct  spots: 
or  bars.  The  rictal  bristles  are  few  and  lateral. 

Of  the  genus  Oreocichla  about  a  dozen  species  are  known, 
all  of  the  same  peculiar  type,  and  most  of  them  confined  to  the 


THE   GOLDEN    THRUSHES.  243 

Indian  and  Australian  regions,  and  the  species  inhabiting  these 
areas  are  mostly  stationary,  or  at  best  only  slightly  migratory 
within  the  limits  of  the  regions  they  inhabit.  White's  Thrush, 
which  comes  to  England  occasionally,  is,  on  the  contrary, 
a  decidedly  migratory  bird,  breeding  in  Eastern  Siberia,  and 
wending  its  way  south  in  winter  to  Japan,  South  China,  and 
the  Philippines.  It  has  fourteen  tail  feathers  instead  of 
twelve,  as  in  the  majority  of  Thrushes,  a  peculiarity  which 
it  shares  with  Oreodchla  horsfieldii  of  Java  and  O.  hancii  of 
Formosa. 

i.  WHITE'S  THRUSH.     OREOCICHLA  VARIA. 

Turdus  varius,  Pall.  Zoogr.,  Rosso-Asiat,  i.,  p.  449  (1811); 
Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  146  (1839);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  251 
(1872);  Dresser,  B.Eur.,ii.,p  77,  pi  10(1878)  j  B.  O.  U. 

List  Br.  B.,  p.  3  (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig  Br.  B.,  pt.  iii. 
(1886);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  u  (1889). 

Geodchla  vart'a,  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  151  (1881); 
id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  200(1883). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  ochreous-brown,  varied 
with  black  circular  margins  to  the  feathers,  all  of  which  have 
whitish  shaft-lines,  and  a  golden-buff  subterminal  shade ;  this 
banded  plumage  somewhat  closer  on  the  head,  and  the  spots 
smaller;  lesser  wing-coverts  like  the  back,  the  median- coverts 
blackish, with  broad  ochraceous  ends;  the  greater  series  blackish, 
externally  paler  brown,  with  slightly  indicated  buff  tips;  bastard- 
wing-feathers  light  brown ;  primary-coverts  brown  at  bases,  golden- 
buff  in  the  centre,  and  black  at  the  ends,  forming  a  well-marked 
pattern  on  the  wing ;  quills  brown,  the  primaries  light  brown 
at  the  base,  the  feathers  being  here  ochreous-brown  externally, 
the  centre  of  the  primaries  dark  brown  nearly  to  the  edge,  and 
the  pale  edge  increasing  towards  the  end  of  the  quills ;  the 
secondaries  blackish  with  a  tip  of  golden  buff,  and  with  an  in- 
dentation of  ochreous-buff  on  the  margin  near  the  end;  four 
centre  tail-feathers  (fourteen  in  number)  light  brown,  without  pale 
tips,  the  rest  blackish,  externally  ochreous-brown,  the  feathers 
tipped  with  white,  the  outer  ones  more  broadly ;  sides  of  face 
pale  ochreous-buff,  the  feathers  edged  with  black,  and  a  black 
spot  behind  the  ear-coverts ;  cheeks  white,  spotted  with  black, 

R    2 


244  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

and  having  a  narrow  moustachial  line  of  black ;  throat  white, 
as  also  the  abdomen  and  under  tail-coverts ;  the  fore-neck, 
breast,  and  sides  of  body  with  crescent-shaped  black  edges, 
before  which  is  a  subterminal  shade  of  golden-buff,  narrower 
than  on  the  upper  surface;  sides  of  the  upper  breast  light 
brown  with  white  shaft-lines  and  the  same  margins  as  the  rest 
of  the  flanks ;  under  wing-coverts  black,  the  axillaries  white 
with  the  terminal  half  black ;  quills  dusky  brown  below,  with 
a  broad  white  band  across  the  base  of  the  inner  web  of  the 
quills  ;  bill  dark  brown,  paler  below ;  feet  yellowish  brown  ;  iris 
dark  brown.  Total  length,  ii'8  inches;  culmen,  i'i ;  wing,  6 '4; 
tail,  4-1;  tarsus,  1-35. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  in  plumage  to  the  male.  Total  length, 
ii  inches;  wing,  6.0. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — An  accidental  visitor  in  late  autumn 
and  winter.  The  species  has  occurred  at  least  a  dozen  times 
or  more,  most  of  the  captures  having  been  made  in  England, 
but  one  instance  is  known  from  Berwickshire,  and  three  from 
Ireland.  The  first  time  that  it  was  met  with  in  England  was 
in  1828,  when  a  specimen  obtained  in  Hampshire  was  described 
as  Turdus  whitei  by  Eyton,  who  believed  it  to  be  a  new  species, 
and  named  it  in  honour  of  Gilbert  White  of  Selborne.  The 
title  of  White's  Thrush,  thus  acquired,  has  been  universally 
recognised  by  British  naturalists,  and  may  well  commemorate 
the  name  of  an  observer  of  bird-life,  than  whom  no  one  is  more 
venerated  in  this  country  at  the  present  day. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — White's  Thrush  is  a  Siberian 
bird,  breeding  in  the  south-eastern  and  south-central  districts 
of  Siberia,  in  China  north   of  the  Yangtze,  and  probably  in 
Japan.      It  winters   in   Southern   China  and  the  Philippine 
Islands,  and  it  is  at  the  latter  season  of  the  year  that  specimens 
occur  in  Europe.     The  species  has  been  obtained  in  Norway 
and  Sweden  and  as  far  south  as  Italy  and  the  Pyrenees,  but  it 
is  in  Heligoland  that  it  most  frequently  occurs,  and  no  one  j 
who  has  visited  that  island  can  forget  the  sight  of  the  beautiful  | 
specimens  in  Gaetke's  Museum,  all  in  perfect  plumage,  andi 
mounted  by  the  hands  of  the  old  naturalist  himself. 

Habits. — Not  much  has  been  recorded  of  the  habits  of 
White's  Thrush  beyond  the  fact  that  it  seems  to  be  essentially! 


THE   GROUND-THRUSHES.  245 

a  ground-bird,  searching  for  its  food  in  humid  situations, 
among  the  dead  leaves  under  the  trees  and  shrubs.  Its 
golden-spangled  plumage  serves  to  conceal  it,  and  it  seems  to 
frequent  in  England,  when  it  occurs,  similar  situations  to  those 
it  affects  in  its  native  home.  Its  food  consists,  as  with  most 
other  Thrushes,  of  worms  and  grubs,  spiders  and  snails,  and  as 
it  is  not  a  noisy  species,  it  may  easily  be  overlooked.  In  autumn 
it  feeds  also  on  berries.  Whether  it  has  a  song  has  never  been 
yet  recorded,  but  such  is  doubtless  the  case. 

Nest. — The  only  authentic  nest  of  White's  Thrush  yet  recorded 
was  obtained  near  Ningpo,in  China,  by  the  late  Consul  Swinhoe, 
and  is  now  in  Mr.  Seebohm's  collection.  He  describes  it  as 
follows  :  "  It  was  built  on  a  fork  of  a  horizontal  pine-branch, 
and  is  about  2^  inches  deep  inside,  and  about  4  inches  deep 
outside,  7  inches  in  outer  and  4^  inches  in  inner  diameter. 
The  outside  is  composed  of  withered  rushes,  fine  and  coarse 
grass  and  moss,  with  an  occasional  twig  and  withered  leaf,  and 
plastered  most  copiously  with  mud.  Here  and  there  are  a  few 
pieces  of  some  green  wood,  apparently  conveyed  in  the  mud 
from  the  swamps.  The  inside  is  lined  with  a  thick  coating  of 
mud  like  the  nests  of  our  own  Ring-Ouzel  or  Blackbird ;  and 
is  then  finally  lined  with  fibrous  rootlets,  quite  as  coarse  as 
those  which  the  Magpie  uses,  and  one  or  two  pieces  of  sedgy 
grass.  In  general  appearance  the  nest  resembles  most  closely 
that  of  a  Common  Magpie  without  the  sticks — just  the  mere 
cup,  and  is  far  more  coarsely  made  than  the  nests  of  the  true 
Thrushes." 

Eggs. — These,  according  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  are  greenish-white, 
with  minute  reddish  spots.  They  most  resemble  those  of  the 
Mistle  Thrush,  but  the  ground-colour  is  slightly  paler,  and 
the  spots  much  finer,  more  numerous,  and  more  evenly  dis- 
tributed. They  measure  1*2  inch  in  length  and  0-9  inch  in 
breadth. 

THE  GROUND-THRUSHES.     GENUS  GEOCICHLA. 
Geocichla^  Gould,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1837,  p.  174. 

Type,  G.  rubecula  (Gould). 
The  members  of  this  genus  are  birds  of  somewhat  varie- 


246  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY, 

gated  plumage,  differing  in  the  colour  of  the  sexes,  and  having 
the  same  white  patch  on  the  inner  face  of  the  wing  as  in 
Oreocichla,  but  not  possessing  the  golden  banded  plumage  of 
the  latter  genus.  The  axillaries,  however,  are  of  the  same 
type  as  in  the  Golden  Thrushes,  being  exactly  the  opposite  of 
the  under  wing-coverts — i.e.,  if  the  under  wing-coverts  are 
black  with  white  tips,  the  axillaries  are  white  with  black  tips. 
The  GeocichlcR  are  inhabitants  of  the  African,  Indian,  Eastern 
Palasarctic,  and  Malayan  Regions.  One  species  from  America, 
Georichla  navia,  is  included  by  Mr.  Seebohm  in  the  genus. 


I.  THE   SIBERIAN    GROUND-THRUSH.      GEOCICHLA   SIBIRICA. 

Turdus  sibiricus,  Pall.  Reis.  Russ.  Reichs.,  iii.,  p.  694  (1776); 

Saunders,  Man.,  p.  12  (1889). 
Geocichla  sibirica,  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  180  (1881); 

id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  204  (1883), 

Adult  Male.  —  General  colour  above  dark  slaty-grey ;  the 
feathers  paler  slaty-grey  on  the  margins ;  wing-coverts  like 
the  back;  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts,  and  quills  dark 
brown,  externally  slaty-grey ;  centre  tail-feathers  like  the  back, 
the  remainder  black,  washed  with  slaty-grey  on  their  outer 
edges,  the  two  outer  feathers  white  at  the  tips ;  head  a  little 
darker  than  the  back,  relieved  by  a  very  broad  white  eyebrow, 
which  extends  to  the  sides  of  the  nape;  lores  dusky;  ear- 
coverts  and  sides  of  face  slaty-black ;  under  surface  of 
body  slaty-grey,  a  little  more  dusky  on  the  throat,  and  paler 
on  the  sides  of  the  body  and  flanks ;  centre  of  breast  and 
abdomen  pure  white,  the  under  tail-coverts  white,  mottled 
with  slaty-grey  bases ;  thighs  slaty-grey ;  under  wing-coverts 
black  ;  edge  of  wing  white ;  axillaries  white,  with  dusky  black 
tips ;  quills  blackish  below,  the  base  of  the  inner  webs  white, 
forming  a  broad  band ;  bill  black ;  tarsus  in  front,  toes  and 
claws  greenish-yellow,  the  hinder  aspect  of  the  tarsus  dirty 
yellow ;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  9  inches ;  culmen,  0*8 ;  wing, 
4-65  :  tail,  3'i  ;  tarsus,  i'i. 

Adult  Female. —  General  colour  above  warm  olive-brown,  in- 
clining to  slaty  brown  on  the  lower  back  and  rump;  wing-coverts 


THE   GROUND-THRUSHES.  247 

russet-brown  ;  quills  dusky  brown,  externally  russet-brown,  with 
a  pale  margin  to  the  first  primary ;  tail-feathers  dusky  brown, 
with  a  russet  tinge,  the  two  outer  ones  with  a  tiny  spot  of  white 
at  the  tip ;  head  a  little  more  russet  than  the  back,  the  eye- 
stripe  fulvous  and  not  so  distinct  as  in  the  male ;  ear-coverts 
ochreous-buff  mottled  with  blackish  edgings  to  the  feathers  ; 
cheeks  ochraceous  with  a  blackish  line  above  and  below,  form- 
ing a  distinct  moustachial  streak  ;  under  surface  of  body  ochra- 
ceous, whiter  on  the  throat,  which  is  spotted  with  dusky ;  the 
fore-neck  and  breast  slightly  more  rufous,  and  mottled  with 
blackish  subterminal  bars  to  the  feathers,  less  marked  on  the 
sides  of  the  body  and  flanks ;  lower  breast  and  abdomen  pure 
white ;  thighs  brown ;  under  tail-coverts  white,  with  dusky 
bases  ;  under  wing-coverts  ochraceous  brown  ;  axillaries  white 
with  brown  tips  ;  quills  dusky  below  with  the  wing-band  bufly- 
white  j  "  bill  dark  brown,  the  lower  mandible  and  gape  dirty 
yellow  to  the  angle  of  the  gape  ;  feet  and  claws  orange-yellow  ; 
iris  dark  brown."  (  W.  Damson.)  Total  length,  9  inches  ;  cul- 
men,  o'8;  wing,  4-5  ;  tail,  3-0;  tarsus,  1-05. 

Young  birds  of  the  year  may  be  distinguished  by  the  pale  ochre 
tips  to  the  wing-coverts. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  late  Mr.  Frederic  Bond  pos- 
sessed a  specimen  of  this  bird,  which  was  sold  to  him 
by  a  dealer  as  a  variety  of  the  Redwing,  which  had  been 
killed  between  Guildford  and  Godalming  in  the  winter  of 
1 860-6 1.  Mr.  Bond  thoroughly  believed  in  its  genuineness, 
and  the  specimen  was  one  of  the  few  which  he  wished  to  come 
to  the  British  Museum  on  his  death,  and  which  he  bequeathed 
to  that  institution  in  his  will.  Mr.  Saunders  has  reason  to 
believe  that  a  second  example  was  picked  up  exhausted  at  Bon- 
church,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  the  winter  of  1874,  but  he  does 
not  consider  the  evidence  good  enough  to  include  the  species 
in  the  British  List.  After  all,  however,  there  is  nothing  so 
wonderful  in  the  occasional  visit  of  this  bird  to  Great  Britain, 
as  it  has  occurred  in  several  countries  of  Europe,  and  Mr.  See- 
bohm  very  aptly  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  thirty  years 
ago  it  would  not  have  been  easy  for  any  dealer  to  have  obtained 
a  specimen  of  the  Siberian  Thrush,  even  if  he  had  wished  to 
palm  it  off  as  British-killed,  so  rare  was  the  bird  in  collections 


248  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

at  that  date.  Again,  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  specimen 
was  sold  to  Mr.  Bond,  not  as  a  Siberian  Thrush,  but  as  a 
melanistic  variety  of  the  Redwing.  Under  these  circumstances 
we  think  that  the  bird  has  a  claim  to  be  admitted  into  the  List 
of  British  Birds,  as  a  very  rare  and  occasional  visitor. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Siberian  Ground-Thrush 
breeds  in  the  valleys  of  the  Lena  and  the  Yenesei,  between  67° 
and  68°  N.  lat,  and  also  near  Yokohama,  in  Japan.  Its  winter 
quarters  are  in  Southern  China,  Burma,  and  Tenasserim,  and  it 
ranges  as  far  as  Sumatra  and  Java.  It  also  straggles  to  Europe, 
for,  besides  the  reputed  British  occurrence,  it  has  been  captured 
in  Germany  on  more  than  one  occasion,  and  has  been  also  re- 
corded from  France,  Belgium,  Italy,  and  Turkey. 

Habits. — Scarcely  anything  has  been  recorded  of  the  habits 
of  this  species.  Mr.  Seebohm  tells  how  he  met  with  the  bird 
in  Siberia,  not  far  from  the  village  of  Koorayika,  on  the  Arctic 
Circle,  but  it  was  so  shy  and  wary  that  he  did  not  succeed  in 
shooting  a  specimen  till  the  igth  of  June.  In  a  dense  birch 
plantation,  where  the  snow  had  recently  melted  and  had  left 
exposed  a  dense  bed  of  leaves,  the  accumulations  of  some  years, 
he  saw  a  dark  bird  with  a  white  eyebrow  engaged  in  searching 
for  food  amongst  the  dead  leaves.  He  managed  to  secure  the 
specimen,  which  proved  to  be  a  Siberian  Ground-Thrush,  and 
he  also  saw  others,  but  could  not  procure  any  more  examples. 
The  natives  told  him  that  it  was  not  uncommon  near  Tooro- 
kansk  during  the  breeding  season,  and  was  called  the  "  Chbrnoi 
Drozht?  or  "  Black  Thrush."  In  Japan,  Mr.  Jouy  found  it 
equally  shy,  frequenting  the  dense  woods  on  Fuji-yama  as  high 
as  5,000  feet.  It  has  a  fine  song,  and  is  a  favourite  cage-bird 
with  the  Japanese. 

Nest. — Not  yet  described. 

Eggs. — A  clutch  of  three  eggs  are  in  the  Seebohm  collection, 
obtained  by  the  late  Harry  Fryer  in  Japan.  The  ground-colour 
is  bluish-green,  and  the  eggs  are  spotted  all  over  with  reddish- 
brown,  in  Blackbird  fashion.  The  underlying  spots  are  slightly 
lighter  brown,  but  are  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  over- 
lying ones.  Axis,  1^05  inch;  diam.,  0*8. 


THE    BLACKBIRDS. 


249 


THE  BLACKBIRDS.     GENUS  MERULA. 

Manila,  Leach,  Syst.  Cat.  Mamm.  and  Birds,  Brit.  Mus.,  p.  20 
(1816). 

Type,  M.  merula  (Linn.). 

The  separation  of  the  genus  Merula  from  the  genus  Turdus 
is  rather  difficult  to  justify,  as  in  structure  the  two  genera  are 
almost  identical,  and  the  character  most  to  be  relied  on,  viz., 
the  difference  in  the  colour  of  the  sexes,  is  not  found  to  exist 
in  a  few  species,  which,  nevertheless,  must  be  considered  to 
belong  to  the  "  Blackbird  "  group  of  Turdidce.  As  far  as  the 
European  species  are  concerned,  however,  the  distinctions  are 
well  marked,  and  the  difference  in  the  colour  of  the  sexes 
separates  the  Blackbirds  from  the  Thrushes.  They  resemble 
the  latter  in  not  having  the  white  pattern  on  the  inner  face  of 
the  wing,  and  are  thus  easily  distinguished  from  Oreodchla  and 
Geodchla.  The  members  of  the  genus  Merula  are  distributed 
over  the  Palaearctic,  Indian,  and  Australian  regions,  being 
confined  in  the  latter  to  various  Pacific  Islands.  In  the 
Neotropical  Region  nearly  twenty  species  occur,  but  the  genus 
is  unrepresented  in  the  Nearctic  Region. 

I.  THE   BLACKBIRD.      MERULA   MERULA. 
(Plate  XXII.,  Fig.  2.) 

Turdus  merula,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  295  (1766);  Macg.,  Br. 

B.,  ii.,  p.  Si  (1839);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  280  (1872); 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  91,  pi.  13  (1872);  B.  O.  U.  List 

Br.   B.,   p.   4  (1883);    Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  vii. 

(1888);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  13  (1889);  Wyatt,  Br.  B.,  pi. 

i.,  figs.  3-4  (1894). 
Merula  merula.  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  235  (1881); 

id.  Br.  B,  i,  p.  235  (1883). 

Adalt  Male. — Entirely  black  above  and  below,  and  including 
the  wings  and  tail ;  bill  orange-yellow ;  feet  and  claws  dark 
brown  or  black  ;  iris  hazel ;  eyelid  orange.  Total  length,  10*5 
inches;  oilmen,  0-9;  wing,  5-0;  tail,  3*8;  tarsus,  1*3. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  considerably  from  the  male,  being 
browner,  and  mottled  underneath.  The  general  colour  is 


250  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

blackish-brown,  washed  slightly  with  dark  olive  ;  the  tail  black ; 
ear-coverts  dark  brown,  with  pale  shaft-lines ;  throat  and  chest 
rufous,  mottled  with  black,  the  feathers  having  longitudinal 
black  centres,  widening  out  at  the  ends ;  breast  and  rest  of 
under  surface  of  body  blackish. 

With  age,  the  female  bird  becomes  much  greyer,  especially 
underneath,  when  the  breast  and  abdomen  are  hoary-grey, 
the  throat  whitish,  regularly  streaked  with  rows  of  brown  spots ; 
the  chest  pale  rufous.  The  bill  in  old  birds  inclines  to 
yellow. 

Young. — Rufous-brown,  mottled  with  pale  rufous  centres  to 
the  feathers  of  the  upper  parts,  imparting  a  streaked  ap- 
pearance, less  distinct  on  the  head ;  the  median  and  greater 
coverts  like  the  back,  and  similarly  streaked;  greater-coverts 
chocolate-brown ;  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts,  and  quills 
blackish-brown ;  lores  rufous-brown  ;  ear-coverts  dark  brown, 
with  hair-like  shafts  of  rufous ;  cheeks  and  under  surface  of 
body  reddish-buff,  the  throat  spotted  with  blackish-brown  at 
the  tips  of  the  feathers,  the  breast  and  sides  of  the  body  barred 
with  blackish-brown ;  breast  and  abdomen  uniform  pale 
rufous ;  thighs  brown ;  under  tail-coverts  black,  with  rufous 
tips. 

At  first  both  male  and  female  are  alike,  but  the  darker 
colour  of  the  former  is  shown  after  the  autumn  moult,  when, 
however,  there  are  still  some  rufous  mottlings  on  the  throat 
and  chest.  The  bill  also  is  black,  and  even  when  the  birds 
gain  their  entire  black  plumage,  the  young  of  the  previous 
year  can  always  be  recognised  by  the  browner  wings. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — Generally  distributed  and  breeding 
everywhere  throughout  the  three  kingdoms,  but  only  known  as 
an  autumn  and  winter  visitor  to  some  of  the  Outer  Hebrides 
and  the  Shetland  Isles.  It  is  said  to  be  gradually  extending  its 
range  northward  in  Scotland. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — Almost  universally  met  with 
throughout  Europe,  and  inhabiting  the  whole  of  the  countries 
on  both  sides  of  the  Mediterranean  from  Palestine  on  the  east 
to  the  Azores,  the  Canaries,  and  Madeira  on  the  west.  The 
northern  range  of  the  Blackbird  in  Scandinavia  extends  up  to 


THE    BLACKBIRDS.  251 

the  Arctic  Circle,  about  67°  N.  lat.,  but  it  has  not  yet  been 
found  in  Northern  Russia,  where  its  range  is  said  to  be  bounded 
by  the  valley  cf  the  Volga.  Further  east,  in  Turkestan,  Afghani- 
stan, and  Cashmere,  its  place  is  taken  by  a  larger  race,  Merula 
maxima,  which  has  a  wing  of  5  ^  or  6  inches. 

Habits. — Except  in  spring-time,  when  the  Blackbird  is  seen 
and  heard  more  frequently  than  at  other  times  of  the  year,  it 
is  a  shy  and  retiring  bird,  seeking  its  food  among  the  dead 
itaves  in  thickets  and  hedgerows,  or  inhabiting  the  evergreen 
shrubberies.  Its  well-known  chattering  note  as  it  flies  away, 
when  startled,  is  familiar  to  everyone,  as  also  are  the  beautiful 
flute-like  notes,  which  are  heard  on  all  sides  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  nesting  season.  In  England  the  Blackbird  does 
not  seem  to  be  found  so  much  in  the  centre  of  the  towns  as  it 
is  in  some  of  the  Continental  cities,  but  it  is  a  frequent  denizen 
of  the  suburbs,  and  may  often  be  seen  in  the  London  parks. 
It  is  to  a  certain  extent  migratory  even  in  England,  and  large 
numbers  come  from  the  Continent  every  autumn,  while  on  the 
south  coast  we  have  noticed  many  together  in  September, 
evidently  about  to  cross  the  Channel,  and  we  have  seen  at 
least  a  dozen  fly  out  of  a  little  patch  of  reeds  in  a  ditch,  where 
they  had  been  feeding  in  company.  With  such  exceptions,  the 
Blackbird  cannot  be  called  gregarious,  and,  as  a  rule,  each  bird 
seems  to  feed  on  its  own  account,  and  flies  off  separately,  when 
disturbed. 

The  food  of  the  Blackbird  consists  chiefly  of  insects  and 
worms,  but  it  also  devours  numbers  of  small  snails,  breaking 
the  shells  by  repeated  blows  against  a  stone  or  on  the  ground. 
It  is  also  a  well-known  pilferer  of  fruit,  and  undoubtedly  does 
some  damage  in  this  respect,  a  crime  which  is  never  atoned  for 
in  the  eyes  of  the  gardener  by  the  good  which  it  does  in 
destroying  numbers  of  grubs  and  insects  during  the  rest  of  the 
year.  To  the  ordinary  individual,  however,  the  sight  of  the 
bird  and  the  pleasure  of  hearing  its  tuneful  song  at  all  hours 
of  the  day,  amply  atone  for  any  harm  which  it  may  do  in  the 
fruit-gardens,  and  we  know  several  friends  who  will  not  have 
the  birds  disturbed  or  their  nests  harried  in  their  grounds, 
holding  that  they  are  welcome  to  some  of  the  fruit,  in  return 
for  the  charm  which  their  presence  affords.  In  a  circumscribed 


252  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

area,  however,  it  is  quite  possible  for  the  Blackbird  to  be 
somewhat  of  a  nuisance,  for  it  is  extremely  quarrelsome,  not 
only  fighting  with  others  of  its  own  species,  but  driving  off 
other  birds  which  seek  to  feed  or  to  nest  near  its  own  particular 
domain.  In  most  places,  however,  where  the  birds  are  cared 
for,  they  live  in  peace  with  the  Thrushes  and  other  neighbours, 
remembering  perhaps  that  they  have  shared  the  same  friendly 
hospitality  during  the  hard  days  of  winter,  and  been  sustained 
by  the  same  friendly  hands.  Thus  there  is  no  prettier  sight 
than  to  see  the  Blackbirds  in  summer  descending  gently  and 
with  a  sweeping  flight  on  to  a  lawn,  and  as  they  alight,  raising 
their  tail  gracefully,  before  proceeding  to  search  for  worms. 
This  action  of  the  tail  is  characteristic  of  the  Blackbird,  and  is 
not  seen  in  the  Thrushes  under  similar  circumstances. 

Nest. — This  is  found  in  all  kinds  of  situations,  sometimes 
well  concealed  and  hidden  in  the  recesses  of  an  evergreen  or 
yew-tree,  at  others  built  in  such  exposed  situations  as  to  ensure 
discovery.  The  outside  of  the  nest  is  often  ragged,  and  the  out- 
lying grasses  and  twigs  often  lead  to  its  detection.  It  is  a  firm 
and  compactly-built  structure,  and  is  placed  in  the  thick  stems 
of  an  ivy  trunk  or  against  the  trunk  of  a  big  tree,  often  in  the 
middle  of  a  park  or  on  the  edge  of  a  plantation,  and  at  a  good 
distance  from  the  ground,  while  at  other  times  it  is  to  be  found 
near  the  dense  bottom  of  a  hedge-row,  and  has  even  been  found 
under  the  eaves  of  a  shed,  or  amongst  the  roots  of  a  large  tree, 
or  under  a  bank,  in  just  such  a  situation  as  a  Wren  would  choose, 
according  to  Mr.  Seebohm.  The  latter  gentleman  observes : 
"  The  nest  passes  through  three  stages  before  it  is  completed. 
It  is  composed  first  of  coarse  grasses,  amongst  which  a  few 
twigs  are  sometimes  woven,  a  little  moss,  and  dry  leaves.  This 
somewhat  loosely-built  structure  is  lined  with  mud  or  clay, 
when  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  distinguish  it  from  an  unfinished 
nest  of  the  Song-Thrush.  This  mud-formed  cavity  is  finally 
lined  very  thickly  with  finer  grasses,  admirably  arranged,  and 
forming  a  smooth  bed  for  the  eggs."  Mr.  Robert  Read  tells 
us  that  he  once  found  a  Blackbird's  nest  at  Blackheath  very 
early  in  the  spring,  in  which  the  bird  had  laid  a  single  egg.  A 
spell  of  frost  and  snow  supervened,  and  no  more  eggs  were 
deposited  for  a  fortnight,  when  mild  weather  once  more  set  in, 


THE    BLACKBIRDS.  2$3 

and  two  more  eggs  were  laid  precisely  similar  to  the  first,  and 
evidently  by  the  same  bird 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  .n  number.  The  eggs  vary  to  any 
extent  in  colour  and  shape.  The  ground-colour  is  greenish- 
blue  and  the  overlying  markings  are  reddish-brown,  arranged 
as  spots  or  blotches,  sometimes  so  thickly  that  the  egg  appears 
reddish,  but  the  blotches  are  often  collected  at  the  larger  end. 
From  this  type  of  egg,  which  is  the  ordinary  one,  every  varia- 
tion seems  to  take  place,  some  eggs  being  so  minutely  spotted 
with  reddish-brown  as  to  recall  those  of  the  Jay,  while  not 
unfrequently  they  are  so  sparsely  spotted  as  to  appear  almost 
entirely  blue,  and  are  sometimes  actually  blue.  Those  in  a 
clutch  from  Waterford,  in  the  Seebohm  collection,  have  the 
ground-colour  white  instead  of  blue,  and  the  markings  light 
reddish-brown.  (Plate  xxxi.,  fig.  6.) 

II.    THE    RING-OUZEL.       MERULA    TORQUATA. 

Turdns  torquatuS)  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.;  p.  296  (1766);  Macg., 
Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  100  (1839);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  287 
(1872);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  113,  pis.  14,  15  (1872); 
B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  5  (1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br. 
B.,  pt.  i  (1885);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  15  (1889). 

Merula  torquata,  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  246  (1881) ; 
id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  243(1883). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  sooty-black,  the  lesser 
wing-coverts  like  the  back  ;  median  and  greater  coverts, 
primary-coverts,  and  quills  brownish-black,  with  narrow  fringes 
of  ashy  on  the  outer  web,  scarcely  visible  on  the  bastard-wing 
feathers,  which  are  blackish  ;  tail-feathers  blackish-brown,  with 
a  slight  fringe  of  whitish  at  the  tips  of  the  feathers  ;  sides  of 
head,  throat,  and  under  surface  of  body  sooty-black,  with 
narrow  whitish  margins  to  the  feathers  of  the  breast  and 
abdomen,  thighs  and  under  tail-coverts  ;  across  the  fore-neck  a 
broad  band  of  white,  slightly  shaded  with  brown,  and  reaching 
to  the  sides  of  the  neck  ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries 
a;hy-brown,  barred  with  dull  white  at  the  ends  and  towards  the 
tips  of  the  feathers ;  quills  dusky  below,  ashy  along  the  inner 
webs  ;  bill  yellow ;  feet  and  claws  brawn  ;  iris  dark  brown. 


254  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Total  length,  10  inches;  culmen,  0-9;  wing,   5-4;  tail,   3*8; 
tarsus,  1-3. 

Adult  Female. — Rather  browner  than  the  male,  and  havii\ 
faint  remains  of  pale  margins  to  the  feathers  of  the  upper  sur 
face  ;  the  under  surface  more  distinctly  varied  than  in  the 
male,  and  not  so  uniform,  the  feathers  edged  with  ashy-whit 
on  the  throat  as  well  as  the  breast ;  the  white  gorget  over- 
shaded  with  brown  margins  to  the  feathers.  Total  length,  10 
inches;  wing,  5-3. 

Young  birds  after  the  autumn  moult  are  thickly  covered  below 
with  greyish-white  margins  to  the  feathers,  the  white  gorget 
being  almost  obscured  with  brown,  especially  in  the  young 
females. 

Nestlings. — Blackish,  with  obscure  reddish-brown  edgings  to 
the  feathers,  and  the  wing-coverts  streaked  down  the  centre 
with  white ;  there  is  no  indication  of  a  chest-band,  the  chest 
being  black,  the  feathers  edged  with  sandy-buff ;  the  breast  and 
abdomen  barred  with  black  and  buffy-brown  or  white ;  the 
throat  clear  buff,  spotted  with  black. 

Ban ge  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor  only,  inhabiting  the 
hilly  districts  of  all  three  kingdoms,  from  Cornwall  to  Somer- 
setshire, and  found  throughout  the  higher  ground  of  England 
and  Wales,  and  almost  the  whole  of  Scotland  and  the  outlying 
islands,  except  the  Shetlands,  which  it  only  visits  on  rare  occa- 
sions. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Until  quite  recently  there 
was  believed  to  exist  but  one  species  of  Ring-Ouzel  in  Europe, 
but  the  attention  of  ornithologists  having  been  drawn  by  Dr. 
Stejneger  to  the  fact  that  the  Ring-Ouzel  of  the  Alps  and 
mountains  of  Central  Europe  was  really  a  distinct  species  from 
the  bird  which  breeds  in  England  and  Scandinavia,  this  sub- 
ject was  investigated  by  Mr.  Seebohm  and  Count  Salvador!. 
Both  of  them  confirm  the  distinctness  of  the  southern  bird, 
which  must  be  known  as  Merula  alpestris,  Brehm,  while  Mr. 
Seebohm  considers  the  Ring-Ouzel  of  the  Caucasus  to  be  still 
further  different,  and  to  be  worthy  of  separation  as  Merula 
orientalis. 

The  Ring-Ouzel  which  visits  Great  Britain  in  summer  is, 
therefore,  found  on  the  continent  in  Scandinavia  up  to  about 


THE   BLACKBIRDS.  255 

58°  N.  lat,  and  breeds  also  in  Northern  Germany,  on  this 
side  of  the  Riesenberge  and  Silesia,  and  it  is  probably  our 
bird  which  nests  in  Guelderland  in  Holland  and  in  Southern 
Belgium.  Mr.  Seebohm  likewise  considers  that  the  Ring- 
Ouzel  of  the  Vosges  mountains  will  be  found  to  be  M.  tor- 
qitata ;  but  as  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  found  M.  alpestris 
in  the  Jura,  nesting  at  a  height  of  from  fifteen  to  forty 
feet,  the  bird  of  the  Vosges  will  certainly  be  the  same 
as  that  of  the  Jura.  The  latter  form,  which  is  distinguished 
by  white  centres  ^o  the  feathers  of  the  under  parts  (in  ad- 
dition to  the  whr.e  margins)  is  found  in  the  Alps  and  the 
Apennines  in  Italy,  and  breeds  in  suitable  places  in  Germany 
south  of  the  Riesenberge  and  Silesia.  In  Transylvania  Mr. 
Danford  has  found  its  nest  not  near  the  ground,  but  at  a 
height  of  forty  feet  in  a  tree,  so  that  the  habits  of  the  Alpine 
Ring-Ouzel  evidently  differ  from  those  of  its  northern  ally. 
It  is  probably  M.  alpestris  which  breeds  in  the  Pyrenees  and 
the  mountains  of  Spain,  but  whether  it  is  M.  torquata  which 
extends  east  to  the  Urals  can  only  be  determined  by  an  ex- 
amination of  specimens.  In  winter  our  bird  appears  to  visit 
the  countries  of  the  Mediterranean  and  shares  the  winter-home 
of  M.  alpestris. 

Habits. — The  Ring-Ouzel  is  a  bird  of  the  moors  and  fells,  and  is 
rarely  seen  in  the  south-east  of  England,  except  during  its  migra- 
tions, when  it  is  often  to  be  observed  near  Brighton  in  the 
gardens  near  the  town,  resting  for  a  short  time  on  its  southern 
journey.  In  most  of  its  habits  the  Ring-Ouzel  resembles  the 
Blackbird,  and  has  the  same  habit  of  elevating  its  tail,  when  it 
alights  on  the  ground  or  perches.  The  song  is  also  a  harsh 
echo  of  the  Blackbird's,  though  it  is  said  to  resemble  those  of 
the  Starling  and  Song-Thrush  in  a  certain  degree ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, inferior  to  that  of  both  the  Blackbird  and  Song-Thrush, 
and  contains  many  rough  notes  not  uttered  by  the  two  birds 
last-named.  The  food  of  the  Ring-Ouzel  consists  of  worms, 
snails,  and  beetles,  while  in  autumn  it  feeds  on  all  kinds  of 
berries  in  its  northern  home  and  harries  the  vineyards  of  the 
countries  through  which  it  passes  on  its  way  south.  In 
Heligoland  at  the  end  of  September  we  found  the  Ring-Ouzel 
passing  in  some  numbers,  and  they  were  plentiful  for  a  few 
days  in  the  bushes  and  grass  on  "Sandy  "  Island.  They  were 


256  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

very  shy  and  not  easily  induced  to  fly.  Some  of  them,  on 
being  disturbed  more  than  once,  mounted  high  into  the  air  and 
flew  straight  away  towards  the  coast  of  Germany. 

Nest. — A  compactly-built  structure,  formed  exactly  on  the 
same  lines  as  a  Blackbird's,  and  built  gradually,  in  the  same 
way.  There  is,  in  fact,  nothing  by  which  the  nest  can  be 
identified  from  that  of  the  ordinary  Blackbird,  except  its 
situation,  which  is  generally  different  from  that  of  the  last- 
named  bird.  The  Ring-Ouzel  generally  places  its  nest  on  the 
ground,  but  also  in  bushes  of  heather  or  ling,  especially  on 
banks  where  the  heather  conceals  it.  Occasionally  a  hole  in  a 
rock  is  selected. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number.  Mr.  Robert  Read  tells  us 
that  in  Scotland  he  has  never  found  more  than  four  in  a  nest, 
though  in  the  north  of  England  six  are  often  met  with.  The 
eggs  are  generally  like  those  of  the  Blackbird,  but  are  more 
richly  marked,  and  with  a  clearer  blue  ground.  Equal  variation 
in  markings  takes  place  to  that  which  obtains  in  a  series  of 
Blackbird's  eggs.  In  some  the  ground-colour  is  pale  bluish, 
with  the  reddish  markings  small  and  distributed  over  the  whole 
egg.  Others  are  brighter  blue,  and  these  have  the  markings 
generally  larger,  and  in  the  form  of  blotches.  Others  have  the 
ground-colour  greenish-olive,  and  in  these,  again,  the  reddish 
markings  are  large.  Only  a  few  eggs  have  a  collection  of  spots 
at  the  larger  end,  and  in  all  the  underlying  spots  are  never 
prominent,  being  of  a  lighter  reddish-brown  colour.  Axis,  i'i- 
1-3  inch;  diam.,  0-8-0-9. 

III.  THE   BLACK-THROATED    OUZEL.       MERULA   ATRIGULARIS. 

Turdus  atrogularis,  Temm.,  Man.  d'Orn.,  i.,  p.  169  (1820); 

Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  276  (1872);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p. 

83,  pi.   n  (1878);    B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.   2  (1883); 

Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  ii.   (1886);  Saunders,  Man., 

p.  9  (1889). 
Mtrula  atrigulariS)  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  267  (iSSi) ; 

id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  249  (1883). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  light  olive-brown,  the 
wing-coverts  like  the  back ;  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts  and 


THE    BLACKBIRDS.  257 

quills  dusky-brown,  externally  washed  with  olive-brown,  more 
broadly  on  the  inner  secondaries,  where  the  olive  colour  occu- 
pies the  outer  web  and  forms  a  contrast  to  the  dark  brown  of 
the  inner  web ;  all  the  quills  with  pale  fringes  at  the  tips,  more 
distinct  on  the  inner  secondaries ;  the  primaries  edged  with 
ashy  towards  the  end  of  the  outer  web  ;  tail-feathers  dark 
brown,  with  pale  fringes  to  the  tips ;  crown  of  head  more  ashy- 
olive  than  the  back,  with  the  centres  of  the  feathers  rather 
darker  ;  lores,  feathers  in  front  of  and  below  the  eye,  fore  part 
of  cheeks,  throat  and  chest  black  ;  the  ear-coverts  and  hinder 
cheeks  dark  ashy-olive,  like  the  sides  of  the  neck,  the  latter 
slightly  mixed  with  black ;  breast  and  abdomen  white,  the 
sides  of  the  body  and  flanks  greyish,  with  a  few  dusky  streaks 
on  the  sides  of  the  upper  breast ;  thighs  light  ashy-brown ; 
under  tail-coverts  white,  with  brown  bases ;  axillaries  and  under 
wing-coverts  rich  chestnut,  the  former  edged  with  white  ;  edge 
of  wing  white ;  lower  primary-coverts  dusky,  like  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  quills,  which  are  reddish  along  the  inner  web  ;  bill 
blackish-brown,  dusky  yellow  at  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible ; 
feet  and  claws  greyish-brown ;  iris  blackish-brown.  Total 
length,  10  inches;  oilmen,  0*8  ;  wing,  5-4;  tail,  37;  tarsus, 
1-25. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male,  and  lacking  the  black 
on  the  face,  throat,  and  chest ;  ear-coverts  and  sides  of  face 
ashy-olive,  with  a  faint  whitish  eyebrow;  cheeks  and  throat 
white,  with  dusky  blackish  spots  on  the  cheeks,  sides  of  throat 
and  fore-neck ;  breast  and  sides  of  body  ashy-brown,  streaked 
with  dusky  brown  ;  axillaries  and  under  wing-coverts  orange- 
chestnut.  Total  length,  9  inches  ;  wing,  5'i. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  very  rare  visitor,  having  only  been 
identified  once,  when  a  young  male  was  shot  near  Lewes  on 
the  2 3rd  of  December,  1868,  and  passed  into  the  collection  of 
Mr.  T.  J.  Monk.  As  the  species  has  been  several  times  ob- 
tained at  various  places  on  the  continent  of  Europe  it  may 
j  occur  more  frequently  in  the  British  Islands  than  has  been 
|  generally  supposed. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Black-throated  Ouzel 
I  is  a  Siberian  bird,  breeding  in  the  valley  of  the  Yenesei,  and 


258  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Mr.  Seebohm  thinks,  in  that  of  the  River  Ob  also.  It  also 
nests  on  the  Altai  mountains,  and  in  the  mountains  of  Eastern 
Turkestan,  and  probably  in  the  higher  portions  of  the  Hima- 
layan chain.  In  winter  it  is  found  plentifully  in  the  latter  range 
as  far  as  Assam,  and  occurs  at  this  season  of  the  year  in  Afghan- 
istan and  Baluchistan,  as  well  as  in  Eastern  Turkestan.  It  is  on 
its  autumn  migration  that  it  wanders  into  Europe,  where  it  has 
been  obtained  in  several  countries,  Russia,  Denmark,  Germany, 
Belgium,  France,  and  Italy. 

Habits. — As  might  be  expected,  little  has  been  recorded  of 
the  habits  of  this  Ouzel.     Mr.  Seebohm  writes  :  "  I  met  wit 
it  twice  in  the  valley  of  the  Yenesay,  on  my  return  journey  fro: 
the  Arctic  Regions,  between  60° and  63°  N.  lat,  early  in  August. 
I  found  it  a  very  noisy,  active  bird.    I  was  too  late  for  the  eggs 
but  the  not  fully-fledged  young,  three  of  which  I  secured,  wen 
a  source  of  great  anxiety  to  their  parents,  whose  alarm-note 
resounded  on  the  skirts  of  the  forest  on  every  side.     The] 
principally  frequented  the  neighbourhood  of  the  villages  on  th 
banks  of  the  river,  where  the  forest  had  been  cut  down  for  fire 
wood,  and  clumps  of  small  trees  were  scattered  over  the  rougl 
pastures,  where  the  cattle  of  the  peasants  are  turned  out  t 
graze  in  the  summer.     They  showed  a  marked  preference  fo 
the  pines,  and  were  very  wary.     The  males  kept  out  of  gun 
shot,  and  I  only  secured  one  adult  bird,  a  female.     In  it 
winter  home  it  frequents  a  variety  of  situations,  affecting  in 
Eastern  Turkestan,  according  to  Dr.  Scully,  the  trees  lining  the 
watercourses  or  growing  near  tanks,  or  it  may  be  seen  amongst! 
the  sand-hills  and  scrub-jungle.     In  India  it  is  found  in  the; 
more  open  woods  at  a  level  of  from  3,000  to  8,000  feet,  or  it 
may  be  seen  in  the  roads  and  pathways.     Near  Gwadar,  in 
Baluchistan,  Mr.  Blanford  found  it  frequenting  the  miserable! 
apologies  for  gardens  in  that  '  most  desolate  of  inhabited  spotsj 
on  the  earth's  surface.'     The  food  of  this  Thrush  consists  oij 
worms  and  insects,  and  doubtless  small  snails,  varied  in  autumni 
and  winter  with  a  diet  of  fruit  and  berries.     In  Eastern  Tur 
kestan  it  is  known  as  the  *  Jigda-churr,  or  '  Jigda-eater,'  as  Dr 
Scully  informs  us,  from  its  feeding  on  the  Eleagnus  berries 
known  as  'Trebizond  dates,'  and  called  'Jigda'  in  Turki." 

Kest— Not  yet  described. 


THE   TRUE   THRUSHES.  259 

. — These  are  stated  to  be  similar  to  and  to  vary  as 
much  as  those  of  the  Blackbird,  and  measure  i*i5-i*2  inch 
in  length,  and  from  0*7  5-0 '8  in  breadth. 

THE  TRUE  THRUSHES.  GENUS  TURDUS. 

Turdus,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  291  (1766). 

Type,  T.  viscivorus,  Linn. 

The  birds  which  constitute  the  genus  Turdus  number  among 
them  the  Thrushes  best  known  to  us,  such  as  the  Song-Thrush, 
and  Mistle-Thrush,  the  Redwing,  and  the  Fieldfare.  In  all  of 
these  species  of  the  genus  the  sexes  are  alike  in  plumage,  and 
the  breast  is  spotted,  while  the  young  birds  are  also  spotted  on 
the  back.  This  spotted  back  is  lost  after  the  first  autumn 
moult,  when  the  plumage  is  like  that  of  the  old  birds,  the  only 
sign  of  immaturity  being  seen  on  the  wing-coverts,  which 
have  a  slight  indication  of  a  pale  spot  at  their  ends.  Rictal 
bristles  are  evident,  and  the  tarsus  has  both  its  laminae  smooth, 
though  in  some  young  birds  there  is  a  tendency  to  a  division 
by  a  single  scale  or  two.  The  True  Thrushes  are  plentifully 
represented  in  the  Neotropical  Region,  fairly  so  in  all  other 
regions  except  the  Indo-Malayan  sub-region  and  the  Australian 
region,  where  no  True  Thrushes  occur. 

I.   THE    REDWING.      TURDUS    ILIACUS. 

Turdus  t'tiacus,  Linn.,  S.  N.,  i.,  p.  292  (1766);  Macg.,  Br.  B., 
ii.,  p.  141  (1839);  Newt.  ed.  Yarn,  i.,  p.  268  (1872); 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  35,  pi.  3  (1872);   Seeb.,  Cat.  B. 
Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  189  (1881);  id.  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  220 
(1883) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  2  (1883) ;  Lilford,  Col. 
Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  i.  (1885) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  5  (1889). 
Adult  Male. — General   colour  above  olive-brown,  the  lesser 
| wing-coverts  like  the  back;  the  median  and  greater  coverts 
rker  brown,  edged  with  lighter  brown,  and  tipped  with  buffy- 
lite,  more  distinctly  on  the  latter,  the  inner  greater  coverts 
irgined   with    reddish-brown ;    bastard-wing    dark    brown ; 
imary-coverts  and  quills  dark  brown,  edged  with  lighter  and 
)re  ashy-brown,  with  narrow  whitish  fringes  near  the  tips; 
"-feathers  light  olive-brown,  shaded  with  ashy  on  the  middle 
[feathers,  and  showing  obsolete  cross-bars  under  certain  lights  ; 

s  2 


260  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

head  a  trifle  darker  than  the  back,  with  a  distinct  eyebrow 
of  white,  inclining  to  buffy-white  above  the  ear- coverts; 
lores,  sides  of  face,  and  ear-coverts  dark  brown,  streaked 
with  buff  below  the  eye  and  on  the  centre  of  the  ear- 
coverts,  which  have  pale  shaft-streaks  ;  cheeks  dull  white, 
spotted  with  dark  brown,  and  widening  into  a  patch  on  the 
sides  of  the  neck,  which  incline  to  golden-buff;  a  very  dis- 
tinct moustachial  line  of  blackish-brown ;  under  surface  o 
body  dull  white,  spotted  with  dusky  brown  on  the  chin, 
streaked  on  the  upper  throat  very  distinctly,  but  more  broadly 
on  the  fore-neck,  breast,  and  sides  of  the  body ;  on  the  lower 
throat  a  white  space ;  centre  of  breast,  abdomen,  and  under 
tail-coverts,  dull  white,  unspotted,  but  the  latter  with  con 
cealed  brown  centres ;  sides  of  body  washed  with  rich  chest 
nut ;  under  wing-coverts  entirely  of  this  colour ;  quills  dusky 
below,  ashy  along  the  edge  of  the  inner  web ;  bill  dark  brown 
the  lower  mandible  dull  yellow  towards  the  base;  feet  anc 
claws  yellowish-brown;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  8*5  inches 
oilmen,  07;  wing,  4-45;  tail,  3-1  ;  tarsus,  i-i. 

Adult  Female — Similar  to  the  male.     Total  length,  8  inches 
wing,  4-3. 

During  the  breeding  season  the  light  edges  to  the  wing-coverts 
become  abraded,  and  the  spots  on  the  breast  become  more 
distinct,  as  the  edges  of  the  feathers  are  worn  off. 

Young. — Resembles  the  adult,  but  has  some  pale  tips  to  the: 
median  and  greater  wing-coverts. 

NOTE. — It  seems  rather  absurd  that  the  Redwing  should  be  confoundedj 
with  the  Song-Thrush,  but  that  this  is  frequently  done,  we  can  bear  witness, 
from  the  number  of  instances  in  which  the  latter  bird  has  been  broughtj 
to  us  at  the  British  Museum  during  the  last  twenty  years,  to  prove  that  the 
Redwing  really  nests  in  this  country.  It  may,  therefore,  be  pointed  out; 
that  the  Redwing  has  a  broad  white  eyebrow  and  dark  brown  ear-coverts^ 
and  has  the  sides  of  the  body  and  the  under  wing-coverts  and  axillariea 
ruddy  chestnut,  and  not  golden  buffvs  in  the  Song-Thrush. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  regular  autumn  and  winter  visitant! 
arriving  sometimes  as  early  as  the  month  of  August,  and  stay! 
ing  till  March  or  early  in  April.  The  male  described  abovtj 
was  obtained  by  the  late  Henry  Swaysland,  near  Brighton,  01 .1 


THE   TRUE   THRUSHES.  261 


the  ioth  of  April,  1883—3  very  late  sojourn.  In  winter,  it 
gradually  spreads  over  the  three  kingdoms  as  the  season 
advances,  arriving  on  the  east  coast  from  Scandinavia  and 
then  spreading  westwards. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Redwing  breeds  through- 
out the  greater  part  of  the  northern  Palasarctic  Region,  from 
Norway  to  the  valley  of  the  Yenesei,  east  of  which  it  becomes 
rare.  Mr.  Seebohm  fixes  the  limit  of  its  breeding  range  as  the 
110°  meridian.  In  Scandinavia  it  breeds  up  to  the  Arctic 
Circle,  and  in  the  Petchora  Valley  up  to  68°.  Mr.  Seebohm 
also  found  it  in  the  Yenesei  Valley,  about  lat.  71°,  nesting  on 
the  ground  beyond  the  limit  of  forest  growth.  It  has  been  found 
by  Mr.  Hartert  breeding  in  Eastern  Prussia,  and  has  been  said 
to  nest  in  Poland,  Austrian  Galizia,  and  in  the  Harz  Mountains. 
To  the  westward  the  Redwing  breeds  in  Iceland,  and  has 
straggled  even  as  far  as  Greenland ;  it  has  also  been  known  to 
breed  on  the  Faeroe  Islands,  but  all  the  supposed  instances  of 
its  nesting  in  England  may  be  set  aside  as  not  authenticated. 
In  winter  the  bird  wanders  far,  to  the  Mediterranean  countries 
and  North  Africa,  visiting  also  Southern  Russia,  Persia,  and 
apparently  North-western  India,  while  in  Siberia  it  reaches 
Lake  Baikal. 

Habits. — In  winter  the  Redwing  is  a  common  object  in  this 
|  country,  and  has  all  the  manners  of  a  Song-Thrush,  excepting 
that  it  is  gregarious,   arriving   in  flocks,  and  remaining   in 
|  parties  during  the  whole  of  the  cold  season.     These  frequent 
|  the  pastures,  when  there  is  no  snow  to  prevent  their  feeding, 
land  there  they  may  be  seen  running  along. like  a  Thrush,  and 
ever  and  anon  stopping,  after  a  short  run,  to  listen.     As  a 
rule  the  Redwings  are  very  shy,  and  are  not  easily  approached 
in  mild  weather,  as  one  or  two  sentinels  are  posted  on  the 
topmost  branches  of  the  bare  trees,  and  on  the  smallest  alarm 
!the  whole  flock  flies  up  and  settles  on  the  top  of  a  tree, 
whence  the  birds  fly  off  one   by  one,  uttering   their   single 
I  whispering  note  as  they  go.     It  is  very  seldom  that  they  are 
peard  to  sing  in  this  country.      The   Redwing  suffers  much 
jrom  a  continuance  of  cold  weather,  when  the  berries,  to  which 
[jit  turns  for  food,  become  exhausted,  and  numbers  perish  of  cold 
md  starvation.    They  do  not  thrive  on  the  food  placed  out  for 


262  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

the  other  Thrushes  and  Blackbirds,  although,  in  their  distress, 
they  become  very  tame,  and  we  remember  a  little  flock  of 
eleven  birds  coming  to  the  kitchen-door  of  our  house  at 
Chiswick  a  few  winters  ago,  for  several  days  in  succession. 
Several  of  them  were  caught,  with  their  breast-bones  nearly 
through  their  skin,  but  all  efforts  to  keep  them  alive  failed 
The  bird  seems  to  be  less  able  to  accommodate  itself  to  a  diet 
of  berries  than  the  Mistle-Thrush  and  the  Fieldfare,  though 
we  have  known  them,  when  hard-pressed,  to  feed  on  holly-  anc 
ivy-berries. 

In  its  breeding  haunts  the  Redwing  is  a  very  interesting 
bird,  and  though  not  nesting  in  colonies,  it  is  generally  to  be 
found  along  with  the  Fieldfares,  which  do  breed  in  numbers 
together.  The  nest  is  generally  placed  on  a  small  fir-tree,  close 
to  the  stem  and  not  far  from  the  ground ;  sometimes  it  is 
placed  actually  on  the  latter,  as  is  always  the  case  in  the 
Siberian  "  tundra  "  beyond  the  limit  of  forest-growth.  In  the 
latter  locality  it  breeds  as  late  as  the  middle  of  July,  but 
further  south  generally  early  in  June. 

Nest. — This,  according  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  passes  through 
three  stages  of  construction,  like  that  of  all  Thrushes.  H< 
says :  "The  birds  form  a  loose  nest  of  moss,  dry  grass,  and  a 
few  fine  twigs  intertwined,  the  better  to  bind  the  materials  to- 
gether. This  structure  is  then  lined  and  plastered  with  muc 
or  clay,  and  finally  a  thick  lining  is  made  of  fine  dry  grass,  anc 
sometimes  a  few  rootlets.  It  is  neatly  made,  and  somewha 
resembles  the  nest  of  the  Ring-Ouzel,  though  it  is  smaller  and 
perhaps  more  firmly  put  together. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number.  These  are  easily  dis 
tinguished  by  their  small  size.  Axis,  0-95-1 '05  inch;  diam. 
07-0-8.  The  ground-colour  is  bluish-green,  but  is  much  con 
cealed  by  the  clouding  of  the  reddish  markings  which  cove 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  egg.'  Occasionally  the  spots  am 
blotches  are  larger,  and  the  eggs  then  resemble  those  of  a 
small  Blackbird.  Some  eggs  have  such  a  uniform  appearance 
as  to  appear  almost  entirely  olive,  while  there  is  also  an 
appearance  of  pencilled  lines  at  the  larger  end. 


THE   TRUE   THRUSHES.  263 


II.  THE  SONG-THRUSH,     TURDUS   MUSICUS, 
(Plate  XX '//.,  Fig.  I.) 

Turdus  musicuS)  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  292  (1766);  Macg., 
Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  127  (1839);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  i.,  p.  191,  pi.  2 
(1871) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  264  (1872);  Seeb.,  Cat.  B. 
Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  191  (1881) ;  idfBr.  B.,  i.,  p.  213  (1883) ; 
B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,p.  i  (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.B., 
pt.  i.  (1885) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  3  (1889);  Wyatt,  Br.  B. 
pi.  i.,  fig.  i  (1894). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  olive-brown ;  the  lesser 
ring-coverts  like  the  back ;  median  and  greater  coverts,  as 
well  as  the  quills,  dark  brown,  externally  ochraceous-brown, 
with  yellowish-buff  tips  to  the  coverts,  distinct  on  the  median 
series,  but  less  marked  on  the  greater  coverts ;  bastard-wing 
feathers  and  primary-coverts  blackish  at  the  ends  ;  the  primary- 
quills  lighter  near  the  base  of  the  outer  webs;  tail-feathers 
ruddy-brown;  head  like  the  back,  the  eyelid  and  lores  buff; 
ear-coverts  ochreous-brown,  streaked  with  buffy-white  and 
tipped  with  black ;  cheeks  buffy-white,  minutely  spotted  with 
black,  which  forms  a  line  above  and  below,  the  latter  indicat- 
ing a  moustachial  line  ;  throat  white,  tinged  with  golden-buff; 
fore-neck,  chest,  and  sides  of  body  bright  golden-buff,  thickly 
marked  with  triangular  or  ovate  spots  of  black,  which  become 
larger  and  more  streaked  on  the  sides  of  the  body ;  centre  of 
breast,  abdomen,  and  under  tail-coverts  white,  the  latter  with 
olive-brown  margins ;  flanks  washed  with  olive-brown  ;  thighs 
ochraceous-buff;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  deep  orange; 
quills  dusky  below,  ochreous  along  the  inner  web ;  bill  dark 
brown,  pale  towards  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible;  feet  pale 
yellowish  horn-colour;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  9  inches; 
culmen,  075;  wing,  4*5  ;  tail,  3^2  ;  tarsus,  1*2. 

Adult  Female. — Does  not  differ  in  plumage  from  the  male. 
Total  length,  8-5  inches ;  wing,  4*4. 

Young-  —More  rufous  than  the  adults,  and  having  the  feathers 
of  the  upper  surface  and  the  wing-coverts  broadly  edged  with 
golden-buff:  there  is  a  spot  of  golden-buff  on  the  ear-coverts 


2(54  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

and  the  yellow  of  the  under  parts  is  much  deeper  and  the  spots 
smaller  than  in  the  adults. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Breeds  everywhere  throughout  the 
British  Islands,  but  has  not  yet  been  known  to  nest  in  the 
Shetlands.  The  birds  from  the  Outer  Hebrides  are  said  to  be 
smaller  and  darker  than  those  from  the  mainland.  In  autumn 
a  considerable  migration  of  Thrushes  takes  place,  many  of  our 
home-bred  birds  moving  southward,  while  many  more  visit 
us  from  the  Continent. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Breeds  generally  throughout 
the  Palaearctic  Region  to  the  valley  of  the  Yenesei.  In 
Norway  it  is  found  slightly  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle,  but 
in  Siberia  it  only  occurs  up  to  about  lat.  60°.  In  the 
Jura,  the  Pyrenees,  and  Northern  Spain,  the  Song-Thrush 
breeds  high  up  in  the  mountains,  but  in  Southern  Europe 
it  is  better  known  as  a  winter  visitor:  it  also  winters  in 
North  Africa,  but  is  said  to  have  occurred  as  far  south  as 
Nubia.  To  the  eastward  it  comes  in  winter  to  the  Persian 
Gulf.  In  Northern  and  Western  China  it  is  replaced  by 
Turdus  auritus,  which  differs  slightly  in  colour  and  has  the 
second  primary  shorter  than  the  sixth,  whereas  in  T.  musicus 
it  is  longer  than  the  fifth. 

Habits, — With  the  exception  of  the  Robin  and  the  Blackbird, 
the  Song-Thrush  is  probably  the  most  familiar  species  to  all 
people  in  these  islands,  for  it  is  not  only  found  universally, 
but  is  such  a  general  favourite  that  it  is  everywhere  prized  as  a 
cage-bird.  There  is  scarcely  any  excuse,  however,  for  keeping 
this  pretty  songster  in  a  cage,  for  it  is  so  common  that  its  song 
can  be  heard  in  every  kind  of  situation  throughout  the  country, 
and  is  much  more  freely  given  in  the  wild  state.  It  is,  in  the 
opinion  of  most  people,  by  far  the  finest  songster  that  we  have, 
for,  if  it  lacks  the  richness  of  tone  of  the  Nightingale  and  some 
of  the  Warblers,  the  song  is  far  more  sustained  and  varied.  The 
clever  attempt  of  Macgillivray  to  put  its  song  into  words  is 
familiar  to  most  of  my  readers,  and  need  no  longer  be  re- 
produced, and  though  this  is  one  of  the  best  word-imitations 
of  a  bird's  song  ever  published,  it  does  not  give  a  full  idea  of 
that  of  the  Thrush,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  bird  never 
sings  its  song  in  the  same  order  consecutively.  When  the 


THE   TRUE  THRUSHES.  265 

winter  season  shows  its  first  signs  of  passing  away,  the  Thrush 
begins  to  sing,  and  very  soon  the  pair  of  birds  are  busy  with 
their  nest,  so  that  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  young  birds  by 
the  end  of  March  or  the  beginning  of  April.  Cold  weather 
ensuing  stills  the  bird's  song,  and  during  a  rainless  spring  it  is 
to  be  heard  less  frequently,  as  the  birds  find  sufficient  employ- 
ment in  seeking  food  for  the  young.  They  will  quarter  a 
lawn  from  end  to  end  in  search  of  worms,  often  the  two 
parent  birds  in  company,  and  it  is  amusing  to  see  how  one 
will  copy  the  actions  of  the  other.  When  one  runs  a  few 
steps  and  halts,  the  other  bird  follows  suit.  After  a  little  run,  they 
wait  with  their  head  on  one  side,  listening  attentively,  and  then 
with  a  sudden  bound  they  seize  a  worm  and  drag  it  out. 
The  next  process  is  to  break  the  worm  up,  and  when  this  is 
successfully  accomplished  the  parent  flies  off  to  the  nest  to 
feed  the  youngsters.  As  soon  as  the  latter  can  fly,  they 
accompany  the  old  birds  and  dog  their  footsteps,  till  their 
pertinacity  must  be  somewhat  of  a  nuisance ;  but  it  is  a  pretty 
sight  to  see  an  old  Thrush  teaching  one  of  its  progeny  to  pick 
up  a  worm  for  itself.  Having  drawn  the  unwilling  prey  from 
the  grass  and  broken  it  up  so  that  there  is  no  fear  of  its 
crawling  away,  the  old  bird  places  it  before  the  young  one, 
and  pecks  at  the  worm  to  show  the  latter  how  to  take  it  up 
for  itself.  It  then  taps  the  bill  of  the  youngster  and  lays 
the  worm  again  in  front  of  it,  till  the  little  one  begins  to  feed 
itself. 

Both  male  and  female  sit  upon  the  eggs,  but  the  chief  share 
falls  to  the  female,  and  often,  when  she  comes  off  to  feed,  the 
male  bird  drives  her  back  to  the  nest,  as  is  done  also  both  by 
Blackbirds  and  Starlings,  especially  by  the  latter  bird.  When 
the  young  are  first  hatched,  both  male  and  female  are  inde- 
fatigable in  searching  for  food  for  them,  and  this  business 
occupies  so  much  of  their  time  that  the  male  has  no  leisure  to 
sing  until  the  evening, — unlike  the  Blackbird,  who  varies  his 
marital  duties  by  an  occasional  song,  challenged  thereto, 
maybe,  by  the  notes  of  a  rival  cock-bird  in  a  neighbouring 
wood  or  garden;  but  even  then  his  beautiful  mellow  notes 
are  spoiled  by  a  sudden  break  off  into  a  subdued  cackle  or  a 
cat-like  "  mew."  Not  so  with  the  Thrush.  When  he  sings 
he  means  business,  and  a  spring  shower  is  enough  to  make 


266 


every  Thrush  forget  the  cares  of  his  family,  and  betake  him- 
self to  the  branch  of  a  tree  to  sing  lustily  for  a  considerable 
time. 

The  Song-Thrush  is  a  tame  and  confiding  bird,  and  does 
not  forget  the  friends  who  feed  and  protect  it  during  the 
winter.  Like  the  Starling,  it  keeps  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
houses  where  food  is  provided  for  it  during  the  hard  weather, 
and  makes  its  nest  in  the  adjoining  trees  or  ivy.  When  the 
young  are  able  to  fly,  they  accompany  the  parent  birds  and 
feed  on  the  lawns  and  paths.  They  devour  numbers  of  insects, 
worms,  and  especially  snails,  the  shells  of  which  they  break 
against  a  stone  or  on  the  hard  ground,  apparently  selecting 
a  special  spot  for  this  purpose.  In  the  autumn,  like  other 
Thrushes,  they  feed  largely  on  fruit. 

Nest. — This  is  a  bulky  structure,  with  a  lining  quite  different 
to  that  of  the  Blackbird's  nest.  It  is  composed  of  grass,  with 
a  little  moss  and  twigs ;  it  is  then  thickly  coated  inside  with 
mud  or  clay,  to  which  is  finally  added  a  second  lining  of  de- 
cayed wood.  This  is  applied  in  a  wet  state,  and  is  smoothed 
by  the  pressure  of  the  bird's  body,  and  sometimes  even  before 
it  is  dry  the  eggs  are  laid,  but  generally  a  day  or  two  are 
allowed  to  elapse  for  the  nest  to  dry  before  the  eggs  are 
deposited. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number.  Their  beautiful  blue 
colour  is  well  known  to  everyone,  and  the  eggs  are  spotted 
with  purplish-brown  or  black,  more  rarely  with  reddish-brown. 
Eggs  without  spots  are  not  uncommon,  and  in  the  British 
Museum  are  two  eggs  which  have  the  ground-colour  china- 
white  with  rufous  markings.  Axis,  i'o5-i'2  inch;  diam.,  o'S-o'g. 
Our  friend  Mr.  Robert  Read  tells  us  that  he  once  found  eight 
eggs  in  a  wood  at  Durham,  which  from  their  colour  he  judged 
to  be  the  product  of  two  females,  as  there  were  two  sets  of 
four  each.  He  has  found  four  spotless  eggs  and  one  normal 
one  in  the  same  nest.  The  occurrence  of  the  eight  eggs 
together  apparently  laid  by  two  hen-birds  is  interesting,  as  it  is 
known  that  occasionally  the  birds  build  two  nests  in  con- 
junction. (Plate  xxx.,  fig.  i.) 


THE   TRUE   THRUSHES.  267 

III.  THE    MISTLE-THRUSH.      TURDUS   VISCIVORUS. 

irdus  visdvorus,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  391  (1766) ;  Macg., 
Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  114  (1839) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  i.,  p.  3,  pi.  i 
(1871) ;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  258  (1872) ;  Seeb.,  Cat.  B. 
Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  194  (1881) ;  id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  207  (1883); 
B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  i  (1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br, 
B.,  pt.  i.  (1885) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  i  (1889) ;  Wyatt,  Br, 
B.,  pi.  i.,  fig.  2  (1894). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  ashy-brown,  the  lower 
ick,  rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts  washed  with  ochraceous- 
)uff,  the  latter  only  on  the  margins ;  lesser  wing-coverts  like 
the  back ;  median  and  greater  coverts  darker  brown,  the  for- 
mer tipped,  the  latter  edged  with  dull  white,  inclining  to  buff 
on  the  inner  greater  coverts ;  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts, 
and  quills  dark  brown,  edged  with  ashy-whitish ;  tail-feathers 
light  brown  with  ashy  margins,  all  but  the  centre  tail-feathers 
with  a  white  spot  at  the  end  of  the  inner  web,  increasing  in 
extent  towards  the  outermost  feather,  where  it  is  very  large ; 
head  grey  like  the  back ;  lores  and  eyelid  white ;  feathers 
below  the  eye  and  ear-coverts  ochreous-buff,  the  feathers 
tipped  with  black  and  forming  a  line  on  the  upper  ear-coverts; 
cheeks,  throat,  and  under  surface  of  body  clear  ochreous-buff, 
spotted  with  triangular  tips  to  the  feathers,  forming  a  line 
above  and  below  the  cheeks ;  the  throat  scarcely  spotted,  and 
the  tips  to  the  feathers  of  the  breast  and  sides  of  body 
rounded ;  the  lower  abdomen,  thighs,  and  under  tail-coverts 
buffy-white  without  spots,  the  under  tail-coverts  edged  with 
dusky  brown ;  axillaries  and  under  wing-coverts  white ;  quills 
ashy  below,  white  along  the  inner  webs  ;  bill  dark  brown,  yel- 
lower at  the  base  of  the  lower  mandible;  feet  and  claws  yel- 
lowish or  yellowish-brown ;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length, 
10-5  inches;  culmen,  0-85;  wing,  6*0  ;  tail,  4-0;  tarsus,  1*35. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  plumage,  but  less 
richly  spotted.  Total  length,  10-5  inches;  wing,  5-85. 

Young. — Not  so  largely  spotted  below  ;  the  throat  white  with- 
out spots ;  upper  parts  streaked  with  buff  centres  to  the 
feathers,  which  have  black  tips;  the  wing-coverts  broadly 
edged  with  buff,  and  having  a  triangular  spot  of  the  same 


268  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

colour  at  the  ends.  Young  birds  after  their  autumn  moult 
may  be  told  by  their  having  somewhat  larger  buff  tips  to  the 
median  wing-coverts. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Generally  distributed  throughout  the 
British  Islands,  and  gradually  increasing  its  range  northwards 
in  Scotland  and  the  islands,  in  districts  where  it  was  at  one 
time  quite  unknown.  It  is  only  met  with  as  a  straggler  in  the 
Orkneys,  and  has  not  yet  been  recorded  from  the  Shetlands. 
A  considerable  migration  to  our  eastern  coasts  takes  place  in 
the  autumn. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Found  almost  everywhere 
in  Europe,  extending  in  Scandinavia  up  to  the  Arctic  Circle, 
and  in  Siberia  it  reaches  Lake  Baikal.  In  Central  Asia  and 
the  Himalayas  the  Mistle-Thrushes  are  somewhat  larger  and 
paler  in  colour,  and  have  been  separated  as  Turdus  hodgsoni, 
but  Mr.  Seebohm  states  that  examples  from  Asia  Minor  are 
intermediate  between  the  western  and  eastern  birds.  The 
Mistle-Thrush  breeds  in  the  Himalayas  at  a  height  of  from 
9,000  or  10,000  feet,  descending  to  the  lower  valleys  in  winter, 
at  which  season  of  the  year  the  bird  visits  Southern  Persia  and 
also  migrates  to  Southern  Europe  and  Northern  Africa. 

Habits. — It  is  not  only  the  larger  size  of  the  present  species 
which  makes  it  a  conspicuous  object  in  this  country,  but  the 
wilder  and  bolder  manners  of  the  bird  at  once  direct  atten- 
tion to  it.  Excepting  during  the  breeding  season,  the  Mistle- 
Thrush  is  a  very  shy  and  wary  bird,  and  is  only  to  be  observed 
in  open  country,  never  frequenting  hedge-rows  like  the  Black- 
bird or  Song-Thrush.  Its  favourite  haunts  are  parks,  especially 
when  there  is  plenty  of  pasture-land  attached,  while  in  the 
north  it  affects  the  pine-woods  more  particularly.  It  is  a  very 
early  breeder,  often  building  its  nest  in  February  and  the 
early  part  of  March,  before  any  leaves  are  on  the  trees,  but 
owing  to  its  quiet  and  retiring  manners,  the  nesting  does  not 
attract  much  attention.  Family  parties  of  Mistle-Thrushes, 
consisting  of  old  and  young  birds,  are  often  to  be  seen  in  the 
pastures  during  the  autumn  and  winter,  but  the  birds  keep 
well  out  of  danger,  and  fly  off  on  the  smallest  alarm,  their 
white  axillaries  being  very  conspicuous  as  they  take  wing,  one 
after  another.  Notwithstanding  the  large  size  and  bold  nature 


THE   TRUE   THRUSHES.  269 

of  the  bird,  it  is  one  of  the  first  to  succumb  in  winter,  if 
snow  covers  the  ground  for  any  length  of  time.  Numbers 
perish  in  severe  winters,  and  the  bird  is  then  forced  to  seek  for 
berries  in  every  place  it  can,  and  may  then  be  found  frequent- 
ing the  gardens  in  the  middle  of  the  towns,  while  it  is  also 
driven  in  its  distress  to  seek  for  food  with  the  Song-Thrushes 
and  Starlings  at  the  hands  of  the  bird-protectors.  We  have 
often  seen  Mistle-Thrushes  feeding  in  our  garden  on  the  bar- 
ley-meal which  is  daily  provided  for  the  starving  birds  in  hard 
winters. 

From  its  habit  of  singing  from  the  top  of  a  tree  in  boisterous 
weather,  the  bird  has  got  the  name  of  "  Storm-cock,"  and  it 
sings  throughout  the  winter.  The  song  is  somewhat  monoton- 
ous, but  the  notes  are  mellow,  and  may  be  compared  to  those 
of  the  Ring-Ouzel. 

Nest. — A  somewhat  rough  structure  outside,  composed  of 
grass  and  moss,  with  pieces  of  wood,  then  lined  with  mud  or 
clay,  and  neatly  finished  with  finer  grass  inside.  It  is  seldom 
found  in  evergreens,  but  is  often  discovered  in  old  fruit  or  thorn- 
trees,  where  it  is  generally  concealed  by  the  decoration  of 
lichens  which  the  birds  add  to  the  outside  of  the  nest,  thereby 
rendering  it  indistinguishable  from  the  lichen-covered  boughs. 
It  is  sometimes  built  at  a  great  height  from  the  ground. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number.  Ground-colour  stone-grey 
or  clay-colour,  spotted  and  blotched  with  reddish-brown, 
generally  distributed  over  the  eggs,  sometimes  inclining  to 
purplish-brown  or  black.  The  underlying  spots  are  distinct, 
and  of  a  light  brown  or  dull  grey  colour.  Occasionally  the 
ground-colour  is  creamy-buff,  the  spotting  being  the  same. 
Axis,  i  'i  5-1  '35  inch  ;  diam.,  0*85-0*90.  The  shape  of  the  eggs 
varies  considerably,  some  being  rounded  and  others  very  long. 

IV.  THE   FIELDFARE.       TURDUS   PILARIS. 

Turdus  pilaris.  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  291  (1766);  Macg., 
Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  105  (1839);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  141, 
pis.  4,  5  (1870);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  272  (1872); 
Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  205  (1881);  id.  Br.  B.,  i., 
p.  228  (1883) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  2  (1883)  ;  Lilford, 
Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  i.  (1885) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  7  (1889). 


27°  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Adult  Male. — Back  and  scapulars  chestnut-brown,  with  slightly 
indicated  greyish  margins  to  the  feathers;  the  lower  back, 
rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts  ashy-grey,  darker  on  the  latter ; 
lesser  wing-coverts  like  the  back ;  the  median  and  greater- 
coverts  dusky  brown,  washed  with  ashy  and  slightly  tinged 
with  rufous,  the  greater  coverts  and  the  bastard-wing  with 
whitish  margins ;  primary-coverts  and  quills  dark  brown,  edged 
with  ashy-grey,  a  little  browner  on  the  secondaries  ;  tail- 
feathers  blackish,  edged  with  ashy,  ribbed  under  certain 
lights  with  dusky  cross-bars,  and  the  outer  feathers  fringed 
with  white  at  the  end  of  the  inner  webs ;  crown  of  head  and 
hind-neck  ashy-grey,  extending  on  to  the  mantle  ;  the  crown 
slightly  streaked  with  blackish  centres  to  the  feathers  ;  the  base 
of  the  forehead  hoary-whitish,  extending  above  the  eye ;  lores 
dusky  black ;  eyelid  whitish ;  sides  of  face  and  ear-coverts  ashy- 
grey,  streaked  with  whitish ;  cheeks  ochreous-buff,  streaked 
with  black,  the  stripes  widening  posteriorly,  especially  towards 
the  sides  of  the  neck ;  cheeks,  throat,  and  breast  ochreous- 
buff,  the  cheeks  scantily  streaked  with  black,  the  throat  uni- 
form, the  lower  throat  and  chest  distinctly  streaked,  and  the 
chest  mottled  with  blackish  centres  to  the  feathers,  which  are 
continued  down  the  sides  of  the  body  and  tinged  with  chest- 
nut ;  centre  of  breast  and  abdomen  white,  as  well  as  the  under 
tail-coverts,  which  have  blackish  margins ;  under  wing-coverts 
and  axillaries  white  ;  quills  dusky  below,  ashy  along  the  inner 
webs ;  bill  yellow;  feet  black;  iris  reddish-brown.  Total  length, 
10  inches;  culmen,  0-8;  wing,  5-5;  tail,  4*0;  tarsus,  1-3. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male,  but  not  so  richly  coloured, 
the  markings  on  the  sides  of  the  breast  and  throat  much  less 
defined.  Total  length,  10  inches;  wing,  5*6. 

Young. — Dusky  brown  above,  the  mantle  darker,  the  upper 
surface  streaked  with  whitish  along  the  shafts  of  the  feathers, 
which  are  further  mottled  with  black  tips ;  throat  and  fore-neck 
orange-buff,  largely  spotted  with  black  tips  to  the  feathers,  the 
spots  smaller  and  less  pronounced  on  the  breast  and  sides  of 
the  body. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — A  regular  winter  visitor,  arriving  in 
large  flocks  and  gradually  dispersing  over  the  country,  so  that 
its  arrival  in  the  western  districts  is  later  than  the  time  when  it 


THE   TRUE   THRUSHES.  ?;i 

visits  the  eastern  coasts.  Its  time  of  arrival  varies,  according 
to  the  severity  of  the  winters  in  its  European  home,  which 
force  it  to  migrate,  but  it  sometimes  comes  as  early  as  the 
middle  of  September,  though  flocks  are  also  seen  to  land  as 
late  as  the  end  of  November.  It  has  been  known  to  stay 
as  late  as  May  and  even  early  June,  according  to  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders,  but  all  statements  of  its  breeding  in  the  British 
Islands  have  so  far  been  found  untrustworthy,  and  the  nests  of 
the  "  Fieldfare  "  which  have  been  sent  to  us  from  Ross-shire 
and  other  parts  of  Scotland  have  always  turned  out  to  be  those 
of  the  Mistle-Thrush. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — A  northern  bird  in  Europe 
and  Siberia,  its  breeding  range  extending  east  to  IIOQ  E.  long. 
Its  breeding  range  does  not  reach  quite  so  far  north  as  that  of 
the  Redwing,  extending  to  the  Arctic  Circle,  up  to  the  limit  of 
forest  growth  or  a  little  beyond  it,  and  Mr.  Seebohm  met  with  it 
in  the  Petchora  up  to  68S  N.  lat.,  and  in  the  Yenesei  up  to  70^°. 
It  also  breeds  in  Central  Russia,  the  Baltic  Provinces,  Eastern 
Prussia,  and  Poland,  and  colonies  are  being  formed  in  several 
places  in  Germany.  In  winter  it  migrates  south,  visiting  North 
and  North-eastern  Africa  and  to  the  eastward  Turkestan,  while  it 
is  also  said  to  occur  in  the  Western  Himalayas  and  Cashmere;  the 
only  Indian  specimen  known  in  collections,  however,  is  one  in 
the  British  Museum,  procured  by  Dr.  Jameson  near  Saharanpur. 

Habits. — This  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  Thrushes  in  the 
world,  and  nothing  can  be  finer  than  to  see  a  flock  of  newly- 
arrived  Fieldfares  settling  on  a  tree,  after  landing  on  our 
eastern  coasts.  Not  only  the  size  of  the  birds,  but  their  rich 
contrast  of  colour,  white  breasts,  and  above  all  the  way  in 
which  they  hold  themselves,  with  their  ample  white  axillaries 
always  more  or  less  in  evidence — all  these  features  tend  to 
make  the  Fieldfares  a  remarkable  object,  as  they  sit  on  the 
leafless  boughs  and  are  outlined  against  the  sky.  These 
Thrushes  are  always  gregarious,  arriving  in  bands,  feeding 
together  throughout  the  winter,  and  nesting  in  companies  on 
their  return  to  their  northern  home.  They  are  always  shy 
during  their  stay  in  England,  and  are  the  less  easily  observed  of 
all  the  Thrushes,  though  they  become  tamer  in  severe  weather, 
and  then  visit  parks  and  gardens,  even  in  the  middle  of  the 


272 

towns,  to  hunt  for  berries.  Thus  we  have  seen  them  in  hard 
weather  frequenting  the  gardens  of  the  Natural  History 
Museum  at  South  Kensington  along  with  Redwings  and 
Mistle-Thrushes. 

The  note  of  the  Fieldfare  is  a  harsh  cry  of  tsak,  generally 
uttered  from  the  top  of  a  tree,  where  the  bird  keeps  a  good 
look-out  for  danger,  and  they  have  also  a  chattering  note  which 
is  often  uttered  by  the  birds  as  they  fly  high  overhead,  and  is 
quite  unlike  the  note  of  any  of  the  other  British  Thrushes. 

In  its  northern  home  the  bird  nests  in  colonies  in  the  birch- 
trees,  and  several  nests  will  be  found  on  the  same  tree.  Farther 
north  Mr.  Seebohm  says  it  loses  its  gregarious  habits,  and  on 
the  barren  tundra  the  nest  is  placed  on  the  ground  like  that  of 
the  Ring-Ouzel,  the  bird  choosing  a  niche  under  the  turf  on  the 
edge  of  a  cliff. 

Nest.  —  Built  in  the  branches  of  a  birch-pine,  or  an  alder-tree, 
sometimes  in  out-houses,  or  in  a  low  bush.  Mr.  Seebohm  says 
that  it  is  very  similar  in  construction  to  that  of  the  Blackbird 
or  Ring-Ouzel,  the  outside  being  made  of  coarse  dry  grass,  with 
sometimes  a  few  birch-twigs  or  a  little  moss  interwoven,  then 
plastered  with  mud,  and  finally  lined  with  a  thick  bed  of  fine 
grass. 

Eggs.  —  From  four  to  six  in  number.  The  colour  varies  im- 
mensely, scarcely  two  clutches  being  alike.  The  ground-colour 
is  bluish-green,  and  the  markings  and  spots  are  rufous  or 
chestnut-brown,  sometimes  so  thickly  distributed  as  to  hide  the 
ground-colour  of  the  egg,  at  other  times  consisting  of  large  red 
blotches,  distributed  widely,  or  congregating  round  the  larger 
end.  Sometimes  nearly  unspotted  eggs  are  found.  The  under- 
lying markings  are  light  reddish-brown,  scarcely  to  be  distin- 
guished. Axis,  i'i—  1*25  inch;  diam,  o'8-o*8. 

V.   THE   AMERICAN   THRUSH.      TURDUS   MIGRATORIUS. 

Turdus  migratorius,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  292  (1766)  ;  Seeb., 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  220  (1881);  Ridgw.  Man.  N. 
Amer.  B.,  p.  577  (1887);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  10,  note 


Adult  Male.  —  General  colour  above  ashy-grey,  the  lesser  wing- 
coverts   like   the   back  ;    lesser  and   median   coverts   dusky, 


THE   NIGHTINGALES  273 


ernally  slaty-grey,  the  former  narrowly  tipped,  and  the  latter 
edged  with  hoary-whitish ;  bastard  wing-feathers  blackish ;  pri- 
mary-coverts and  quills  dusky-brown,  edged  with  hoary-grey, 
the  secondaries  more  broadly ;  tail-feathers  black,  edged  with 
grey,  the  outer  ones  fringed  with  white,  increasing  towards  the 
outer  feathers,  which  have  a  white  tip ;  head  blackish,  this 
colour  extending  over  the  nape  and  hind  neck ;  lores  black, 
surmounted  by  a  white  streak ;  upper  and  lower  eyelids  white ; 
ear-coverts  black,  washed  with  slaty-grey ;  sides  of  neck  slaty- 
grey  ;  cheeks  and  throat  white,  with  a  broad  moustachial 
streak  of  black,  the  throat  spotted  with  black ;  under  surface 
of  body  from  the  lower  throat  downwards  clear  cinnamon- 
chestnut  or  bay,  the  lower  abdomen,  thighs,  and  under  tail- 
coverts  white,  the  latter  with  dusky  centres;  sides  of  lower 
flanks  ashy-grey ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  bright 
cinnamon-rufous  like  the  breast;  quills  dusky  below,  ashy- 
fulvous  along  the  inner  webs ;  bill  bright  yellow,  tipped  with 
black ;  feet  brown ;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  9  inches ; 
culmen,  0-9;  wing,  5*1  ;  tail,  3*8  ;  tarsus,  1-2. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  in  plumage  to  the  male,  but  rather 
paler  cinnamon  below,  with  hoary  margins.  Total  length,  9 
inches;  wing,  5*0. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  American  "  Robin  "  has  been 
procured  near  Dover,  and  once  near  Dublin.  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders  thinks  that  the  birds  were  in  all  probability  escaped 
individuals,  but  it  is  by  no  means  an  unlikely  bird  to  wander 
eastward,  and  has  occurred  in  Heligoland. 

Range  outside  the  British  Isles. — A  bird  of  North  America,  es- 
pecially of  the  Eastern  States,  extending  north  to  Alaska,  and 
south  to  Mexico,  while  its  western  range  is  bounded  by  the 
great  plains. 

THE  NIGHTINGALES.     GENUS  DAULIAS. 
Daulias,  Boie,  Isis,  1831,  p.  542. 

Type,  D.  luscinia  (Linn.). 

There  are  three  species  of  true  Nightingale  known,  all  plain- 
plumage  birds,  but  all  celebrated  songsters.  In  their  plain 
plumage  they  look  like  Warblers,  but  are  shown  to  belong  to 
the  family  of  the  Thrushes  by  their  spotted  nestlings.  The 


274  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

tail  is  light  chestnut,  or  russet-brown,  the  second  primary 
longer  than  the  sixth,  and  the  first,  or  bastard-primary,  is  so 
small  as  to  be  less  than  one-third  of  the  length  of  the  second. 
The  Nightingale  which  comes  to  England  in  the  summer  is 
replaced  on  the  Continent  from  the  valley  of  the  Rhine  and 
Southern  Sweden  eastward  by  Daulias  philomefa,  the  "  Thrush- 
Nightingale,"  which  extends  to  Turkestan  and  South-west 
Siberia,  and  winters  as  far  south  as  Nyasa-Land  in  Africa.  In 
certain  parts  of  Turkestan  and  Persia,  a  third  species,  Daulias 
golzij  occurs  and  winters  in  Northern  India. 

I.    THE   COMMON    NIGHTINGALE.      DAULIAS    LUSCINIA. 
(Plate  XXIII.) 

Motacilla  luscinia.  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  328  (1766). 

Philomela  luscinia,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  221  (1839). 

Daulias  luscinia^  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  312  (1872) ;  Dresser,  B. 

Eur.,  ii.,  p.  363,  pi.   56  (1876) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.   B., 

p.   ii   (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,   pt.   9  (1888); 

Saunders,  Man.,  p.  39  (1889). 
Erithacus  luscinia,  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  294  (1881); 

id.  Br.  B.  i.,  p.  276  (1883). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  russet-brown,  more  rufous 
on  the  upper  tail-coverts ;  upper  wing-coverts  like  the  back ; 
bastard-wing,  primary-coverts  and  quills  dusky-brown,  ex- 
ternally rufous-brown ;  tail-feathers  light  chestnut,  brown  on 
the  edges  and  on  the  centre  feathers ;  head  like  the  back ; 
lores  grey ;  eyelid  whitish ;  ear-coverts  ruddy-brown  like  the 
back  ;  cheeks  ashy,  shading  into  the  sides  of  neck ;  throat  and 
under  surface  of  the  body  dull  whitish,  the  lower  throat,  chest, 
and  sides  of  body  ashy-grey  with  a  brownish  tinge ;  the  under 
tail-coverts  fulvescent ;  thighs  dark  brown ;  under  wing- coverts 
buff,  with  ashy  bases ;  the  lower  primary-coverts  ashy-brown, 
with  buffy -white  tips;  quills  dusky  below,  ashy-fulvous  along 
the  inner  web;  bill  brown,  the  lower  mandible  horn-colour; 
feet  and  claws,  brown;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  6*5  inches; 
culmen,  0-55;  wing,  3-4;  tail,  275;  tarsus,  1-05. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour.  Total  length, 
6  inches;  wing,  3-2. 


PLATE  xznr. 


NIGHTINGALE  . 


THE   NIGHTINGALES.  275 

Young. — Duller  brown  than  the  adults,  and  mottled  on  the 
upper  surface  with  ochreous-brown  markings  near  the  tips  of 
the  feathers,  which  are  edged  with  dusky  brown ;  the  under 
surface  of  the  body  dingy-white,  with  dusky  margins  to  the 
feathers  of  the  throat  and  breast;  wings  and  tail  as  in  the 
adults,  but  rather  darker  chestnut ;  the  wing-coverts  tipped  with 
ochreous  buff  spots. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor,  arriving  in  the 
middle  of  April,  but  not  extending  to  the  northern  counties  of 
England,  and  up  to  the  present  unrecorded  from  Scotland  or 
Ireland.  It  does  not  extend  its  range  through  all  the  western 
counties  of  England,  and  in  Devonshire  and  the  greater  part  of 
Wales  it  reaches  its  western  limit  in  this  country.  To  the  north 
it  is  found  in  Yorkshire,  and  occasionally  in  Cheshire,  but  it  is 
only  of  doubtful  occurrence  in  Lancashire. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Nightingale  is  a  summer 
visitor  to  the  greater  part  of  Southern  and  Central  Europe,  and 
breeds  in  all  the  Mediterranean  countries,  including  North 
Africa  and  Palestine.  Its  range  to  the  north-east  extends  to 
the  valley  of  the  Vistula,  but  the  species  is  not  found  in  North- 
eastern Germany,  and  in  Russia  it  only  inhabits  the  southern 
provinces  during  its  stay.  In  winter  it  visits  North-eastern 
Africa,  and  it  was  found  by  Captain  Shelley  on  the  Gold  Coast. 

Habits. — The  male  birds  always  precede  the  females  in  their 
arrival  by  a  few  days,  and  as  soon  as  they  reach  our  shores 
they  are  distributed  over  the  woods  and  thickets  of  the 
southern  counties,  where  their  beautiful  notes  betray  their 
presence.  Several  males  may  then  be  heard  singing  in  the 
same  wood,  their  liquid  notes  being  heard  in  answer  to  one 
another  throughout  the  whole  day.  As  soon,  however,  as 
the  hen-birds  have  come,  building  operations  are  com- 
menced, and  the  male  sings  more  frequently  towards  night- 
fall, continuing  at  intervals  throughout  the  night,  if  the  weather 
be  fine.  Until  recent  years  the  song  of  the  Nightingale  could 
be  heard  in  the  western  suburbs  of  London,  and  the  bird 
regularly  frequented  the  orchards  near  Bedford  Park  up  to  1882, 
while  many  people  are  still  living  who  can  remember  the 
Nightingale's  song  at  Bayswater,  and  a  specimen  from  this  once 
rural  district  of  London  is  in  the  British  Museum. 

T    2 


276  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

The  favourite  resort  of  the  Nightingale  for  nesting  purposes 
is  the  tangled  bushes  which  clothe  a  lane  leading  along  the 
outside  of  a  wood,  and  in  such  places  the  bird  may  occasionally 
be  seen  flitting  across  the  road  or  hopping  out  of  its  dense  retreat 
to  pick  up  some  insect.  On  these  occasions  its  ways  recall  the 
actions  of  a  Robin,  in  which  bird  the  Nightingale  undoubtedly 
finds  a  very  close  ally.  It  is  almost  entirely  a  ground-feeder, 
and  picks  up  worms,  ants,  and  other  insects  and  larvae,  while 
the  young  are  said  to  be  fed  entirely  on  caterpillars.  In 
autumn  it  feeds  on  fruit  and  berries  like  the  Warblers. 

Nest. — This  is  very  characteristic,  being  formed  principally 
of  dead  leaves  and  grass,  which  give  the  outside  a  somewhat 
ragged  appearance,  the  inside,  however,  being  more  neatly 
finished  off,  rather  deep,  and  lined  with  grasses  or  rootlets  and 
occasionally  with  horsehair. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number,  rarely  six.  Ground-colour 
olive-brown  or  olive-green,  occasionally  dull  bluish-green.  The 
olive-brown  eggs  appear  perfectly  uniform,  but  in  the  green 
type  of  eggs  there  is  generally  some  olive-brown  clouding  the 
larger  end,  or  forming  a  dense  ring  of  brown  spots.  Occasion 
ally  the  eggs  are  of  a  deep  bright  blue  colour.  Axis,  0-8-0-9 
inch ;  diam.,  o'6-o'65.  (Plate  xxix.,  fig.  6.) 

THE  REDBREASTS.      GENUS  ERITHACUS. 
ErithacuS)  Cuv.,  Lecons  Anat.  Comp.,  tab.  ii.  (1801). 

Type,  E.  rutecula  (Linn.). 

The  Robins  are  miniature  Thrushes,  having  the  spotted 
young  which  prove  them  to  be  members  of  the  family  Tur- 
didce.  The  brighter  coloration  of  the  birds  has  something  to 
do  with  their  separation  as  a  distinct  genus  from  the  Thrushes 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  Redstarts  on  the  other.  The  type  of 
egg  of  the  Robins,  however,  is  different  from  that  of  any  of  the 
allied  genera,  whilst  the  similarity  of  the  colour  of  the  sexes 
separates  them  from  the  Redstarts,  and  allies  them  to  the 
Thrushes  and  Nightingales.  According  to  the  divisions  of  the 
Turdidtz  recently  proposed  by  Mr.  Oates,  in  his  "  Fauna  of 
British  India,"  the  Redbreasts  would  come  within  his  definition 
of  the  Ruticillincz  (p.  81)  and  would  come  near  to  the  genus 


THE   REDBREASTS.  277 

Tarstger.  The  uniformity  of  colouring  of  both  sexes  is  one  of 
the  chief  characteristics  of  the  genus  Erithacus.  The  bill  is 
plentifully  beset  with  bristles,  and  the  first  primary  is  large, 
being  nearly  half  the  length  of  the  second. 

I.  THE  COMMON   REDBREAST.      ERITHACUS   RUBECULA. 

Motacilla  rubecula^  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  337  (1766). 
Erithacus  rubecula,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.   263  (1839) ;  Newt, 

Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  305  (1872) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  329,  pi. 

51  (1873);  Seeb.,  Cat  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  299  (1881); 

id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  262  (1883) ;    B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  10 

(1883);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  37  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 

Br.  B.,  pt.  xxii.  (1892) ;  Wyatt,  Br.  B.,  pi.  3,  fig.  2  (1894). 
Adult  Male. — General  colour  dark  olive-brown,  with  a  slight 
greyish  shade,  the  wing-coverts  like  the  back,  with  pale  ochreous- 
buff  tips  to  the  greater  series ;  primary-coverts,  quills,  and  tail- 
feathers  dark  brown,  edged  with  olive  ;  crown  of  head  like  the 
back ;  base  of  forehead  and  lores  orange-rufous,  extending  over 
the  eye ;  cheeks,  throat,  and  chest  also  bright  orange-rufous, 
with  a  broad  shading  of  bluish-grey  reaching  from  behind  the 
eye  and  skirting  the  orange  of  the  throat  down  the  sides  of  the 
neck  to  the  sides  of  the  upper  breast,  which  are  also  bluish- 
grey  ;  centre  of  breast  and  abdomen  dull  white,  the  flanks 
light  olive-brown  ;  thighs  darker  olive  ;  under  wing-coverts  and 
axillaries  yellowish-buff,  with  ashy  bases ;  quills  dusky  brown 
below,  ochreous  along  the  inner  web  ;  bill  dark  brown,  lighter 
at  the  base  ;  legs  brown  ;  iris  very  dark  brown.  Total  length 
6  inches  ;  culmen,  0-5  ;  wing,  3'!  ;  tail,  2*4;  tarsus,  IT. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  6  inches; 
wing,  2-85. 

Young.— Ochreous-brown,  the  feathers  centred  with  ochreous- 
buff,  and  mottled  with  blackish  tips  to  the  feathers,  the  wing- 
coverts  all  plainly  centred  with  ochreous-bufT;  underneath, 
ochreous-buff,  paler  on  the  throat  and  abdomen,  the  feathers 
of  the  breast  and  sides  of  the  body  edged  with  dusky  brown. 

After  the  autumn  moult  the  young  birds  resemble  the  adults, 
but  can  always  be  recognised  by  golden-buff  tips  to  the  median 
wing-coverts,  forming  a  band  which  lasts  even  to  the  following 
spring. 


278  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Is  found  as  a  resident  in  every  part  of 
the  British  Islands,  but  has  not  yet  been  met  with  as  a  breed- 
ing bird  in  the  Hebrides.  A  considerable  migration  of  Robins 
takes  place  every  autumn  from  the  Continent,  and  even  our 
home-bred  birds  shift  their  quarters  somewhat,  and  a  good 
number  of  them  leave  the  country. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Breeds  throughout  Europe, 
but  is  local  in  the  south  of  Spain.  It  likewise  occurs  in  the 
Canaries  and  the  Azores,  and  appears  in  a  slightly  modified 
form  in  Teneriffe,  which  has  been  named  by  Dr.  Koenig 
Erithacus  superb  us.  Its  eastern  breeding  range  extends  to  the 
Ural  Mountains,  but  the  bird  is  here  not  so  abundant  as  it  is  in 
the  west,  and  its  place  is  taken  in  Persia  by  Erithacus  hyrcanus. 

The  Robin  is  much  more  of  a  migratory  species  than  is 
generally  supposed,  and  has  been  met  with  in  the  Faeroes  and 
Jan  Mayen,  but  is  not  yet  recorded  from  Iceland.  A  letter 
received  from  Mr.  Robson  some  years  ago  informed  us  that,  as 
he  was  writing,  swarms  of  Robins  and  Hedge-Sparrows  were 
passing  through  the  Buyukdere  Valley,  near  Constantinople, 
on  migration.  This  was  in  the  autumn,  and  it  is  evident  that 
numbers  of  Robins  avoid  the  cold  in  the  north  during  winter, 
and  at  such  seasons  the  bird  is  found  in  Egypt  and  Palestine, 
and  as  far  east  as  Persia  and  Turkestan. 

Habits. — The  migration  of  the  Robin,  just  alluded  to,  is  to  a 
certain  extent  enforced,  not  only  by  the  approach  of  the  cold 
weather,  but  by  the  habit  of  the  old  birds  of  driving  off  their 
young  ones  as  soon  as  the  latter  can  shift  for  themselves.  This 
is  the  more  remarkable  because  there  is  no  bird  more  solici- 
tous than  the  Robin  in  the  care  of  its  nestlings ;  but  it  is 
jealous  of  any  intrusion  on  its  own  domain,  and  fights  other 
birds,  as  well  as  those  of  its  own  species,  who  dare  to  invade 
it.  Thus,  in  the  autumn,  young  Robins  are  seen  in  numbers 
scattered  over  the  southern  counties  of  England,  mostly  young 
birds  in  the  spotted  dress,  with  a  patch  of  red  on  the  throat, 
showing  that  the  birds  are  moulting  into  their  adult  plumage. 
Even  before  the  moult  is  completed,  the  young  males  give 
forth  short  snatches  of  a  melancholy  song,  and  as  many  as 
half-a-dozen  may  be  heard  answering  each  other  from  different 


THE   BLUE- THROATS.  279 

parts  of  the  village  gardens  before  they  finally  take  flight  across 
the  Channel. 

The  Robin  is  a  general  favourite,  not  only  on  account  of  its 
trustful  disposition  and  tameness,  but  also  on  account  of  its 
song,  which  is  heard  at  all  times  of  the  year  excepting  during 
the  moulting  season,  and  is  always  welcome  in  winter,  when  the 
voices  of  most  birds  are  silent.  The  call-note  of  the  Robin  is 
clear  and  musical,  but  the  cry  of  distress,  as  when  a  cat  comes 
near  the  nest,  is  a  long  drawn  shrill  note — one  of  the  most 
disagreeable  and  ear-splitting  notes  imaginable. 

Nest. — All  kinds  of  situations  are  chosen  for  the  home  of  the 
Robin,  and  the  nest  may  be  found  in  the  hole  of  a  wall  or  a 
tree,  whilst  an  old  can  or  kettle,  discarded  by  the  housewife 
and  thrown  away  amongst  the  rubbish  of  the  garden,  is  often 
utilised.  Very  often  the  nest  is  placed  amongst  ivy  or  on  the 
ground,  particularly  in  a  moss-covered  bank,  where  the  herbage 
conceals  it.  The  foundation  of  the  nest  consists  of  dead 
leaves  and  moss,  but  it  is  neatly  lined  with  rootlets  and  hair. 

Eggs. —  From  five  to  eight  in  number.  Ground-colour  buffy- 
white  or  china-white.  They  vary  a  good  deal  in  the  tint 
of  colour  and  markings,  some  being  nearly  spotless,  while 
others  are  thickly  clouded  with  rufous  markings,  collecting  at 
the  larger  end.  In  some  specimens  the  whole  egg  is  thickly 
sprinkled  with  reddish  spots,  while  in  others  the  blotches 
are  larger  and  sparsely  distributed.  Axis,  o'S-o'g;  diam., 
0*55-0 -65.  Mr.  Robert  Read  gives  it  as  his  experience  that 
eggs  from  the  North  of  England  and  Scotland  are  more  heavily 
marked  than  those  from  the  south.  He  has  sets  of  white  and 
pale  blue  eggs  in  his  collection.  (Plate  xxix.,  fig.  3.) 

THE  BLUE-THROATS.     GENUS  CYANECULA. 

Cyanecula,  C.  L.  Brehm,  Isis,  1828,  p.  1280. 

Type,  C.  suerica  (Linn.). 

These  pretty  birds  have  been  placed  along  with  the  Robins 
in  modern  classifications,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they 
are  closely  allied  to  those  birds,  but  they  form  a  natural  genus, 
remarkable  for  their  style  of  coloration.  They  differ  from  the 
Robins  in  having  the  rictal  bristles  scarcely  perceptible,  and  in 


2  So  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

having  the  sexes  different  in  colour,  both  male  and  female 
having  the  tail  for  the  most  part  chestnut. 

Two  species  of  Blue-throat  are  recognised,  one  with  a  red 
spot  (C.  suecica)  and  one  with  a  white  spot  (C.  cyanecula). 
The  latter  is  not  nearly  so  wide-spread  as  the  former  bird,  and 
only  occurs  in  Central  Europe,  scarcely  reaching  as  far  east 
as  Russia,  but  visiting  Northern  Africa  and  Palestine  in  winter, 
recurring  in  Gilgit,  and  wintering  sparingly  in  India. 

I.    THE   ARCTIC   BLUE-THROAT.       CYANECULA   SUECICA. 

Motadlla  suecica,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  336  (1766). 
Rutirilla  cyanecula,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  300  (1839). 
Ruticilla  suecica,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  321  (1873). 
Cyanecula  suecica,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  317,  pis.  49,  50, 

fig.   2    (1874);    B.   O.  U.  List.   Br.   B.,  p.   10   (1883); 

Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  ii.  (1886);  Saunders,  Man., 

p.  35  (1889). 
Erithacus  caruleculus,  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  308 

(1881). 
Erithacus  suecica,  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  269  (1883). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  dark-brown,  with  a  slight 
olive  tinge;  wing-coverts  dark  brown,  externally  lighter  brown; 
central  upper  tail-coverts  and  centre  tail-feathers  blackish- 
brown  with  hoary  margins ;  the  remainder  of  the  coverts  and 
tail-feathers  orange-chestnut  for  the  basal  half  and  blackish- 
brown  for  the  terminal  half,  forming  a  broad  band ;  crown  of 
head  like  the  back ;  lores  black,  surmounted  by  an  eye-streak 
of  buffy-white ;  feathers  below  the  eye  and  ear-coverts  light 
rufous-brown,  with  pale  shaft-lines  ;  throat  cobalt-blue,  extend- 
ing down  the  sides  of  the  neck,  and  crossing  the  fore-neck  so 
as  to  enclose  a  large  chestnut  or  orange-rufous  spot  on  the 
lower  throat ;  the  blue  band  on  the  fore-neck  succeeded  by  a 
black  collar,  which  in  turn  is  succeeded  by  a  white  one,  and 
then  by  a  broad  chestnut  one  which  occupies  the  breast ; 
breast  and  abdomen  white  ;  sides  of  body  olive-brown  ;  thighs 
and  under  tail-coverts  whitish,  the  latter  washed  with  orange ; 
axillaries  and  under  wing-coverts  orange-buff;  bill  dark 
brown;  feet  brown;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  5-5 
inches;  oilmen,  0*5;  wing,  3^05;  tail,  2*05;  tarsus,  1-05. 


THE    BLUE-THROATS.  28 1 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male,  and  wanting  the 
blue  on  the  throat,  which  is  creamy-white,  with  black  along 
the  sides  and  across  the  fore-neck,  slightly  tinged  with  orange- 
buff  on  the  chest,  which  is  also  mottled  with  blackish  centres 
to  the  feathers.  Total  length,  5-3  inches;  wing,  2*8. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Occurs  in  the  southern  and  eastern 
counties  of  England  mostly  on  the  autumn  migration,  but  has 
also  been  taken  in  the  spring.  In  Norfolk,  in  iSSi  and  1884,  a 
considerable  number  were  observed  in  September.  It  has 
never  been  recorded  from  Ireland,  but  three  instances  are 
known  of  its  capture  in  Scotland. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Breeds  in  the  high  north  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  at  elevated 
situations  in  the  birch  regions  in  the  central  portions  of 
Europe  and  Asia ;  it  nests  in  Turkestan  and  Yarkand,  and 
has  been  found  in  Kamtchatka  and  even  in  Alaska.  It 
winters  in  India  and  Ceylon  and  the  Burmese  countries,  as 
well  as  in  Southern  China.  In  Africa  it  has  been  found  as 
far  south  as  the  equatorial  provinces,  and  regularly  winters  in 
Abyssinia. 

HaMts. — The  Blue-throats  seem  to  be  everywhere  swamp- 
loving  birds,  and  the  specimens  of  C.  cyanecula  which  we  pro- 
cured near  the  Neusiedler  Lake  in  May,  1891,  were  noticed  only 
in  the  dense  beds  of  dwarf  willows,  where  the  ground  was  still 
moist  under  foot.  Here  only  the  males  were  observed,  as  they 
came  occasionally  to  the  top  of  a  bush  and  uttered  a  short  song. 
The  females  we  never  saw,  and  this  accords  with  the  testimony 
of  other  naturalists,  that  she  is  always  more  shy  and  retiring  than 
her  mate.  Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  in  Scandinavia  the  Blue-throat 
is  one  of  the  commonest  of  birds,  and  is  not  very  shy  on  its  first 
arrival.  He  writes  :  "  His  first  attempts  at  singing  are  harsh 
and  grating,  like  the  notes  of  the  Sedge-Warbler,  or  the  still 
4wwsherjDnes  of  the  White-throat ;  these  are  followed  by  several 
variations  in  a  louder  and  rather  more  melodious  tone,  repeated 
over  and  over  again,  somewhat  in  the  fashion  of  a  Song-Thrush. 
After  this  you  might  fancy  the  little  songster  was  trying  to  mimic 
the  various  alarm  notes  of  all  the  birds  he  can  remember :  the  chiz- 
zit  of  the  Wagtail,  the  tip-tip-tip  of  the  Blackbird,  and  especially 


282  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

the  whit-whit  of  the  Chaffinch.  As  he  improves  in  voice  he 
sings  louder  and  longer,  until  at  last  he  almost  approaches  the 
Nightingale  in  the  richness  of  the  melody  which  he  pours  forth. 
Sometimes  he  will  sing  as  he  flies  upwards,  descending  with  ex- 
panded wings  and  tail  to  alight  on  the  highest  bough  of  some  low 
tree,  almost  exactly  as  the  Tree-Pipit  does  in  the  meadows  of 
our  own  land.  When  the  females  have  arrived,  there  comes  at 
the  end  of  his  song  the  most  metallic  notes  I  have  ever  heard 
a  bird  utter.  It  is  a  sort  of  ting-ting,  resembling  the  sound 
produced  by  striking  a  suspended  bar  of  steel  with  another 
piece  of  the  same  metal.  The  female  appears  to  shun  the 
open  far  more  carefully  than  her  mate ;  and  while  he  will  be 
perched  on  a  topmost  spray,  gladdening  the  whole  air  around 
with  his  tuneful  melody,  she  will  remain  in  the  undergrowth 
beneath  him,  gliding  hither  and  thither,  more  like  a  mouse 
than  a  bird,  through  the  branches." 

Nest. — According  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  not  unlike  that  of  a 
Robin,  the  hole  being  well  filled  with  dry  grass  and  roots,  and 
at  the  far  end  a  neat,  deep  cup  lined  with  fine  roots  and  hair. 
Even  when  the  bird  has  been  frightened  off,  and  the  place  of 
the  nest  assured,  it  is  still  difficult  to  find,  so  well  is  it  con- 
cealed. 

Eggs. — Resemble  those  of  the  Nightingale,  especially  the 
type  of  the  latter  where  the  ground-colour  is  bluish-green. 
The  spots  are  reddish,  and  either  cloud  the  whole  of  the  egg 
or  are  collected  at  the  larger  end.  Some,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  almost  uniform  olive-brown.  Axis,  o1 7-0*8  inch;  diam., 
o'55~o'6. 

THE  ROCK-THRUSHES.     GENUS  MONTICOLA 
Monticola,  Boie,  Isis,  1833,  p.  552. 

Type,  M.  saxatilis  (Linn.). 

Though  possessing  a  bill  and  general  appearance  like  the 
Thrushes,  there  is  the  character  of  the  bright  colours  of  the 
male  and  the  remarkable  difference  in  the  colour  of  the  sexes, 
which  separate  the  genus  Monticola  from  the  true  Turdidcz. 
They  seem  to  connect  the  Chats  and  the  Thrushes,  the  red 
tail  being  a  feature  which  suggests  an  alliance  with  the  Red- 
starts,, 


THE   ROCK-THRUSHES.  283 

The  Rock-Thrush  is  the  sole  representative  of  the  genus 
Monticola,  the  Blue  Rock-Thrushes  having  a  much  longer  tail, 
more  than  half  the  length  of  the  wing,  and  being  distinguished 
as  a  separate  genus,  Petrophila.  A  species  from  Southern 
Europe,  P.  cyanea,  was  at  one  time  stated  to  have  occurred 
in  Ireland,  but  the  record  was  wholly  false, 


I.    THE  ROCK    THRUSH.       MONTICOLA    SAXATILIS. 

Turdus  saxatilis,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  294  (1766). 
Monticola  saxatilis^  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.   129,  pis.  16,  17 
(1872);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  292  (1872);  Seeb.,  Cat.  B. 

I  Brit.  Mus.,v.,  p.  313  (1881);  id.  Br.  B.,  i,  p.  281  (1883); 
B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  5  (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br. 
B.,  pt.  i.  (1885);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  17  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  blackish  with  a  slaty  gloss  ; 
centre  of  back  white  with  slaty  margins  to  the  feathers ;  rump 
slaty-blackish;  upper  tail-coverts  orange-chestnut;  wing-coverts 
slaty-blackish,  like  the  scapulars,  with  obsolete  white  tips  to 
the  coverts ;  primary- coverts  and  quills  dusky  brown,  the 
secondaries  with  narrow  white  tips,  the  innermost  pale  brown 
at  the  ends ;  tail-feathers  orange-chestnut,  except  the  two 
centre  ones,  which  are  ashy-brown ;  crown  of  head  and  neck 
all  round,  as  well  as  the  entire  throat,  greyish-blue ;  remainder 
of  under  surface  from  the  lower  throat  downwards,  bright 
orange-chestnut,  with  a  few  greyish  edgings  to  the  feathers  of 
the  lower  breast ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  like  the 
breast ;  quills  dusky,  ashy  along  the  inner  web ;  bill,  feet,  and 
claws  black;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  7  inches;  culmen,  o'8  ; 
wing,  4*65;  tail,  2*2;  tarsus,  i'o. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male.  Ashy-brown  above, 
mottled  with  whity-brown  edges  to  the  feathers,  before  which 
is  a  subterminal  blackish  bar;  the  rump  barred  with  pale 
ochreous  edges  to  the  feathers ;  upper  tail-coverts  and  tail 
bright  cinnamon  ;  the  two  centre  tail-feathers  ashy-brown,  and 
the  others  with  a  small  brown  mark  near  the  end  of  the  outer 
web ;  crown  of  head  like  the  back,  the  forehead  more  hoary ; 
lores  dull  white  \  ear-coverts  dull  white,  streaked  with  dusky 


284  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

brown  edges  to  the  feathers ;  cheeks  and  throat  white,  mottled 
with  dark  brown  margins  to  the  feathers,  the  upper  throat  un- 
spotted ;  breast  and  sides  of  body  pale  golden-buff,  the  feathers 
all  edged  with  dusky  brown,  these  markings  becoming  evanes- 
cent on  the  abdomen;  under  tail-coverts  golden-buff;  thighs 
white,  washed  with  cinnamon ;  axillaries  and  under  wing-coverts 
bright  golden-buff  or  orange.  Total  length,  6-3  inches ;  cul- 
men,  075;  wing,  4-55;  tail,  2*2;  tarsus,  ro. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Only  a  single  instance  of  the  occurrence 
of  the  Rock-Thrush  in  our  islands  is  authentic,  a  specimen 
having  been  procured  at  Therfield  in  Hertfordshire  on  the 
1 9th  of  May,  1843.  This  specimen  was  examined  by  Mr.Yarrell 
in  the  flesh. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Rock-Thrush  is  a  bird 
of  Central  and  Southern  Europe,  ranging  eastwards  to  Turkestan, 
Mongolia,  and  Northern  China.  It  also  nests  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Rhine  and  the  rivers  of  Eastern  France  and  in  the  Vosges 
Mountains,  as  well  as  in  some  of  the  ranges  of  Central  Ger- 
many. It  has  occurred  in  Belgium  and  in  Heligoland.  It  is 
met  with  on  migration  in  the  Western  Himalayas,  at  Gilgit  and 
in  Ladak,  and  was  obtained  by  Mr.  Blanford  near  Ava,  in 
Burma. 

Habits. — Canon  Tristram  describes  the  Rock-Thrush  as  very 
like  a  Redstart  in  its  actions,  while  other  observers  notice  its 
resemblance  to  a  Wheatear,  as  it  flits  from  rock  to  rock.  Its 
food  consists  of  insects,  but  in  the  autumn  berries  and  fruit  are 
eaten.  The  song  is  said  to  be  rich  and  powerful,  and  almost 
to  rival  that  of  the  Blackcap. 

Nest. — Always  well-concealed  and  placed  in  the  hole  of  a 
rock  or  of  a  ruined  building,  more  rarely  in  the  hole  of  a  tre 
or  of  a  house.     The  nest  is  composed  of  roots  and  grass,  an 
lined  with  finer  roots,  occasionally  with  a  few  feathers.     It 
very  like  that  of  a  Chat  or  a  Redstart,  and  no  mud  is  used  i 
its  construction. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number.  Blue,  like  the  Song-Thrush' 
egg,  but  either  spotless,  or  so  faintly  dotted  with  a  few  speck 
of  brown  as  to  be  almost  uniform.  The  size  and  shape  varie 
a  good  deal  Axis,  1-1-15  inch;  diam.,  0-75-0-8, 


THE   REDSTARTS.  285 


THE    REDSTARTS       GENUS    RUTICILLA. 

Rutidlla,  C.  L.  Brehm,  Isis,  1828,  p.  1280. 

Type,  R.  phttnicurus  (Linn.). 

The  members  of  this  genus  have  spotted  young  like  that  of 
a  Redbreast,  and  are  otherwise  like  that  bird  in  form,  but  the 
sexes  are  different  in  colour,  and  much  more  variegated,  with 
chestnut  tails.  The  legs  are  always  black  like  those  of  Chats, 
the  eggs  are  blue  like  those  of  the  latter  birds,  and  the  tarsus  is 
smooth  and  not  scutellated.  The  bill  is  slender,  and  rictal 
bristles  are  present. 

The  largest  number  of  species  ©f  Redstarts  occur  in  the 
Himalayas,  but  species  are  also  distributed  over  the  mountains 
of  the  Mediterraneo-Persic  Sub-region,  these  mountain  forms 
being  mostly  residents,  whereas  our  two  European  species  are 
both  migratory. 

I.  THE   REDSTART.      RUTICILLA   PHCENICURUS. 

Motadlla  phoenicurus,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  p.  335  (1766). 

Rutidlla  phcenicurus,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  305  (1839),  Newt, 
ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  339  (1873) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  277, 
pi.  41  (1874);  Seeb.,Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  336  (1881); 
id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  287  (1883) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  8 
(1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  i.  (1885);  Saunders, 
Man.,  p.  35  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  slaty-grey;  the  rump  and 
upper  tail-coverts  orange-chestnut;  lesser  and  median  wing- 
coverts  grey  like  the  back ;  greater  coverts  and  quills  dusky 
brown  ;  tail-feathers  orange-chestnut,  darker  on  the  outer  webs, 
the  two  centre  feathers  dark  brown ;  forehead  white,  extending 
in  a  line  over  the  ear-coverts ;  a  narrow  line  at  the  base  of 
the  forehead,  feathers  above  the  eye,  ear-coverts,  sides  of  face, 
throat,  and  fore-neck,  black  ;  breast  and  sides  of  body  orange- 
chestnut  ;  the  abdomen  whitish,  washed  with  orange ;  under 
tail-coverts  pale  orange-buff;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries 
orange-chestnut ;  bill  and  feet  black  ;  iris  dark-brown.  Total 
length,  5-4  inches;  culmen,  0-5;  wing,  3*05;  tail,  2'i;  tarsus, 
0-8. 


286  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male,  being  ashy-brown 
above  instead  of  slaty-grey  ;  the  orange-chestnut  colour  of  the 
rump  and  tail  paler ;  lores  dull  white ;  ear-coverts  earthy- 
brown  ;  cheeks  ashy-brown ;  throat  dull  white,  as  also  the 
abdomen  and  under  tail-coverts ;  the  fore-neck,  breast,  and 
sides  of  body  sandy-brown  ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries 
yellowish-buff ;  quills  dusky  brown  below,  ochreous  along  the 
inner  web.  Total  length,  5^3  inches;  wing,  3*1. 

Young. — Mottled  like  a  young  Robin,  and  having  the  upper 
surface  varied  with  ochreous-buff  spots  and  black  edges  to  the 
feathers ;  the  under  surface  yellowish-buff,  barred  with  dusky 
edges  to  the  feathers ;  the  upper  tail-coverts  and  tail  orange- 
rufous,  as  in  the  adults. 

Winter  Plumage. — The  whole  of  the  upper  surface  grey, 
as  well  as  the  throat,  the  black  and  white  facial  markings 
being  concealed  by  pale  margins  which  wear  off  and  leave  the 
summer  plumage  visible. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor  to  all  the  British 
Islands,  though  it  is  only  quite  recently  that  it  has  been  known 
to  breed  in  Ireland,  where  it  was  before  considered  to  be  a  rare 
bird.  Its  breeding-range  extends  throughout  England  and 
Scotland,  but  the  bird  is  rarer  in  the  south-western  counties,  and, 
like  the  Nightingale,  its  range  seems  to  be  almost  bounded  by 
the  River  Exe,  though  the  Redstart  has  been  found  breeding  in 
Cornwall  on  rare  occasions.  It  has  also  been  known  to  breed 
of  recent  years  in  Sutherlandshire  and  Caithness,  but  is  un- 
recorded from  the  Hebrides,  and  is  only  a  rare  visitor  to  the 
Orkneys  and  Shetland  Isles. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Breeds  throughout  Central 
and  Southern  Europe  as  far  as  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  east  to 
the  Yenesei.  In  the  south  of  Europe  it  is  principally  known 
as  a  migrant,  and  breeds  only  on  the  mountains.  In  Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  and  the  Caucasus  the  Redstart  is  represented  by 
an  allied  species,  Ruticilla  mesoleitca,  which  has  white  on  the 
wing  like  the  Black  Redstart.  Our  species  winters  in  Persia 
and  Palestine,  and  it  extends  in  Africa  to  Abyssinia  and  the 
eastern  districts,  as  well  as  to  Senegambia  on  the  west  coast. 

Habits. — On  their  first  arrival  the  males  precede  the  female 


THE   REDSTARTS.  287 

by  a  few  days,  and  it  is  then  that  the  birds  are  mostly  observed, 
for  at  other  times  they  are  very  shy  and  retiring  in  their  habits. 
After  the  males  have  arrived  they  may  be  seen,  sometimes  in 
some  numbers,  on  the  outskirts  of  the  woods  in  our  southern 
counties,  flitting  along  in  front  of  the  observer,  and  either  perch- 
ing on  the  fences  or  the  trees.  At  such  times  the  red  tail 
renders  the  bird  a  conspicuous  object,  and  it  is  from  the  bright 
colour  of  this  organ  that  the  species  gets  its  common  name  of 
"  Fire-tail "  in  many  parts  of  England.  The  tail  is  expanded, 
and  moved  up  and  down  with  a  fanning  motion,  which  causes 
the  bird  to  be  easily  observed.  As  soon  as  the  females  have 
arrived,  the  birds  disperse  themselves  over  the  country  for  the 
nesting-season,  and  are  then  not  so  easy  of  observation,  and 
the  quiet  way  in  which  the  birds  disappear  after  the  breeding- 
season  has  been  remarked  by  more  than  one  writer.  The  Red- 
start haunts  old  ruins,  in  the  holes  of  which  it  makes  its  nest, 
but  it  also  builds  in  holes  of  trees  and  walls,  and  in  queer 
places,  such  as  a  Robin  sometimes  selects.  The  nest,  however, 
with  its  pretty  blue  eggs,  is  always  well  concealed.  The  birds 
evince  great  affection  for  a  chosen  site,  and  will  not  easily 
desert  it,  even  if  the  eggs  are  taken  more  than  once. 

The  song  of  the  Redstart  is  not  very  powerful  or  varied,  and 
is  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  Warblers,  but,  like  some  of  the 
latter,  it  sings  at  night.  In  many  of  its  ways  it  resembles  a 
Flycatcher,  especially  in  its  habit  of  catching  insects  by  darting 
after  them  in  the  air,  and  in  this  way  it  sometimes  catches  a 
passing  butterfly. 

Nest. — Made  of  dry  grass  and  moss,  with  a  little  wool,  and 
lined  with  hair  and  feathers.  It  is  a  loosely-made  and  in- 
artistic structure. 

Eggs. — From  five  to  six  in  number,  but  sometimes  as  many 
as  eight.  The  colour  is  pale  blue.  Axis,  o'65-o'85;  diam., 
Q'55-0'6. 

II.    THE   BLACK   REDSTART.      RUTICILLA   TITYS. 
(Plate  XXIV.} 

Motacilla phanicura,  B.  titys,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  335. 
Ruticilla  tithys,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  311  (1839);  Seeb.,  Cat. 
B.Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  339  (1881);  id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  293  (1883) 


288  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Ruticilla  titys,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  333  (1873);  Dresser,  B. 
Eur.,  ii.,  p.  293,  pi.  44  (1874);  B,  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  9 
(1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  i  (1885);  Saunders, 
Man.,  p.  33  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  clear  slaty-grey,  the  rump 
and  upper  tail-coverts  bright  orange-chestnut ;  wing-coverts 
black,  edged  with  slaty-grey,  the  tips  of  the  greater  series  lighter; 
bastard-wing  black  ;  quills  blackish,  externally  edged  with  hoary 
grey,  the  secondaries  with  white,  forming  a  large  wing-patch ; 
tail-feathers  orange-chestnut,  darker  on  the  outer  web ;  the  two 
centre  tail-feathers  dark  brown,  rufous  towards  the  base  of  the 
outer  web  ;  head  like  the  back,  a  little  lighter  towards  the  fore- 
head, the  base  of  which  is  black,  like  the  lores,  feathers  round 
the  eye,  ear-coverts,  sides  of  face,  throat,  and  breast,  the  latter 
with  grey  margins  to  the  feathers ;  sides  of  body  and  flanks 
slaty-grey,  the  centre  of  the  abdomen  whitish ;  lower  flanks  pale 
cinnamon,  as  also  the  under  tail-coverts ;  thighs  black ;  axil- 
laries  grey,  with  whitish  tips  ;  under  wing-coverts  black,  edged 
with  hoary  grey  ;  quills  dusky  brown  below,  ashy- whitish  along 
the  inner  web ;  bill  and  feet  black  ;  iris  brown.  Total  length, 
3-2  inches;  oilmen,  0-55  ;  wing,  3-4;  tail,  2-3;  tarsus,  0-9. 

Adult  Female. —  Different  from  the  male.  Uniform  slaty- 
brown,  with  a  slight  tinge  of  olive  above;  only  the  upper  tail- 
coverts  chestnut ;  wings  like  the  back,  the  quills  edged  with 
ashy-brown;  tail-feathers  chestnut,  brown  at  the  tips  and 
towards  the  end  of  the  outer  web;  the  two  centre  feathers 
dark  brown  ;  ear-coverts  a  little  darker  brown  than  the  head ; 
eyelid  whitish ;  under  surface  of  body  slaty-brown,  lighter  than 
the  upper  surface,  the  abdomen  paler ;  under  tail-coverts  cin- 
namon ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  slaty-brown  like  the 
breast.  Total  length,  6  inches ;  culmen,  o'5  ;  wing,  3-45  ;  tail, 
2-35 ;  tarsus,  0-95. 

The  young  males  appear  to  resemble  the  old  females  during 
their  first  winter,  and  remain  perfectly  uniform  like  the  hen 
birds.  The  summer  plumage  is  gained  by  the  shedding  of  the 
grey  edges  of  the  feathers,  which  leave  the  black  face  and  breast 
without  any  moult.  In  fact,  the  black  seems  to  spread  over 
the  feathers  gradually,  as  spring  approaches,  as  there  is  no 
sign  of  it  in  the  young  males  which  are  killed  m  early  winter. 


THE   WHEATEARS. 


289 


Ran^e  in  Great  Britain. — A  regular  winter  visitor,  principally 
along  the  southern  coast  of  England  as  far  as  Devon  and  Corn- 
wall. We  have  seen  several  specimens  captured  near  Brighton, 
and  the  late  Mr.  Gatcombe  used  to  obtain  the  species  pretty 
regularly  near  Plymouth  every  winter.  It  also  visits  Scotland 
and  Ireland  in  winter. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Black  Redstart  is  chiefly 
a  bird  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe,  extending  northwards 
to  Holland,  but  only  straggling  to  Denmark  and  the  south  of 
Norway  and  Sweden.  The  eastern  breeding  limit  is  marked  by 
Mr.  Seebohm  as  70°  E.  long.,  and  the  bird  only  occurs  in 
Western  Russia  as  a  straggler,  in  the  same  way  that  it  reaches 
occasionally  the  north  of  England  and  Scotland,  the  Faeroes 
and  Iceland.  Its  winter  range  extends  to  North-eastern  Africa. 

Habits. — The  present  species  is  more  like  a  Robin  in  its 
ways,  and  is  found  near  houses  rather  than  in  the  woods, 
where  the  common  Redstart  is  so  often  observed,  but  it  is 
also  found  nesting  in  the  south  of  Europe  among  the  rocky 
valleys.  In  most  countries  it  not  only  frequents  the  towns, 
but  more  especially  the  neighbourhood  of  gardens  and  farm- 
houses, and,  unlike  the  common  Redstart,  it  sometimes  seeks 
for  its  food  on  the  ground.  The  song,  as  with  the  latter  bird, 
is  heard  in  the  night,  and  especially  in  the  early  morning,  but 
it  consists  only  of  a  few  rich  notes. 

Nest. — A  large  structure  externally,  and  somewhat  ragged  and 
loose,  but  neatly  lined  inside.  It  is  made  of  straw  and  grass, 
with  moss  and  a  few  twigs,  and  lined  with  horsehair  and  a  few 
feathers.  It  is  built  in  holes  of  walls  and  ruins,  and  in  summer- 
houses  and  sheds  in  gardens,  verandahs,  under  eaves  of  houses, 
&c.,  often  without  any  attempt  at  concealment. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number.  They  are  white,  some- 
times with  a  very  faint  tinge  of  greenish.  Axis,  0-75-0-85 
inch ;  diam.,  0-6. 

THE  WHEATEARS.     GENUS  SAXICOLA. 
Saxicola,  Bechst.,  Orn.  Tascheub.,  p.  216  (1802). 

Type,  S.  (cnanthe  (Linn.). 
The  Chats  have  a  longer  bill  than  the  Redstarts,  but  resemble 


290  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

the  latter  birds  in  their  black  legs  and  in  the  different  colour  of 
the  sexes,  though  they  never  have  red  tails.  On  the  contrary, 
they  nearly  all  have  the  rump  and  base  of  the  tail  white,  and 
the  mottling  of  the  young  is  somewhat  different  in  character 
from  that  of  Thrushes  and  Redstarts. 

The  Chats  are  birds  of  desert  and  rocky  countries  as  a  rule, 
and  are  only  found  in  the  Old  World,  where  they  avoid  the 
forest  districts,  so  that  no  species  of  the  genus  Saxicola  is 
found  in  the  Indo-Malayan  or  Australian  Regions.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  many  Chats  in  the  Ethiopian  Region,  and 
a  large  number  of  species  inhabit  the  Mediterraneo-Persic  Sub- 
region.  In  most  countries  they  are  resident,  but  some  are  migra- 
tory to  a  certain  extent,  none,  however,  equalling  our  Common 
Wheatear  in  this  respect. 

I.   THE   WHEATEAR.      SAXICOLA   CENANTIIE. 
(Plate  XXV.} 

Mot.uiUa  ananthe.  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  332  (1766). 
Saxicola  o>nanthe>  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  347  (1839);  Newt.  ed. 

Yarr.,  i.,  p.  289  (1872)  ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  187,  pi.  21 

(1874)  ;  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  391  (1881)  ;  id. 

Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  298  (1883) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  6  (1883); 

Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  i.  (1885) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p. 

19  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  slaty-blue,  slightly  washed 
with  brown  ;  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  white  ;  wing-coverts 
and  quills  brownish-black,  with  obsolete  brownish  margins,  the 
secondaries  narrowly  fringed  with  ashy-whitish  at  the  ends;  centre 
tail-feathers  blackish-brown,  the  remainder  white,  with  the  ter- 
minal third  blackish-brown,  forming  a  broad  band  ;  crown  of 
head  grey,  like  the  back;  base  of  forehead  white,  with  a  distinct 
white  eyebrow  running  from  the  base  of  the  bill  to  beyond 
the  line  of  the  ear- coverts ;  lores,  eyelids,  sides  of  face,  and  ear- 
coverts,  black ;  cheeks,  throat,  sides  of  neck,  breast,  and  sides  of 
body,  pale  tawny-buff;  the  centre  of  the  breast,  abdomen,  thighs, 
and  under  tail-coverts  creamy-white;  axillaries  white,  with  dusky 
bases ;  under  wing-coverts  black  with  white  edges  ;  quills  ashy 
below;  bill  and  feet  black  ;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  5 '8 
inches;  culmen,  0-65;  wing,  37;  tail,  2*1;  tarsus,  i'o. 


THE    WHEATEARS.  29 1 

Adult  Female. — Duller  in  colour  than  the  male,  being  every- 
where browner,  but  with  the  same  white  rump  and  tail-markings; 
base  of  forehead  slightly  paler  brown  than  the  head ;  the  fore 
part  of  the  eyebrow  brownish-white,  the  hinder  part  purer 
white  ;  lores  blackish  ;  ear-coverts  brown  ;  under  surface  of 
body  pale  sandy-buff,  lighter  on  the  abdomen  and  under  tail- 
coverts  ;  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  dusky  brown,  with 
white  edgings.  Total  length,  5-8  inches;  wing,  3-5. 

Young. — Light  chocolate-brown  above,  mottled  all  over  with 
dusky  blackish  edgings  to  the  feathers;  the  head  and  neck  lighter 
brown,  mottled  with  terminal  spots  and  streaks  of  sandy-buff; 
lesser  and  median  wing-coverts  blackish,  spotted  with  sandy- 
buff  at  the  ends ;  the  greater  coverts  and  quills  broadly  edged 
with  rufous ;  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  white ;  tail-feathers 
tipped  with  rufous ;  ear-coverts  dark  brown  with  sandy-buff 
streaks ;  under  surface  of  body  sandy-buff,  lighter  on  the  throat 
and  abdomen ;  the  fore-neck  and  breast  mottled  with  dusky 
margins  to  the  feathers ;  bill  light  brown,  the  lower  mandible 
and  gape  yellow.  After  the  AUTUMN  MOULT  the  young  birds  re- 
semble the  old  females,  but  are  more  rufous,  especially  under- 
neath. 

Bange  In  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitor,  arriving  early  in 
March,  and  breeding  throughout  the  British  Islands,  but  much 
less  frequently  in  the  southern  and  midland  counties  than  it 
does  in  the  north.  The  birds  which  arrive  in  March  are 
smaller  in  every  way  than  those  which  arrive  in  April,  about 
a  month  later;  but  the  question  of  the  differences  between 
these  two  races  and  their  geographical  distribution  has  never 
been  satisfactorily  explained.  The  later  arrivals  always  seem 
to  us  to  be  browner,  as  well  as  larger,  than  the  first  arrivals  ; 
and  it  is  this  large  form  which  passes  through  the  Shetlands 
and  Iceland  on  migration,  and  breeds  in  Greenland.  Colonel 
Feilden  even  noticed  it  as  high  as  80°  N.  lat. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — A  nearly  circumpolar  bird, 
breeding  in  the  high  north  throughout  Europe  and  Northern 
Asia,  but  only  on  the  higher  ground  in  Southern  Europe. 
The  winter  home  of  the  Wheatear  extends  from  the  North- 
western Himalayas  to  Persia,  and  also  to  North-eastern  and 
Eastern  Africa,  as  well  as  to  Senegambia. 

u  2 


292  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Habits. — In  the  northern  portions  of  our  islands  the  Wheat- 
ear  nests  more  frequently  than  in  the  south,  where  it  is  gener- 
ally observed  on  migration,  and  is  a  common  object  of  the 
sea-shore  in  autumn  and  spring.  At  the  latter  time  of  year  it 
is  often  to  be  observed  on  pasture-land  in  the  interior  of  the 
country,  perched  upon  a  roil  and  displaying  its  white  rump 
conspicuously  as  it  flies  off  to  perch  upon  the  ground  or  a 
raised  clod  of  earth — the  latter  a  favourite  position.  It  may 
then  be  noticed  in  Hyde  Park,  to  which  the  Wheatear  is  a 
regular  visitor  on  its  migrations.  In  the  fields  near  the  coast 
it  is  always  to  be  seen  in  autumn,  perched  upon  the  low 
bushes  or  hedges  and  always  sitting  on  the  very  topmost 
twigs,  and  flying  off  at  the  very  first  approach  of  danger. 
Most  of  the  birds  thus  observed  are  young  birds  of  the  year, 
which  have  just  completed  their  first  autumn  moult,  and  are 
resting  before  taking  their  journey  southward.  On  being 
pursued  they  fly  off  rapidly  and  double  close  to  the  ground, 
appearing  again  at  some  little  distance  on  the  hedge,  or  flying 
out  to  the  middle  of  a  field  and  perching  on  a  mound  of 
earth,  or  even  hiding  behind  it.  In  this  way  the  bird  pro- 
ceeds some  distance  and  then  flies  back  to  the  place  from 
which  it  was  first  driven. 

The  food  of  the  Wheatear  consists  almost  entirely  of  insects 
and  worms,  but  small  snails  are  also  eaten.  A  bait  of  a  meal- 

orm  is  almost  sure  to  trap  the  bird.  Both  old  and  young 
birds  frequent  hay-fields  in  the  neighbourhood  of  their  nest, 
and  may  be  seen  flying  gently  down  like  a  Flycatcher,  to  pick 
up  an  insect,  and  then  returning  to  their  perch,  while  they  will 
also  fly  off  and  catch  an  insect  in  the  air.  In  the  autumn  the 
birds  also  feed  on  berries. 

Nest. — A  plain  structure  of  dry  grass,  with  a  little  moss  and 
a  few  rootlets,  and  lined  with  hair  or  a  few  feathers.  It  is 
exceedingly  difficult  to  find,  and  is  placed  in  various  situa- 
tions. Mr.  Walter  Burton  has  presented  to  the  British  Museum 
a  nest  which  he  found  on  the  open  beach  near  Winchelsea, 
for  which  the  bird  had  appropriated  an  old  derelict  can, 
which  had  once  held  tinned  meat  and  had  probably  been 
washed  up  by  the  sea.  In  the  wilder  parts  of  Great  Britain, 
where  the  Wheatear  is  more  often  to  be  seen  during  the  nest- 


ffHE   WHKATEARS.  2Q3 

ing  season,  it  places  its  nest  out  of  sight  in  various  kinds  of 
places,  sometimes  far  under  a  ledge  ot  rock,  or  under  a  clod 
of  earth,  sometimes  also  in  the  hole  of  a  wall.  Mr.  Seebohm 
likewise  mentions  a  cairn  of  stones  on  the  sea  shore  as  a 
favourite  resort,  and  also  the  stacks  of  peat  on  the  moors, 
and  he  says  that  the  nest  is  sometimes  to  be  found  at  a 
distance  of  several  feet  from  the  place  where  the  birds  enter. 
A  rabbit-burrow  is  also  often  selected,  and  the  group  which 
illustrates  the  nesting  of  the  Wheatear  in  the  British  Museum, 
shows  the  nest,  with  the  young  birds,  concealed  just  inside  the 
burrow,  and  as  the  latter  was  occupied,  the  Rabbits  must  have 
been  passing  in  and  out  during  the  whole  time  of  the  incubation 
of  the  eggs  and  the  rearing  of  the  young. 

Eggs.  —  Four  to  seven  in  number.  They  are  entirely  pale 
greenish-blue,  or  greenish-white,  usually  without  any  spots,  but 
occasionally  showing  some  faint  spots  of  purplish-brown,  prin- 
cipally at  the  larger  end.  Axis,  o*8-o'9  inch  ;  diam.,  o'6-o'65. 
(Plate  xxix.,  fig.  4.) 

T'     THE   ISABELLINE   WHEATEAR.        SAXICOLA    ISABELLINA. 

Saxicola  isabellina,  Cretzschm.  in  Riipp.  All.,  p.  52  (1826); 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  199,  pi.  22  (1874);  Seeb.,  Cat. 
B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  399  (iSSi);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  21 


Adult  Male.  —  General  colour  above  earthy-brown,  with  an  ashy 
shade,  slightly  more  rufescent  towards  the  rump  ;  the  upper 
tail-coverts  white  ;  wing-coverts  dark  brown,  edged  with  sandy- 
brown  ;  bastard-wing  blackish,  narrowly  margined  with  sandy- 
buff;  primary-coverts  and  quills  dark  brown,  edged  externally 
with  ashy-grey,  less  distinct  on  the  latter,  the  secondaries 
fringed  with  white  at  the  ends,  the  inner  ones  broadly  margined 
with  sandy-buff;  centre  tail-feathers  black,  with  a  white  base,  the 
rest  of  the  feathers  white  for  more  than  the  basal  half,  the  end  of 
the  tail  black,  forming  a  very  broad  terminal  band,  the  feathers 
tipped  with  white  ;  head  like  the  back  ;  a  broad  streak  from 
the  base  of  the  bill  to  above  the  ear-coverts,  white,  the  hinder 
part  of  this  eyebrow  sandy-buff  ;  lores  black;  ear-coverts  and 
under-surface  of  body  isabelline-rufous,  paler  and  inclining  to 
sandy-white  on  the  cheeks  and  throat  ;  the  abdomen  and 
under  tail-coverts  paler  isabelline  ;  axillaries  and  under  wing- 


1 94  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HisTofcV. 

coverts  creamy-white;  quills  dusky  below,  creamy-whitish  along 
the  inner  web;  bill  black;  feet  brownish-black;  iris  dark  brown. 
Total  length,  6 '5  inches  ;  culmen,  o-6 ;  wing,  3*8  ;  tail,  2*0 ;  tar- 
sus, 1*2. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  in  colour  to  the  male.  Total  length, 
6  inches  ;  wing,  375  ;  tarsus,  1-15. 

The  Isabelline  Wheatear  may  easily  be  mistaken  for  the 
female  of  the  Common  Wheatear,  but,  as  Mr.  Howard  Saun- 
ders  has  pointed  out,  the  broader  white  lining  to  the  quills  will 
always  distinguish  it.  This  is  a  very  good  character,  and 
another  is  the  greater  length  of  the  tarsus  in  S.  isabellina. 
This  is  1-15-1-2  inch  in  length;  whereas  S.  (znanthe  never 
has  a  tarsus  longer  than  i  '05  inch. 

Kange  in  Great  Britain. — This  species  has  only  occurred  once, 
a  specimen  having  been  obtained  by  Mr.  Thomas  Mann,  near 
Allonby  in  Cumberland,  on  the  nth  of  November,  1887.  The 
bird  was  found  in  a  ploughed  field,  quite  alone,  and  was 
brought  to  the  Rev.  H.  A.  Macpherson,  who  showed  it  to  Mr. 
Howard  Saunders,  afterwards  had  it  mounted,  and  then  very 
kindly  presented  it  to  the  British  Museum,  where  it  remains  as 
one  of  our  great  treasures  in  the  British  saloon. 

Eange  outside  Great  Britain. — The  Isabelline  Wheatear  is  a 
resident  in  Palestine  and  the  whole  of  North-eastern  Africa 
from  Egypt  to  Arabia  and  Somali-land,  and  perhaps  remains 
in  Masai-land,  where  it  has  also  been  met  with.  To  the  east- 
ward its  breeding-range  extends  to  Thibet,  S.E.  Mongolia, 
Amoorland,  and  Northern  China,  but  here  it  is  doubtless  only- 
a  summer  visitor,  as  it  is  to  Afghanistan,  Turkestan,  Southern 
Siberia,  and  the  Lower  Volga  and  Asia  Minor.  The  birds 
which  breed  in  the  latter  places  doubtless  winter  in  N.E. 
Africa,  but  the  more  eastern  birds  visit  Northern  India,  passing 
through  Gilgit  in  spring  and  autumn. 

HaMts. — According  to  Mr.  C.  G.  Danford,  this  Wheatear 
frequents  barren  ground,  bushy  hillsides,  and  even  fir- woods  in 
Asia  Minor.  The  call-note  resembles  the  syllables  zri-zri- 
zri,  but  Mr.  Danford  also  says  that  its  notes  are  very  peculiar, 
the  most  striking  being  a  cry  resembling  that  of  a  Sandpiper, 
which  is  uttered  as  the  bird  descends,  after  its  hovering  flight 
and  Lark-like  song. 


THE   WHEATEARS.  295 

Nest. — Generally  placed  in  burrows,  sometimes  at  a  consider- 
able distance.  In  construction  it  resembles  that  of  the  Wheat- 
ear. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number.  Pale  greenish-blue  with  the 
faintest  indication  of  pale  brown  spots  on  some  of  them.  Axis, 
o'S5-o'9  inch  ;  diam.,  0*65. 

III. THE   BLACK-THROATED   WIIEATEAR.      SAXICOLA    STAPAZINA. 

Motacilla  stapazina^  pt.  Linn.,  Syst.   Nat.,   i.,  p.   331    (1766, 

<$  nee.   ?  ). 

Saxicola  riifa,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  203,  pi.  23  (1874). 
Saxicola  stapazina,  Seeb.,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  387  (1881) ; 

id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  307  (1883);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  6 

(1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  i.  (1885);  Saunders, 

Man.,  p.  23  (1889). 
Saxicola  occide?italis,  Salvad.  Elench.  Uc.  Ital.,  p.  116  (1886). 

Adult  Male. — Head,  neck,  and  mantle  rich  sandy-rufous, 
generally  whiter  on  the  forehead  ;  lower  back,  rump,  and  upper 
tail-coverts  pure  white ;  scapulars,  wing-coverts,  and  quills 
black,  the  former  sandy-buff  near  the  back  ;  centre  tail-feathers 
black,  with  a  white  base ;  remainder  white,  excepting  a  narrow 
black  tip,  which  increases  in  width  towards  the  outermost, 
where  it  forms  a  broad  black  band  at  the  end,  and  extends 
some  distance  up  the  outer  web  ;  extreme  base  of  forehead, 
lores,  line  above  and  behind  the  eye,  sides  of  face,  cheeks, 
and  upper  throat,  black ;  remainder  of  under  surface  of  body 
from  the  middle  of  the  throat  downwards  rich  sandy-rufous  ; 
sides  of  body  less  distinctly  washed  with  sandy-buff,  the  abdo- 
men and  under  tail-coverts  creamy- white  ;  axillaries  and  under 
wing-coverts  black;  quills  dusky  below,  ashy-whitish  along  the 
inner  edge ;  bill  and  feet  black  ;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  57 
inches;  culmen,  0-55;  wing,  3*55;  tail,  2*3;  tarsus,  0-9. 

Adult  Female. — Browner  than  the  male,  with  brown  wings  and 
tail  ;  the  head  and  back  sandy-brown,  the  rump  and  upper 
tail-coverts  white  ;  ear-coverts  sandy-rufous  ;  throat  ashy-brown 
with  a  blackish  patch  in  the  middle ;  lower  throat,  fore-neck, 
breast,  and  sides  of  body  sandy-rufous,  the  abdomen  isabelline. 
Total  length,  57  inches;  wing,  3*45. 


296  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

NOTE. — The  male  of  the  Black-throated  \Vheatear  is  easily  distinguished 
by  its  sandy-rufous  head  and  back,  and  white  rump,  black  wings,  and  black 
under  wing-coverts.  The  female  can  be  distinguished  from  the  female  of  S. 
ananthe  by  its  much  smaller  size  and  dark  ashy,  not  whitish,  under  wing- 
coverts. 

Eange  in  Great  Britain. — A  male  of  this  Chat,  in  adult  plu- 
mage, was  shot  near  Bury,  in  Lancashire,  about  the  8th  of  May, 
1875.  It  was  recorded  by  Mr.  R.  Davenport,  and  identified  by 
Mr.  Howard  Saunders  and  other  ornithologists. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — There  are  two  forms  of 
Black-Throated  Wheatear,  one  western  (S.  stapazina)  and  one 
eastern  (S.  melanoleiicd).  It  is  the  western  bird  which  has 
occurred  in  England,  and  also  in  Heligoland,  and  this  bird 
breeds  in  Algeria,  Morocco,  Spain,  and  the  South  of  France, 
to  about  the  line  of  the  Loire.  Both  forms  are  met  with  in 
Italy,  and  the  western  bird  breeds  there,  and  it  is  said  that  inter- 
mediate specimens  occur  between  the  two  races,  which  some 
naturalists  do  not  admit  to  be  distinct.  The  eastern  Black- 
throated  Wheatear  occurs  in  Greece  and  Palestine,  and  in 
Asia  Minor  and  South  Russia  as  far  as  Persia,  and  winters  in 
N.E.  Africa  :  while  the  western  one  winters  in  West  Africa. 

EaMts. — Resemble  those  of  our  Wheatear,  the  bird  inhabiting 
rocky  localities  on  the  hills  of  Southern  Europe,  and  nesting 
in  the  grass,  in  the  shelter  of  a  crevice  in  the  rocks,  or  in  old 
ruins. 

Nest. — Loosely  made  of  moss  and  grass,  and  lined  with  roots 
and  hair. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number,  of  a  light  blue  colour,  sprin- 
kled with  reddish  dots,  generally  all  over  the  egg,  but  some- 
times forming  a  ring  round  the  larger  end.  Occasionally  the 
eggs  are  spotless.  Axis,  07-0-8  inch  ;  diam,  0-55-0-6. 

IV.  THE   DESERT  WHEATEAR.      SAXICOLA  DESERTI. 

Saxicola  deserti,  Temm.,  PI.  Col.,  iii.,  pi.  359,  fig.  2  (1825); 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  215,  pi.  27  (1874);  Seeb.,  Cat.  B. 
Brit.  Mus.,  v.,  p.  383  (1881);  id.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  304  (1883) ; 
B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  7  (1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br. 
B.,  pt.  ii.  (1886);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  25  (1889). 


THE   WHEATEARS.  297 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  bright  sandy-rufous,  over- 
shaded  with  ashy  margins  to  the  feathers,  the  lower  back  and 
rump  brighter  sandy-rufous,  the  lower  rump  and  upper  tail- 
coverts  creamy-white,  washed  with  sandy-rufous  ;  scapulars  like 
the  back  ;  wing-coverts  black,  the  inner,  median,  and  greater 
coverts  white  or  sandy-white,  forming  a  large  wing-patch ;  rest 
of  the  wing  black,  the  inner  secondaries  edged  with  sandy- 
brown  ;  tail-feathers  entirely  black,  with  a  white  base  for  about 
one-third  the  length  of  the  feather ;  head  like  the  back,  or  a 
trifle  greyer,  with  a  white  line  across  the  base  of  the  forehead 
extending  back  over  the  eye  and  forming  an  eyebrow;  lores 
and  feathers  above  the  eye,  sides  of  face  and  ear-coverts,  and 
throat  black  ;  remainder  of  under  surface  of  body  sandy-rufous, 
as  also  the  sides  of  the  body ;  the  centre  of  the  breast,  abdomen, 
and  under  tail-coverts  whiter;  axillaries  black,  tipped  with  white; 
under  wing-coverts  white  ;  quills  dusky  below,  white  along  the 
inner  web ;  edge  of  wing  black ;  bill  black  ;  feet  and  claws 
black  ;  iris  deep  brown.  Total  length,  6  inches;  culmen,  o'6  ; 
wing,  3-6;  tail,  2-5;  tarsus,  1-05. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  from  the  male  in  wanting  the  black  on 
the  face  and  throat ;  the  whole  upper  surface  sandy-brown ; 
the  upper  tail-coverts  sandy-rufous  ;  tail  as  in  the  male ;  wings 
not  black,  but  brown,  the  feathers  edged  with  sandy-rufous ;  lores 
whitish  ;  ear-coverts  light  rufous  ;  cheeks  and  entire  under  sur- 
face of  body  pale  sandy-rufous,  inclining  to  isabelline  on  the 
abdomen  and  under  tail-coverts  ;  under  wing  coverts  and  axil- 
laries  white,  with  dusky  bases ;  quills  ashy-brown  below,  white 
along  the  inner  edge.  Total  length,  57  inches  ;  wing,  3-5. 

NOTE. — The  male  of  the  Desert  Wheatear  is  very  distinct,  but  the 
female  might  be  confounded  with  the  hen  of  some  of  the  allied  species. 
It  may  be  well  to  mention,  therefore,  that  it  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
females  of  S.  ynanthe  and  S.  stapazina  by  its  blacker  tail,  the  basal  third 
of  which  only  is  white. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Obtained  on  two  occasions  :  once  near 
Alloa,  in  Scotland,  on  the  26th  of  November,  1880,  and  a 
second  near  Holderness,  on  the  i;th  October,  1885.  The 
former  was  exhibited  before  the  Zoological  Society  by  Mr.  J.  J. 
Dalgleish,  and  the  second  by  Mr.  W.  Eagle  Clarke. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Desert  Chat  is  an  African 


298  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

bird,  but  has  occurred  on  Heligoland  on  three  occasions,  in 
the  month  of  October  in  1856  and  1857,  and  again  on  the 
23rd  of  June  in  1880.  It  is  a  desert-loving  species  and  extends 
from  Northern  Africa  to  Egypt  and  India,  Arabia  and  Palestine, 
east  to  Turkestan.  It  winters  in  the  plains  of  Northern  India, 
and  a  few  may  even  breed  there.  In  Africa  its  winter  range 
extends  as  far  south  as  Somaliland. 

Habits. — As  its  name  implies,  this  little  Chat  is  an  inha- 
bitant of  desert  countries,  and  it  is  emphatically  the  Wheatear  of 
the  Algerian  Sahara.  In  its  habits  it  resembles  the  Common 
Wheatear. 

Nest, — Resembles  that  of  the  Black-throated  Wheatear,  and 
is  placed  on  the  ground,  either  under  the  shelter  of  a  bush  or 
in  a  fissure  of  a  rock,  and,  like  our  Wheatears,  it  also  nests  in 
burrows. 

Eggs. — Greenish-blue,  with  reddish-brown  spots  distributed 
over  the  whole  egg,  but  rather  more  closely  gathered  towards 
the  larger  end.  Axis,  o'S  inch  ;  diam.,  o'6. 

THE  FURZE-CHATS.     GENUS  PRATINCOLA. 

Pratincola,  Koch,  Syst.  Baier.  Zool.,  p.  190  (1816). 

Type,  P.  rubetra  (Linn.). 

The  genus  Pratincola  forms  an  intermediate  link  between 
the  Chats  and  Flycatchers.  The  bill  is  broadened  and  re- 
sembles that  of  the  latter  birds,  and,  as  with  the  Muscicapid<& 
there  are  numerous  rictal  bristles.  In  the  True  Chats  the  bill 
is  narrow  and  the  rictal  bristles  are  few  in  number  and  weak  ; 
thus  the  members  of  the  genus  Saxieola  are  more  closely 
allied  to  the  Robins  and  Redstarts.  The  Furze-Chats,  however, 
are  Muscicapine  Chats.  They  are  entirely  confined  to  the 
Old  World  and  do  not  extend  into  the  Australian  Region  proper. 
In  Africa  the  genus  is  strongly  developed  and  its  members  are 
also  found  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Palsearctic  and  Indi: 
Regions  as  far  as  Celebes. 

I.  THE   WHINCHAT.       PRATINCOLA    RUF.ETRA. 

Motacttla  rubetra,  Linn,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p   332  (1766). 


llifc    HJRZfc-CHAfS.  299 

Fnitidcola  rubetra,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  273  (1839). 
Saxicola  rubetra,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  344  (1873). 
Pratincola  rubelra,   Dresser,  B.    Eur.,  ii.,  p.  255,  pis.  37,  38 

(1873);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  iv.,  p.   179  (1879); 

Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  312  (1883);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  7 

(1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.,  Br,  B.,  pt.  ii.  (1886);  Saunders, 

Man.,  p.  27  (1889). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  brown,  streaked  with 
blackish-brown  centres  to  the  feathers ;  the  rump  and  upper 
tail-coverts  rather  more  rufous,  the  latter  with  white  margins  ; 
scapulars  like  the  back,  but  with  a  blackish  shoulder-spot  on 
the  sides  of  the  mantle ;  wing-coverts  blackish,  with  sandy- 
brown  edges,  the  inner,  median,  and  greater  coverts  white,  with 
dusky  brown  ends,  forming  a  wing-patch ;  primary-coverts 
white  at  base,  with  blackish  tips,  forming  a  speculum ;  quills 
dark  brown,  the  primaries  white  at  the  extreme  base,  the 
secondaries  fringed  with  whity-brown  at  the  ends ;  centre  tail- 
feathers  brown,  the  remainder  white,  with  the  terminal  third 
brown,  forming  a  broad  band ;  crown  of  head  darker  than  the 
back,  the  feathers  edged  with  sandy-buff;  a  broad  white  eye- 
brow, commencing  at  the  nostrils ;  lores  and  sides  of  face 
blackish,  the  ear-coverts  bronzy-brown;  cheeks  and  chin  white, 
extending  on  to  the  sides  of  the  neck ;  centre  of  the  throat 
and  breast  light  cinnamon-rufous,  as  also  the  sides  of  the  body; 
centre  of  breast  and  abdomen,  and  under  tail-coverts,  light 
sandy-buff;  axillaries  light  cinnamon,  with  dusky  bases  ;  under 
wing-coverts  dusky  brown,  with  whitish  edges ;  quills  dusky 
below,  ashy-whitish  along  the  inner  web;  bill  and  feet  black; 
iris  brown.  Total  length,  5-4  inches;  culmen,  0-5;  wing, 
3-05  ;  tail,  i '8  ;  tarsus,  o'8. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male,  and  rather  browner ; 
the  rufous  of  the  throat  and  sides  of  the  body  paler  and  more 
orange ;  the  sides  of  the  face  not  so  black,  the  ear-coverts  and 
cheeks  being  brown,  streaked  with  lighter  brown,  with  a  little 
blackish  along  the  cheeks.  Total  length,  5  inches;  wing,  3-0. 

Young  Birds  after  the  Autumn  Moult  much  resemble  the  old 
birds,  but  may  always  be  distinguished  by  the  pale  sandy-buff 
tips  to  the  feathers,  traces  of  which  remain  till  the  succeeding 


300  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

spring,  and  the  white  wing  patch  is  very  plain.     In  the  autumn 
the  fore-neck  has  some  small  black  streaks. 

Kange  in  Great  Britain. — A  summer  visitant  to  the  British  Is- 
lands, visiting  the  North  of  Scotland,  as  well  as  the  Orkney,  and 
Shetland  Islands,  and  also  the  Hebrides.  In  Ireland,  however, 
it  is  still  considered  as  a  rare  and  local  summer  visitor. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — As  in  Great  Britain,  the  Whin- 
chat  is  a  summer  visitor  to  most  parts  of  Europe,  and  breeds 
as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  Circle.  It  extends  eastwards  to  the 
Ural  Mountains,  and  its  breeding  range  even  to  70°  E.  long. 
In  the  south  of  Europe,  the  individuals  which  stay  for  the  sum- 
mer season  only  nest  in  the  mountains.  In  winter  the  Whinchat 
visits  North-east  Africa,  and  is  frequently  to  be  found  in  collec- 
tions from  Senegambia  and  the  Gold  Coast. 

Habits. — The  Whinchat  is  one  of  the  prettiest  and  most 
engaging  of  our  summer  visitors,  but  is  seldom  noticed  by 
anybody  but  the  ornithologist ;  and  yet  it  is  by  no  means 
uncommon.  It  is  found  in  a  variety  of  situations,  in  the  open 
moorland,  the  fallows,  and  the  grass  fields  before  the  hay- 
season  begins.  Wherever  it  is  found  its  habits  are  very  similar, 
and  it  may  be  observed  on  the  open  commons,  sitting  on  the 
top  of  a  furze-bush  like  a  Stonechat,  or  flying  over  the  stand- 
ing grass,  and  perching  on  a  thistle  or  small  bush  in  the  middle 
of  the  field ;  or  it  may  be  found  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  over 
which  are  scattered  furze-bushes.  On  its  first  arrival  in  the 
early  part  of  May,  the  Whinchat  may  be  seen  in  pairs,  but  after 
the  nesting  season  the  female  is  seldom  observed,  and  there  is 
no  more  difficult  nest  to  discover.  The  male  is  observed  on 
the  top  of  a  bush,  and  from  its  actions  one  may  fancy  that  the 
nest  is  below ;  this  generally  turns  out  to  be  the  case.  The 
bird,  however,  will  do  everything  in  its  power  to  mislead,  flyim 
off  rapidly  and  reappearing  at  the  top  of  a  neighbouring  bush, 
uttering  its  note,  u-tack,  u-tack.  This  is  a  very  good  render- 
ing of  the  note  of  the  Whinchat  and  Stonechat,  both  of  whose 
calls  resemble  the  sound  of  two  stones  being  clinked  together.1 

*  We  notice  that  Mr.  Seebohm  says  that  the  Whinchat  is  calle 
"  U-tick,"  from  its  note,  in  some  country  districts.  In  Leicestershir 
in  our  young  days,  this  name  was  always  applied  to  the  Wheatear. 


THE    FURZE-CHATS.  30 1 

Then  the  male  bird  disappears  altogether  for  a  time,  and  the 
observer  fancies  that  he  must  have  been  on  the  wrong  scent 
altogether,  when,  after  a  long  wait,  the  bird  reappears  on  the 
top  of  the  bush  where  it  was  first  seen.  On  tapping  the  furze, 
a  little  brown  object  may  be  observed,  scudding  like  the  wind, 
and  disappearing  behind  the  first  shelter  it  can  find,  or  flying 
to  a  distant  hedge,  as  if  the  nest  were  there.  This  is  the  female 
bird,  and  the  nest  is  certainly  located,  but  even  then  it  is  not 
visible.  Only  those  who  have  taken  several  Whinchats'  nests 
under  such  circumstances  know  the  difficulty  with  which  the 
nest  is  finally  discovered,  for,  although  it  may  be  ultimately 
found,  it  is  necessary  first  to  spot  the  "  run  "  by  which  it  is 
approached.  As  with  the  Grasshopper-Warbler,  this  is  some- 
times two  feet  in  length,  and  at  the  end  of  it  is  the  nest  with 
the  eggs.  It  is  not  always  that  the  Whinchat  builds  in  situa- 
tions so  difficult  to  discover,  as  sometimes  the  nest  is  built 
amongst  the  grass,  far  away  from  any  hedge  or  bush. 

In  the  autumn  the  old  birds  are  seldom  or  never  observed, 
but  the  young  birds  are  common,  pursuing  their  insect  prey  in 
the  harvest-fields  in  the  country,  or  frequenting  the  pastures 
near  the  sea-shore,  where  they  perch  upon  the  thistles  or  low 
bushes,  or  on  the  hedges  which  line  the  fields.  The  birds 
may  often  be  seen  flying  after  insects  in  the  air,  after  the 
manner  of  Flycatchers,  and  they  are  very  active  in  pursuit  of 
gnats  and  other  flies,  as  evening  approaches. 

Nest. — Composed  of  dry  grass,  with  a  very  little  moss,  and  a 
few  straws  on  the  outside.  The  interior  cup  is  more  neatly 
woven,  with  finer  grass  and  horsehair. 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number,  greenish-blue,  faintly  speckled 
with  reddish-brown,  the  spots  of  the  latter  colour  almost  in- 
visible, but  sometimes  collecting  at  the  larger  end  of  the  egg 
and  forming  a  zone.  Axis,  o'7~o'8  inch;  diam.,  o'55~o'6.  It 
may  be  mentioned  that  the  spotted  eggs  seem  to  be  rather 
larger  and  paler  blue  than  the  unspotted  ones. 

II.  THE   STONECHAT.      PRATINCOLA   RUBICOLA. 

Motacilla  rubicola,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  332  (1766). 
Fruticicola  rubicola,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  279  (1839). 


302  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Sixicola  rubicola,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  339  (1873). 
Pratincola  rubicola,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  263,  pis.  39,  40 

(1873);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  iv.,  p.  185  (1879); 

Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  317  (1883);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p. 

8  (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt  ii.  (1886);  Saun- 

ders,  Man.,  p.  29   (1889);    Wyatt,  Br.  B.,  pi.  2,  figs,  i,  2 

(1894). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  black,  generally  with  some 
obsolete  sandy-buff  edges  to  the  feathers,  these  being  lost  only 
in  the  height  of  the  breeding-season  ;  upper  tail-coverts  white, 
spotted  with  black ;  wing-coverts  black,  the  inner,  median,  and 
greater  coverts  white,  forming  a  large  wing-patch  ;  primary- 
coverts  and  quills  blackish-brown,  with  sandy  brown  margins  ; 
tail-feathers  blackish-brown ;  head,  sides  of  face,  and  throat 
black,  with  a  broad  white  patch  on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  ex- 
tending from  behind  the  ear-coverts  to  the  shoulder  ;  fore-neck 
and  breast  orange-chestnut,  inclining  to  pale  cinnamon  on  the 
sides  of  the  body,  the  feathers  being  blackish,  with  pale  cinna- 
mon ends ;  the  abdomen  and  under  tail-coverts  isabelline-buff; 
thighs  light  brown  ;  axillaries  white,  blackish  towards  the  base ; 
under  wing-coverts  black,  with  white  edges  ;  bill  and  feet  black; 
iris  brown.  Total  length,  5-3  inches  ;  culmen,  0-5  ;  wing,  2-7  ; 
tail,  1-8  ;  tarsus,  0*9. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male,  and  lacking  the  black 
on  the  head;  the  upper  surface  dark  sandy-brown,  streaked 
with  black  centres  to  the  feathers ;  the  white  wing-patch  not  so 
large,  and  the  upper  tail-coverts  rufous,  centred  with  black,  not 
white  as  in  the  male ;  tail-feathers  dark  brown,  with  narrow 
whitish  edges;  head  like  the  back,  and  similarly  streaked  ;  eye- 
lid whitish;  lores  dusky;  ear-coverts  dark  brown  ;  throat  ashy- 
whitish,  with  a  large  black  patch  on  the  lower  throat ;  sides  of 
neck  with  a  small  white  patch,  much  less  than  in  the  male ; 
remainder  of  under-parts  from  the  fore-neck  downwards  orange- 
chestnut,  the  centre  of  the  breast  and  abdomen  isabelline. 
Total  length,  5  inches ;  wing,  2-55. 

Young. — Dark  brown  above,  spotted  with  triangular  buff 
centres  to  the  feathers,  which  have  also  blackish  edges  ;  rump 
and  upper  tail-coverts  rufous,  spotted  with  black ;  head  darker 


THE    FURZE-CHATS.  303 

than  the  back,  ani  lined  with  buff;  under  surface  of  body 
tawny-buff,  mottled  with  brown  spots  on  the  lower  throat  and 
chest. 

NOTE. — The  black  breast  of  the  male  Stonechat  with  its  large  white 
neck-spot  always  serve  to  distinguish  the  bird  from  the  Whinchat,  which 
has  also  a  white  base  to  the  tail,  very  conspicuous  when  the  bird  is  flying  ; 
whereas  the  Stonechat  has  only  a  little  white  spot,  formed  by  the  upper 
tail-coverts.  The  hen  Stonechat  certainly  resembles  the  Whinchat  more 
closely,  but  is  darker  in  appearance,  has  no  white  on  the  tail,  and  has  a 
large  black  spot  on  the  lower  throat ;  the  breast  and  abdomen  rufous,  in- 
stead of  creamy-buff. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Stonechat  is  generally  distributed 
over  the  British  Islands,  but  is  decidedly  a  local  bird.  It  is 
generally  resident,  but  is  also  a  migrant  to  a  large  extent. 

Range  outside '.the  British  Islands. — A  local  bird  in  most  parts 
of  Europe,  being  more  common  in  the  south.  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders  records  it  as  breeding  in  Southern  Spain,  even  in 
the  hot  plains  below  Seville ;  and  it  is  a  species  which  occurs 
throughout  the  Mediterranean  countries.  Throughout  Cen- 
tral Europe  it  is  a  local  bird,  and  does  not  extend  nearly  so 
far  north  as  the  Whinchat,  its  northern  range  being  almost 
bounded  by  the  Baltic,  with  the  exception  of  Southern  Sweden, 
where  the  Stonechat  is  also  found.  Eastwards  it  extends  to 
the  Volga,  but  its  breeding-range  is  limited,  according  to  Mr. 
Seebohm,  to  50°  W.  long.  From  the  Petchora  valley  eastwards 
through  Siberia  to  China  and  Japan,  and  southwards  to  India 
and  the  Burmese  countries,  our  Stonechat  is  represented  by  an 
allied  species,  Pratincola  maura,  with  unspotted  white  \  pper 
tail-coverts  and  entirely  black  axillaries.  In  winter  the  Stone- 
chat  visits  Senegambia. 

Habits. — The  ways  of  the  present  species  are  very  like  those 
of  the  Whinchat,  but  it  is  more  of  a  heath-frequenting  bird 
than  the  last-named  species.  It  is,  in  fact,  not  seen  so  much 
in  the  pasture-land  or  grass-fields,  and,  being  only  migratory  to 
a  small  extent,  it  does  not  frequent  the  coast-lands  to  the  same 
extent  as  the  Whinchat.  Nevertheless,  the  two  species  are 
often  found  side  by  side,  and  they  nest  in  the  same  districts. 
Their  note  is  similar — u-tack  well  expresses  it — and  they  have 
the  same  habits  of  sitting  on  the  top  of  a  furze-bush  and  flying 
from  one  bush  to  another,  when  they  want  to  deceive  an  in- 


J°4 

truder  as  to  the  position  of  their  nest.  Owing  to  the  white 
patch  on  the  neck,  the  bird  is  more  easily  observed  than  the 
Whinchat,  and  the  females  of  both  species  are  equally  shy,  and 
adopt  the  same  tactics  when  driven  from  their  nest.  The 
Stonechat,  like  its  ally,  catches  insects  in  the  air,  and  some- 
times even  captures  butterflies  on  the  wing ;  but  it  is  often 
seen  on  the  ground,  where  it  picks  up  worms  and  grubs. 

Nest. — Always  on  the  ground  and  well  concealed,  gener- 
ally with  a  "  run "  extending  for  some  distance,  and  serving 
to  make  the  discovery  of  the  nest  still  more  difficult.  It  is 
rather  more  roughly  constructed  than  that  of  the  Whinchat, 
and  the  materials  are  coarser,  consisting  of  dry  grass  and 
rootlets,  with  a  little  moss  and  horsehair.  The  lining  consists 
of  finer  grass  and  rootlets,  with  a  little  hair  and  an  odd  feather 
or  two. 

Eggs. — Four  to  six  in  number.  The  ground-colour  is  pale 
bluish-green,  and  the  spots  are  light  reddish-brown,  but  much 
larger  and  more  distinct  than  in  the  eggs  of  the  Whinchat. 
They  are  often  found  collected  towards  the  larger  end  of  the 
egg,  where  they  form  a  zone  or  completely  cloud  the  larger 
end.  Some  of  the  clutches  incline  somewhat  to  olive-greenish. 
Axis,  075-0-8  inch;  diam.,  0-5-0-6. 

THE   ACCENTORS.     FAMILY  ACCENTORID.E. 

The  Accentors  are  for  the  most  part  dwellers  among  the 
rocks,  but  some  of  them,  like  our  Common  Hedge-Sparrow 
frequent  the  lower  ground,  and  are  amongst  our  most  familia 
birds  in  gardens  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  houses.  The] 
differ  from  the  Turdidce  in  having  the  tarsus  scutellated,  as  in 
the  Tits,  with  which  Mr.  Seebohm  has  actually  associated  them 
In  other  characters,  however,  such  as  the  shape  of  the  bill  anc 
its  rictal  bristles,  the  Accentors  are  allied  to  the  Robins  am 
Redstarts,  while  the  spotted  character  of  the  young  proves 
their  affinity  with  the  family  of  the  Turdidtz.  The  Hedge 
Accentors  differ  from  most  of  the  latter  in  having  a  very  roundec 
wing,  but  this  peculiarity  is  not  shared  by  the  Alpine  Accentors 
The  family  contains  the  two  genera  Tharrhakus  and  Accentor 
The  former  comprises  the  "Hedge-Sparrows,"  like  our  English 


THE   HEDGE-ACCENTORS.  305 

bird,  and  all  the  species  of  the  genus  have  a  small  and  blunt 
wing,  with  the  secondary  quills  almost  as  long  as  the  primaries. 
There  are  six  species  in  the  Himalayas,  three  European,  another 
Central  Asian,  and  a  third  still  more  eastern  representative  of 
the  genus  in  Japan. 

The  species  of  the  genus  Accentor,  which  has  a  longer  and 
more  pointed  wing,  with  the  secondaries  not  nearly  equalling 
the  primaries  in  length,  are  found  in  the  mountains  of  Asia 
and  Europe,  extending  from  Manchuria  throughout  the  Altai 
and  Himalayan  systems  to  the  Caucasus  and  the  mountains  of 
Central  and  Southern  Europe. 

THE  HEDGE-ACCENTORS.  GENUS  THARRIIALEUS. 

TharrhahuS)  Kaup,  Natiirl.  Syst.,  p.  137  (1829). 
Type,  T.  modulciris  (Linn.). 

The  characters  which  distinguish  this  genus  from  Accentor 
have  been  alluded  to  above.  The  bill  is  about  half  the  length 
of  the  head,  rather  wide  at  the  base,  and  tapering  laterally 
towards  the  centre,  and  ending  in  a  somewhat  fine  point ;  it 
has  also  a  slight  notch,  and  is  furnished  with  rictal  bristles, 
which,  however,  are  few  in  number  and  weak.  The  Hedge- 
Sparrows  lay  blue  eggs  like  Redstarts  and  Chats,  but  differ 
from  these  birds  in  having  the  sexes  alike  in  colour,  and  in 
other  structural  characters. 

I.    THE   HEDGE-SPARROW.      THARRHALEUS   MODULARIS. 

Motacilla  modularis^  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  329  (1766). 

Accentor  modularis,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  251  (1839);  Newt.  ed. 
Yarr.,  i.,  p.  301  (1873);  Dresser,  B.,  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  39,  pi.  101 
(1873);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  vii.,  p.  649  (1883^; 
B.  O.  U.  List.  Br.  B.,  p.  22  (1883);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  i., 
p.  497  (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  v.  (1887); 
Saunders,  Man.,  p.  85  (1889);  Wyatt,  Br.  B.,  pi.  xv.,  fig.  i. 
(1894). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  brown,  streaked  with  broad 
blackish-brown   centres  to  the   feathers;    lesser  wing-coverts 
i  x 


LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTO£¥. 

uniform  ashy-brown  ;  median  wing-coverts  blackish-brown,  with 
ashy-brown  edges ;  greater  coverts  and  inner  secondaries  dark 
brown,  edged  with  rufous,  the  latter  with  ashy-white  tips; 
bastard-wing,  primary-coverts  and  quills  dark  brown,  the  latter 
with  paler  brown  margins;  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  uniform 
olive-brown ;  tail-feathers  dark  brown,  the  two  centre  ones 
paler ;  crown  of  head  and  hind-neck  dull  slaty-brown ;  lores 
dusky ;  ear-coverts  reddish-brown  with  whitish  shaft-streaks ; 
sides  of  neck,  cheeks,  throat  and  breast  slaty-grey,  becoming 
paler  on  the  lower  breast,  and  shading  off  into  dull  white  on 
the  abdomen ;  sides  of  upper  breast  uniform  olive-brown;  sides 
of  body  and  flanks  brown,  the  latter  streaked  with  blackish- 
brown  centres  to  the  feathers ;  under  tail-coverts  whitish  with 
brown  centres ;  axillaries  and  under  wing-coverts  ashy-grey ; 
quills  dusky  brown  below,  ashy  along  the  inner  edge ;  bill  dark 
brown,  the  lower  mandible  paler ;  feet  light  brown  ;  iris  brown. 
Total  length,  5-5  inches;  oilmen,  0-5;  wing,  275;  tail,  2-4; 
tarsus,  0*85. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour.  Total  length, 
5 '6  inches;  wing,  2*6. 

Young. — Similar  in  plumage  to  the  adult,  but  much  more 
mottled,  with  black  centres  and  paler  tips  to  the  feathers ;  the 
external  aspect  of  the  wings  more  rufous;  the  hind-neck 
spotted  with  ochreous  buff;  throat  ashy-grey,  spotted  with 
dusky;  throat  and  chest  and  sides  of  body  ochreous-buff,  with 
triangular  spots  of  blackish-brown  ;  breast  ashy-white. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  common  resident  throughout  the 
British  Islands,  occurring  and  breeding  everywhere,  excepting 
in  some  of  the  Hebrides,  the  Orkneys,  and  Shetlands.  Large 
numbers  occur  on  migration,  especially  on  our  eastern  coasts, 
and  the  species  is  also  a  winter  visitant  to  the  Orkney 
Islands. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands.  —  Breeds  nearly  everywhere 
throughout  Europe,  excepting  in  the  extreme  north,  reaching 
to  70°  lat.  in  Scandinavia,  to  Archangel  in  Western  Russia,  and 
to  about -€0°  in  the  Ural  Mountains.  In  the  south  of  Europe 
it  nests  only  on  the  mountains,  and  is  principally  known  as  a 
winter  visitor  to  the  Mediterranean  countries ;  but  it  has  been 


THE  HEDGE-ACCENTORS.  307 

fecorded  by  Heuglin  as  wintering  as  far  south  as  Arabia  Petraea. 
In  Palestine,  according  to  Canon  Tristram,  it  is  a  resident. 

Habits. — Although  not  a  real  Sparrow,  as  its  English  name 
would  suggest,  the  familiar  title  by  which  this  little  bird  is  uni- 
versally known  must  be  preferred  to  the  more  correct  one  of 
Hedge-Accentor,  which  properly  describes  its  relationships. 
It  has  been  too  long  known  as  the  "Hedge-Sparrow"  for  any  ad- 
vantage to  accrue  from  a  change  of  English  name.  In  all  other 
respects  except  that  of  the  similarity  of  colouring  of  the  upper 
surface,  it  is  quite  different  from  the  Sparrows,  and  as  regards 
voice,  nesting-habits,  colour  of  eggs,  etc.,  it  has  nothing  in 
common  with  the  latter  birds. 

Like  the  Robin,  the  Hedge-Sparrow  seeks  the  society  of 
man,  and  is  as  frequent  a  pensioner  in  winter  as  that  well- 
known  type  of  Avian  familiarity.  The  nest,  too,  is  frequently 
to  be  found  in  our  gardens,  and  is  one  of  the  first  to  be  built 
in  the  year,  as  it  is  sometimes  found  as  early  as  March.  A 
clipped  yew-hedge  is  a  favourite  shelter  for  the  nest,  but  it  is 
placed  in  all  kinds  of  situations,  though  never  at  any  great 
height  from  the  ground.  Hedge-rows  and  tangled  thickets  on 
commons  are  also  selected  as  nesting-sites  :  we  have  also  found 
the  nest  in  furze-bushes,  while  it  is  sometimes  placed  in  ivy  or 
even  against  a  tree-trunk.  The  late  Robert  Gray  mentions  his 
having  found  a  nest  in  a  cave  on  Ailsa  Craig,  placed  in  a  ledge 
of  rock  at  the  base  of  a  tuft  of  hart's-tongue  fern,  the  floor  of 
the  cave  being  covered  with  water. 

The  food  of  the  Hedge-Sparrow  consists  almost  entirely  of 
worms  and  insects,  but  it  will  also,  like  the  Robin,  occasionally 
feed  on  grain  in  the  winter.  It  sings  all  through  the  year,  a 
poor  little  song,  but  cheerful  enough  when  heard  through  the 
dismal  days  of  winter,  when  the  bird  frequents  the  neighbour- 
hood of  houses. 

Nest. — Composed  almost  entirely  of  moss,  with  a  few  sticks, 
roots,  and  dry  grass,  but  the  chief  material  used  is  moss,  which 
sometimes  forms  the  lining.  Very  often,  however,  the  latter 
consists  of  wool  with  hair  and  feathers. 

EggS. — From  four  to  six  in  number.  Entirely  greenish-blue,with- 
out  any  spots.  The  shell  is  rough  and  not  so  shiny  or  so  brittle  as 
the  egg  of  the  Redstart.  Axis,  07-0-8  inch;  diam.,  0-55-0-6. 

X    2 


LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORV. 

THE  TRUE  ACCENTORS.     GENUS  ACCENTOR. 

Accentor,  Bechst,  Orn.  Taschenb.,  i.,  p.  191  (1802). 

Type,  A.  collar  is  (Scop.). 

As  has  already  been  explained,  the  Alpine  Accentors  are 
mountain-loving  birds,  with  a  differently  formed  wing  to  the 
Hedge -Sparrows.  As  in  the  latter  birds  the  sexes  are  alike, 
but  they  appear  to  have  a  winter  plumage,  when  the  feathers 
are  paler-edged,  and  the  summer  plumage  is  gained  by  the 
abrasion  of  these  pale  margins. 

I.  THE  ALPINE  ACCENTOR.        ACCENTOR   COLLARI3. 

Accentor  collaris  (Scop.),  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  296  (1871); 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  29,  pi.  99  (1873) ;  Sharpe,  Cat. 

B.,   vii.,  p.   661    (1883);    B.  O.    U.  List   Brit.   B.,  p.  23 

(1883);    Lilford,    Col.   Fig.,    Brit    B.,   pt.    vii.    (1888); 

Saunders,  Man.,  p.  87  (1889). 
Accentor  alpinus,  Bechst.;  Macg.,  Brit.  B.,  ii.,  p.  258  (1839); 

Seeb.,  Brit.  B.,  i.,  p.  501  (1883). 

Adult  Male.— Light  ashy-grey  above,  all  the  feathers  broadly 
streaked  with  black  down  the  centre;  rump  more  uniform  ashy; 
scapulars  externally  rufous,  like  the  inner  secondaries,  which 
are  also  broadly  edged  with  rufous ;  lesser  wing-coverts  ashy  ; 
median  and  greater  coverts  black,  tipped  with  white,  the 
latter  externally  ashy-olive ;  quills  blackish,  the  secondaries 
tipped  with  whity-brown,  and  externally  whity-brown  or  light 
rufous,  the  innermost  ones  rufous  along  both  webs ;  tail-feathers 
dark  brown,  edged  with  ashy-brown,  with  a  white  tip  to 
the  inner  web  of  the  outer  feathers,  rufous  on  the  others ; 
head  and  neck  like  the  back,  and  streaked  with  blackish 
centres  to  the  feathers,  with  a  faintly  indicated  pale  eye- 
brow; sides  of  face  and  sides  of  neck  ashy-grey,  as  well  as 
the  fore-neck  and  chest,  enclosing  the  white  cheeks  and  throat, 
which  form  a  white  gorget,  spotted  or  barred  with  lines  of  black; 
breast  and  abdomen  light  ashy,  as  also  the  thighs,  the  vent 
whiter ;  sides  of  body  and  flanks  uniform  cinnamon-brown,  the 
flanks  edged  with  white  and  centred  with  blackish-brown ; 
under  tail-coverts  white,  with  blackish  centres;  under  wing- 
coverts  and  axillaries  ashy,  washed  with  rufous,  the  edge  of  the 


THE    DIPPERS.  309 

wing  barred  with  black  and  white  ;  bill  blackish-brown,  the 
base  yellow  ;  feet  reddish-brown  ;  iris  brown.  Total  length, 
6-8  inches;  culmen,  0-55;  wing,  4*05;  tail,  2-5;  tarsus,  ro. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  rare  visitor,  but  one  of  which 
many  authentic  occurrences  have  been  registered.  The  first 
instance  happened  as  long  ago  as  August,  1817,  and  two 
more  birds  were  seen  in  the  gardens  of  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1822.  Other  records  refer  to  the  occurrence  of  the 
species  in  various  places  in  England  and  Wales :  in  Suffolk, 
Somersetshire,  Devonshire,  Gloucestershire,  Yorkshire,  Sussex, 
and  lastly,  the  bird  was  observed  by  Mr.  Howard  Saunders 
himself  on  Snowdon  on  the  20th  of  August,  1870. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands. — -The  Alpine  Accentor  is  an 
inhabitant  of  all  the  mountain  ranges  of  Southern  Europe, 
from  Spain  to  Greece,  and  thence  through  Asia  Minor  and  the 
Caucasus  into  Northern  Persia.  It  has  occurred  as  a  straggler 
in  the  north  of  France,  Belgium,  Northern  Germany,  and  even 
Heligoland,  while  it  also  is  found  nearly  every  autumn  in  the 
cliffs  which  fringe  the  River  Loire. 

Habits. — Like  the  Hedge-Sparrow  of  the  gardens,  the  Alpine 
Accentor  is  a  tame  bird  in  the  mountains  which  it  frequents ; 
here  it  builds  its  nest  on  the  higher  grounds,  descending  in 
winter  into  the  low  valleys.  Its  food  consists  of  insects  and 
their  larvae,  but  in  winter  it  feeds  upon  seeds.  The  song  is 
said  to  resemble  that  of  a  Lark,  and  the  bird  ascends  for  thirty 
or  forty  feet  into  the  air  and  descends  singing. 

Nest. — Made  of  dry  round  stems  of  grass,  mixed  with  fine 
roots  and  lichens,  and  sometimes  lined  with  moss,  wool,  or 
hair.  It  is  placed  on  the  ground  under  an  overhanging  bush  or 
rhododendron-tree.  (Cj.  Seebohm  I.e.) 

Eggs.— Pale  greenish-blue,  without  any  spots.  Axis,  0-9-0-95 
inch ;  diam.,  0-65-07. 

THE  DIPPERS.     FAMILY  CINCLID^). 

The  Dippers  or  Water-Ouzels  are  comprised  in  a  single  genus 
Cinclus,  and  they  might  very  well  be  called  Water-  Wrens.  No 
one  can  examine  the  nest  of  the  Dippers  without  recognising 


310  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

at  once  how  similar  they  are  in  appearance  and  situation  to 
that  of  a  large  Wren's  nest,  and  there  are  other  Wren-like 
characters  to  be  observed  in  the  Dippers.  Not  only  do  the 
short  and  rounded  wings  proclaim  the  affinity  of  the  two 
families,  but  the  absence  of  rictal  bristles  also  serves  to  unite 
them.  The  Dippers  are  found  in  the  mountains  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  North  America.  They  also  occur  in  Central 
America  and  extend  down  the  Andes  from  the  United  States 
of  Columbia  to  Peru  and  Tucuman. 

THE   DIPPERS   OR  WATER-OUZELS.     GENUS   CINCLUS. 

Cinclus^  Bechst,  Orn.  Taschenb.,  i.,  p.  206  (1802). 

Type,  C.  cinclus  (Linn.). 

As  there  is  but  a  single  genus  Cindus,  the  remarks  made 
above  under  the  heading  of  the  family,  refer  equally  to  the 
genus. 

I.    THE   DIPPER.      CINCLUS   AQUATICUS. 

Cinclus  europceuS)  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  50  (1839). 
Cinclus  aquaticus,  Bechst;  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  241  (1872)  ; 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  167,  pi.  xix.  (1874) ;  Sharpe,  Cat. 
B.  Brit.  Mus.,  vi.,  p.  307  (1881) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p. 
23  (1883);  Seeb.,  Hist.  Brit.  B.,  i.,  p.  253  (1888);  Lil- 
ford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  xi.,  (1889) ;  Saunders,  Man., 
p.  89  (1889) ;  Wyatt,  Br.  B.,  pi.  v.  (1894). 

(Plate  XXVI.} 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  dark  grey,  all  the  feathers 
edged  with  black  ;  wing-coverts  and  quills  blackish-brown,  with 
grey  margins,  the  secondaries  more  broadly  edged  ;  tail- 
feathers  dark  brown ;  crown  of  head,  hind-neck,  and  sides  of 
neck,  sides  of  face  and  ear-coverts,  clear  chocolate-brown ; 
cheeks,  throat,  fore-neck,  and  chest,  pure  white;  above  and 
below  the  eye  a  spot  of  white  ;  breast  and  remainder  of  under 
surface  of  body  deep  rufous,  shading  off  into  slaty-brown  on 
the  sides  of  the  body  ;  abdomen,  thighs,  vent,  and  under  tail- 
coverts,  blackish,  the  latter  tipped  with  rufous ;  under  wing- 
coverts  dark  brown,  washed  with  slaty-grey,  the  axillaries  tipped 
with  white ;  quills  dark  brown  below,  ashy-fulvous  along  the 
inner  web ;  bill  black  ;  feet  bluish-grey,  tinged  with  brown ; 


THE   DIPPERS   OR   WATER-OUZELS.  31 1 

iris  pale  brown,  with  a.  ring  of  black  in  the  middle.  Total 
length,  7  inches ;  oilmen,  0*85  ;  wing,  3-55  ;  tail,  2*15  ;  tarsus, 
i'°5- 

Adult  Female. — Like  the  male  in  colour,  but  rather  browner, 
and  not  so  ashy  on  the  sides  of  the  body.  Total  length,  6 '6 
inches ;  wing,  3*3. 

Young. — More  mottled  than  the  adults,  the  grey  feathers  of 
the  upper  surface  having  blackish  margins  ;  wings  blackish,  with 
narrow  whitish  edgings  to  the  coverts  and  quills  ;  head  and 
neck  somewhat  browner  than  the  back,  the  feathers  margined 
with  black;  cheeks  and  entire  under  surface  of  body  white, 
with  dusky  brown  or  blackish  edges  to  the  feathers ;  flank 
feathers  ashy-grey,  with  black  margins ;  under  tail-coverts 
blackish,  with  rufescent  streaks  and  tips. 

Young  in  Autumn  Plumage. — After  the  first  moult  the  young 
birds  much  resemble  the  adults,  but  are  much  darker,  especi- 
ally the  head  and  neck,  which  are  deep  chocolate-brown.  The 
rufous  on  the  breast  is  not  so  bright,  and  is  more  brownish  in 
tint ;  it  is  more  confined  to  the  breast,  and  does  not  extend  so 
far  on  to  the  abdomen  as  in  the  adult  bird. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  bird  of  the  mountain  streams,  found 
in  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  as  well  as  Somersetshire,  through- 
out Wales,  and  northward  from  Derbyshire  in  suitable  locali- 
ties to  Scotland,  throughout  which  kingdom  it  is  universally 
distributed,  as  well  as  in  the  Outer  Hebrides.  In  Ireland  it  is 
also  found  in  the  same  situations  as  in  England  and  Scotland. 
To  the  south-eastern  counties  of  England  the  Dipper  is  chiefly 
an  occasional  visitor,  though  Mr.  Robert  Read  has  recorded  his 
finding  of  the  nest  in  Surrey  (Zool.,  1893  ;  p.  308). 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  red-breasted  form  of 
Dipper  which  inhabits  Great  Britain  is  found  within  a  very 
limited  area  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  appears  to 
extend  over  France  and  Germany  in  suitable  localities  only, 
and  it  is  also  found  in  Holland  and  Belgium.  In  the  Carpa- 
thians and  the  Alps,  as  well  as  in  the  Pyrenees,  it  is  replaced 
by  a  race  known  as  Cinclus  albicollis,  which  is  a  paler  and 
greyer  bird,  with  the  rufous  on  the  breast  extending  on  to  the 
abdomen. 


3i2  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

EaMts. — The  Dipper,  or  "Water-Ouzel,"  as  it  is  called  in 
England,  the  "Water-Crow"  of  Scotland,  is  a  bird  of  the 
mountain  streams  in  the  southern  part  of  its  range,  and  of 
burns  and  rivers  in  the  north.  It  is  everywhere  a  shy  and 
watchful  bird,  and,  except  in  the  breeding  season,  appears  to 
be  solitary ;  at  least,  it  is  somewhat  rare  to  see  two  birds  in 
company.  By  hiding  behind  a  rock  near  the  Dipper's  haunts, 
however,  it  is  possible  to  observe  the  bird,  and  none  are  more 
interesting  in  their  ways  of  life.  They  may  be  seen  scudding 
over  the  surface  of  the  water  with  a  rapid  flight  and  a  vigorous 
beating  of  the  wings,  something  like  that  of  a  Kingfisher,  until 
they  alight  on  a  rock  or  large  stone  in  the  middle  of  the  stream. 
The  white  breast  of  the  bird  stands  out  in  bold  relief,  and, 
after  pausing  for  a  moment,  it  commences  to  edge  to  th«  side 
of  the  rock,  and  either  walks  deliberately  into  the  water  or 
disappears  suddenly  beneath  the  surface,  seeking  its  food  at 
the  bottom  of  the  stream.  There  the  bird  finds  its  insect 
food,  consisting  of  larvae,  caddis-worms,  water-beetles,  and 
small  molluscs.  The  accusation  brought  against  the  Dipper 
of  devouring  the  ova  of  trout  has  been  upheld  by  some  and 
denied  by  other  naturalists.  That  the  Germans  believe  in  its 
truth  has  been  proved  during  the  last  few  years  by  the  war 
which  has  been  waged  against  the  birds  in  the  Rhine  Pro- 
vinces, where  hundreds  have  been  slaughtered. 

Nest. — A  bulky  structure  of  moss,  like  an  overgrown  Wren's 
nest,  tucked  into  an  opening  in  the  rocks  or  under  the  roots  of 
a  tree,  overhanging  the  water.  Notwithstanding  the  size  of  the 
nest,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  discover,  owing  to  the  way  in 
which  it  assimilates  to  the  surroundings.  The  entrance  is  very 
low  down, 'and  can  generally  only  be  seen  from  below.  Mr. 
Seebohm  says  that  the  real  nest  is  placed  inside  this  dome  of 
moss,  and  one. which  he  pulled  to  pieces  was  constructed  of 
"dry  grass,  the^roots  of  heather,  and  slender  birch-twigs,  and 
lined  with  a  profusion  of  leaves,  layer  after  layer  of  birch-  and 
beech-leaves,  and,  as  a  final  lining,  a  mass  of  oak-leaves, 
laid  on  one  another,  like  leaves  in  a  book.  The  outside  dome 
was  so  closely  woven  together  of  moss,  with  here  and  there  a 
little  dry  grass,  as  not  to  be  torn  to  pieces  without  considerable 
force ;  and  the  inner  nest  was  so  tightly  compacted  that,  when 


THE    DIPPERS    OR    WATER-OUZELS.  313 

the  materials  were  pulled  to  pieces,  one  could  hardly  believe 
that  they  could  be  made  to  take  up  so  little  room.  Outside  it 
appeared  nothing  but  a  large  oval  ball  of  moss,  about  1 1  inches 
long,  8  inches  wide,  and  about  as  high." 

Eggs. — Four  or  five  in  number.  Pure  white,  without  any 
spots,  but  not  glossy  as  are  the  eggs  of  Kingfishers.  The 
shape  varies  a  good  deal.  Axis,  ro-n  inch;  diam.,  07-075. 
(Plate  xxix.,  fig.  i.) 

II.  THE    BLACK-BELLIED    DIPPER.      CINCLUS   CINCLUS. 

Sturnus  rinchts,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  200  (1766). 

Cinclus   melanogaster,  Dresser,    B.   Eur.,    ii.,    p.    177,    pi.  xx. 

(1873) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Brit.  B.,  p.  24  (1883) ;  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  xi.  (1889);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  89  (1889). 
Cinclus  cincluS)  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  vi.,  p.  311  (1881). 

Adult  Male. — Similar  in  colour  to  C.  aquaticus,  but  differing 
in  having  the  breast  dark  chocolate-brown  or  black,  not  rufous, 
but  sometimes  having  a  slight  tinge  of  rufous  across  the  upper 
part  of  the  breast.  Total  length,  7-5  inches  ;  wing  3-8. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour.  Total  length, 
7'2  inches;  wing,  3*5. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — The  Black-bellied  Dipper  has  occurred 
in  the  eastern  counties  of  England.  Many  naturalists  consider 
that  the  two  forms  are  not  specifically  distinct.  It  has  been 
pointed  out  by  Mr.  Seebohm  that  there  is  a  variation  in  depth 
of  colour  between  examples  found  at  different  heights  in  the 
Peak  district  of  Derbyshire,  those  from  1,500  feet  elevation 
being  darker  than  those  from  the  lower  elevations.  Mr.  Howard 
Saunders  also  observes  that  examples  from  the  upper  portions  in 
the  narrow  valley  of  the  Pyrenees  above  Luz  and  from  the  lofty 
Cantabrian  Mountains,  in  N.W.  Spain,  are  -indistinguishable 
from  Scandinavian  specimens,  and  this  is  certainly  the  case 
with  a  specimen  from  Coimbra,  in  Portugal,  sent  to  the  British 
Museum  by  Dr.  Vieira. 

The  Black-bellied  form  of  Dipper  inhabits  Scandinavia  and 
Northern  Russia,  occurring  also  in  Denmark,  Northern  Ger- 
many, and  Holland.  It  has  also  visited  Heligoland. 


314  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Habits. — The  same  as  those  of  C.  aquaticus. 

Uest. — Like  that  of  C.  aquaticus. 

Eggs. — Not  distinguishable  from  those  of  C.  aquaticus* 

THE  WRENS.     FAMILY  TROGLODYTID^E. 

This  family  includes  a  number  of  small  species  of  birds 
largely  represented  in  the  New  World,  and  distributed  exten- 
sively over  the  Palaearctic  Region  and  the  Himalayan  system 
of  the  Indian  Region.  They  have  been  placed  by  some 
ornithologists  with  the  Creepers,  which  they  resemble  in  the 
colour  of  their  eggs  and  also  in  the  fact  of  the  absence  of 
rictal  bristles  at  the  base  of  the  bill.  They  have  stout  legs 
and  a  very  rounded  Timeliine  wing,  concave  and  fitting  close 
to  the  body. 

I.  THE  TRUE  WRENS.     GENUS  ANORTHURA. 
Anorthura,  Rennie,  ed.  Mont.  Orn.Dict.,  2nded.,  p.  570  (1831). 
Type,  A.  troglodytes  (Linn.). 

THE  WREN.      ANORTHURA   TROGLODYTES. 

Motadtta  troglodytes.  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  337  (1766). 
Anorthura  troglodytes,  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  iii.,  p.  15  (1840);  Sharpe, 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  vi.,  p.  269  (1881). 

Troglodytes  parvulus,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  460  (1873); 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  219,  pi.  124  (1873);  B.  O.  U. 
List  Br.  B.,  p.  29  (1883) ;  Seeb.,  Hist.  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  505 
(1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  iv.  (1887);  Saunders, 
Man.,  p.  107  (1889);  Wyatt,  Br,  B.,  pi.  iii.,  fig.  i 
(1894). 

(Plate  XXVII.) 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  dark  brown,  becoming 
more  rufous  towards  the  lower  back  and  rump,  and  dull 
chestnut  on  the  upper  tail-coverts;  lesser  and  median  wing- 
coverts  dusky  brown,  with  tiny  whitish  spots  at  the  end  of 
the  latter;  greater-coverts,  bastard-wing,  primary-coverts,  and 
quills  dusky  brown,  externally  dull  chestnut,  barred  with 
blackish,  the  primaries  chequered  with  whitish  interspaces, 
and  the  innermost  secondaries  barred  across  with  blackish 


PLATE    X3CV11 


WREN  . 


THE   WRENS.  315 

and  dull  chestnut;  tail-feathers  dull  chestnut,  barred  across 
with  dusky  blackish ;  head  like  the  back  ;  lores  and  sides  of 
face  dull  ashy,  the  ear-coverts  washed  with  brown ;  eyebrow 
ashy-grey;  cheeks  and  upper  throat  ashy;  the  lower  throat 
and  breast  ashy,  slightly  washed  with  brown  ;  sides  of  body 
reddish-brown ;  barred  with  dusky,  especially  distinct  on  the 
lower  flanks  and  under  tail-coverts,  the  latter  having  white 
tips  to  the  feathers ;  axillaries  brown  ;  under  wing-coverts 
ashy,  washed  with  brown  ;  quills,  dusky  below,  ashy  along  the 
inner  web ;  bill  dark  brown,  paler  below ;  feet  paler  brown  ; 
iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  4-2  inches ;  culmen,  0-5 ; 
wing,  1*85;  tail,  1*2;  tarsus,  07. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male.  Total  length,  4*0  ;  wing, 
r85. 

Young. — Very  like  the  adults  in  colour,  but  has  the  wings 
and  tail  less  distinctly  banded ;  the  breast  more  rufescent,  the 
feathers  also  obscurely  mottled  with  brown  edgings ;  abdomen 
also  rufescent,  and  with  scarcely  any  dusky  bars. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Generally  distributed  throughout  the 
whole  of  the  three  kingdoms.  The  birds  which  inhabit  the 
outlying  islands  of  Scotland  are  larger  than  those  found  on  the 
mainland.  Thus  the  Wrens  of  the  Shetlands  are  slightly  larger 
than  those  found  in  Great  Britain,  while  the  S.  Kilda  Wren, 
A.  hirtensis,  is  larger  still,  and  approaches  in  size  A.  borealis 
from  the  Faeroe  Islands.  A  considerable  migration  takes  place 
every  autumn  on  our  eastern  coasts. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Distributed  generally  over 
Europe,  extending  as  high  as  64°  N.  lat.  in  Scandinavia  and 
nearly  as  high  in  Northern  Russia,  its  breeding  range  being 
limited  by  110°  E.  longitude.  It  is  found  in  Northern  Africa, 
and  occurs  in  Asia  Minor  and  Northern  Palestine  as  far  as  the 
Caucasus  and  Northern  Persia. 

Habits. — The  Wren  is  one  of  our  most  familiar  species,  and 
is  as  great  a  personal  favourite  as  the  Robin.  Its  familiarity 
justifies  the  affection  with  which  it  is  regarded,  for,  like  the 
Robin,  it  is  one  of  those  tame  little  visitors  which  frequent  the 
girden  and  the  neighbourhood  of  houses  in  winter,  where  it  will 


LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

often  visit  the  verandah  or  dodge  in  and  out  among  the  creepers 
which  skirt  the  window-frames,  in  search  of  the  tiny  insects  on 
which  it  feeds.  In  its  actions  the  Wren  seems  to  resemble  the 
Timeliine  birds  of  Tropical  Asia,  and  to  be  out  of  place  in  the 
temperate  and  cold  climates  of  the  more  northern  countries. 
It  creeps  about  in  the  shrubberies  and  thick  undergrowth, 
frequents  the  bottoms  of  hedges,  and  searches  diligently  among 
the  fallen  trees,  especially  if  the  latter  be  covered  with  ivy. 
Occasionally  it  comes  into  view  and  perches  on  a  fence  to  utter 
its  song.  This  is  a  rattling  performance,  wonderfully  loud 
for  the  size  of  the  bird,  which  can  always  be  recognised  by  its 
small  size  and  by  the  way  in  which  its  tail  is  erected  at  right 
angles  to  its  back. 

The  nest  is  placed  in  all  kinds  of  situations,  and  it  is  curious 
to  notice  that  a  number  of  nests,  apparently  finished  off  with 
great  care,  are  not  inhabited  by  the  birds.  These  "  cock  " 
nests,  as  they  are  called,  do  not  appear  to  be  lined  with 
feathers  like  the  real  nesting  home  of  the  bird,  and  are 
supposed  to  serve  as  roosting-places.  The  number  of  them 
found  in  a  small  area,  unlined,  and  never  containing  eggs, 
has  suggested  the  idea  that  the  Wrens  desert  a  nest  into  which 
a  finger  has  been  inserted,  and  therefore  many  people  have 
supposed  that  these  were  deserted  nests.  The  other  explana- 
tion, however,  seems  to  be  the  more  plausible  one,  that  the  un- 
lined nests  are  either  roosting-places  or  are  built  to  draw  off 
attention  from  the  real  nest. 

Nest. — A  large  structure  compared  with  the  size  of  the  little 
architects,  composed  chiefly  of  moss,  but  largely  constructed 
of  materials  belonging  to  the  surroundings  of  the  nest.  Thus, 
if  a  moss-grown  situation  be  chosen,  green  moss  is  employed; 
if  amongst  dead  leaves,  then  leaves  are  chosen,  and  thus, 
by  the  assimilation  of  the  nest  to  the  surroundings  it  es- 
capes detection,  and  is  never  easy  to  find,  except  when  the 
bird  builds  in  the  ivy  at  the  top  of  a  small  stump,  or  in  the 
head  of  a  savoy  cabbage,  or  in  some  such  conspicuous 
place. 

EggS. — From  four  to  six  in  number,  sometimes  as  many  as 
eight  or  nine,  or  even  more.  Ground-colour  china-white, 


THE  WRENS.  317 

with  a  few  reddish-brown  spots,  intermixed  with  tiny  dots, 
and  generally  congregated  at  the  larger  end,  while  in  some 
specimens  the  dots  are  sprinkled  all  over  the  egg.  Axis 
0-65-07  inch;  diam.,  0-5-0-55.  (Plate  xxx.,  fig.  4.) 

II.  THE    S.    KILDA    WREN.       ANORTHURA    HORTENSIS. 

Troglodytes  hirtensis,  Seebohm,   Zoologist,  1884,  p.  333;  id. 
Br.  B.,  iii.,  p.  661  (1885). 

Adult  Male. — Similar  to  A.  troglodytes,  but  larger.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  be  more  distinctly  barred  on  the  upper  surface,  and 
to  have  the  throat  and  breast  free  from  any  spots,  Culmen, 
0-55;  wing,  2-1  ;  tail,  1-5;  tarsus,  0-75. 

NOTE. — The  larger  size  of  the  eggs  of  the  S.  Kilda  Wren  is  the  only 
test  of  the  difference  between  it  and  the  bird  of  the  mainland,  which  we 
are  able  to  recognise.  The  characters  of  the  barred  back  and  the  un- 
spotted throat  are  not  really  features  for  the  separation  of  the  island  form, 
as  they  are  equally  found  in  examples  from  other  parts  of  Europe. 

Habits. — Mr.  Dixon,  who  brought  from  S.  Kilda  the  speci- 
mens originally  described  by  Mr.  Seebohm,  gives  the  following 
account  of  the  bird  :• — "  I  had  not  been  on  S.  Kilda  long 
before  the  little  bird  arrested  my  attention,  as  it  flew  from  rock 
to  rock,  or  glided  in  and  out  of  the  crevices  of  the  walls.  It 
differs  very  little  in  its  habits  from  its  congener ;  only,  instead 
of  hopping  restlessly  and  incessantly  about  brushwood,  it  has 
to  content  itself  with  boulders  and  walls.  It  was  in  full  song, 
and  its  voice  seemed  to  me  louder  and  more  powerful  than 
that  of  the  Common  Wren.  I  often  saw  it  within  a  few  feet  of 
the  sea,  hopping  about  the  rocks  on  the  beach  ;  and  a  pair 
had  made  their  nest  in  the  wall  below  the  manse,  not  thirty 
yards  from  the  waves.  I  also  saw  it  frequently  on  the  tops  of 
the  hills,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  cliffs.  It  was  especially 
common  on  Boon,  and  its  cheery  little  song  sounded  from  all 
parts  of  the  rocks. 

"As  there  are  no  bushes  nor  trees  on  S.  Kilda  (except 
those  the  microscopic  eye  of  a  botanist  might  discover),  the 
Wren  takes  to  the  luxuriant  grass,  sorrel,  and  other  herbage 
growing  on  the  cliffs,  and  picks  its  insect  food  from  them.  It 
also  catches  spiders  and  the  larvae  of  different  insects  in  the 
nooks  and  crannies  which  it  is  incessantly  exploring.  It  is  a 
pert,  active  little  bird,  by  no  means  shy ;  and  I  used  to  watch 


LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

a  pair  that  were  feeding  their  young  in  a  nest  riot  six  yards 
from  our  door.  Its  breeding  season  must  commence  early  in 
May,  for  the  young  were  three  parts  grown  by  the  beginning  of 
June." 

Nest. — According  to  Mr.  Dixon  the  nest  is  made  in  one  of 
the  numerous  "cleats,"  or  in  a  crevice  of  a  wall,  or  under  an 
overhanging  bank.  The  nest  is  exactly  similar  to  that  of  the 
Common  Wren,  and  abundantly  lined  with  feathers. 

Eggs. — Similar  to  those  of  A.  troglodytes,  but  slightly  larger, 
and  with  some  of  the  reddish  spots  somewhat  bolder  and 
more  strongly  indicated  than  is  usual  in  the  eggs  of  the 
Common  Wren.  Axis,  0*75;  diam.,  o'6. 

THE   BULBULS.     FAMILY   PYCNONOTID^E. 

These  birds  constitute  an  assemblage  of  Thrush-like  forms 
found  in  the  tropics,  and  foreign  to  a  northern  country  like 
Great  Britain.  They  are  usually  crested,  have  great  powers  of 
song,  are  arboreal  in  their  habits,  and  non-migratory. 

THE  TRUE  BULBULS.   GENUS  PYCNONOTUS. 

Pycnonotus,  Boie,  Isis,  1826,  p.  973. 

Type,  P.  capensis  (Linn.). 

T.  THE   SOUTH   AFRICAN   GOLD-VENTED    BULBUL.       PYCNONOTUS 
CAPENSIS. 

Turdus  capensis,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  295  (1766). 
Pycnonotus  capensis,  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  247  (1872);  Dresser, 

B.    Eur.,  iii.,  p.  361,  pi.    143,  fig.  2  (1876);  Sharpe,  Cat. 

B.,  vi.,  p.  130(1881);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  36(1883); 

Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  251,  note  (1883):   Saunders,  Man.,  p. 

136,  note  (1889). 

Adult. — Brown,  with  the  head  and  throat  a  little  blacker ; 
under  tail-coverts  yellow.  Total  length,  7-6  inches;  wing, 

3-65. 

NOTE. — There  are  many  species  of  birds  in  the  British  List 
which  might  well  be  struck  out  in  future  works  on  our  native 


THE   TRUE    FLYCATCHERS.  319 

Avi-fauna.  Some  have  been  included  by  mistake,  while  others 
no  have  doubt  been  recorded  on  evidence  which  should  have 
secured  their  suppression.  The  "  Gold-vented  Thrush,"  as 
it  has  been  called  for  so  many  years  in  works  on  British  Orni- 
thology, belongs  to  a  group  of  birds  of  the  most  stay-at-home 
character,  and  the  nearest  inhabitant  to  our  shores  is  the 
Bulbul  of  Algeria,  Pycnonotus  barbatus,  which  is  not  one  of 
the  gold-vented  section  of  the  genus.  A  specimen  of  a 
Pycnonotus  is  said  to  have  been  shot  near  Waterford  in 
January,  1838,  by  Dr.  R.  Burkitt,  and  skinned  by  him.  It 
turns  out  to  be  the  Bulbul  of  South  Africa,  P.  capensis,  one  of 
the  most  restricted  of  all  the  species  in  its  range,  being  in  fact 
confined  to  the  Cape  Colony  below  the  Karroo  country.  There 
is  not  the  slightest  probability  of  the  bird's  having  migrated 
from  the  Cape  to  Ireland,  and  the  supposition  that  it  might 
have  been  an  escaped  specimen  might  have  been  entertained 
but  for  the  fact  that  an  "Eagle-Owl"  shot  in  Ireland  by  the 
same  gentleman,  turned  out  to  be  another  South  African 
species,  viz.,  Bubo  maculosus*  There  seems,  therefore,  to  be 
some  mistake  connected  with  the  occurrence  of  these  African 
species  in  Ireland,  and  the  birds  had  better  be  dropped  out 
of  the  British  List  altogether. 

THE  FLYCATCHERS.     FAMILY  MUSCICAPID^. 

The  Flycatchers  evince  their  affinity  with  the  Thrushes  by 
the  mottled  character  of  the  young  birds,  but  they  have 
flatter  and  broader  bills,  and  are  remarkable  for  the  number 
and  strength  of  their  rictal  bristles,  and  for  having  the  nostrils 
always  more  or  less  covered  with  hairs ;  the  culmen  is  generally 
provided  with  a  keel. 

They  are  entirely  birds  of  the  Old  World,  and  are  distributed 
over  all  four  regions,  being  found  even  in  the  Pacific  Islands. 
The  so-called  "  Flycatchers  "  of  America  are  the  Tyrant-birds, 
and  belong  to  a  totally  different  family,  Tyrannidce. 

THE  TRUE  FLYCATCHERS.     GENUS  MUSCICAPA. 
Musdcapa,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  324  (1766). 

Type,  M.  grisola  (Linn.). 
The  bill  in  this  genus  is  only  moderately  broadened,  in  com- 


LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

parison  with  some  of  the  genera  of  Flycatchers.  The  wings 
are  long,  but  fall  considerably  short  of  the  length  of  the  tail ; 
the  second  primary  exceeds  the  length  of  the  secondaries  and 
almost  equals  the  third  in  length,  being  about  equal  to  the 
fifth ;  the  bill  is  somewhat  long,  the  culminal  ridge  being  more 
than  twice  the  length  of  the  bill  at  the  gape. 

The  stronghold  of  the  genus  Musdcapa  appears  to  be  the 
continent  of  Africa,  where  no  less  than  six  or  seven  species  are 
resident.  Africa  is  also  the  winter  home  of  our  own  migratory 
M.  grisola,  which  is  represented  in  the  East  by  an  allied  species, 
M.  griseisticta,  which  inhabits  China  in  summer  and  winters  in 
the  Philippine  Islands  and  the  Moluccas. 

I.    THE   COMMON    FLYCATCHER.       MUSCICAPA   GRISOLA. 

Musdcapa  grisola,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  328  (1766) ;  Macg., 
Br.  B.,  iii.,  p.  518  (1840);  Newt.  ed.  Yarn,  i.,  p.  220 
(1872);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  iii.,  p.  447,  pi.  156  (1875);  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  iv.,  p.  151  (1879);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br. 
B.,  p.  40  (1883) ;  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  i.,  p.  323  (1883)  ;  Saunders, 
Man.,  p.  149  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt  xxvi. 
(1893). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  uniform  ashy-brown, 
streaked  with  darker  brown  on  the  head,  and  slightly  paler  on 
the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts,  the  latter  having  obsolete  pale 
margins  ;  lesser  wing-coverts  like  the  back  ;  median  and  greater 
coverts  dark  brown,  externally  ashy-brown,  inclining  to  whitish 
at  the  ends ;  primary-coverts  and  quills  dark  brown,  externally 
edged  with  reddish  brown,  the  inner  secondaries  pnler  at  the 
ends  ;  lores,  sides  of  face,  and  ear-coverts  uniform  dark  brown  ; 
cheeks  and  under  surface  of  body  dull  white,  the  breast  and 
sides  of  the  body  pale  isabelline  brown,  faintly  washed  with 
brown  streaks  on  the  flanks,  and  more  distinctly  on  the  lower 
throat  and  fore-neck  ;  thighs  brown  ;  under  tail-coverts  white  ; 
under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries  sandy-isabelline ;  quills  dusky 
below,  ashy  along  the  inner  webs  ;  bill  brown,  paler  at  base  of 
lower  mandible  ;  feet  black  ;  iris  dusky  brown.  Total  length, 
5-8  inches  ;  culmen,  o'6 ;  wing,  3-4  ;  tail,  2-35  ;  tarsus,  0*55. 

Range  in  Great  Britain.— Nests  almost  universally   throughout 


THE   TRUE   FLYCATCHERS.  321 

the  three  kingdoms,  becoming  rarer  in  the  north,  and  seldom 
reaching  the  Orkneys  and  Shetland  Islands,  where  it  occurs 
only  as  a  straggler. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Spotted  Flycatcher 
breeds  almost  everywhere  in  Europe,  including  all  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries,  as  far  east  as  Persia  and  Siberia  and  Turkestan. 
According  to  Mr.Seebohm  its  eastern  breeding  range  is  bounded 
by  110°  E.  long.  In  Scandinavia  it  is  found  as  far  north  as 
Tromso,  and  also  at  Archangel,  but  does  not  occur  far  north 
in  the  Urals,  though  it  is  found  at  Krasnoyarsk.  In  winter 
it  is  met  with  in  North-western  India,  and  in  Africa,  as  far 
south  as  Natal,  migrating  by  the  Nile  Valley  and  down  the  east 
coast.  In  Western  Africa  it  is  also  an  abundant  winter  visi- 
tant, and  occurs  in  most  collections  from  the  Gold  Coast.  It 
probably  migrates  along  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  following  the 
course  of  the  rivers,  as  the  late  Mr.  Jameson  procured  a 
specimen  in  the  far  interior  at  Yambuya,  on  the  Aruwhimi 
River. 

Habits. — The  Spotted  Flycatcher  is  a  very  late  arrival  in 
Great  Britain,  and  comes  to  us  some  time  after  the  bulk  of  the 
summer  migrants  have  landed  on  our  shores,  appearing 
generally  in  the  month  of  May,  though  earlier  records  of  its 
visits  in  spring  are  related.  In  the  summer  it  is  a  noticeable 
bird,  and  in  most  places  a  tame  and  familar  species,  taking  up 
its  abode  in  sheltered  situations,  and  nesting  in  the  verandahs 
and  trellis-work  on  houses.  A  shelter  seems  indispensable  to 
the  Flycatcher's  nest,  and  it  builds  the  latter  under  the  shade 
of  overhanging  creepers  round  a  house,  or  in  the  crevice  of  the 
bark  of  a  fruit-tree,  where  an  overhanging  bough  protects  the 
nest.  As  a  rule  the  Flycatcher  is  seen  in  the  open,  sitting  on 
a  garden-fence,  orchard-rail,  or  the  bare  branch  of  a  tree,  from 
which  it  sallies  forth  in  pursuit  of  its  insect  food,  generally  re- 
turning to  the  perch  from  which  it  started.  As  a  rule,  the  bird 
flies  down  on  its  prey  and  takes  it  in  the  air  or  off  the  ground, 
by  a  direct  flight,  but  if  the  quarry  is  pursued  for  some  distance, 
it  is  interesting  to  observe  the  way  in  which  the  Flycatcher 
turns  and  doubles  in  its  flight  after  an  insect.  The  food  of  the 
present  species  consists  almost  entirely  of  insects,  flies,  gnats, 
beetles,  etc.,  but  in  the  autumn  it  is  said  to  feed  on  berries, 

i  y 


322  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

and  in  Norway,  according  to  Professor  Collett,  it  is  caught 
in  snares  set  for  Thrushes,  and  baited  with  mountain-ash 
berries. 

The  sang  of  the  Flycatcher  is  seldom  heard,  and  has  a  very 
low  tone.  As  a  rule,  the  only  sound  it  is  heard  to  utter  is  its 
call-note,  which  resembles  the  sound  of  two  stones  being  knocked 
together,  a  kind  of  "  it-chick " :  this  it  frequently  utters  as  it 
sits  on  its  perch. 

Nest. — Made  of  dry  grass  and  moss,  often  principally  com- 
posed of  the  latter,  thickly  lined  with  horse-hair  and  fine  roots. 
The  outside  is  often  decorated  with  cobwebs  and  lichens,  which 
causes  the  nest  to  assimilate  so  closely  to  its  surroundings  that 
it  is  difficult  to  discover.  A  nest  which  we  found  in  1892  in  a 
crevice  in  the  bark  of  a  birch-tree,  about  twelve  feet  from  the 
ground,  had  the  outside  decorated  with  bits  of  birch-bark,  so  as 
to  render  it  exactly  like  the  rest  of  the  tree. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number.  The  ground-colour 
varies  from  stone-colour  to  light  green,  but  in  each  case  the 
eggs  are  thickly  spotted  and  blotched  with  reddish-brown,  these 
spots  mixed  up  with  underlying  spots  and  blotches  of  grey. 
The  markings  are  often  collected  near  the  larger  end  of  the 
egg,  but  are  sometimes  so  thickly  distributed  as  to  hide 
the  ground-colour.  The  shape  varies  considerably,  some 
of  the  eggs  being  very  long.  Axis,  07-0.8  inch ;  diam., 
0-55-0-6 


THE  PIED  FLYCATCHERS.      GENUS   FICEDULA. 

Ficeduld)  Sundev,  Av.  Meth.  Tent.,  p.  23  (1872). 
Type,  F.  atricapilla  (Linn.). 

The  Pied  Flycatchers,  although  not  differing  much  in  form 
from  the  typ  cal  Flycatchers,  yet  possess  such  peculiarities  as 
to  warrant  their  separation  under  a  separate  genus.  The  sexes 
differ  markedly  in  colour.  The  neat  is  placed  in  holes  of  trees, 
and  the  eggs  are  blue. 


THE    PIED    FLYCATCHERS.  323 

I.  THE    PIED    FLYCATCHER.       FICEDULA    ATRICAPILLA. 

Musricapa  alricapilla,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  326  (1766);  Newt. 
ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  229  (1872);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  453, 
pi.  158  (1875);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  iv.,  p.  157 
(1879);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  41  (1883);  Seeb.,  Br.  B., 
i.,  p.  328  (1883) ;  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  151  (1889). 

Musricapa  luctuosa,  (Scop.);  Macg.,  Br.  B.,  iii.,  p.  524  (1840). 

Ficedula  atricapilla,  Salvad.  Elench.  Ucc.  Ital,  p.  84  (1886). 

Adult  Male — General  colour  above  black,  as  also  the  wing- 
coverts  ;  the  median  series  tipped  with  white,  and  the  greater 
coverts  entirely  white ;  primary-coverts  and  quills  dark  brown, 
the  inner  primaries  white  at  the  base  of  the  outer  web,  the 
secondaries  with  a  conspicuous  fawn-coloured  spot  at  the  base 
of  both  webs,  and  the  inner  secondaries  white  at  the  base,  the 
innermost  ones  entirely  white,  with  more  or  less  black  towards 
the  end  of  the  feathers;  tail  black,  the  three  outer  feathers 
marked  with  white,  the  outermost  one  being  almost  entirely 
white,  with  a  brown  mark  near  the  end  of  the  inner  web;  lores, 
sides  of  face,  and  ear-coverts,  black ;  cheeks  and  under  surface 
of  body  white,  as  also  the  under  wing-coverts  and  axillaries ; 
bill  and  legs  black ;  iris  brown.  Total  length,  5  '5  inches ; 
culmen,  0-4;  wing,  3*15;  tail,  2-15;  tarsus,  07. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male,  being  brown  instead 
of  black  above,  the  greater  coverts  tipped  with  white ;  quills 
blackish-brown,  the  secondaries  white  at  their  bases,  the  inner 
primaries  having  a  small  white  spot  at  the  base  of  the  outer 
web ;  upper  tail-coverts  black ;  tail-feathers  blackish-brown, 
the  three  outer  ones  marked  with  white  on  the  outer  web  ;  fore- 
head and  eyelid  ochraceous-buff;  sides  of  face,  cheeks  and  throat, 
breast  and  sides  of  body  pale  ochraceous-brown,  shading  off 
into  white  on  the  abdomen  and  under  tail-coverts;  throat 
whitish  in  the  middle.  Total  length,  5-1  inches  ;  wing  2-95. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  regular  summer  migrant,  and  a  bird 
of  very  local  distribution.  It  is  said  to  have  nested  occasionally 
in  most  of  the  southern  counties,  and  in  the  midlands,  but,  as  a 
rule,  it  is  only  found  in  the  south  on  migration.  It  nests,  however, 
regularly  in  the  northern  counties,  in  Northumberland,  Durham, 
Yorkshire,  Lancashire,  Cheshire,  and  the  border  counties  be- 

V    2 


324  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

tween  England  and  Wales,  and  in  several  districts  in  the  latter 
principality.  In  Scotland  it  becomes  scarcer,  but  has  ap- 
parently nested  in  Inverness-shire,  and  has  even  occurred  in  the 
Orkney  Islands  on  migration. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  Pied  Flycatcher  breeds 
in  most  of  the  countries  throughout  Europe  and  North  Africa, 
extending  up  to  69°  N.  lat.  in  Scandinavia,  65°  in  Finland, 
and  60°  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  its  eastern  breeding  range 
being  limited,  according  to  Mr.  Seebohm,  by  70°  E.  long. 
In  winter  it  visits  North-eastern  Africa  and  Senegambia. 

NOTE. — The  Collared  Flycatcher,  Ficedula  collaris,  has  also  been  re- 
corded as  a  British  bird,  but  apparently  on  insufficient  evidence. 

Habits. — The  Pied  Flycatcher  returns  to  its  northern  breed- 
ing home  before  the  Spotted  Flycatcher,  and  arrives  towards 
the  end  of  April.  Although  so  differently  coloured  from  the 
latter  bird,  its  habits  are  very  similar ;  and  it  frequents  gardens 
on  the  Continent,  but  in  England  it  is  a  bird  of  the  wilder  dis- 
tricts as  a  rule.  Its  food  consists  almost  entirely  of  insects, 
but  it  also  feeds  on  worms  and  berries  at  certain  seasons.  Its 
song  is  feeble  and  short,  and  like  that  of  a  Redstart. 

Nest. — Made  of  grass,  leaves,  and  feathers,  with  sometimes  a 
little  wool  and  hair  added.  It  is  always  placed  under  cover, 
in  a  hole  of  a  tree,  or  more  rarely  in  a  crevice  of  a  wall  or 
rock. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  eight,  the  last  number  being  by  no 
means  uncommon,  of  a  pale  blue,  perfectly  spotless.  Axis, 
o'7-o'8  inch  ;  diam.,  o*55-o'6.  Though  coloured  like  those 
of  the  Hedge-Sparrow,  the  eggs  of  the  Pied  Flycatcher  are 
smaller,  and  the  shell  is  more  fragile. 

THE  RED-BREASTED   FLYCATCHERS.    GENUS   SIPIIIA. 

Siphia^  Hodgson,  Ind.  Review,  i.,  p.  651  (1839). 

Type,  »S.  strophrata  (Hodgson). 

This  genus  contains  three  species,  which  have  been  placed 
by  ourselves  and  most  ornithologists  in  the  genus  Muscicapa. 
Mr.  Gates,  however,  one  of  the  most  careful  systematic 


THE    RED-BREASTED    FLYCATCHERS.  325 

naturalists  of  the  present  day,  considers  that  they  belong  to 
the  genus  Siphia,  of  which  the  type  is  the  Himalayan 
Siphia  strophiata.  The  difference  of  the  colour  in  the  sexes, 
we  admit,  is  sufficient  to  separate  them  from  the  genus  Musci- 
capa.  The  wing  is  differently  shaped,  the  second  primary 
being  much  shorter  than  the  fifth,  the  rictal  bristles  being 
few  in  number,  less  than  six,  and  the  base  of  the  tail  conspi- 
cuously white. 


I.  THE   RED-BREASTED    FLYCATCHER.      SIPHIA   PARVA. 

Musricapa pai-Vii,  Bechst.,  Natiirg.  Deutschl.,  iv.,  p.  505  (1795); 
Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  i.,  p.  224  (1872);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii., 
p.  465,  pi.  189  (1875) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  iv.,  p. 
161  (1879) ;  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.,  p.  42  (1883) ;  Saunders, 
Man.,  p.  153  (1889);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  xv. 
(1890). 

Erythrosterna  parva,  Bp.  Comp.  List  B.  Europe  and  N. 
Amer.,  p.  25  (1838). 

Siphia  parva^  Gates,  Fauna  Brit.  Ind.  Birds,  ii.,  p.  9  (1890). 

Adult  Male. — General  colour  above  ashy-brown,  the  forehead, 
sides  of  face,  and  ear-coverts  grey,  this  colour  also  extending 
on  to  the  sides  of  the  neck ;  lores  hoary-whitish ;  round  the 
eye  a  ring  of  white  feathers ;  wing-coverts  ashy-brown  like  the 
back  ;  quills  dark  brown,  externally  ashy-brown,  the  primaries 
narrowly  edged  with  this  colour  ;  upper  tail-coverts  dark  brown 
like  the  tail ;  two  centre  tail-feathers  dark  brown,  the  remainder 
for  the  greater  part  white,  dark  brown  for  the  terminal  third, 
and  for  a  little  distance  along  the  outer  web ;  cheeks,  throat, 
and  fore-neck  clear  orange  ;  remainder  of  under  surface  white, 
the  sides  of  the  body  inclining  to  buff,  the  thighs  more  ashy ; 
under  wing-coverts  fulvous,  like  the  sides  of  the  body ;  quills 
brown  below,  fulvescent  along  the  inner  web ;  bill  brown,  the 
lower  mandible  paler  at  base ;  feet  dark  brown ;  iris  brown. 
Total  length,  5-1  inches;  culmen,  0-4;  wing,  2 '6;  tail,  2*0; 
tarsus,  0*65. 

Adult  Female. — Different  from  the  male,  brown  above,  with  no 
grey  on  the  head  or  neck,  the  sides  of  the  face  and  ear-coverts 
also  brown  ;  wings  brown,  the  greater  coverts  and  quills  edged 


32^  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

with  lighter  brown ;  throat,  chest,  and  sides  of  body  suffused 
with  yellowish-buff,  the  abdomen  and  under  tail-coverts  white. 
Total  length,  4*9  inches  ;  wings,  2 '6. 

Young. — Mottled  all  over,  the  upper  surface  being  ochraceous- 
buff,  with  dusky  brown  edges  to  the  feathers  ;  upper  wing- 
coverts  with  ochraceous  tips  ;  under  surface  light  ochraceous- 
buff,  with  dusky  tips  to  the  feathers. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — An  occasional  visitor,  having  been 
captured  near  Falmouth,  in  the  Scilly  Islands,  in  Norfolk, 
Yorkshire,  Berwickshire,  and  once  in  co.  Kerry,  Ireland. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  breeding  home  of  the 
Red-breasted  Flycatcher  extends  from  Central  Europe  as  far 
east  as  Turkestan,  and,  it  is  said,  to  Lake  Baikal.  Many  writers, 
however,  have  confounded  it  with  the  eastern  Red-breasted 
Flycatcher  (Siphia  albicilla\  which  breeds  in  Eastern  Siberia 
and  Northern  China,  and  wanders  south  in  winter  to  Southern 
China  and  the  Burmese  countries,  reaching  in  the  Indhn 
Peninsula  to  Nepal  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Dinapore  in  the 
plains.  On  the  other  hand,  S.  parua  is  a  western  bird,  occu- 
pying in  winter  the  western  and  central  districts  of  India, 
coalescing  with  the  range  of  S.  albidlla  in  Eastern  Bengal,  but 
extending  south  to  Mysore  and  the  Nilghiris.  In  Europe  it 
breeds  in  the  Baltic  Provinces  and  the  St.  Petersburg  district, 
and  has  been  met  with  as  a  straggler  in  other  parts  of  Europe, 
having  occurred  in  South  Sweden,  Denmark,  Heligoland,  the 
south-east  of  France,  and  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  believes 
that  it  visits  the  south-west  of  Spain  occasionally.  To  the 
Mediterranean  countries,  however,  it  is  principally  known  as 
a  winter  visitor. 

Hahits. — Although  this  little  species  has  more  in  common 
with  the  Spotted  Flycatcher  than  the  Pied  Flycatcher,  Mr. 
Seebohm  describes  its  habits  as  differing  from  those  of  both 
the  last-mentioned  birds.  He  says  that  they  reminded  him 
both  of  a  Flycatcher  and  a  Tit,  as  he  saw  it  catching  insects 
on  the  wing  with  ease,  and  also  fluttering  before  the  trunk  of 
a  tree  to  pick  an  insect  off  the  bark.  The  song  was  unobtru- 
sive, something  between  the  notes  of  a  Robin  and  a  Redstart. 
"  The  alarm-note  was  a  '•pink,  pink,  pink?  something  like  the 
spink  of  a  Chaffinch,  but  softer,  clearer,  and  quicker." 


THE    HOUSE-MARTINS.  337 

Nest. — This  is  described  by  Mr.  Seebohm  as  a  "  very  hand- 
some little  structure,  almost  entirely  formed  of  green  moss,  with 
here  and  there  a  few  scraps  of  lichen,  and  a  downy  feather  or 
two.  The  inside  is  sparingly  lined  with  fine  dry  grass  and 
hairs.  The  nest-cavity  measured  about  two  inches  in  dia- 
meter, and  one  and  a-half  inch  in  depth." 

Egjs. — From  five  to  seven  in  number.  They  approach  in 
colour  the  eggs  of  the  Robin  and  the  Common  Flycatcher,  but 
are  not  so  heavily  marked  as  those  of  the  latter  bird.  The 
ground-colour  is  greenish-white,  with  reddish  spots  and  blotches, 
sometimes  collecting  round  the  larger  end.  Others  are  nearly 
uniform  creamy-buff,  clouded  with  obscure  reddish  mottling. 
Axis,  0-65-07  inch;  diam.,  o'55-o'6. 

THE   SWALLOWS.     FAMILY   HIRUNDINID^E. 

These  birds  differ  considerably  from  the  other  Passer  if ormes, 
and  they  possess  a  striking  difference  in  their  pterylosis,  the 
spinal  feather  tract  being  forked  on  the  back.  The  primary- 
quills  are  only  nine  in  number,  the  tail-feathers  twelve.  The 
bill  is  broad  and  flat,  and  the  gape  is  very  wide  as  with 
Swifts  and  Goatsuckers,  which,  like  the  Swallows,  catch  their 
food  on  the  wing,  The  front  of  the  tarsus  is  smooth,  and  the 
hinder  aspect  is  bilaminated  longitudinally.  Swallows  are 
found  in  nearly  every  portion  of  the  globe,  from  very  far  north 
to  very  far  south.  In  the  northern  portion  of  their  range  they 
are  strictly  migratory,  and  only  come  in  summer,  and,  unlike 
other  Passerine  birds,  they  moult  only  in  their  winter  home, 
and  do  not  renew  their  plumage  in  the  autumn  before  taking 
their  long  journey  southward. 

THE  HOUSE-MARTINS.     GENUS  CIIELIDON. 
Chelidoti)  Boie,  Isis,  1822,  p.  550. 

Type,  C.  urbica  (Linn.). 

The  House-Martins  are  very  easily  recognisable  by  their 
feathered  feet  and  toes,  and  by  the  broad  white  band  across 
the  rump,  which  is  very  conspicuous  when  the  birds  are  flying. 
There  are  five  species  of  Chelidon,  one,  C.  urbica^  being  the 
species  which  visits  England  ;  a  second,  C.  dasypus,  represent- 
ing it  in  Japan  and  the  far  east ;  while  the  intermediate  area 
is  occupied  by  the  Siberian  House- Martin,  C.  lagopus.  Two 


32  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

species,  C.  cashmiriensis  and  C.  nipalensis,  are  Himalayan. 
It  will  thus  be  seen  that  all  the  House-Martins  are  denizens  of 
the  Old  World  only. 

I.   THE   HOUSE-MARTIN.       CIIELIDON   URBICA. 

Hirundo  urbica,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  344  (1766);  Macg., 
Br.  B.,  iii.,  p.  573  (1840);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  178 
(1884). 

Chelidon  urbica,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  p.  495,  pi.  162  (1875); 
Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  349  (1880);  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B., 
p.  44  (1883);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  157  (1889);  Lilford, 
Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt  iii.  (1886). 

Adult  Male.— Purplish  blue-black  ;  wings  and  tail-feathers 
black,  with  a  slight  greenish  reflection,  externally ;  rump  and 
upper  tail-coverts  black;  cheeks  and  under  surface  of  body 
pure  white,  with  a  tinge  of  smoky-brown  on  the  flanks  ;  under 
wing-coverts  and  axillaries  smoky-brown  ;  bill  and  feet  black  ; 
iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  5-5  inches;  culmen,  0-35; 
wing,  4-5;  tail,  2-5  ;  tarsus,  0-45. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  to  the  male  in  colour.  Total  length, 
5  inches ;  wing,  4-5. 

Young. — Differs  from  the  adults  in  being  duller,  and  dis- 
tinguished by  its  yellow  gape  and  the  white  tips  to  the  secon- 
dary quills  ;  the^throat  is  smoky-brown. 

Bange  in  Great  Britain.— Occurs  everywhere  in  summer,  and 
breeds  even  in  the  Hebrides,  and  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shet- 
lands. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  House-Martin  appears  to 
be  found  everywhere  in  Europe,  but  becomes  rarer  in  the  north 
of  Scandinavia,  and  was  not  met  with  by  Messrs.  Seebohm  and 
Harvie-Brown  on  the  Petchcra,  though  it  is  said  to  occur  on 
the  Urals  as  high  as  60°.  Its  eastern  range  is  established  as 
far  as  Tashkend  in  Central  Asia,  and  it  may  be  the  species  of 
the  Altai  Mountains.  In  winter  the  Martin  visits  Africa  as  far 
south  as  Natal,  and  also  occurs  sparingly  in  North-western 
India,  and  has  been  met  with  as  far  south  as  the  Nilghiris. 

Habits. — Arrives  a  little  later   than  the  Common  Swallow 


THE    BANK-MARTINS.  329 

towards  the  middle  or  end  of  April,  and  leaves  again  from 
September  onwards ;  on  rare  occasions  Martins  have  been  ob- 
served in  England  in  November  and  December.  Like  all  of 
the  family,  the  House-Martin  is  untiring  on  the  wing  in  pursuit 
of  the  gnats  and  small  flies  on  which  it  feeds.  It  is  not  only 
found  in  country  districts,  but  even  frequents  towns  and  builds 
its  clay  nest  under  the  sheltering  eaves  of  many  a  suburban 
villa.  Soon  after  its  arrival  it  may  be  seen  flying  down  to  a 
puddle  in  the  road  or  a  pond  to  get  the  mud  with  which  it 
makes  its  nest.  Sometimes  the  nests  are  placed  against  recks, 
especially  in  those  localities  where  there  is  no  sheltering  build- 
ing to  be  made  use  of. 

Nest. — Made  of  small  nodules  of  mud,  the  nest  being  lined 
with  dry  grass  and  a  few  feathers.  It  is  rather  large,  and  has 
the  aperture  near  the  top,  from  which  the  parent  birds  and  the 
young  are  often  seen  protruding  their  heads. 

Eggs.— From  four  to  six  in  number,  and  glossy  white.  Axis, 
o'75-o'85  inch;  diam.,  o'55-o*6. 

THE  BANK-MARTINS.     GENUS  CLIVICOLA. 

Clivicola,  Forster,  Syn.  Cat.  Brit.  B.,  p.  58  (1817). 

Type,  C.  rip  aria  (Linn.). 

These  birds  are  distinguished  from  the  House-Martins  and 
the  Chimney-Swallows  by  several  characters.  They  have  a 
square  tail,  without  the  elongated  outer  feather,  which  dis- 
tinguishes the  genus  Himndo,  and  they  lack  the  feathered  toes 
which  characterise  the  genus  Chelidon.  Curiously  enough, 
however,  this  feathered  element  in  the  feet  is  not  altogether 
absent  in  the  genus  Cotile,  for  at  the  back  of  the  base  of  the 
tarsus  there  is  a  tiny  tuft  of  feathers. 

There  are  nine  different  species  of  Cotile  known  to  science, 
two  Palsearctic,  six  Ethiopian,  and  one  Indian.  The  species  of 
Europe,  C.  riparia^  is  also  a  common  North-American  bird,  win- 
tering in  the  Neotropical  Region. 

I.  THE   SAND-MARTIN.       CLIVICOLA   RIPARIA. 

Hit-undo  riparia,  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  344  (1766);  Macg., 
Br.  B.,  Hi.,  p.  595  (1840);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  184 
(1884). 


33°  LLOYD'S  NATURAT    HISTORY. 

Clivicola  europva,  T.  Forster,  Syn.  Cat.  Brit.  B.,  p.  58  (1817). 
Cotile  ripar.'a,  B.  O.  U.  List  Br.  B.5  p.  44  (1883) ;  Sharpe,  Cat. 

B.  Brit.  Mus.,  x.,  p.  96  (1885);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  159 

(1889). 
GotyU  riparia,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iil,  p.  505,  pi.  163  (1874); 

Newton,  ed.  Yarn,  ii.,  p.  355  (1880);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 

Brit.  B.,  part  in.  (1886). 

Adult  Male. — Brown  above,  including  the  wings  and  tail ; 
sides  of  face  also  brown ;  cheeks  and  under  surface  of  body 
pure  white,  with  a  broad  collar  of  dark  brown  feathe  s  across 
the  fore-neck  ;  sides  of  body  also  washed  with  brown  ;  under 
wing-coverts  and  axillaries  dark  brown  ;  bill  blackish-brown ; 
feet  dark  brown ;  iris  hazel.  Total  length,  4-8  inches ;  culmen, 
0-3;  wing,  4-25;  tail,  2'i  ;  tarsus,  0-45. 

Adult  Female. — Similar  in  plumage  to  the  male.  Total  length, 
5  inches ;  wing,  4-2. 

Young. — Like  the  adults,  but  readily  distinguished  by  sandy- 
rufous  or  whitish  edgings  to  the  feathers  of  the  back  and 
wings ;  throat  slightly  tinged  with  pale  rufous. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Occurs  everywhere  throughout  the 
three  kingdoms  in  suitable  localities,  and  breeds. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands.  —  Breeds  everywhere  through- 
out Europe,  up  to  the  highest  point  of  Scandinavia,  but  in 
lessening  numbers  in  the  north.  It  occurs  commonly  in 
summer  at  Archangel,  was  met  with  by  Messrs.  Seebohm 
and  Harvie-Brown  on  the  Petchora  river,  and  is  found 
in  the  Urals  up  to  50°  N.  lat.  Elsewhere  in  Europe  and 
Northern  Asia  it  is  a  breeding  bird,  and  extends  right  across  to 
Eastern  Siberia.  It  is  also  distributed  over  the  greater  part  of 
North  America  during  the  breeding  season,  wintering  in  Cen- 
tral and  South  America,  and  in  the  Old  World  it  winters  in 
Burma  and  in  India,  and  has  been  found  in  various  localities 
in  Africa  at  the  same  season. 

HaMts. — Arrives  in  England  in  April,  and  leaves  in  September, 
seldom  staying  as  late  as  October.  Its  nesting  is  conducted  in 
a  different  manner  from  that  of  the  other  two  British  Swallows, 
for  the  Sand-Martin  burrows  in  a  hole  in  a  bank,  and  makes  its 


PLATE     XXV1I1 


CHIMNEY     SWALLOW 


THE    CHIMNEY-SWALLOWS.  331 

nest  at  the  end  of  a  tunnel  of  considerable  length.  Thus  its 
breeding  haunts  are  determined  to  a  great  extent  by  the  pre- 
sence or  absence  of  suitable  banks  for  the  drilling  of  the  tun- 
nels. The  sandy  banks  are  naturally  soft,  and  are  pierced 
with  numerous  holes,  close  together,  for  the  Sand-Martin  is 
gregarious  in  its  nesting.  In  the  autumn  large  numbers  col- 
lect together  on  telegraph-wires,  where  they  sit  in  company 
with  Swallows  and  House- Martins,  and  they  also  roost  in  the 
reed-beds  of  the  Thames  Valley  in  great  flocks. 

Nest. — A  very  rough  little  foundation  of  grass  and  straw,  with 
a  few  large  feathers  for  lining.  It  is  placed  at  varying  depths 
in  the  sandy  bank  occupied  by  the  bird,  the  tunnels  varying 
in  length  from  two  feet  to  three  feet,  or  even  more. 

Eggs. — Pure  white,  with  very  little  gloss.  Axis,  07-075 
inch ;  diam.,  0-5-0-55. 

THE    CHIMNEY-SWALLOWS.      GENUS    HIRUNDO. 

Hirundo,  Schaeffer,  Elem.  Orn.,  Genus  100,  pi.  xl.  (1779). 

Type,  H.  rustica  (Linn.). 

The  Swallows  differ  from  the  Sand-Martins  and  House- 
Martins  in  having  the  tail  much  longer  and  the  outer  tail- 
feathers  elongated,  with  a  marked  indentation  on  the  inner 
web. 

The  members  of  the  genus  Hirundo  are  found  everywhere 
in  the  world,  and  about  forty  species  are  known.  Those  in- 
habiting the  tropics  are  resident,  while  those  which  are 
characteristic  of  the  northern  and  southern  portions  of  the 
globe  are  migratory. 

I.  THE   CHIMNEY-SWALLOW.       HIRUNDO   RUSTICA. 
(Plate  XXVIIL) 

Hirundo  rustic^  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat.,  i.,  p.  343  (1766) ;  Macg.,  Br. 
B.,  iii.,  p.  558  (1840) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iii.,  p.  477,  pi.  160, 
fig.  i  (1875);  Newt.  ed.  Yarr.,  ii.,  p.  340  (1880);  B.  O.  U. 
List  Br.  B.,  p.  42  (1883);  Seeb.,  Br.  B.,  ii.,  p.  171  (1884); 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.,  x.,  p.  128  (1885);  Lilford, 
Col.  Fig.  Br.  B.,  pt.  iii.  (1886);  Saunders,  Man.,  p.  155 
(1889). 


33  2  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Adult  Male.— Above  glossy  purplish  blue-black,  the  wings 
and  tail  blackish,  with  a  slight  gloss  of  green  externally ;  head 
like  the  back ;  the  forehead  deep  rufous ;  ear-coverts  purplish- 
blue  ;  cheeks  and  throat  deep  rufous  ;  the  rest  of  the  under 
surface  pale  rufous-buff ;  on  the  fore-neck  a  collar  of  purplish- 
blue;  bill  and  feet  black;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length, 
7-3  inches;  culmen,  0-35;  wing,  5-05;  tail,  4-0;  tarsus,  0-5. 

Adult  Female. — Differs  from  the  adult  only  in  having  the 
outer  tail-feathers  rather  shorter,  and  in  not  being  so  rufescent 
underneath.  Total  length,  6'6  inches;  wing,  4-65. 

Young. — Duller  than  the  adults,  and  not  so  glossy ;  the 
rufous  frontal  mark  much  smaller;  many  of  the  wing  coverts 
and  the  feathers  of  the  lesser  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts  with 
rufescent  edges. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  regular  summer  visitor  to  every 
part  of  our  islands,  but  breeding  less  frequently  in  the  north. 

Eange  outside  the  British  Islands.  —  Found  universally  over 
Europe,  even  to  the  high  north.  It  breeds  as  far  as  the  Yenesei 
Valley,  and  in  a  few  places  in  the  Himalayas,  being  replaced 
in  China  and  the  far  east  by  an  allied  species  of  Swallow, 
Hirundo  gutturalis.  Both  species  winter  in  the  south,  H. 
rustica  in  Africa  and  India,  a  few  further  east  still;  the 
winter  ranges  of  the  two  Chimney-Swallows  overlap, 
as  H.  gutturalis  winters  in  Southern  China,  the  Moluccas, 
the  Burmese  and  Malayan  countries,  and  the  eastern  portion 
of  the  Indian  Peninsula. 

Habits. — The  ways  of  the  Chimney-Swallow  have  been  often 
described  and  are  known  to  every  one,  the  bird's  graceful 
flight  being  observed  in  the  open  fields,  and,  more  rarely,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  towns,  where,  however,  they  often  build 
in  the  chimneys  of  old  buildings.  Mr.  Edward  Bartlett  has 
related  how  he  discovered  Swallows'  nests  with  young  birds 
eight  feet  down  a  narrow  shaft  of  a  chimney  in  an  old 
Elizabethan  mansion  at  Maidstone.  All  kinds  of  other  situa- 
tions are  chosen  by  the  bird  for  its  nest :  this  being  sometimes 
on  a  beam  in  a  shed,  and  at  others  in  places  of  the  most 
eccentric  description,  such  as  on  the  china  shade  over  an 
eleciiic  Limp  in  a  stable,  etc. 


ADDENDA.  333 

Nest. — Composed  of  mud,  mixed  with  grass  and  straw,  the 
lining  consisting  of  dry  grass  and  feathers.  In  England  the 
nest  is  generally  built  on  a  beam  or  rafter,  which  serves  as  a 
support  to  it,  but  on  the  Continent  it  is  mostly  built  in  the 
same  way  as  that  of  the  House-Martin,  against  a  wall  or  a 
beam,  while  the  bird  is  also  sometimes  noticed  building  against 
cliffs. 

Eggs. — From  four  to  six  in  number,  varying  a  good  deal  ii 
size  and  shape,  some  being  much  longer  than  others.  Ground- 
colour creamy  or  china-white,  spotted  with  reddish  or  purplish- 
brown,  with  underlying  spots  of  violet-grey  intermixed,  the 
large  end  being  often  clouded,  but  seldom  a  ring  of  spots  being 
found.  Occasionally  the  blotches  and  spots  are  much  lighter 
and  even  greenish-brown  in  colour.  Axis,  075-0-85  inch; 
diam.,  0-5-0-6. 


ADDENDA. 

Page  30.     Genus  chloris. 

The  name  chloris  being  preoccuprei  in  Botany,  that  of 
Ligurinus  of  Koch  must  be  employed  for  the  Greenfinch. 

Page  31,  line  6  from  top.  CHLORIS  CHLORIS  should  be 
LIGURINUS  CHLORIS. 

Page  48.     Before  "  The  Sparrows,"  insert : — 

VI.    COUES'  REDPOLL.       CANNABINA  EXILIPES. 

.dZgiothus  fxilipes,  Coues,  Proc.  Philad.  Acad.,  1861,  p.  385. 
Acanthis  exilipes,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit,  Mus.,  xii.,  p.  254  (i^SS). 
Linota  hornemanni  (nee.  Holboell),  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B , 
pt.  xxx.  (1895). 

Adult. — Very  similar  to  the  Mealy  Redpoll,  but  distinguished 
by  its  purer  colour,  and  by  having  the  rump  pure  white,  with  a 
rosy  tinge,  not  streaked  as  in  the  Mealy  Redpoll.  Bill, 
orange-yellow  ;  the  culmen  and  tip  of  the  genys  blackish  ;  feet 
blackish-brown;  iris  dark  brown.  Total  length,  5  inches; 
culmen,  0-4;  wing,  3*0;  tail,  2*3 ;  tarsus,  0*55. 

The  changes  of  plumage  are  similar  to  those  undergone  by 
the  Mealy  Redpoll. 


334  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — Mr.  Cordeaux  has  recorded  a  specimen 
of  this  white-rumped  Redpoll  from  the  Humber  district,  an  i 
two  specimens  are  in  Dr.  Bendelack  Hewetson's  collection  from 
Easington  in  Yorkshire,  where  they  were  obtained  in  October, 
1883,  and  October,  1893  On-  of  these  has  been  figured  by 
Lord  Lilford  in  his  beautiful  work  on  British  Birds  I  have 
also  seen  a  specimen  caught  near  Tring,  in  the  Hon.  Walter 
Rothschild's  collection.  There  can  be  little  doubt  thit  the 
species  occurs  more  frequently  in  Gieat  Britain  than  is  supposed, 
but  is  confounded  with  the  Mealy  Redpoll. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — This  species  has  an  extensive 
range,  occurring  from  Noithern  Scandinavia  across  Siberia, 
and  throughout  Arctic  America. 

VII.    GREENLAND    REDPOLL.       CANNABINA    HORNEMANNI. 

Linota    hornemanni,    Holboell,    Naturl.    Tidskr.,    iv.,    p.    395 

(1843). 

Acanthis  hornemannt,  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.   Mus.,  xii.,  p.  257 
(1888). 

Adult  Male. — Similar  to  Coues'  Redpoll,  but  much  larger. 
Total  length,  5*3  inches;  culmen,  0*4;  wing,  3-4;  tail,  2*5; 
tarsus,  0*65. 

Adult  Female — A  little  smaller  than  the  male.  Wing,  3*2 
inches. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  specimen  of  this  large  white-rumped 
Redpoll  is  recorded  by  the  late  John  Hancock  as  having  been 
obtained  near  Whitburn,  in  Durham,  in  April,  1855. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — The  home  of  this  species  is 
in  Eastern  North  America,  Greenland,  and  Iceland. 


Page  6 1.     Insert : — 

II.    THE    GREATER    BULLFINCH.       PYRRHULA    PYRRHJLA. 

Loxia pyrrhula^  Linn.,  Syst.  Nat,  i.,  p.  300  (1766). 

Pyrrhula  major ;  Brehm;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  iv.,  p.  97,  pi.  198 

(1876). 
Pyrrhula  pyrrhulat  Sharpe,   Cat.   B.   Brit.   Mus.,  xii.,  p.  446 

(1888). 


ADDENDA. 


335 


Adults. — Similar  to  P.  europoca,  but  much  larger,  and  the 
colours  purer,  especially  the  red  colour  of  the  breast.  Total 
length,  6  inches  ;  culmen,  0-5  ;  wing,  27  ;  tail,  2'6  ;  tarsus,  07. 

Range  in  Great  Britain.— Two  specimens  of  the  large  Bullfinch 
were  exhibited  by  Colonel  Irby  at  a  meeting  of  the  Zoological 
Society  on  the  igth  of  November,  1895.  They  were  shot  on 
the  Yorkshire  coast  about  the  ist  of  November,  1893,  and  had 
been  mounted  by  local  bird-stuffers  as  common  Bullfinches. 
A  third  specimen  has  been  recorded  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Gurney  as 
having  been  obtained  on  the  Caistor  denes  in  Norfolk. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands. — Replaces  P.  europcea  in 
Scandinavia,  and  from  Poland  eastwards  throughout  Siberia. 

Habits — Exactly  like  those  of  its  smaller  western  representa 
tive.  The  eggs  are  slightly  larger  than  those  of  P.  europcea. 


Page  189.     Insert : — 

THE   SUB-ALPINE   WAKBLER.       SYLVIA   SUB-ALPINA. 

S}lvia  sub-alp ina,  Temm.,  Man.  d'Orn.,  i.,  p.  214  (1820,   ex 
Bonelli,  MSS.);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.,  ii.,  p.  389,  pi.  59  (1875). 

Adult  Male. — Slaty  grey  above ;  wings  brown,  with  pale  edges 
to  the  coverts,  the  secondaries  more  broadly  margined  ;  tail 
brown,  the  three  or  four  outside  feathers  with  more  or  less  white ; 
chin,  throat,  and  breast  chestnut,  shading  off  into  paler  chest- 
nut on  the  flanks ;  the  centre  of  the  abdomen  and  under  tail- 
coverts  whitish ;  under  wing-coverts  pale  grey,  with  darker 
centres  ;  axillaries  pale  vinous  grey ;  a  narrow  white  line  along 
the  sides  of  the  head  separating  the  chestnut  of  the  lower 
surface  from  the  grey  of  the  upper ;  bill  dark  horn-colour,  the 
lower  mandible  light  yellowish  at  the  base ;  feet  dusky-brown  ; 
iris  brown;  eyelid  reddish.  Total  length,  4-6  inches  ;  culmen, 
0-45  ;  wing,  2-3;  tail,  2'i  ;  tarsus,  07. 

Adult  Female. — Browner  than  the  male  above,  and  not  so 
ashy  grey.  The  chestnut  of  the  under  parts  replaced  by  buffy- 
white,  with  a  vinous  tinge  on  the  sides  of  the  breast.  The 
birds  of  the  year  are  buffy-brown  on  the  breast  and  flanks,  the 
male  being  a  little  greyer  tha'.i  the  female. 


336  LLOYD'S  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Characters. — This  little  Warbler  is  allied  to  the  Whitethroats, 
but  is  smaller  than  any  of  them,  the  wing  being  less  than  2-5 
inches  in  length,  and  the  colour  of  the  legs  and  feet  is  brown. 
It  is  distinguished  from  all  the  small  Warblers  of  the  Whit^- 
throat  group  by  its  chestnut  chin  and  breast. 

Range  in  Great  Britain. — A  specimen  of  a  supposed  "  Darlford 
Warbler"  was  procured  in  St.  Kilda  on  the  i3th  of  June,  1894, 
by  Mr.  J.  S.  Elliott,  who  sent  it  to  me  for  identification,  and  I 
was  not  a  little  surprised  to  find  that  it  was  an  example  of  the 
present  species. 

Range  outside  the  British  Islands — Inhabits  the  countries  of  the 
Mediterranean,  probably  as  far  east  as  Persia.  Winters  in 
Senegambia,  and  in  North-eastern  Africa. 

Habits. — Mr  John  Whitehead,  who  observed  this  species  in 
Corsica,  says  that  it  is  plentiful  in  that  island,  arriving  about 
the  middle  of  April.  The  first  nest  was  taken  on  the  6th  of 
May.  He  writes  :  "  This  little  warbler  spends  nearly  all  its 
time  in  the  thick  scrub,  sometimes  mounting  high  into  the  air, 
and  uttering  a  short  but  pretty  song,  then  diving  back  into  the 
dense  bush,  its  whereabouts  being  only  discoverable  by  a  short 
chattering  note." 

Nest  and  Eggs — The  same  observer  describes  these  as  follows: 
"  The  nest  is  often  frail,  about  i£  inches  deep  and  2  J  inches  in 
diameter.  It  is  composed  of  dry  stalks,  often  with  a  good 
many  dead  thistle  leaves,  and  lined  with  fine  dry  grass,  some- 
times with  long  horse-hairs  The  eggs,  four  in  number,  are  of 
a  pale  yellowish  or  greenish  white,  speckled  all  over,  but  espe- 
cially at  the  larger  end,  with  light  brown  and  slate-blue." 


ALPHABETICAL     INDEX. 


Acanthis,  42 

bLkistoni,  Anthus,  115 

Grthiida?,  119 

Accentor,  304,  308 

Blue-throat,  279 

ccrvina,  Motacilla,  108 

Acred  ula,  145 

Arctic,  280 

ccrvii.us,  Anihus,  n.t>,  110 

Acrocephalus,  221 

boarula,  Motacilla,  57 

Chaffinch,  35 

A6don,  201 

borealis,  Anorthura,  3.5 

Chelidon,  327 

iEgithaliscus,  146 

brachydactyla,  Alauda,  86 

cashmiriensis,  328 

ALgithalus,  145 

Calandrella,  86 

dasypus,  327 

Alauda,  83 
Alaudidaej  79 

Brambling,  37 
Brandt's  Bunting,  79 

lag«  pus,  327 
nil  alensis,  328 

alba,  Motacilla,  95 

britannica.  Cerlhia,  121 

urbica,  327,  328 

albicilla,  Siphia,  326 

britannicus,  Parus,  137 

Chifichaff,  211 

albicollis,  Cinclus,  311 
Zonotrichia,  79 
alpestris,  Alauda,  80 

Bubo  maculosus,  319 
Bulbul,  Gold-vented,  318 
Bullfinch,  59 

Chimney-Swallows,  331 
chloris,  30 
Chloris,  31 

Otocorys,  80 

Red,  54 

Coccothraustes,  31,  333 

alpinus,  Accentor,  308 
Pyrrhocorax,  23 
Ambulatores,  4 

Scarlet,  55 
Bunting,  bl  ck-head>d,  67 
Brandt's  Siberian,  79 

Fringilla,  31 
Ligurinus,  30,  31,  333 
Linaria,  31 

americana,  Cerlhia,  '21 

Cirl,  70 

Loxia,  31 

Loxia,  56 

Corn,  73 

Chough,  22 

Am;<elida;,  174 

Little,  65 

Chryi-omitris,  40 

Anorthura,  314 

Long-spurred,  77 

Cinclus,  310 

borealis,  315 

Ortolan,  71 

albicollis,  311 

hirtensis,  315,  317 
troglodytes,  314,  317,  318 

Reed,  63 
Rustic,  66 

aquaticus,  310,  313,  314 
cinclus,  313 

Aphis  rumicis,  50 

Snow,  75 

europajus,  310 

aquatica,  Motacilla,  222 

Yellow,  69 

melanogaster,  313 

aquaticus,  Acrocephalus  222 
Anthus,  116 

coelebs,  Fringilla,  35 

Sturnus,  313 
cinerea,  Sylvia,  182 

Cinclus,  310,  313,  314 

caeiuleculus,  iLrithacus,  280 

cioides,  Emberiza,  79 

arborea,  Alauda,  90 
Lullula,  90 

ca:ruleus,  Parus,  133 
caesia,  Sitta,  126,  128 

ciris,  Cyanospiza,  79 
cirlus,  Emberiza,  70 

arboreus,  Anthus,  103 

Calaudra  Lark,  82 

citr.nella,  Emberiza,  63,  69 

arundinacea,   Calamoherpe, 

Calandrella,  86 

Clivicola,  329 

230 

Calcarius,  77 

europa^a,  330 

arundinaceus/Acroce^  halus, 
227,  230 

calendula,  Regular,  159 
campestris,  Alauda,  in 

riparia,  329 
Coal-Tit,  European,  136 

Turdus,  227 

Anthus,  in 

coccoihraustes,    Co^co- 

arven>is,  Alauda,  84 

Motacilla,  99,  102 

thraustes,  33 

ater,  Parus,  136,  137 

canaria,  Serinus,  53 

Loxia,  33 

atricapilla,  Ficedula,  322,  323 
Motacilla,  192 

Canaiy,  52 
caniceps,  Caiduelis,  39 

Coccothraustinae,  30 
Collared  Flycatcher,  324 

Muscicapa,  323 

cannabina,  Acanthis,  42,  44 

coliaris,  Accentor,  308 

Sylvia,  192 

Cannabina,  43 

Colceus,  ii 

Atnchornithes,  i 

Fringilla,  43 

Ficedula,  324 

atrogularis,  Coccothraustes, 

Linaria,  43 

corurio,  Lanius,  167 

33 

Lino.a,  44 

collybUta,  Phylloscopus,  211 

Merula,  256 

canonicus,  Serinus,  53 

collybiia,  Phylloscopus,  an 

Turdus,  256 

cape  lanus,  Corone,  12 

Colceus,  9 

auriculatus,  Lanius,  171 

capensis,   Pycnonotus,    318, 

Common  Flycatcher,  310 

aurantiiventris,  Chloris,  32 

3'9 

corax,  Corvus,  7,  8 

auricapillas,  Regulus,  154 
azorensis,  Regulus,  154 

Turdus,  318 
Cardueiis,  38,  42 
carduel's,  Cardueiis,  39 

Corcorax,  21 
Corn-Bunting,  73 
cornix,  Corone,  12,  14 

baicale"sis,  Motacilla,  ga 

Fiingilla,  39 

Corvus,  12 

Bank-  Martins,  329 

Carpodacus,  54 

cot  one,  Corone,  15 

barbatus,  Pycnonotus,  319 

caryocatactes,     Nucifiaga, 

Corvus,  14 

Bearded  Tit,  i5I 

16,17   . 

Corvidje,  a 

biarmicus,  Calamophilus,  151 
Panurus,  151 

cashmiriensis,  Chelidon,  328 
cassini,  P>rrhula,  59,  60 

Corvinae,  4 
Corvus,  7 

Parus,  151 

caudata,  Acredula,  147,  149 

Cotile,  329,  330 

bifasciata,  Cruclrostra,  59 
Loxia,  f,g 

Pica,  18 
caudatuB,  yEgithalus,  145 

riparia,  330 
Creeper,     Crimson-winged, 

Black-bellied  Dipper,  313 
Blackbird,  249 

Parus,  149 
cedrorum,  Ampelis,  176 

123 
Tree,  120 

Blackcap,  192 

Certhia,  120 

Wall,  123 

33» 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


cri<tata,  Alauda,  83 

Flycatcher,  Pied,  322,  323 

HypoTais,  217 

Galeriti,  88 

Red-breasted,  324,  325,  326 

hypolais,  Hypolais,  218 

cristatus,  Lophophanes,  142 

Spotted,  321 

Mota-illa.  218 

Parus,  142 

fortunatus,  Phylloscopus, 

hyrcanus,  Erithacus,  278 

Regulus,  154 

213 

C-ossbill,  56,  57 
American,  56 
Himalayan,  56 

Fregilinse,  21 
Fringilla,  35 
linaria,  45 

Icteridse,  27,  29 
icterim,  Hypolais,  218 
icterus,  Serinu<=,  54 

Pa-rot,  56 
White-wing-d,  57 
Crow,  Carrion,  14 
Hooded,  12 

fringillago,  Parus,  130 
Fringillidae,  30 
Fringillinae   35 
frugilegus,  Corvus,  4 

ignicapilla,  Sylvia,  157 
ignicapiHus,  Regulus,  157 
iliacus,  Turdus,  259 
ind'cus,  Passer,  50 

cu  ruca   Motacil'a,  186 
Sylvia,  186 
curvirostra.  LoxU,  57 

Trypanocorax,  4 
Furze-Chats,  298 
Fu  ze-  Warbler,  198 

isabellina,  Saxi  :ola,  293 
italise,  Parser,  49,  50 

cyanea,  Petrophila,  283 
Cyanecula,  279 

fu^cipilea,  Sylvia,  184 

Jackdaw,  9,  10 

cyanecula,  Ruticilla,  280 
Cypriotes,  Parus,  137 

galactodes,  Aedon,  202 
Sylvia,  202 

Jay,  19,  20 
jerdoni,  Sylvia,  191 

galbula,  Oriolus,  28 

Dirtford  Warbler,  198 
davypus,  Chelidon,  327 

Gileri  a,  87 
Garden-Warbler,  195 
g  rruH,  Bombycilla,  175 

krueperi,  Sitta,  126 
kand  :o,  Oriolus,  28 

1  )aulia<,  273 
deserti,  Saxicola,  296 
Dippers,  310,  312 
Dipper,  Black-bellied,  313 
dresseri,  Parus,  139 
domestica,  Fringilla,  49 
dom:sticus,  Passer,  49 

Sylvia  186 
G-irrulus,  19 
garrulas,  Ampelis,  175 
Geocichla,  245 
glandarius,  Corvus,  20 
Garrulus,  19.  20 
Gold-vented  Bulbul,  318 

lagopus,  Chelidon,  327 
LaniHae,  153 
Lanius,  159 
lapponica,  Emberiza,  78 
Fringilla,  77 
Plectrophanes,  77 
lapponicus,  Calcarius,  77 

e'egans,  Carduelis,  39 

Th  ush,  319 
Graculus,  22 

Plectrophanes,  77 
La'k,  Calandra,  82 

Emberiza,  63 

graculus,  Corvus,  22 

Crested,  88 

Emberizinae,  63 
enucleator,  Loxia.  61 

Fregilas,  22 
Graculus,  22 

Horned,  80 
Shore,  80 

PinicoU,  61 

Pyrrhocorax,  22 

Short-toed,  86 

Pyrrhula,  61 

gran  V\s,  Motaci'la,  92 

Sky,  84 

Erithacus,  276 
erythrina,  Loxia,  55 
Pyrrhula,  55 
erythrinus,  Carpodacus,  54, 

v     I5 

(insshopper-Warb'.er,  235 
Greenfinch,  31 
griseisticta,  Muscicapa,  320 
grisola,  Muscicapa,  319,  320 
Ground-Thrush,  Siberian, 

White-winged,  82 
Wood,oo 
ledouci,  Parus,  137 
leuc^ptera,  Loxia,  59 
Mdanocorypha,  82 

Erythrosterna  parva,  325 

246 

Pica,  17 

europaea,  Pipria,  145 
Clivicola,  330 

guttnus,  Stnrnus,  24 
gutturalis,  Hirundo,  332 

Lii  aria,  42 
linaria,  Acanthis,  46 

Pyrrhula,  59,  60 

Cann  \bina,  45 

Sitta,  126,  128 

hawaiensis,  Corone,  12 

Fringilla,  45 

europeeus,  C;n~lus,  3ro 

Hawfinch,  33 

Linota,  45 

excubitor,  Lanius,  162 

hemispila,  Nucifriga,  16 

Linnet.  43 

himalayana,  Loxi  i,  56 

locustella,  Locistelli,  235 

famiharis,  Aedon,  201  ,  203 

hippolais,  Phyllopneuste, 

Sibilatrix,  235 

Ce  thia,  120 

211 

Sylvia,  235 

fe  ruglneus,  Scolecophagus, 

hirtcitsis,  Anorlhura,  315,  317 

longicaudata,  Mecistura,  147 

29 

TrogUaytes,  317 

Long-spur,  77 

Ficedula,  322,  323 

Hirundinida^,  327 

Long-tailed  Tit,  147,  149 

atricapilla,  322,  373 
co'laris,  324 

Hirundo,  331 
gutturalis,  332 

Lophophar.es,  142 
luctuosa,  Muscicapa,  323 

Fieldfare,  269 

riparia,  329 

lugens,  Motacil'a,  52 

Field-Sta  lings,  26 

rustica,  331,  332 

lugubris,  Motacilla,  93,  97 

Fire-Crest,  157 

urbica,  328 

Lullula,  89 

flava,  Budytes,  101 

hi  paniolensis,  Passer,  49,  50 

luscinia,  Daulias,  274 

Motacilla,  TCI,  102 
flavirostrs,  Acan'his,  42 

holboe'li,  Acanth's,  47 
Cannabina,  47 

Erithacus,  274 
Motacilla,  274 

Cannabina,  42 

Linaria,  47 

Piailomela,  274 

Fringilla,  42 

hortensis,  Sylvia,  195 

luicinioidas,   Acroce  halus, 

Lina-ia,  42 

hortu'ana,  Emberiza,  71 

238 

Linota,  42 

hortulanus,  Serinus,  53 

Locustella,  238 

fluviatilis,  Locustella,  237 

House-Martin,  327,  328 

Sylvia,  238 

Flycatchers,  319 

Siberian,  327 

Flycatcher,  Collared,  324 

hyp  rboreus.PLctrophen  tx, 

Macronyx,  103 

Common,  320 

75 

macrurus,  ^E^iihalus,  146 

ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


339 


maculatus,  Anthus    104 
maculosus,  B.ibo,  319 
maderens:s,  Regulus,  154 
nrigna,  Stu  nella,  29 
Migpie,  17,  18 
maj  ;r,  Carduelis,  39 

Lanius,  165 

Parus,  130 

m-uimanica.  Pica.  18 
maxima   M  rula,  251 
Mealy  Redpill,  45 
melanoc' phJi,     Embe  iza, 
67 

Euspiza,  67 
Melanocoryphi,  82 
melanogaster.  Oincl.is,  313 
melanoleuca,  Pica,  18 
melanope,  MoUcilla,  97 
Melizjp'iilus,  198 
m  -nz  icri,  Stu  nus,  25 
Manila,  249 
merula,  Menih,  249 

Turdus,  249 

migrat  onus,  Turdus,  272 
miliaria,  Emberiza,  73 
minor,  Garrulus,  20 

Lanius,  160 

Linaria,  47 

Phylloscopus,  211 

Trochilus,  211 
modularis.  Accentor,  305 

Motacilla,  305 

Tharrhaleus,  305 
monedula  Coloeus,  to 

Corvus,  10 

montana,  Fringilla,  51 
montanus,  Passer,  49,  51 
Monticola,  282 
montifringilla,  Fringilla,  37 
Motacilla,  92 

troglodytes,  314 
Motacillidae,  91 
multipunctata,  Nucifragi,i6 
muraria,  Certhia,  123 

Tichodroma,  123 
murina  Pyrrhula,  59 
Muscicapa,  319,  320 

atricapilla,  323 

griseisticta,  320 

grisola,  319,  320 

luctuosa,  323 

parya,  325 
Muscicapinse,  319 
musicus,  Turdus,  263 

nasvia  Lpcustella,  235,  236 

Motacilla,  235 
naevius.  Aorocephalus,  235 
Nectariniidae,  119 
Neocorys,  103 
Nightingale,  Common,  974 
nipalensis,  Cheli  Ion,  328 
nisoria,  Mo'acilla,  180 

Sylvia.  1 80 
nivalis,  Emberiza,  75 

Plectrophanes,  75 

Plectrophenax,  75 
Nncifraga,  16 
Nut-cracker,  16 
Nuthatch,  126 
nuUalli,  Pica,  18 


obscura,  Alauda,  116 

polyglotta,  Hypolais,  220 

obscurus    Anthus,  115,  116, 

jomeranus,  Lanius,  171 

118 

pratensis,  Alauda,  106 

occidentalis,  Saxicola  295 

Anthus,  106 

ocularis,  Motacilla   92 

Pratincola,  298 

oenanthe.  Motacilla,  290 
Saxicola,  200 

provincialis,    Melizophilus, 
198 

Oligomyodae,  i 

Sylvia,  198 

Oreocichla,  242 

Ptilogonys,  174 

Oreocorys,  103 

pusilla.  Emberiza,  65 

orientalis,  Corone,  15 

pusillus,  Serinuj,  53 

Oriolidae,  27 

Pycnonotidae,  318 

Oriolus,  28 

Pycnonotus,  318,  319 

ornatus,  Calcarius,  77 

barbatus,  319 

orphea,  Sylvia,  189 

capensis,  318,  319 

orpheus,  Sylvia,  189 

pyrrhocorax,  Corvus,  23 

Ortolan,  71 

pyrrhula,  Loxia  60 

Oscines,  2 
Otocorys,  80 
Ousel-.  Black-throated  256 

Pyrrhula,  60,  334 
pytiopsittacus,  Loxia,  56,  57 

Ring,  253 

rayi,  Budytes,  100 

Motacilla,  100 

palustris,  Acrocephalus,  232 
Sylvia,  232 
paluttris,  Parus,  139 
Pyrrhulorhyncha,  64 

Raven,  7,  8 
Redbreast,  Common,  276 
Red-breasted  Flycatcher,32  : 
Redpoll,  Holboell's,  47 

Panuridae,  150 

Coues',  333 

Panurus,  150 

Greenland,  334 

paradoxa,  Motacilla,  92 

Lesser,  47 

Paridae,  129 

Mealy,  45 

Parus,  129 

Redstart,  285 

parva,  Erythrosterna,  325 
Muscicapa,  325 

Black,  287 
Redwing,  259 

Siphia,  325,  326 
parvulus,  Troglodytes,  314 

Reed-Bunting,  63 
Reedling,  Bearded,  151 

Passer,  48 

Reed-Warbler,  230 

Passeres,  Non-singing,  i 

Great,  227 

Singing,  i 
South  American,  i 
Passeriformes,  i 

Regulidae,  153 
regulus,  Motacilla,  154 
religiosa,  Gracula,  29 

Pastor,  a6 

Remiza,  145 

pekinensis,  Parus,  137 

richardi,  Anthus,  no 

Perching  Birds,  i 
persica,  Motacilla,  92 

Ring-Ousel,  253 
riparia,  Clivicola,  379 

Petrophila,  283 

Cotile,  330 

phaenicura,  Motacilla,  787 

Hirundo,  329 

Phainoptila,  174 
philomela.  Daulias,  274 

Robin,  276 
American,  272 

phosniceus,  Ageloeus   29 
phoenicurus,  Motacilla,  285 

Rock-Pipit,  116 
Scandinavian,  118 

Ruticilla,  285 

Rock-Thrush,  282 

phragmitis,    Acrocephalus, 

rosea,  Acredula,  147 

224 

Mecistura,  147 

Calamoherpe,  224 

r.seus,  Pastor,  26 

Sylvia,  224 

Turdus,  26 

Phylloscopus,  204 

rostrata,  Cannabina,  46 

pica,  17 

rubecula,  Erithacus,  277 

Corvus,  1  8 

Motacilla,  277 

Pica,  1  8 

rubetra,  Fruticicola,  299 

pictus,  Calcarius,  77 

Motaciila,  298 

pileata,  Pyrrhula,  60 
pilaris,  Turdus,  269 
Pinicola.  61 

Pratincola,  298,  299 
Saxicola,  299 
rubicola,  Fruticicola,  joi 

Pipit,  Red-throated,  108 

Motacilla,  301 

Richard's,  no 

Pratincola,  301 

Rock.  1,6 

Saxicola,  302 

Scandinavian  Rock,  118 

Ruby-Crest,  159 

Tree,  103 

rufa,  Saxicola,  295 

Tawny,  in 

Sylvia,  183,  211 

Water,  114 

rufV-scens,  Acanthis,  47 

Plectrophenax,  75 

Cannabina,  47 

ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


rufescens,  Frinp!l  i,  47 

Starling,  Intermediate,  25 

True  Bulbuls,  318 

Linaria,  47 

Red-winged,  29 

Trypanocorax,  4 

I.inota,  47 

Rose-coloured,  26 

Turdidae,  241 

rufus,  Lanius,  171 

Phj  HoSCOpUS,   211 

strepera,  Sylvia,  230 
strepe-us,     Acrocephalus, 

turdoides,  Acrocephalus,  227 
Turdus,  259 

rumicis,  Aphis,  50 

230,  232 

capensis,  318 

rupestris,  Anthus,  118 
rustica   Emberiza  66 

strophiata,  4Jphia,  324 
Sturnida^,  23 

undata,  Motacilla,  198 

Hirundo,  331,  332 

S.urnus,  24 

Sylvia,  198 

Pica,  18 

cinclus,  313 

undatus,  Melizophilus,  198 

Ruticilla,  285 

vulgar  is,  24 

urbica,  Chelidon,  327,  328 

rutilns,  Lanius,  171 

suecica,  Cyanecula,  280 

Hirundo,  328 

* 

Erithacus,  280 

S.  Kilda  Wren,  315,  317 
salica  ia,  Motacilla,  195 

Motacilla,  280 
Ruticilla,  280 

vagans,  Acredula,  T45 
./Egithalus,  146,  147 

Sylvia,  195 

sulphurea,  Motacilla,  98 

Mecistura,  147 

Sa'pornis,  119 

superbus,  Erithacus,  278 

varia,  Geocichla,  243 

Sand-Martin,  329 

superciliosa,  Motacilla,  2f4 

Oreocichla,  243 

sardus,  Melizophilus,  198 

superciliosus,  Phylloscoyus, 

varius,  Turdus,  243 

Savi's  Warbler,  238 

214 

viscivorus,  Turdus,  267 

saxatilis,  Monticola,  283 

Swallows,  The,  327 

vulgaris,  Coccothraustes,  33 

Turdus,  283 

sylvia,  179 

Sturnus,  24 

Saxicola,  289 

Motacilla,  182 

schaeniclus,  Emberiza,  63 

Sylvia,  182 

Wagtail,  Blue-headed.  101 

schasnobanus,      Acrocepha- 

sylvicola,  Phyllopneuste,  205 

Grey,  97 

lus,  224 

Sylviidae,  178 

Pied.  93 

Serinus,  52 

White,  95 

serinus,  Serinus,  53 

Tarsiger,  277 

Warbler,  Aquatic,  222 

Fringilla,  53 

teneriffae,  Regulus,  154 

Barred,  180 

sharpii,  Corone,  12,  13 
Shore-Lark,  80 

Tharrhaleus,  305 
Thrush,  American,  272 

Blackcap,  192 
Blue-throated,  279 

Shrike,  Great  Grey,  161 
Lesser  Grey,  160 

Golden,  242 
Gold-vented,  319 

Common  Tree,  218 
Dartford,  198 

Pallas's  Great  Grey,  165 

Ground,  245 

Furze,  198 

Red-backed,  167 

Mistle,  267 

Garden,  195 

Siberian  House-  Martin,  327 

Rock,  282 

Grasshopper,  235 

Siphia,  324 

Song,  263 

Great  Reed,  227 

albicilla,  326 

White's,  243 

Marsh,  233 

parva  325,  326 
strophiata,  324 

Tichodroma,  123 
Tit,  Bearded,  151 

Orphean,  189 
Reed,  230 

sibilator,  Phylloscopus,  205 

Blue,  133 

Rufous,  201,  202 

sibilatrix,  Phylloscopus,  205 
sibirica,  Alauda,  82 

Coal,  1^6 
Crested,  142 

Savi's?  238 
Sedge,  224 

Geocichla,  246 

Great,  130 

Sub-alpine,  335 

Melanocorypha,  82 
sibiricus,  Lanius,  165 

Long-tailed,  149 
Marsh,  139 

Willow,  204 
Wood,  205 

Panurus,  151 

White-headedLong-tailed, 

Yellow-browedWiilow,2i4 

sibiricus,  Tmdus,  246 
simplex,  Sylvia,  195 

149 
tithys,  Ruticilla,  287 

Wafer-Crow,  312 
Water-Ouzels,  310,  312 

Siphia,  324 

titys,  Ruticilla,  287,  288    . 

Waxwing,  175 

Siskin,  40,  41 

torquata,  Merula,  253 

Wheatear,  289,  290 

Sitta,  126 

torquatus,  Turdus,  253 

Black-throated,  295 

Sittidae,  126 

Tracheophona;,  i 

Desert,  296 

Sky-Lark,  84 

Tree-  Pipit,  103 

Isabelline,  293 

Snow-Bunting,  75 
Song-Thrush,  263 

Tree-Sparrow,  51 
Tree-  Warbler,  Common,  218 

Whinchat,  298 
whiteheadi,  Sitta,  126 

Sparrow,  48 

trivialis,  Alauda,  103 

Whitethroat,  182 

Tree,  51 

Anthus,  103 

Lesser,  186 

spinoletta,  Alauda,  114 
Anthus,  114 

trivirgatus,  .(Egithalus,  146 
trochilus,  Motacilla,  208 

White-winged  Lark,  82 
Willow-  Wa.  bier,  Yeilow- 

spinus,  Carduelis,  41 

Phyllopneuste,  208 

browed,  214 

Chrysomitris,  41 
Fringilla,  41 
spipoletta,  Anthus,  114 

Phylloscopus,  208 
Troglodytes   314 
Anorthura,  314,  317,  318 

Woodchat,  171 
Wren,  Common,  314 
Wren,  S.  Kilda,  315,  317 

Spotted  Flycatcher,  321 

hirtensis,  317 

stapazina,  Saxicola,  295 

parvulus,  314 

Xanthocorys,  103 

Starling,  24 
Field,  26 

troglodytes,  Motacilla,  314 
Troglodytidae,  314 

yarrelli,  Motacilla  97 

^          ;^7'      "    > 

• 

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/i      I  ILtliU  ••  D 

birds  of  G 

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reat  Britain 

V.JL 

AN  23  1936 

/p+^J^L  -'ft 

i    ft    1236 

//yf  (/  *     I  A 

'     rtl 

13  1P?fi 

91051 3 

SL 

Gi 


BIOLOGY 

LIBRARY 

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THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY