A
Handbook to Winnipeg
AND THE
Province of Manitoba
PREPARED FOR THE 79TH ANNUAL MEETING
OF THE
British Association
FOR THE
Advancement of Science
f, •;',> 1909 .;p
WITH NOTES ON SOME OF THE CHIEF POINTS
TO BE VISITED ON THE WESTERN
EXCURSION
EDITED BY THE LOCAL SECRETARIES
PUBLISHED BY THE LOCAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
WINNIPEG
1909
Copyright, Canada, 1909, by W. SANFORD EVANS.
F
6 75-
CONTENTS
Sketch of the History of the City of Winnipeg and
of the Four Provinces of Western Canada — by
the Rev. George Bryce, D.D., L.L.D 7
The City of Winnipeg— by C. F. Roland, Esq 26
The Industries of Manitoba — by C. F. Roland, Esq. 57
Agriculture in Manitoba — by the Hon. R. P. Roblin
and Principal W. J. Black, B.S.A., with the
assistance of various contributors
The Geology of Canada — by R. W. Brock, Esq
The Climate of Manitoba — by R. F. Stupart, Esq. . .
Flora of Manitoba — by the late Rev. Canon Burman,
M. A., and Professor A. H. R. Duller, D. Sc.,
Ph.D 156
Fauna of Manitoba— by Ernest Thompson Seton,
Esq 183
The Fish and Fisheries of Manitoba — by Professor
Edward E. Prince 2P8
The Indians of Western Canada — by the Hon.
David Laird 238
The Game Fields of the West— by P. J. Turner, Esq. 253
Transportation in Canada — by Geo. H. Ham, Esq. . 268
Notes on some of the chief points to be visited on
the Western Excursion 285
Maps, in cover, prepared by James White, Esq., F.R.G.S.
PREFATORY NOTE
The Publication Committee of the « Local Ex
^specia'l L^wkdge of the subjects upon which they
have written. . ,
The Committee desire also to record their gratitude
, Mr Tames White, Chief Geographer, Ottawa toi
he tu&aY taken in arranging for the p^para ^
.1 1.1 f**^+-**t irtr\ 1 i"T ^^
tion, but also of some permanent
Editorial Committee.
SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE CITY OF
WINNIPEG AND OF THE FOUR PROVINCES
OF WESTERN CANADA
By The REV. GEORGE BRYCE, D.D., L.L.D.,
Honorary Professor in Manitoba College.
President of the Royal Society of Canada-
AROUND the pageant enacted at Sault Ste. Marie
by Sieur de St. Lusson in 1670 gathered the inter-
est of the French nation in the Canadian West,
when, in the name of Louis XIV., the Commissioner
took possession of "Sainte Marie de Saut," as also of
Lakes Huron and Superior, the island of Manitoulin,
and all countries, rivers, lakes and streams contiguous
and adjacent there unto. A cedar cross was raised, and
upon it the royal arm of France were fixed. Seven-
teen Indian tribes were invited to the spectacle, even
the far distant Crees and Assiniboines. None of these
tribes disputed the French claim.
In the same year Charles II, King of Great Britain
and Ireland, gave to the Hudson's Bay Company "all the
lands, countries and territories upon the coasts and
confines of the seas, streights, bays, lakes, rivers, creeks
and sounds lying within the entrance of the streights
commonly called Hudson's streights," with one limit-
ation, viz., except those "which are not now actually
possessed by any of our subjects, or by the subjects of
any other Christian prince or state." Here then came
in the French claim that their occupation of the Cana-
dian West was first, and here, in after days, arose the
claim of Canada for the territory held by the Hudson's
Bay Company.
From 1762, shortly after the conquest of Canada, the
Fur Traders of Montreal began to extend their trade
8 HISTORICAL SKETCH
and build forts throughout the wide region from Lake
Superior and Lake of the Woods westward to the distant
Saskatchewan.
In 1772 the Hudson's Bay Company left the shore of
the Bay, which it had tenaciously hugged for a century,
and erected in the Saskatchewan district its first inland
post at Cumberland House, within a few hundreds of
yards of Sturgeon Lake Fort, which Joseph Frobisher,
one of the Canadian traders, had built. From this time
forward the conflict of the Companies continued, until,
when once a fort of the one Company was established,
soon beside it appeared a fort of the other. At one time,
about the year 1800, an offshoot of the North-West
Company of Montreal added a third fort at all the chief
points of competition through the Western country,
while there were also a few independent or "free"
traders who joined in the fray. Competition led to
waste, and ruin stared all in the face.
The North-West Company of Montreal was chiefly
led by a number of vigorous Scottish merchants, who
after the capture of Quebec had remained behind from
Amherst's army or had been drawn over from the
American colonies to Montreal. They became the
"Lords of the North." Their voyageurs and servants
were chiefly French Canadians. Through the inter-
marriages of both the leaders and the laborers, with the
Indian women in the West, by the end of the century
there had grown up a stalwart race of Bois-b rules, Metis,
or Half-breeds, as they were called. Among these occur
the names of Grant, McKenzie, Sinclair, McGillivray,
McLeod and Fraser, as well as of Sayer, Nolin, Falcon,
Delorme, Lepine, Goulet and many others.
Bound together by the common bond of Indian blood,
they began to feel their power in the countrv, and called
themselves "The New Nation." The employees of the
Hudson's Bay Company were largely of Orkney origin,
OF MANITOBA 9
and the children of their Indian wives were known as
English-speaking or English-half-breeds.
About the year 1800 the competition of the fur traders
became so fierce that the strife at times reached the point
of bloodshed, and the companies began to feel that ruin
would soon overtake them. At this juncture a young
Scottish nobleman, the Earl of Selkirk, as early as 1802
was planning to bring a colony of his Highland country-
men to settle at the south end of Lake Winnipeg. The
British Government, fearing that his plan of bringing
colonists to Hudson Bay, and then by rapid and portage
to the Red River, would fail, refused to his Lordship
their countenance in the undertaking.
Having planted some eight hundred Highlanders on
Prince Edward Island and a small colony at Balcoon in
Upper Canada, Lord Selkirk took advantage of the low
price of Hudson's Bay Company stock and, with his
friends, bought heavily and gained control of the Hud-
son's Bay Company. He was bitterly opposed in this by
Sir Alexander Mackenzie, the most prominent man of the
Canadian company. For better or worse, Lord Selkirk's
first colonists to the Far West left the Scottish Hebrides
by ship in 1811 and reached York Factory on Hudson
Bay. After a miserable winter they ascended the stream
from the fort in heavy boats, and the first party reach-
ed the site, on the banks of the Red River, where the
city of Winnipeg now stands, on the 25th of August,
1812.
This is accordingly the natal day of the Selkirk Colony ,
and other parties followed. In 1815 some one or two
hundred of the colonists were induced by one Duncan
Cameron, an officer of the North-West Company, who
wore a flaring red coat and acted "le grand Seigneur,"
to leave the country. The fugitives settled again in
Upper Canada. After their departure the strongest band
of the colonists arrived. Jealousy, assaults, and in some
cases fatal violence, prevailed. Lord Selkirk's first
10 HISTORICAL SKETCH
Governor, Miles Macdonell, having been arrested by
the Nor'-Westers, the founder sent out a military
officer, Robert Semple, to be Governor. The new mili-
tary Governor seized Fort Gibraltar, demolished it, and
floated the material down the Red River to Point
Douglas.
Hostilities now commenced in earnest; the Nor'-
Westers were roused. They stirred up the Bois-brules
on the Western prairies, and sent an expedition westward
from Fort William. The mounted Western hunters came
down to the Red River, and crossed the prairie in sight
of Fort Douglas. A parley between them and the
Governor took place, and seemingly, by the accidental
discharge of a gun, a fusilade began, and Governor
Semple, his staff and a few others, numbering in all
twenty-one persons, were killed. This took place at
Seven Oaks on June 22nd, 1816, and the spot is marked by
a monument on Main Street a little north of the city of
Winnipeg. Fort Douglas was then seized by the Bois-
bru!6s.
In the following year Lord Selkirk arrived on the
banks of the Red River with a band of several hundreds
of discharged soldiers and voyageurs, whom he had hired
as settlers in Canada. Fort Douglas was retaken, and
the founder, after settling many things, including a treaty
with the Indians, took his departure on the arrival of
Commissioner Coltman, by whom the matter was con-
cluded. In a few years the conflicts ceased, so that after
much negotiation the two companies united in 1821,
under the name of the Hudson's Bay Company. The
new Governor was George, afterwards Sir George Simp-
son, of Scottish origin, a man of the greatest ability
who succeeded in thoroughly consolidating the new
organization.
While this fierce contest was raging on the east side of
the Rocky Mountains, the North-West Company was
vigorously pushing westward its posts, and fixed its eye
OF MANITOBA 1 1
upon Oregon and New Caledonia, as the regions on the
west side of the Rocky Mountains were called. No
doubt this movement was stimulated by the fact that
an American vessel had in 1792 entered the mouth of
the Columbia River from the Pacific Ocean. After this
event, two American explorers, Captains Lewis and
Clark, ascended in 1805 the Missouri River and crossed
the Rocky Mountains, as described in Washington
Irving's rather inaccurate work known as "Astoria."
John Jacob Astor, a New York merchant,. shortly after-
wards planned a fur-trading expedition to the Pacific
Coast, visited Montreal, induced a number of Nor'-Wester
traders to enter his services, and sent them by ship
around Cape Horn to enter from the Pacific Ocean into
the mouth of the Columbia River and found his trading
post of Astoria.
An expedition of the North-West Company, under the
leadership of Astronomer Thompson of that company,
hurriedly crossed the Rocky Mountains and sought to
forestall Astor's expedition. The Canadian expedition
was too late to prevent the founding of the American post,
but this incident happening at the time of the war
with the United States in 1812, the post was seized by
the Nor'-Westers ; it was afterwards purchased from
Astor, and his employees were taken back into the
North-West Company. The northern part of the coast
was known as New Caledonia, the majority of its traders
being of Scotch descent. After the union of the Northr
West and Hudson's Bay Companies under the name
of the latter, the trade was carried on in the Pacific
department with more energy than ever. The boundary
question between the British and American possessions
long continued a matter of dispute. At length by the
adoption of the Ashburton Treaty of 1842, which was
ratified in 1846, the territory south of the Columbia
River up to 49° N. lat. was given to the United States,
though the Hudson's Bay Company had large posts
12 HISTORICAL SKETCH
and much trade in this district. This decision led to the
transfer of Chief Factor James Douglas, afterwards Sir
James Douglas, from the Columbia River to Vancouver
Island, and here he founded the fort around which grew
up the city of Victoria.
The mainland of the Pacific Coast and the island of
Vancouver belonging to Britain, were both con-
trolled for many years by the Hudson's Bay Company,
till after various changes they were united in 1866 into
British Columbia, which remained a British Crown
colony for several years. It was an autonomous pro-
vince until its entrance in 1871 into the Dominion of
Canada.
Coming back to the east of the Rocky Mountains, we
find that about this time on the banks of the Red River
the first Fort Garry was built. Lower Fort Garry being
erected in 1831. Lord Selkirk, discouraged by lawsuits
in Canada and by the troubles of his colonists, died in
France in 1820. The land, forts and other establish-
ments belonging to the Colonizer were administered for
fifteen years after his death at great expense, and were
then sold to the Hudson's Bay Company. In the year
1835 a government was organized for the Red River
settlement, and a number of the leading settlers and
more notable persons were selected by the Hudson's
Bay Company and made into the Council of Assiniboia,
as they now called the Red River settlement. The
colony grew slowly, till in 1869 it numbered about 12,000
people, 5,000 French half-breeds, 5,000 English-speaking
half-breeds, and 2,000 whites, the last including the
Hudson's Bay officers and their descendants, the Selkirk
colonists, and a few Canadians and Americans. Outside
of this settlement up to the Rocky Mountains practically
no settlers dwelt, apart from the officers of the Hudson's
Bay Company.
Agitation had at times taken place among the people
of Red River settlement to protect their liberties against
OF MANITOBA 13
this Council, which was still a body appointed by the
Hudson's Bay Company, responsible for the government
of the country. About the year 1849 a number of
French half-breeds rescued one of their number from the
hands of a severe judge and carried the prisoner away,
crying, "Le Commerce est libre."
Large petitions which were numerously signed by the
settlers, had been sent over to England in 1847. A brilliant
lawyer and educationalist in London, A. K. Isbister,who
was a native of the Hudson's Bay Territories, a man of
Arcadian and Indian descent, became the trusted ad-
vocate of the people of the Red River settlement. This
true son of Rupert's Land afterwards left $83,000 to the
University of Manitoba. Further agitation led to the
appointment of a committee of the House of Commons in
1857, and a voluminous blue book marks the era which
led to the opening up of the whole Canadian West. Cana-
dian public men crossed the Atlantic again and again to
England, until at length, through the good offices of Mr.
Gladstone, it was decided that Canada should come into
possession of Rupert's Land and the Indian Territories,
on the payment of a million and a half of dollars to quiet
the claim of the Hudson's Bay Company. The better
elements of the Red River settlement were now in great
hopes for the future of their country. But a cloud over-
shadowed their bright visions. So far back as 1857 the
Canadian Government had despatched to Rupert's Land
a geological and topographical expedition under Pro-
fessor Hine. About the same time Great Britain sent
the Palliser-Hector expedition to spy out the land and
make a report. Even during these expeditions some ques-
tion was raised, as to whether such parties should be sent
at will to explore the country. Again, in 1869, when it
was thought that the transfer of the fur trader's land to
Canada was probable, the Canadian Government sent
out surveying parties to block out the land for incoming
settlers. The surveyors chanced to begin in the rear
14 HISTORICAL SKETCH
of the French parishes, which lay to the south of Fort
Garry. The surveyors showed themselves as dis-
courteous to the native people as their masters, the
Government at Ottawa, had shown themselves in ig-
noring the whole body of Red River settlers. The action
of the Ottawa Government in this matter is almost un-
accountable. They failed to send a message, have a
conference, or in the slightest extent recognize the
twelve thousand people in the confines of Assiniboia.
The Hudson's Bay Company officials resident in the
country were far from enthusiastic about the estab-
lishment of the new regime. All trouble might have been
avoided by a small amount of tact and conciliation.
The Hon. William McDougall of the Canadian Parlia-
ment, who had taken much part in the opening up of
the west, and who really had the best interests of the
new country at heart, came through the United States to
the boundary of Manitoba to take possession of the new
land.
Suddenly the French Metis, under a vainglorious but
impulsive leader of their own blood, Louis Riel, following
the tactics of their race in Paris, erected, some nine
miles south of Fort Garry, a "barriere" and sent a hos-
tile message to the incoming Governor. With a band of
French half-breeds, Riel next seized Fort Garry, the
Hudson's Bay Company making no active opposition.
The English-speaking people were paralyzed, efforts
were made to restore peace, but the French held the Fort.
Mr. Donald A. Smith, now Lord Strathcona, a high officer
of the Hudson's Bay Company, came post haste over the
American .prairies in the dead of winter as Commissioner
of the Canadian Government. He took up his abode in
Fort Garry, where Riel had also made his headquarters,
and succeeded in undermining the rebel chieftain's power.
Up to this time all the illegal acts of the rebel leader
might have been pardoned, had not Riel, with unac-
countable wisdom, put to death by public execution a
OF MANITOBA 17
Grand Trunk Pacific and their branches. The prosperous
condition of these railways now justifies the building of
the Hudson Bay Railway, which will give a route, with
a sea voyage from Fort Churchill to Liverpool, shorter
than from New York to any British port.
As to population, Manitoba began with some 12,000
people in 1870, and now is estimated to possess about
400,000 of a population, partly made up of large num-
bers of foreigners from the continent of Europe, as well
as of many settlers from the United Sates.
Two great problems have, in the provincial history of
nearly forty years, been of transcendent importance.
First came the great agitation for obtaining in the face
of the bargain with the Canadian Pacific Railway the
right of the province to build its own railways. This
fierce and determined struggle ended in the province
gaining the same rights in this respect as those
possessed by any other province. The other question,
which for some ten years disturbed the province and
even spread into an excitement over the whole Dominion,
was the introduction of a non-denominational system of
public school education. This question was also decided
in favor of the province.
THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES
The name ' North-West Territories' was used in regard
to the old region of Rupert's Land, whose rivers ran to
Hudson Bay, and also in reference to the wide extent
known as the Indian Territories, occupying the slope
which is drained into the Arctic Ocean. After Manitoba
had been taken from these territories and organized into
a province, the remainder was, under an Act passed by
the Mackenzie Government of Canada in 1875, placed
under the North-west Territories Act, and a Governor,
with advisers, was given to them. He resided in the
Territories, first at Fort Pelly, then at Battleford, and
18 HISTORICAL SKETCH
subsequently at Regina. The Territories were also placed
under a strict Prohibitory Liquor Law. Money grants
were passed for the various departments of the public
service by the Dominion Government. In course of time
a Local Legislature was granted to the Territories, in
view of the large influx of settlers pouring in. So great
was this increase that the Territories grew to have a
population of two-thirds that of Manitoba. In 1905
the Dominion Parliament at Ottawa passed legislation
forming two great provinces lying between Manitoba
and the Rocky Mountains and extending from 49* N.
the International Boundary line to lat. 60° N.
SASKATCHEWAN
(.
The first of these autonomous provinces is Saskatche-
wan. It has the vast extent of 250,650 square miles,
and is .possessed of the greatest agricultural possibilities.
It is in its southern, half chiefly a prairie; its northern
regions are covered with forests. The south-western
part of the prairie is chiefly adapted for ranching, some
portions of it needing irrigation, but the greater part, of
the province is adapted for the growth of cereals and
for mixed farming. Its population is about 250,000.
The province has a large proportion, of the old settle-
ments made up of Canadians from the eastern provinces,
but in the last decade vast numbers of foreigners from
the continent of Europe, and Americans have become
British subjects in Saskatchewan. Many of those who
have come from the United States are repatriated
Canadians or their children. The capital of Saskatche-
wan is the city of Regina, which in the last few years has
built up rapidly. Nedf by is the city of Moosejaw, a
railway centre created by the Canadian Pacific Railway ,
which rivals the capital in population. The city of Prince
Albert, near the present northerly line of settlement of
the province, is beautifully situated on the Saskatchewan
OF MANITOBA 19
River, and, being on the verge of the wooded district,
may be considered the lumber metropolis. Between
Regina and Prince Albert is the remarkable railway city
of Saskatoon, made by the three great lines of railway
crossing the South Saskatchewan River at this place.
The province of Saskatchewan has attracted a most
enterprising population, and bids fair to be most influen-
tial in the counsels of the Dominion. It has a well
organized system of primary and secondary schools,
and has taken steps to establish a University.
ALBERTA
The sister province of Alberta is more broken in sur-
face, and from being near the Rocky Mountains is more
varied in topographical features than Saskatchewan.
It has an area of 252,540 square miles, though possessing
a population of about 100,000. It contains land of
every variety, forest lands and prairie, lands for grazing
and grain growing, with a large portion of the southern
part of the province demands irrigation. It has vast coal
deposits of lignite, bituminous and anthracite coal, and
at points, such as Medicine Hat, great reservoirs of
natural gas. The capital of the province is Edmonton,
a city beautifully situated on the North Saskatchewan
River, and the depot of the great fur trade of the vast
Mackenzie and Peace River districts. It has grown with
great rapidity, -and is recognized by the railways as the
great centre of the North-western prairies. The second
city of the province is Calgary, on the main line of the
Canadian Pacific Railway. It has been more steady in
growth than Edmonton, is about the same size, and
is an important wholesale centre for Alberta. Railways
run from Calgary to the different parts of Southern
Alberta and connect with the American system of rail-
ways. Two places of some importance are found in
Southern Alberta : Lethbridge, a coal centre, and Medi-
20 HISTORICAL SKETCH
cine Hat, with manufacturing ambitions. The irrigation
works of Southern Alberta are notable, and in recent
years, by the introduction of winter wheat, Southern
Alberta is becoming a wheat-growing district. The
population of Alberta is very mixed ; it has a Canadian
basis, with large settlements of European foreigners and
an American population, of which considerable numbers
to the south of Lethbridge are Mormons.
BRITISH COLUMBIA
Mention has been made already of the early occupation
of the region beyond the Rockv Mountains. The early
history of British Columbia was, outside of the fur- trading
interests, of very little note.
The rush for gold 1857-8 added a few thousands of
people for a time, but they chiefly left for different parts
of the world when the gold fever subsided. When the
province entered the Dominion in 1871 the population
was estimated at 17,000, and these were mainly in the
old centres of Victoria, New Westminster and Nanaimo,
with ranching settlements up the valleys of the Eraser,
the Thompson and the Kootenay Rivers. The increase
of population in British Columbia has not been so rapid
as that of the prairie provinces, although the growth of
the city of Vancouver, the terminus of the Canadian
Pacific Railway, has been remarkable. The population,
which gathered around the Hudson's -Bay Company
establishments, was chiefly English, mixed with a
large element coming up the Coast from San Francisco
and California. Being mountainous— it has indeed been
called a sea mountain — and lying on the sea, British
Columbia has a great yarietv of resources. The salmon
and deep sea halibut fishing of British Columbia, along
with the seal fishing up the coast has always been a
source of wealth to the coast cities. Victoria, the capital
on Vancouver Island, was the earlier and more important
OF MANITOBA 21
trade centre. New Westminster on the Fraser River
had the inland trade up the river. Nanaimo has long
been famous as the greatest coal-producing centre on the
Pacific Coast, supplying large quantities to San Fran-
cisco. The choice of Vancouver city on Burrard Inlet,
by the Canadian Pacific railway in 1885-6, at once made
a new trade centre. The establishment of great Pacific
lines of ships to China and Australia from the port of
Vancouver has built up the city, while the easier access
to the upper country by railway has largely given Van-
couver, with its 70,000 of population, the leading place
in the province.
The mountains of British Columbia are rich in gold,
silver, copper and other minerals. The central district
of Upper British Columbia along the Kootenay River,
and the adjacent region have attracted population
and brought in capital for the mines. The most con-
siderable place in this district is the town of Nelson.
But the greatest resource of British Columbia at
present is the forests with their enormous growth of
pines and firs of different varieties. The timber export
from British Columbia to every part of the prairie pro-
vinces, as well as to different parts of the world, by sea
from Vancouver is enormous. Being on the western
coast of the continent, the climate of British Columbia is
moderated by the Pacific current, just as that of the
British Isles is by the Gulf stream. Accordingly the
valleys of British Columbia, especially on the Kootenay,
Okanagan and Shuswap Lakes are well adapted for
growing fruit, as are all the valleys of the Fraser and
Thompson. In many parts, however, irrigation is neces-
sary for this industry. The soil of the great interior of
British Columbia is largely made from disintegrated
volcanic rocks, and is said to be specially suitable for
plant growing. The fact that the prairie provinces
are not adapted for growing other than small fruits
gives this industry of British Columbia a great opportu-
22 HISTORICAL SKETCH
nity for development. British Columbia had before
the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway no inter-
course whatever with the prairie regions, nor with
Eastern Canada. For years after the province entered
the Dominion, much discontent prevailed with the
terms of Confederation. This was practically allayed
by the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway
in 1886. The presence of large numbers of Chinese,
Japanese and Hindoos has given rise to great prejudice
and even personal oppsition to the Asiatics in British
Columbia. Laws for the exclusion of these classes
have been passed by the British Columbia Legislature,
but these have been vetoed by the Canadian Govern-
ment on account of British treaties and interests
requiring friendly relations with Asiatic nations. The
building of the Grand Trunk Railway through the
northern part of British Columbia towards its terminus,
Prince Rupert, will open a new region of country and
introduce a large Canadian population. An educational
system has, with much expense and Government assist-
ance, been maintained in the scattered settlements in
the valleys and ranching districts, and many centres
of the province. No provincial University has yet been
founded in British Columbia.
WESTERN CANADA
The later development as a field for settlement of the
four provinces now described, and their separation from
Eastern Canada by the great stretch of unoccupied terri-
tory has naturally led to a diversity of interest between
the agricultural and manufacturing conditions of the
West and the East of Canada. New communities, more-
over, are apt to be assertive and dictatory. In conse-
quence of this it has been a constant line of policy among
the better class of Western Canadians to resent the local
feeling where too exaggerated, and to plead for a United
1 The Honorable Sir James Douglas, First Governor of British Columbia
2. His Honor G. H. V. Bulyea, First Lieutenant-Governor of Alberta.
3. His Honor Sir Adams G. Archibald, First Lleutenant-Gov'r of Manitoba
4. His Honor A. E Forget, First Lieutenant-Governor of Saskatchewan.
5. The Honorable David Laird, Fi rst L leut.-Gov'r of Northwest Territories
OF MANITOBA 23
Canada. The cry "Manitoba First" or "British Co-
lumbia First" is a dangerous and troublesome one. No
one doubts that Western Canadians are as thoroughly
loyal to the British Crown, the British Constitution and
the British Empire, as Eastern Canadians are. Well
nigh forty years of Confederation has, it is to be hoped,
led the West beyond most of the dangers of young com-
munities. The prosperity of the West and the spread of
a Canadian spirit has been largely brought out by a few
causes worthy of mention. The interests of Western
Canada have been strong in the imagination of the two
great statesmen Premiers of the Dominion — Sir John A.
Macdonald (1878-1896) and Sir Wilfrid Laurier (1896-
1909). They have both been enthusiastic for the West,
both have made their policy national and not local, both
have laboured and planned for the greater Canada. The
systems of public school and University education
brought to the Western provinces have been thoroughly
Canadian. Besides, the flow of population from the
East formerly going to the United States because new
fields of activity were needed, has been turned to our West-
ern provinces, and the proportion of young Canadian
University graduates who have come to us has been very
large. These as educated men have given a character to
our provincial life in its legislative and educational
aspects. Religious organizations have also done their
share. The great self-supporting churches of the
Dominion — Roman Catholic, Episcopalian, Presby-
terian and Methodist — have lavished men and money
from Canadian sources to mould the West. In this the
Canadian Western movement has greatly exceeded that
of the United States, for in the United States the move-
ment of the churches fell behind that of the people. In
Western Canada the Canadian missionaries of the
different churches have kept abreast of the forward line
of settlement. The national, educational and religious
movements of Canada have thus been strong and uninter-
24 HISTORICAL SKETCH
rupted, and now the Canadian spirit takes hold of the
newcomer, who, if he come from the continent of Europe,
is at once ambitious to learn the English tongue and to
embrace Canadian customs. These considerations con-
stitute an adequate reply to ardent Imperialists, who fear
the results of the admission into the country of such a
large foreign element. There is nothing in the immediate
outlook to warrant anxiety, and Canada need have no
fear for the future.
Winnipeg, the capital of Manitoba, is situated at the
junction of th'e Assiniboine and Red Rivers, in the middle
of a wide plain. The Red River valley being of excep-
tional richness, early attracted the traders, and so, in the
beginning of the nineteenth century, gained the attention
of Lord Selkirk, a benevolent Scottish nobleman, who
sent out in 1811-15 several hundreds of Highland settlers.
On the site at the junction of the two rivers where, as
before said, Verandrye — the first white explorer to visit
the Red River — had three quarters of a century before
this time erected Fort Rouge, and where, a decade
before, the Nor'-Westers of Montreal had built Fort
Gibraltar, the Hudson's Bay Company added Fort
Douglas, so named after the family name of Lord Sel-
kirk. After bloodshed between the rival fur companies
and their union in 1821, Fort Garry (1) was built as a
trading post and settlers' depot. Afterward with a
more elaborate structure, stone walls, bastions and
port holes, Fort Garry (2) was constructed at a con-
siderable cost in 1853. A short distance north of this
fort, about the year!860, the first house on the plain
was erected, and to the hamlet rising there was given
the name of the Lake, 45 miles north, Winnipeg (Cree:
Win, murky; nipiy, water). The name referred to the
contrast between its water and that of the transparent
OF MANITOBA 25
lakes to the East. For ten years the hamlet grew,
though very slowly, since it was more than four hundred
miles from St. Paul, the nearest town in Minnesota, to
the south. The fur traders did not seek to increase its
size. When the transfer of Rupert's Land to Canada
took place in 1870 the Governor of Assiniboia had his
residence at Fort Garry, and here was the centre of Gov-
ernment for the settlers in the surrounding area. The
acquisition of Manitoba by Canada, and the influx of
settlers from Eastern Canada led to the greater impor-
tance of Winnipeg, as the new town was now generally
called. The establishment of Dominion Government
agencies, the formation of a 'Local Government and the
machinery required for the Government of the province,
the influx of a small army of surveyors, who mapped out
and surveyed many districts of the country, and the
taking up of free lands in all directions by Canadian
settlers, all helped to build up the village of Winnipeg
into a considerable town.
THE GITY OF WINNIPEG
By C. F. ROLAND, Esq., Winnipeg.
WHATEVER may have been Lord Selkirk's ori-
ginal intention when he bought a controlling
interest in the then depreciated stock of the Hud-
son's Bay Company, the outcome, so far as the early
settlers were concerned, was that these people had
exceedingly hard times in Western Canada. In these
early days what was known as Canada lay hundreds
of miles to the eastward, and the great Northwest
was a wilderness of value only to trappers who
sought the pelts of fur-bearing animals for the two
great corporations, the Hudson's Bay and the North-
west Companies. The rigours of a climate far more
severe than they had been accustomed to, assailed the
pioneers from Scotland and Ireland who made up the
first Selkirk parties. They had few. tools suitable for
tilling the tough prairie sod, and most of them lacked
the agricultural lore necessary to attain success. They
were unskilled in hunting and had no suitable weapons
for the killing of game, nor any horses for chasing the
buffalo that roamed the plains in thousands during the
summer until the fierce storms of winter drove them
southward. The 'chief business of the country was the
gathering of furs, and between the upper and nether
millstones of the two companies that engaged in this
business in sharp, bitter and even deadly rivalry, the
colonists were caught and ground so severely that they
were fairly at a loss to know what to do to maintain, a
position which should enable them to keep the good will
of one party without incurring the enmity of the other.
Six years after the arrival of the first contingent of
Selkirk settlers, a plague of grasshoppers for several
successive years, devoured the grain crops which the
colonists had been able to grow with infinite toil.
THE CITY OF WINNIPEG 27
The great flood of 1826 was another disaster that
wrought havoc to the settlers' hopes. Because of these
troubles and others of a lesser but still serious nature,
many of the colonists left the country seeking better
conditions of life than they found under the auspices
of the noble Earl. On June 19th, 1816, matters were
brought to a climax between the rival fur-trading parties
by the Seven Oaks massacre, in which twenty-one on
the side of the Hudson's Bay and one man of the North-
west Company lost their lives. This sanguinary episode
gave pause to both parties in the fight for trade suprem-
acy. There can be no doubt that after this incident
life for the Selkirk settlers on the banks of the Red
River, became more endurable.
After the grasshopper plague had passed in 1823, the
grain crops became again abundant, and the settlement
at Kildonan, out of which grew the City of Winnipeg,
became more firmly established. It was many years,
however, before the growth began which in less than
forty years has made a city of 130,000 people from a
tiny village. The Seven Oaks affray called the at-
tention of the home Government in England more
closely to the seriousness of the quarrel in the Northwest
between the fur-trading companies, and stricter super-
vision resulted. Trade sprang up between the settle-
ments on the Red River and the United States settle-
ments to the South. The richness of the soil, and the
ease of cultivation becoming known to more people,
settlers came into the country, not only from Great
Britain by the way of Hudson's Bay, but also from
Eastern Canada and the United States. In 1862, the
first steamboat — • the Anson Northup — navigated the
upper Red River as far as Fort Garry with a good cargo
of freight and a number of passengers, a great event
for the colonists of those days.
Realizing their need of a more stable Government, the
Northwest territories petitioned the Canadian Govern-
28 Tin-, CITY
ment in 1857 to include them in the Dominion. This
step was not actually carried out for some years; the con-
federation was finally decided upon and entered into in
1869, the Northwest territories becoming a part of
Canada. The Hudson's Bay Company was paid £300,-
000 as an indemnity.
This act of confederation brought on the first Riel Re-
bellion which grew out of claimS made by the half-breeds
that they were the real owners of the land and should
receive payment for it. The half-breeds heavily out-
numbered the whites, and led by Louis Riel, a French
half-breed of some ability and much initiative, made
prisoners the white population of the Winnipeg settle-
ment. These were confined in Upper Fort Garry and
one man, Thomas Scott, was executed. The others were
released after having been imprisoned in the Fort for
some weeks. Troops sent from the East brought order
out of the chaos into which the Riel Rebellion had
plunged the public affairs of the Red river settlement,
and from that time the tiny trading post at the junc-
tion of the Red and Assiniboine rivers, took on a new
character. In 1870 the first census of Winnipeg was
taken, and showed 213 persons in the village. Eleven
years afterwards, in 1881, there were 7,985 people, and
Winnipeg had been an incorporated city since 1874. By
leaps and bounds the city's growth has advanced. In
1891 the population was 27,068. In 1901 it had grown to
44,778, and during the five years from 1900 to 1906, the
city more than doubled its population. This increase was
chiefly due to immigration from Great Britain, other
European countries, and the United States. More than
ten thousand of the present population of 130,000 resi-
dent within the city limits have come from the United
States. Geographically, Winnipeg is situated almost
halfway between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of
British North America, and sixty miles north of the
boundary line between Canada and the United States.
OF WINNIPEG 29
Politically, it is the capital of the province of Manitoba,
and commercially, the leading city of Western Canada.
The government of the city is carried on under a
Charter from the Provincial Legislature. The Council
is composed of a Mayor, four Controllers forming the
Board of Control, and fourteen Aldermen. The Mayor
and Controllers are elected annually by vote of the
entire city. One Alderman is elected annually from
each of the seven wards into which the city is divided,
and holds office for a term of two years. The Mayor is
Chief Magistrate of the city. Persons eligible for elec-
tion as Mayor and Controller must be owners of property
rated on the assessment roll of the city to the value of
two thousand dollars. Aldermsn must possess propertv
rated in like manner to the amount of five hundred dol-
lars. Nominations and elections are held annually in
December.
The Board of Control is the executive body, and as
such deals with all financial matters, regulates and super-
vises expenditures, revenues and investments. It also
directs and controls departments, nominates all heads
of departments, prepares specifications, advertises for
tenders and awards all contracts for works, materials
and supplies required. It further inspects and reports
to the Council upon all municipal works being carried
on or in progress, and generally administers the affairs
of the city. The public schools are under the control of
the Public School Board, elected annually by the rate-
pavers. The police department is under the authority
of the Board of Police Commissioners, which consists of
the Mavor, the County Court Judge, the Police Magis-
trate and two Aldermen appointed bv the Council.
The present Mayor of Winnipeg is W. Sanford Evans,
elected in December 1908 to succeed Mayor James H.
Ashdown, the latter declining a nomination for a third
term. Since the first election of a mavor of Winnipeg
in 1S74, the city has had the following twenty-two chief
30 THE CITY
Executives — including Mr. Evans the present Mayor
1874 Francis Evans Cornish, Q. C.
1875 William Nassau Kennedy.
1876 William Nassau Kennedy.
1877 Thomas Scott.
1878 Thomas Scott.
1879 Alexander Logan.
1880 Alexander Logan.
1881 Elias George Conklin.
1882 Alexander Logan.
1883 Alexander McMicken.
1884 Alexander Logan.
1885 Charles Edward Hamilton.
1886 Henry Shaver Weshook.
1887 Lyman Melvin Jones.
1888 Lyman Melvin Jones.
1889 Thomas Ryan.
1890 Alfred Pearson.
1891 Alfred Pearson.
1892 Alexander McDonald.
1893 Thomas William Taylor.
1894 Thomas William Taylor.
1895 Thomas Gilroy.
1896 Richard Willis Jameson.
1897 William F. McCreary.
1898 Alfred J. Andrews.
1899 Alfred J. Andrews.
1900 Horace Wilson.
1901 John Arbuthnot.
1902 John Arbuthnot.
1903 John Arbuthnot.
1904 Thomas Sharpe.
1905 Thomas Sharpe.
1906 Thomas Sharpe.
1907 James H. Ashdown.
1908 James H. Ashdown.
1909 W. Sanford Evans.
OF WINNIPEG 31
During the thirty-four years that these gentlemen
have filled the mayor's office, the city has made wonder-
ful progress.
Condensed and reduced to figures, the growth of Win-
nipeg since 1890 is given in the following table:
Total
Year Real Personal Assessable, Popu-
April Property Property Property lation
1891 $17,587,420 $2,365,850 $19,994,270 27,068
1892 17,845,450 2,492,650 20,338,100 29,182
1893 18,658,200 3,034,000 21,692,300 32,119
1894 18,760,950 3,240,380 22,001,330 34,954
1895 19,125,510 3,043,480 22,168,990 37,124
1896 19,498,660 2,061,770 22,650,430 37,983
1897 19,745,930 3,086,090 22,832,020 38,733
1898 19,670,680 3,181,020 22,851,700 39,384
1899 ' 20,049,890 3,469,630 23,519,520 40,112
1900 ' * 21,316,000 3,761,460 25,077,460 42,534 \
1901 ' 22,355,600 4,050,170 26,405,770 44,778 \,
1902 IT 23,938,860 4,676,950 28,615,810 48,411 *
1903 b: y 30,873,910 5,399,490 36,273,400 56,603
1904 1; U41,10(5,870 7,108,080 48,214,950 67,265 l<
1905 ' 53,786,070 8,941,560 62,727,630 72,795*'
1 906 rVt 69,624,550 10,887,175 80,511,725 101,057 *'
1907 ' 93,855,500 12,333,333 106,188,833 111,717 '^
1908 102,790,170 13,316,220 116,106,390 118,252
The growth of the public school system is of con-
siderable interest, and is shown in the following table:
Teach- Build-
Year ers ing Cost Pupils
1871 1 1 35
1876 4 2 $ 3,500 123
1886 49 11 220,000 2,831
1896 96 14 397,700 6,374
1900 119 16 487,000 7,500
1903 140 18 750,000 9,500
32 THE CITY
1904 168 19 774,500 10,308
1905 192 21 1,071,701 11,675
1906 220 26. 1,213,931 13,445
1907 248 30 1,700,000 14,835
1908 267 33 2,000,000 15,499
The city's public school system is well housed in
buildings of the most modern and substantial construc-
tion. By an Act of 1890 and subsequent amending Acts
it is provided that all state-aided schools shall be free
and non-sectarian. The school system is directed by a
department of the Provincial Civil service known as the
Department of Education presided over by the Minister
of Education (at present the Hon. G. R. Coldwell, K.C.)
and his deputy (Mr. R. Fletcher, B.A.). There is an
advisory board for the purpose of assisting the depart-
ment in more technical matters. This board consists of
ten members appointed by the department and other
bodies. Provision is made for both primary "and second-
ary education, the primary course extending over eight
years. In the rural districts of the Province which are
sparsely populated, the schools are small and the
attendance is irregular.
In many communities where there is a variety of race
and language, bi-lingual schools have been established,
but it has been found necessary to organize a Ruthenian
Normal school for the training of teachers for schools
for this class of pupils. There are two Ruthenian schools
in the Province, one in Winnipeg and one in Brandon.
The language question in the city schools presents
little difficulty as there is alwavs a certain number of
English-speaking children; the teachers speak English,
and the foreign children learn the language very quickly.
Secondary education is carried on in the Intermediate
and High schools and Collegiate institutes. The In-
termediate schools serve the smaller centres of popula-
tion, and carry on the first two years of High school
OF WINNIPEG 33
work. The High schools and Collegiate institutes offer
a choice of three courses, a two years course leading to a
certificate of competency in commercial subjects, a three
years course leading to matriculation in the University,
and a four years course for a teacher's certificate of the
first class. Collegiate institutes • must have not fewer
than four teachers; the Principal must be a University
graduate, and the assistants must hold at least first
class, grade A, certificates. Principals of High Schools
must have at least first class grade A certificates, and
the assistants those of first class grade B . Several other
institutions organized for higher education, but having
preparatory departments as well, do the work of a
secondary school. Their courses for the most part lead
to matriculation in the University.
Professional training for teachers is given in the
Provincial Normal school and its model school. The
Principal is Dr. W. A. Mclntyre and this school is the
centre of the system. Its work goes far to determine the
ideals and aims of its students in training, and the spirit
and tone of the schools conducted by them. On its
efficiency depends in a large measure the success of the
teaching force of the Province. Supervision of the
various schools is exercised by means of a corps of
experienced and skilled inspectors. The funds for the
maintenance of the schools are raised by a general
municipal' tax sufficient to give to each school district
$240 per annum for each teacher, and by special levy
on the land situated within the school district, for what-
ever sum may be necessary in addition to the amount
received from the municipality and the government
grant, which is $130 per school.
At the organization of the Province, two sections of
land in each township were set aside for school purposes
and a portion of these lands havebeen sold at good prices.
The proceeds of the sale go into the School Lands Fund,
34 THE CITY
which according to the law governing the matter is in-
vested by the Government in securities bearing three
per cent. The revenue thus derived from the fund and
the interest on deferred payments are handed over by
the Dominion Government for the benefit of the schools.
(The question is frequently asked why a fund belonging
to the Province, for the maintenance of one of the most
important interests of the Province should be invested
in securities yielding such a meagre return, when loan
companies and other conservative and careful corpor-
ations find safe investments that yield them double the
rate.)
In addition to the state-aided institutions there are
in Winnipeg several excellent private schools. Higher
education in the Province is undertaken by the Univer-
sity of Manitoba and certain colleges. The University
is a small and by no means beautiful structure. It re-
sembles, in fact, in size and general style the public
elementary schools of the city. But it must be explained
that the University at present only teaches scientific
subjects. Arts, Medicine, and Agriculture are taught
in "affiliated" colleges which are scattered in various
parts of the city. Thus, the classics and modern lan-
guages are taught in the four "affiliated" denominational
colleges, St. Boniface (Roman Catholic), St. John's
(Church of England), Manitoba College (Presbyterian),
and Wesley College (Methodist) , Medicine is taught in
the Manitoba Medical College, and Agriculture in the
Manitoba Agricultural College (Provincial Government)
at Tuxedo Park. The University of Manitoba has been a
teaching institution for 5 or 6 years. Founded in 1871
as an Examining Board, the University itself at present
undertakes instructions in Mathematics, Chemistry,
Physics, Botany, Physiology, Pathology and Bacteri-
ology, and Civil and Electrical Engineering. But
chairs in English, History and Political Economy have
been recently established, and these new departments
OF WINNIPEG 35
will commence work next October. The government
and organization of the University is undoubtedly in an
unsatisfactory state, and is, in fact, the subject of a Gov-
ernment Commission at the present time. There is a
widespread feeling that the Province ought to have a
Provincial University of the type provided in many
States of the Republic to the South and entirely free
from any denominational influences. In addition to the
denominational colleges mentioned above there is a
Baptist college at Brandon.
Winnipeg is not yet largely provided with learned
societies, but two perhaps deserve mention, viz.: the
Historical Society and the Scientific Club. There are
numerous social clubs and societies of various kinds.
Among the former are the Manitoba and Commerical
Clubs ; prominent among the latter are the Canadian
Club of Winnipeg, the Women's Canadian Club and
the Women's Musical Club.
The churches of Winnipeg have also kept pace with
the city's growth and there are now 115 churches of
various denominations in Winnipeg. All of these have
been established since 1869 although the Rev. John
West, a clergyman of the Church of England, came to
the Selkirk colony in 1820, and the Rev. John Black
arrived in 1851 to take charge of the Presbyterian
congregation.
The bulk of Winnipeg's church-going population is
divided between the Presbyterian, Anglican, Roman
Catholic and Methodist churches. Calculated on a
population basis of 100,000, the religious preference cen-
sus of Winnipeg shows eighteen per cent Presbyterian;
seventeen per cent Church of England; fifteen per cent
Roman Catholic ; thirteen and a half per cent Methodist ;
five per cent Baptist; five per cent Hebrews; seven per
cent Evangelical Lutheran ; three and a quarter per cent
Congregational ; one per cent Salvation Army ; seven and
36 THE CITY
a quarter per cent of other denominations, and eight per
cent with no preference to avow.
Winnipeg, the capital of Manitoba, is the seat of the
Provincial government and judiciary. Here are the
Provincial Parliament buildings and the chief Law
Court of the Province. The present provincial govern-
ment is of the Conservative party and its chief officers
are : The Honorable R. P. Roblin, Premier and Min-
ister of Agriculture, the Honorable Robert Rogers,
Minister of Public Works, the Honorable Hugh Arm-
strong, Provincial Treasurer, the Honorable G. R. Cold-
well, Municipal Commissioner and Minister of Education,
the Honorable Colin H. Campbell, Attorney-General,
the Honorable J. H. Howden, Railway Commissioner
and Provincial Secretary. The Manitoba judiciary is
modelled upon the British Law Courts system, with
Assize Court, County Court, Provincial Police Courts and
Civic Police Courts for the different judicial districts and
the cities. From the highest Court in the Province—
the Court of Appeals — there is a further appeal to the
Supreme Court of Canada, and from there to the Privy
Council in London. Winnipeg possesses a civic police
force of one hundred officers under command of J. C.
McRae. This force is deemed insufficient and is to be
augmented by the addition of seventy-five officers, the
establishment of five sub-stations, the installation of an
electric call system, and patrol wagons at each of the
stations, central and auxiliary.
The civic government of Winnipeg is marked by a
progressive policy in keeping with the remarkable
growth of the City. At the present time the municipal
officers are: His Worship Mayor W. Sanford Evans;
the Board of Control consisting of Mayor Evans, Chair-
man, R. D. Waugh, J. W. Cockburn, A. A. Me Arthur,
J. G. Harvey; Aldermen F. W. Adams, R. C. McD.onald,
F. O. Fowler, E. Cass, R. T. Riley, Lendrum McMeans,
W G. Douglas, W. R. Milton, J. R. Gowler, M. Wil-
OF WINNIPEG 37
loughby, F. J.'C. Cox, C. Midwinter, J. A. Potter, D. W.
McLean.
Municipal ownership is recognized and popular
with our citizens, and is widely adopted. The city
owns and operates its water- works plant, street lighting
system, stone quarry, fire alarm system, asphalt plant
and a high pressure plant for the better protection of the
city from fire. Winnipeg enjoys the distinction of being
the first city in America to acquire a municipal asphalt
plant. In 1906, the city purchased a stone quarry for civic
improvement purposes, and this quarry is worked for
the production of road metal and material for grano-
lithic walks. The material for these granolithic walks
is composed of crushed stone, sand and cement. Con-
structed as they are by the city employees, these side-
walks are practically indestructible. There are more
than 78 miles of such pavements in Winnipeg, all of
which have been laid down by the civic street de-
partment.
Most important of all the municipally owned public
utilities is that of a plant which is now in process of con-
struction at Point du Bois for the furnishing of cheap
power to consumers in Winnipeg. In 1906 the citizens
of Winnipeg passed a by-law authorizing the Council to
borrow $3,250,000 to be used in acquiring this site and
installing the necessary plant and works to bring the
power to the city. The preliminary surveys and ex-
aminations were made in 1906 and the designs com-
menced in the same year. During 1907 the designs were
completed and tenders received. Contracts for building
a 24 mile steam railway approaching the works on the
Winnipeg River and for clearing the transmission line
have been let and this work is nearly completed. Mr.
Cecil B. Smith, C. E., is Chief Engineer in charge of the
design and construction of this water power develop-
ment and a Board of Consulting Engineers, composed
38 THE CITY
of Col. H. N. Ruttan, City Engineer, Winnipeg; Prof.
Louis Herdt, Montreal; and Wm. Kennedy, Jr., Mon-
treal have also been appointed to advise upon and as-
sist in the designs. The machinery and plant will be
second to none on the continent of North America.
When the power is available it is estimated that it can be
sold to consumers at the sub-stations in the city at $18.00
per H. P. per annum for the first installation of about
17,000 horse power. When the demand for power has
increased sufficiently to warrant the step, the amount
available will be increased to 34,000 H. P. and the cost
at sub-stations, it is estimated, will then be reduced to
$13.87 per annum. When the full capacity of the plant
shall have been developed — about 60,000 horse power
per annum has been fixed at $12.46 for each unit.
Consumers of electric power in Winnipeg are now
supplied by the Winnipeg Electric Railway Company—
a private corporation — at a cost of from $35.00 per
horse power per annum upwards, in proportion to the
quantity of power consumed. During the early part
of the current year, negotiations were entered into be-
tween the civic authorities and the Winnipeg Electric
Railway Company with a view to purchase, by the city,
of the Company's generating power plant at Lac du
Bonnet, and of the several other utilities of the Com-
pany, including the Winnipeg street car system, the
gas plant which now furnishes the 'city with gas for
lighting and fuel, and the domestic electric lighting
franchise. These negotiations, however, fell through
and several large contracts were let for the work on the
municipal power plant the first installation of which is
expected to be completed in 191 1. In 1905 the city
was authorized to proceed with the construction of a
municipal gas plant* to cost $600,000. But although
some investigations were carried out, no definite pro-
ceedings have yet been undertaken.
OF WINNIPEG 39
Of the public utilities owned by Winnipeg, the water-
works system is perhaps the most important. Until
1899, the city was supplied with water by a private cor-
poration, but it was decided to take this highly import-
ant matter under municipal control and ownership.
The present system was thereupon installed — in a small
way at first — and has been extended concomitantly with
the growth of the city.
In view of the geological formation of the surrounding
country artesian wells constitute the only practicable
means of obtaining a satisfactory water supply in the
immediate neighborhood. The river water is too muddy
to be used for a domestic supply without costly filtration;
there are no suitable lakes from which a gravitation
supply may be obtained within a reasonable distance
of the city. In the future, however, the growth of the
city will undoubtedly compel the utilization of a distant
supply, whatever expense may be involved. For the
present the artesian well system is found to yield an
adequate supply of water, which, although hard, is prac-
tically free from organic impurities.
The Winnipeg water supply is taken from six of these
artesian wells which are about 65 feet deep, except well
No. (5) which is 110 feet deep, and their capacity is as
follows :
Well No. (2) 3,000,000 gallons.
Well No. (3) 900,000 gallons.
Well No. (4) 1,200,000 gallons.
Well No. (5) 5,000,000 gallons.
Well No. (6) 1,500,000 gallons.
This gives a daily total supply of ten million gallons
which has thus far proved ample for the city's needs.
The water is pumped into reservoirs, one of 300,000,
and the other of 6,000,000 gallons capacity and from
these is distributed to the several parts of the city.
40 THE CITY
The water, in its natural state contains a large amount
of carbonates of lime and magnesium, and in order to
remove these constituents the water is put through a
softening process, which removes on an average, about
sixty-eight per cent, of the hardening substances. This
softening plant was installed in 1900 but not all of the
city water is subjected to the softening process, although
a proposition recently made to accomplish this was re-
jected on the ground of unnecessary expense. For the
purposes of the City Water Works Department, Win-
nipeg is divided into three districts^ ^id the rates are
fixed on the basis of the number of rooms in the houses
supplied. For instance for a house containing 4 rooms
or less the rate is $1.50 per quarter, while for a house
of 16 rooms the rate is $5.55 per quarter. The allow-
ance according to the consolidated rate, is 20 gallons
per room per day, and special rates are. given to manu-
facturers who use large quantities of water.
Supplementary to the civic water works system, and
for the better protection of the city from fire, Winnipeg
has a high pressure plant which has been put in actual
service within the past few months. Four years were
occupied in the construction of this plant, which cost
$1,000,000. The engine house, the heart of the system,
is situated on the bank of the Red river at the foot of
James street east. The building is of massive brick
construction 158 by 92 feet inside measurement and was
constructed entirely by day labor. Owing to the character
of the soil in that vicinitv the excavation for foundations
and engine beds had to be carried to a great depth, but
the concrete work was pushed throughout the winter of
1906-7 demonstrating that winter construction is per-
fectly feasible in Manitoba. The solidity of the struc-
ture is one of its most striking features. The roof is car-
ried on steel trusses, supported by heavy steel columns,
which also carry their share of the weight of the heavy
OF WINNIPEG 41
cranes used in handling the machinery. These columns
divide the building into two bays, each of which contains
ihree of the six pumping units. Water is drawn through
two suction mains 24 inches in diameter, tapering to
16 inc*hes before they drop into the wells, which draw
water from the river through a 36-inch concrete culvert,
connected with deep water to give freedom from mud
at all seasons of the year.
The engines are of producer gas type of the Cross-
ley make, and are of the "Otto" or four cycle construc-
tion having single acting tandem cylinders. All parts
subject to the high temperature of the exploding gas
mixture, are water cooled, and the low tension magnetic
ignition system is in duplicate. The four large engines
are of 540 brake horse power each when running on pro-
ducer gas, and have cylinders 32 inches in diameter with
36-inch stroke. The smaller engines are of 250 horse
power each with cylinders of 22 inches diameter and 30-
inch stroke. For starting these engines, compressed air
at 200 pounds pressure, is employed. It is turned into
the cylinders as in a steam engine and as soon as the
engine is under motion the gas mixture is fed in. The
compressor plant consists of two 20-horse power engines
driving single acting air compressors. In the gas pro-
ducer plant any quality of coal may be used, either
anthracite, bituminous or lignite, and with anthracite at
$8.50 per ton, the cost of operation is 425 cents per horse
power per hour. The plant is now being operated on
bituminous slack. The coal is delivered on a spur track
at the rear of the main building and is raised by an ele-
vator to the conveyors, which deliver it to the hoppers
of the producers. Of these there are four, — two of
1,000-horse power and two of 500-horse power capacity.
The producers are of the familiar tvpe, the gas being
formed by passing steam and air in definite proportions
over the incandescent fuel. From the producers it
42 THE CITY ;
passes through the "scrubbers" where it is cleared of
certain impurities and delivered to the gasometer out-
side, which has a capacity of 250,000 cubic feet of gas, or
enough to run one engine for eight hours at full load.
So complete is the equipment that all of the engines can
be started up and a full load put on the mains in five
minutes. The total pumping capacity of the plant is
9,000 gallons of water a minute or 23,000,000 gallons a
day of 24 hours. In other words the six engines would
fill a tank of 1,440 cubic feet in one minute. The four
main units are capable of delivering 1,800 gallons of
water a minute at a pressure of 300 pounds to the square
inch, and as the service requires, other units are readily
thrown into action up to the full capacity of the plant.
In practice the action of water at 300 pounds pressure
to the inch is tremendous, for this pressure is equivalent
to a column of water 700 feet in height. Tests have
shown that a column of water can be thrown 200 feet in
the air, and with the equipment at the high pressure
plant 24 streams of 1J inches diameter each could be
thrown over the top of the Union Bank, the tallest
building in Winnipeg, or ten streams of two inches each,
an argument which any fire, possible in the city, must
needs respect.
Up to the present time the city has installed 78 of the
high pressure hydrants and has laid down 7 miles of
special water mains of 8, 10, 12 and 20 inch diameter.
The hydrants are so arranged that a number of streams
from -them can be concentrated on any section of the
business area thus giving the greatest measure of pro-
tection. In addition to these hydrants the city has
1,245 hydrants connected with the domestic pressure.
The fire fighting equipment consists of 38,000 feet of 1\
inch hose, 5,500 feet of 3£ inch hose, and 48 branches
and tips ranging in size from 1^ to 2£ inches in diameter.
In the high pressure district there are three fire halls with
OF WINNIPEG 43
a staff of 60 men. At the pumping station 26 men are
employed in three shifts, and in an ordinary running
day five tons of coal are used. The estimated annual
expense of operation is about $45,000.
The chief streets of Winnipeg are splendidly wide and
smoothly laid in asphalt pavement, with granolithic
sidewalks proportionate to the width of the carriage
and traffic ways. Residential streets are "boulevarded"
and have rows of trees on either side with asphalt pave-
ment and granolithic walks, the whole giving a clean and
pleasant appearance. The city parks although small
are numerous, but there are some of larger extent in
the suburbs, notably the new city park on the Assini-
boine River. This park is nearlv 300 acres in extent
and has been tastefully laid out. There are eight theatres
in Winnipeg ; three or four of the larger houses are so
enterprising as to secure some of the best touring com-
panies on the continent. Owing to the comparative
remoteness from other large centres Winnipeg has been
able to support for some years a very efficient stock com-
pany. Favorite summer resorts for the people of Win-
nipeg are Winnipeg Beach situated on Lake Winnipeg,
and within easy reach of the city; and Kenora on the
Lake of the Woods about 100 miles distant.
Winnipeg is very important as a railway centre. But
the excellent railroad facilities that now exist are a com-
paratively recent achievement. The first railway to
afford transportation east and west through Manitoba,
was the Canadian Pacific, a company that now has
some 13,000 miles of track and carries passengers and
freight three-quarters of the way round the world by
land and sea. This great transportation company is
the outgrowth of a government scheme originated
about 1870, for the construction of a transcontinental
line across the Dominion of Canada. In 1878 when the
Conservatives, under Sir John A. Macdonald, were
44 THE CITY
returned to power, the building of the railway, which
had been carried on under the auspices of the govern-
ment in power, was turned over to a company formed
by capitalists for the purpose; the principal terms of
the agreement being that the syndicate thus formed
should receive $25,000,000 in cash payments and 25,-
000,000 acres of land skirting the railroad tracks through
the provinces traversed by the line. The Canadian
Pacific Railway Company thus became possessed of
large tracts of land which were then considered to be of
little value, but which have since turned out to be worth
a very large sum of money for agricultural and other
purposes. The company refused to accept the land
along their tracks in parts of British Columbia, and in
place of this a new allotment was made of land in the
Peace River Valley, through which the Canadian
Pacific company became possessed of some 2,000,000 or
3,000,000 acres of the best land of that far north- western
country which is as yet so sparsely settled, but which
promises to add another section of unexampled richness
to the already extensive domains in the Canadian North-
west.
By June, 1881, the Canadian Pacific had completed its
tracks across Manitoba, from Winnipeg "west to Portage
la Prairie and eastward to Kenora, or Rat Portage as it
was then called and had also taken over the Pembina
branch of the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba road
from Winnipeg to the Manitoba boundary on the south,
at Emerson. Since that time the Canadian Pacific
Railway has made marvellous progress toward pre-
eminence among the railroad systems of the world. It
has not only stretched its lines of steel across the entire
breadth of the continent of North America, but has
built thousands of miles of branch tracks and has insti-
tuted great lines of ocean-going vessels on both Atlantic
and Pacific. It has also a complete system of passenger
OF WINNIPEG 45
and freight service on the Great Lakes, another fleet on
the inland waters of British Columbia, a line of fast boats
from Vancouver to Victoria and Seattle and perhaps
the most thorough equipment of hotels and hotel service
all along the route of travel in Canada, of any railroad
company in the world. Immense elevators for the stor-
ing of grain must be added to the list of conveniences for
the transaction of the business incident to the estab-
lishment of such a powerful railroad system, and when
it is stated that the development of the Canadian North-
west and that of the Canadian Pacific Railroad have
been coincident events, no surprise need be manifested,
because there have been on the one side, the numerous
and well nigh mandatory calls of the people for greatei
railroad facilities and on the other, strong and con-
tinuous efforts of the corporation to supply these de-
mands to the best of its ability.
In Western Canada all roads lead to Winnipeg. No
railway corporation would think of trying to pass
through any part of Western Canada from east to west
certainly, or from south to north except in the far west-
ern part, without touching the prairie city. No trav-
eller thinks of visiting anv part of the Canadian North-
west without making Winnipeg one of his principal
stopping places. Merchants, manufactures, capitalists,
mechanics, and immigrants of all kinds, in short, all
sorts and conditions of men who decide to make their
home in Western Canada, come in the first place to
Winnipeg, and frequently make it their headquarters.
Situated as it is almost in the very heart of the con-
tinent. Winnipeg has become not only an important
focus of railway traffic, but is also rapidlv developing
into a great centre of railway industries. It is the home
of thousands of railroad employees, and is conspicuously
a "railroad town." It is indeed confidently asserted by
many that it will soon become one of the greatest rail-
road centres of the world.
46 THE CITY
The Winnipeg station of the Canadian Pacific Railway
Company is a new and very fine structure. This station
is one of the chief centres of human interest in the city,
and provides a striking study in nationalities and social
conditions, for in its waiting hall are found represent-
ative immigrants from almost every country on the face
of the globe, and from every rank of society. Mingled
together in this motley throng are the poorest of Eur-
opean peasants, impoverished members of aristocratic
families, and immigrants, who are better equipped for
commencing their career in a new country. There is a
fair sprinkling too of wealthy travellers, tourists and
others. The varied nature of costume including as it
frequently does the Winnipegger's winter uniform, the
"coon coat," side by side with the picturesque garb of
Central Europe or of China or Japan, adds in no small
degree to the interest of the scene. On the whole there
are few places where one would encounter a more cos-/
mopolitan or picturesque multitude.
The railway yards of the Canadian Pacific Company
are stated to be the largest in existence which are owned
by a single corporation. There are 120 miles of track with
accommodation for more than 10,000 cars. Con-
veniently situated west of the city are the central work-
shops of this company, which are on a specially large
scale. In them all sorts of repairs to the rolling stock
are carried out, and sufficient men are employed to make
up with their wives and families a fair-sized town.
Indeed the district of the city in which these people live
is often referred to as C. P. R. town, and their total
number must be close upon 12,000, the actual number of
workmen being 3,500. The population of C. P. R. town is
thus more by 4,000 than that of Winnipeg at the time
when the railway was constructed.
When, in 1881, the first Canadian Pacific rails were
laid west of Winnipeg, the white population of Canada
between the Great Lakes and the Rocky Mountains was
OF WINNIPEG 47
66,161. Manitoba contained 59,187 people of whom
8,000 were in Winnipeg. In the Northwest territory
there were only 6,971 white people practically all living
on the fur trade, while there were 49,500 Indians.
In this territory or three-fourths of the prairie country
there was only one white person for every 35 square
miles of arable land. To-day there are more than
twice as many people in Winnipeg alone as there then
were in all of the vast country between the Great Lakes
and the Rocky Mountains, and spreading their tracks
all over this country are three other great railway sys-
tems besides the Canadian Pacific.
Next in importance to the Canadian Pacific is the
Canadian Northern Railway which has also undergone a
phenomenal growth and is of even more recent estab-
lishment than the Canadian Pacific. The following is a
short history of the beginning and growth of the Cana-
dian Northern. In 1895 the Charter was obtained for
the Lake Manitoba Railway and Canal Company, and in
the following year the construction of a railway from
Gladstone was commenced. One hundred miles of road
were completed by the Autumn of 1896 and at once put
in operation. Each year thereafter mileage was added
to the Canadian Northern system until in 1909 the road
covers or controls no less than 3,000 miles of track.
This extends east and west from Fort William, includes
a line from Edmonton south to Duluth and numerous
branches throughout the three prairie provinces. Plans
are now being prepared for the extension of the road
west to Vancouver and east to the Atlantic Coast, and
this scheme will undoubtedly be carried through within
the next few years.
The Winnipeg railway works of the Canadian Northern
Railway are large and in the future are certain to con-
stitute one of the chief local industries. New buildings
on an extensive scale have just been completed at Fort
Rouge and at present a force of nearly 1 ,000 men is em-
48 THE CITY
ployed in the various departments. These include the
numerous branches of work in connection with the
building and repair of rolling stock. As the mileage of
the road increases throughout the west this force will
be constantly augmented. The group of buildings
known as the shops of the Canadian Northern at Fort
Rouge, comprise the round house, boiler shops, erecting
shops, blacksmith shops, machine shops, coach shops,
coach yard and repair tracks.
Up to the present time the Canadian Pacific and the
Canadian Northern have been the principal railroads
of Western Canada, but the Grand Trunk Pacific is fast
approaching completion, and will, when finished, be a
means of travel and transportation little, if at all, in-
ferior to the magnificent system built up by the Can-
adian Pacific. No less ambitious than its predecessors
in the field, the Grand Trunk Pacific Company was
formed to carry out a stupendous scheme of transcon-
tinental transportation, and, in due season, of ocean
navigation also. The company was incorporated in 1903
and has contracts with the Canadian government for
the construction and operation of a transcontinental
road of which the main line alone will be 3,600 miles
long. Branch lines are provided for under a charter
granted to a subsidiary company, formed in 1906, which
will increase the total mileage by about 5,000 miles. The
main line will stretch from Moncton, New Brunswick,
to Prince Rupert, British Columbia, and the chief point
of division between the two terminal cities is Winnipeg.
For purposes of construction, the system is divided into
two parts, the eastern and western divisions with Winni-
peg as the central point. This gigantic -scheme has been
undertaken in order that transportation facilities may
keep pace with the great flow of immigration and the
continuous development of the freight traffic.
The Grand Trunk system in the United States will
form a valuable adjunct to the Canadian roads, and will
OK WINNIPEG 49
add to the transcontinental and transoceanic facilities
of the latter the service of a railroad which already
operates nearly 6,000 miles of track. Besides this great
amount of trackage in the States the Grand Trunk
system has almost 4,000 miles of road in operation in
eastern Canada, and, since the Grand Trunk system and
that of the Grand Trunk Pacific are so closely allied as
to make the two corporations practically one, the
result must be that the portion now known as the Grand
Trunk road will be practically added to the Grand
Trunk Pacific, thus forming one of the largest, if not
actually the largest, transportation company in the
world.
Work on all sections of this great new road is proceed-
ing with much dispatch. The Union station in Winni-
peg, which is to accommodate the Grand Trunk Pacific,
the Canadian Northern and the Great Northern, is ap-
proaching completion ; and parts of the new road are now
open for traffic. Shops and yards that will, when com-
pleted, cost about $5,000,000 are under process of con-
struction, and Winnipeg is clearly destined to figure as
largely in the Grand Trunk Pacific as it does in other
great railway systems of Canada.
The other great railway system that has its Western
Canadian centre in Winnipeg— the Great Northern — has
not done so much toward the enlargement of its service
in Western Canada as its rivals in the field. From" time
to time, however, the "big man" of the Great Northern
—James J. Hill— has announced his intention of build-
ing across the continent in Canada, and there is no doubt
that this will be done in time. The Great Northern
holds title to a considerable tract of property in Winni-
peg, is an important factor in handling the grain crop of
the West, and runs some of the best trains that carry
passengers between Winnipeg and United States points.
And when the Hudson's Bav railroad is completed to
Fort Churchill or -Fort Nelson, as the case mav be,
50 THE CITY
Winnipeg will be the chief inland city through which
traffic to Europe by the new route will follow. This
road has been the dream of transportation men in
Northern America for years. Long ago the eyes of
those who looked about them for the best means of
transportation between the old country and the Can-
adian Northwest were directed towards the Hudson's
Bay route. In the early days of settling the Northwest
country, when the great fur-seeking corporation had to
transport large quantities of supplies into the country
each season, and had also to carry the furs that their
trappers gathered for them to their headquarters in
England, the company's ships had access to the North-
west Territories by way of the great body of water lying
to the north into which that enterprising old Dutch
skipper, Hendrick Hudson, found his way on one of his
several voyages of discovery. That the great bay that
bears his name will become part of a system of trans-
portation over which the grain crop of the north-western
part of Canada will find its way to the markets of the old
world, appears to be certain.
Winnipeg is nearer to Liverpool by way of Fort
Churchill and Hudson's Bay by about 1,117 miles than
the Manitoba capital is to the same market by way o
Chicago, and 840 miles nearer than by the Canadian
Pacific road through Ontario and the eastern provinces
to the sea. It should be noted that the saving of dis-
tance which will be accomplished by the adoption of the
Hudson Bay route is chiefly on the land part of the
journey, an important factor in the consideration of
freight charges. From Winnipeg to Fort Churchill the
proposed port on the bay is but 650 miles and a portion
of the distance is already covered by the tracks of the
Canadian Northern road.
If, as the latest government report recommends, the
road shall be built to Fort Nelson instead of Fort Chur-
chill, the distance will be decreased by eighty-five miles.
OF WINNIPEG 51
This report also touches upon the possibilities of com-
munication by water with Winnipeg as it is considered
possible to produce a deep-water sailing course from
Hudson's Bay to Winnipeg by following the natural
water courses and dredging a deeper channel where it is
required.
Great as has been the development of the railways in
Western Canada within the past twenty years, when we
bear in mind the remarkable and manifold productive-
ness of the country, there is still a vast field for continued
enterprise. It would perhaps be no exaggeration to say
that railway construction in this great country is still in
its infancy. In the province of Manitoba alone there are
still 20,000,000 acres of land available for farming and
the handling of the produce of the five or six million
acres at present under cultivation is a severe tax upon
the railways now in operation. If we add to this the
future industrial expansion of the provinces of Sas-
katchewan and Alberta with an acreage of 159,038,720
and 161,920,000 respectively, and the province of British
Columbia with its great resources in mining, lumbering,
fishing, and fruit growing, it is difficult to adequately
prophecy the magnitude of the future railway devel-
opment.
The phenomenal growth of Winnipeg has been materi-
ally aided by the efficient car service rendered by the
Winnipeg Electric Railway Company. The following
figures indicate the substantial progress made by the*
city. The running of the first street car on Main Street
from Fort Garry to the City Hall, took place on October
21st, 1882. The hydro-electric power plant at Lac du
Bonnet was started in 1903 and completed in 1907. In
1900 less than 3£ million passengers were carried, in 1904
the paid fares had run to 9£ millions, and in 1905 to over
13 millions, in 1906 over 17£ millions, and in 1908,
20,000,000 passengers were carried. The substantial
increase resulted in the gross earnings of the company
52 THE CITY
rising from $28,132 in 1900, to $831,736 in 1904 ;
in 1905 the earnings amounted to $1,119,768, while in
1908 the total earnings had reached the greatly increased
figures of $2,206,000.
At the Lac du Bonnet Falls on the Winnipeg River,
about 65 miles from the city of Winnipeg, the Street
Railway company has a water power plant capable of
developing more than 30,000 horse power, of which
under ordinary conditions, certainly 27,000 horse power
can be delivered in Winnipeg for use. Installed at a
cost of over $3,000,000 this plant is a model of expert
construction and economical production of power.
The present capacity of the plant is 28,000 horse power
but the company can, at a comparatively small outlay
for raising their dam, and installing additional machinery
for which provision has been made increase the present
capacity by at least 50 per cent, or say 42,000 to 45,000
horse power. The company has also its steam plant,
with a capacity of 7,000 horse power in readiness to be
used in emergency.
There are 69 hotels in Winnipeg, many of which are
well equipped. By far the finest of these is the Royal
Alexandra — the Canadian Pacific Station Hotel. The
entrance hall or "rotunda" and public rooms are on a
magnificent scale and the appointments generally com-
pare favorably with those of any hotel in the world.
As might be expected from the nature of Winnipeg's
business and the 'extent of its ramifications it has be-
come a necessity that the city should be specially well
supplied with banks. The various banking houses have
established branches and erected costly buildings, which
form a striking feature 'of the business thoroughfares of
Winnipeg.
The beginning of banking in the prairie provinces of
Western Canada is traceable to the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany. Less than half a century ago there was no means
of sending money out of the country except through
OF WINNIPEG 53
their good offices. To send money to New York, Paiis
or London, it was necessary to buy from them a sixty-
day bill drawn on London. This was the only medium
of exchange. In 1871 the Dominion Government
established a money order office in Winnipeg. This was
appreciated, but there was still an urgent need of or-
ganized banking institutions. In the same year, 1871,
the late Mr. Gilbert McMicken arrived in Winnipeg as
receiver-general for the Dominion Government, and
opened a savings bank. Very shortly after the opening
of the Government savings bank, Mr. Alex. McMicken,
son of the receiver-general, opened a private bank in a
building which stood on the site now occupied by the
Queens Hotel. In December, 1872, the McMicken bank
was the only institution of its kind in Manitoba, but on
the 10th of that month the Merchants' Bank opened an
office in a building on Main street. This was Winnipeg's
first chartered bank. From this very modest beginning
the present banking system of Winnipeg has grown up,
and there are now the following banks in active oper-
ation in the citv :
54
THE CITY
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OF WINNIPEG 55
Some idea of the recent growth of the banking business
of the West— with its central point at Winnipeg — may
be gathered from the fact that in 1900 the banks which
now have nearly five hundred branches, had only one
hundred and thirty-one. An important function of the
banking houses of the West is the financing of the grain
crop, which they are called upon to perform annually
after the harvest season. It is the boast of the bankers
that they have never failed to promptly meet the sudden
and enormously increased demand for money at this
period of the year.
Winnipeg is the natural gateway through which the
commerce between Western Canada and territories
east and south of Winnipeg. The city has therefore
made, and is still making rapid strides as a centre
especially of wholesale trade, and is destined to become
one of the greatest distributing centres on the con-
tinent. It is stated that the annual turnover of the
wholesale houses is nearly one hundred million dollars.
Naturally enough the exports passing out of Winnipeg
are the products of the Northwest, wheat and
other grains, cattle, furs, sheep, wool, hogs, horses, oat-
meal, flour, hides and wood pulp. The imports are, as
is to be expected, manufactured articles from older
countries. Winnipeg is a customs port of entry and
its imports are increasing in value at the rate of a
million or more dollars each year. As illustrating the
growth of the city it may be mentioned that buildings
of all kinds of a total value of $50,749,580 have been
erected within the past six years. It is estimated that
no less a sum than twelve million dollars will be
expended in the erection of buildings during the present
year. Many of the buildings are of considerable archi-
tectural excellence, and it is noticeable that with one
exception there are no erections of the skyscraper kind,
so common in cities in the United States.
The hasty growth of the city has produced a large
o(i THE CITY OF WINNIPEG
number of buildings of careless and unsubstantial con-
struction, and many of these which were erected in the
earlier days when Winnipeg was a raw frontier town
still stand side by side with and in striking contrast to
the well built modern structures.
In spite of marked disadvantages of situation Winni-
peg has, in the course of twenty years, grown from a
mere village into a large and prosperous city,' and its
prosperity has been due almost entirely to the energy and
enterprise of its citizens, who at an early date resolved
that their city and no other was to be the gateway of the
west and the distributing point and financial centre of
the great wheat area of Western Canada. Doubtless
the excellent climatic conditions of Winnipeg compensate
largely for its distance from navigable waters and give it
a distinct advantage over its great prototype Chicago.
Scarcely has the history of civilization witnessed a
more sudden and striking metamorphosis than has
taken place in the transformation of the little trading
post with its loop-holed fort into a modern city of 130,000
people. The Winnipeg of to-day .with its fine buildings
and broad avenues, its churches and colleges, its railways
and wholesale houses, is but a promise of the future
INDUSTRIAL MANITOBA
By C. F. ROLAND, Esq., Winnipeg.
MANITOBA as an industrial centre is not of
course at all comparable with the great manu-
facturing districts of the Old World. In con-
sidering the Province as a centre of industrial activity,
it is to be remembered that Western Canada is the new-
est of all new countries. It is chiefly agricultural and
its native resources are yet scarcely realized.
Its progress, however, in industrial matters has been
remarkable. It has developed from a village in which
the manufacturing industries were confined to the mak-
ing of moccasins by Indian squaws, and the turning
out of horseshoes, wagon bolts and harrow teeth by
the village blacksmith, into the fourth city^in all Canada,
as estimated by the value of its manufactured products.
This, in 1908, was estimated at about $25,000,000.
Winnipeg is the greatest wheat market in the British
Empire. Nearly all of the great grain crop of Western
Canada, which in 1908 amounted no less than 222,786,058
bushels of wheat, oats, barley, flax and rye, passes
through the city. For many years all the manu-
factured articles used in Western Canada were imported,
but the advantages to be derived from home industries
are now beginning to be realized. Numerous home
industries depend to a large extent upon mixed farming,
which it is now admitted must be adopted to a greater,
extent than has hitherto been the case.
Some idea of the progress made by Manitoba in in-
dustrial development, may be gathered from recent
census returns: — The census in Manitoba, in 1881,
showed 344 industrial establishments, great and small,
58 INDUSTRIAL MANITOBA
with a total output of $3,413,026. Ten years later
there were 1,031 establishments with a total output of
$10,155,182, that is to say, that there had been an in-
crease of 200 per cent, in ten years. In 1901, the census
was taken on a different basis, only establishments
employing five or more hands being counted. The
1906 census showed that the ratio of increase was be-
coming greater with each year. The capital invested
has more than trebled in five years, and the amount of
salaries paid, and also the output, have more than
doubled.
In the five years from 1901 to 1906, Winnipeg made
the enormous increase in manufactured products, of one
hundred and twenty-five per cent; the value of such
goods advanced from $8,616,218 to $18,983,290. For
the year of 1907, it was estimated that the value of
goods manufactured in the City of Winnipeg, amounted
to $22,000,000. There are to-day, one hundred and
forty-eight factories and work shops, and no less than
12,000 hands directly employed in these. This number
does not include the army of men employed in the
municipal departments and the great railway yards
of the city, but applies only to those engaged in actual
making of goods from raw material.
The results of the last Dominion Census published
in 1906, relating to the number of manufacturing firms
in Manitoba, the capital invested, the nature and value
of goods produced and the amount of money paid out
In salaries and wages, are shown in the following table: —
Salaries Value of
Name or Kind of Industry. Capital. and Wages. Product.
Agricultural implements .. $117,096 $28,516 $101,215
Awnings, tents and sails .. 132,445 24,295 110,000
INDUSTRIAL MANITOBA 59
Blacksmithing 64,100 22,960 57,300
Bread, biscuits and confec-
tionery 530,158 152,294 636,268
Brick, tile and pottery . . . 459,590 203,681 477,119
Butter and cheese 145,556 34,079 380,169
Carriages and wagons 207,000 • 72,000 194,925
Clothing, men's, custom .. 152,850 80,193 194,511
Clothing, women's, custom 33,400 39,205 128,016
Electric light and power . . . 3,445,271 233,495 657,005
Flouring andn grist mill
products 6,551,443 428,158 8,809,833
Foundry and machine shop
products 1,118,177 325,180 1,153,424
Harness arid saddlery .... 496,045 132,577 371,500
Hats, caps and furs 191,027 48,883 171,174
Jewelry and repairs 17,200 19,420 66,000
Lime 413,900 229,807 372,478
Liquors, malt 1,085,000 128,014 843,829
Log products 2,631,525 399,159 1,517,447
Lumber products 1,927,741 452,181 1,245,447
Monuments and tombstones 238,700 80,205 217,500
Plumbing and tinsmithing . 774,400 242,004 912,764
Printing and bookbinding 560,500 198,525 417,548
Printing and publishing . . 971,408 478,133 1,170,170
Pumps and Windmills . 46,750 13,830 44,900
Slaughtering and meat pack-
ing 928,965 201,420 2,336,000
Slaughtering, not including
meat packing 493,001 51,298 660,983
Stone, cut 139,727 117,640 218,621
Tobacco, cigars and cigar-
ettes 231,700 95,402 347,338
All other industries* 3,202,612 1,104,006. 3,795,784
Totals $27,307,287. $5,636,560 $27,609,268
Industries in above employ-
ing less than 5 hands . 446,632 109,084 298,336
Industries employing; 5
hands and over 26,860,655. 5,527,476 27,310,932
*Includes 2 aerated and mineral waters; 1 axle grease; 1 bags, cotton; 1 bak
ing powder and flavoring extracts; 1 boats and canoes; 1 boxes, wooden; 1 brass
castings; 1 brooms and brushes; 2 car repairs; 1 cement blocks and tiles- 1 gas,
lighting
guUb , J. iltill VV UI KS , £ UlLCilUl UCl«Ui CH.1W14O , ± H-C11.11V1, t,cm»l\,<-x cvlni llllionv_^i, J.
metallic roofing and flooring; 1 mirrors and plate glass; 1 miscellaneous; 1 oils;
1 patent medicines; 1 photography; 1 picture frames; 1 pop corn; 1 soap; 1
stationary goods; 2 wire fencing; 1 woodworking and turning.
60 INDUSTRIAL MANITOBA
Among the more important work shops and factories
in Winnipeg, are those of the Canadian Pacific, the Can-
adian Northern and the Grand Trunk railroads. The
Vulcan Iron Works, the Manitoba Iron Works, the
Western Iron Works, the Northern Iron Works, and
ten smaller machine shops, in all employing more than
3.650 hands. In addition, there is in Winnipeg an iron
rolling-mill, turning out bar and rolled iron, and five
plants are engaged in the manufacture of wire fencing
of various sorts — a product greatly in demand through-
out Western Canada, where fencing material of wood
or stone is scarce and the stretches of land that require
to be fenced are very great. There are also four fac-
tories for making sheet metal cornices and galvanized
iron work; seven brick, clay and cement works; two
paint factories; two shops that turn out stained glass
products; nine planing mills, which manufacture building
materials such as sashes and doors, office and bank
fittings; one plant which manufactures plaster for hard-
finishing walls, the raw material being native gypsum.
Five factories which manufacture ready-made cloth-
ing, employ 350 hands. Fur garments are also largely
made in Winnipeg. Although many furs are dressed in
the city, the majority are exported; the annual out-
put of undressed pelts of fur-bearing animals is valued
at $350,000. Most of these are gathered by the em-
ployees of the Hudson's Bay Company.
Other important industries carried on in Winnipeg,
are the preparation of pickles and vinegar, condiments,
baking powder, bag and box manufacture, engraving,
electro-plating, brass-foundering, soap making, cooper-
ing, furniture making. In the province there are also
glass works and the fish industry of Manitoba is of great
importance (see special article on Fisheries, by Pro-
fessor Prince). In the neighborhood of the larger towns
INDUSTRIAL MANITOBA 61
poultry-rearing and market gardening form important
industries.
We must not neglect to mention other important
manufacturing towns and citie^ of the province. In
1901, the value of Brandon's output of manufactures
was $541,327, and in 1906, this had advanced to $2,007,-
995, while Portage la Prairie made the notable increase,
in the same period, from $803,290 in 1901 to $1,858,000
in 1906. Brandon, the second city in size in Manitoba,
has numerous wholesale warehouses, and in addition
there are thirty factories. Among the products of
these may be mentioned gasoline engines, well-boring
machinery, fire and bar fixtures, sashes and doors,
pumps and windmills, harness, tents and awnings, cement
blocks, mattresses, beer and ale, boilers, bricks, wagons,
cut stone and monuments, etc. The Canadian Pacific
Railway Company maintains divisional repair shops,
employ a large number of men, ang the total number
employed by the factories exceeds 1,000. ' The city of
Brandon also possesses a crushing plant and sewer-pipe
works.
At Portage la Prairie, the chief industries within the
town are a flour mill, an oatmeal mill, a wire fence fac-
tory, a brick yard, a foundry and a planing mill.. This
city is the centre of a very important wheat growing
district. At Carberry, there is a flour mill with a ca-
pacity of 200 barrels daily, and also seven elevators that
have a capacity of 180,000 bushels of grain.
At Carman, are located two flour milling plants, and
at Dauphin, several elevators and lumber mills. In
Gladstone, there is a flour mill with a capacity of 300
barrels daily ; at Grandview, a large saw-mill and sash
and door factory.
In the neighborhood of Stonewall, the gardening and
poultry industry is carried on to some extent by the
German farmers, and within the town are several stone
62 INDUSTRIAL MANITOBA
quarries with a combined annual output valued at nearly
$200,000.
At Rapid City, there are several industries, including
a woollen mill, grist mill, brick yard and lime kiln works,
besides a flour mill of 175 barrel capacity.
In the near future, thousands of miles of new railways
will be constructed in the three prairie provinces alone,
new towns and cities are being established almost daily,
and large tracts of country are rapidly being brought
under cultivation,. Within the next few years, there-
fore, there is bound to be an enormous demand for all
kinds of railway equipment, for every variety of munici-
pal plant, for agricultural implements, and all the vast
assortment of manufactured goods required in the build-
ing up if civilized communities.
At present, there are no boot and shoe factories in
Western Canada,. The total value of these commodities
sold annually in the WTest amounts to $3,500,000, and
in Winnipeg alone, the annual sales of leather gloves and
mittens amount, it is stated, to about $1,000,000. In
a country which is largely engaged in stock-raising and
in the export of raw hides and skins, it is somewhat re-
markable that there are no tanneries, and that leather
goods are not manufactured.
Motor cars are used very largely, not only in the cities
of Western Canada, but in the country. The first
automobile introduced into Winnipeg, was a three-
wheeled Knox car, in 1901, and now there are over 300 in
the city. These are chiefly of United States manufac-
ture. As a duty of 35 per cent, is charged on imported
cars, it seems obvious that these might be profitably
manufactured in Western Canada.
Other industries must, sooner ot later, be introduced.
For example, the utilization of flax fibre, the manufac-
ture of potato starch, the growing of sugar-beets and
the manufacture of alcohol, are all obvious possibilities.
INDUSTRIAL MANITOBA 63
When the great extent of Western Canada and its
rapid development are considered, it must be apparent
that it offers an unprecedented market for the products
of almost every conceivable kind of manufacture.
The great distance from large manufacturing centres
involving as it does proportionately great freight charges,
and the high duty on imported manufactured goods,
will compel, ere long, the foundation of a large number
of factories to supply even the home demand, to say
nothing of the possibilities of an export trade in certain
branches. Natural resources are not wanting to sup-
ply the necessary raw materials, and the energy and ca-
pacity of the citizens of the West ensure the successful
establishment and development of numerous home in-
dustries.
AGRICULTURE IN MANITOBA
Compiled by The Hon. R. P. ROBLIN, Minister of Agriculture of the
Province of Manitoba, and W. J. BLACK, Esq., B.S.A.,
Princiral of Manitoba Agriculture College.
With the assistance of J. J. Golden, Esq., Deputy Minister cf Agri-
culture ; G. H. Greig, Live Stock Commissioner ; L. A. Bowes, B.S.A.;
Dr. A. W. Bell, and Professors J. W. Mitchell, S. A. Bedford,
F. W. Broderick and W. Sproule.
THE territory now included in the Province of
Manitoba, is essentially agricultural in character.
A study of the physical features of the country
presents many peculiarities indicating its fitness for the
production of crops.
Topographically, the Province may be divided into
two separate plains or steppes. The first of these ex-
tends from the Eastern boundary westward to a ridge
known in different regions as Pembina Mountain, Riding
and Duck Mountains, and Porcupine Hills. This plain
was originally a great lake which gradually receded from
its former shores to what is now Lake Winnipeg, leaving
Lake Manitoba and a few smaller bodies of water as
basins for the drainage from the old lake bed. It is a
fertile stretch with a marly clay sub-soil, and a black
alluvial surface, the darkness of colour being due, in the
opinion of Dr. Dawson, to the frequent burning of grass.
In describing Manitoba, J. Macoun, Dominion Geolo-
gist, says:— "High above the Pembina Mountains the
steppes and plateaux of the Riding and Duck Mountains
rise in well defined succession with southern and western
steppes; of these ranges the terraces are distinctly de-
fined, and the north-east and north sides present a
precipitous escarpment which is elevated fully 1,000
feet above Lake Winnipegosis, and more than 1,600
feet above sea level. ' '
IN MANITOBA 65
When viewed from the south and east the Riding
Mountains present a peculiar aspect. Close to the ridge,
the surface is marshy in many places, but, there are
visible, three distinct steppes separated from each other
by plateaux of considerable extent. Standing on the
edge of the escarpment and looking in the direction of
Lake Dauphin, a gulf two or three miles wide and 250
feet deep, are to be seen two ranges of cone-shaped hills,
one lower than the other and covered with boulders.
These are parallel to the general trend of the escarp-
ment. In some places, they are lost in the plateaux
on which they rest; in others they stand out as bold
eminences showing the extent of the denudation which
gave rise to them. These conical hills correspond to
the terraces on the south-west side of the Mountains.
Next in the series come what are known as the Duck
Mountains, a high range of tablelands similar, in many
respects to the Riding Mountains. This range is en-
tirely cut off from the Porcupine Hills, by the Swan
River, which flows in a deep valley between the two
ranges; and, on the west from the Great Western prairie,
by the Assiniboine River. Proceeding eastwards, these
mountains are mostly gently rolling elevations, but, in
a few instances, take the form of cone-shaped hills.
Where not covered with timber, they are overgrown
with a luxuriant and almost impenetrable growth of
peas and vetches. From the north-eastern side of the
escarpment Lake Winnipegosis is plainly visible 1,000
feet below. Between the north-eastern slope of the
Duck Mountains and Lake Winnipegosis, the land in
some places is wet and marshy, and will require drainage
before it can be successfully cultivated.
The northern portion of the Province, east of the
mountain range, is covered, to a large extent, with wood
timber. The wooded area commences in the south-
eastern portion of the Province and continues in a line
(><> AGRICULTURE
running north-west, striking first the southern point
of Lake Winnipeg, then cutting Lake Manitoba about
the centre, touching the Riding Mountains at their most
southerly point and following north along the western
boundary of the Duck Mountains and Porcupine Hills.
North of this line the prairie is wooded, and all south of
it is bare, with but slight exceptions.
Large areas of the north centre, between Lakes Win-
nipeg and Manitoba, are interspread with beaver mead-
ows, some of which are of considerable size, reaching
from 1,200 to 1,400 acres. Midway between Lakes
Winnipeg and Manitoba nearly all the creeks have been
dammed by beavers for the purpose of constructing
their abodes. These dams have been found to make
good wagon roads, and are often used for this purpose
by settlers and others. If the dams were cut through
the meadows would be naturally drained. Many of
these are already dry enough to make good hay lands
for settlers.
That portion of Manitoba known as the Red River
Valley, extends from the eastern boundary of the Prov-
ince westward to the Pembina Mountains, a ridge which,
at one time, formed the western shore line of the great
lake already referred to. The summit of these hills
is level for a distance of about five miles, till the foot
of another terrace is reached. The summit of the second
terrace is level with the Great Buffalo Plains, that stretch
westward beyond the Manitoba boundary, and form a
fertile tract, once the hunting ground of the Indian,
but now the home of thousands of prosperous farmers.
Close to the east of the ridge the land is marshy, and this
circumstance has in some instances interfered with set-
tlement.
Much of the central and northern parts of Manitoba
present a limestone formation, indicated in these regions
by out-croppings of large limestone slabs. There are
ix MANITOBA 67
also large belts of loose, irregular rocks, which are often
found so close to the surface as to constitute a serious
hindrance to cultivation. The early settlers in Mani-
toba soon found that the land was admirably suited for
the purposes of agriculture. In the Red River Valley,
the soil close to the river was found to contain a very
high percentage of fine clay, and, although heavy to cul-
tivate, proved to be very fertile. Passing from the river
on either side, the soil was found to be more friable. In
the north and west beyond the first ridge, the plain, in
most places, consisted of a sandy or light clayey loam,
capable of cultivation early in the springtime and suit-
able for the production of crops in a minimum amount of
time. Although this region was more northerly than
any which had been successfully cultivated in North
America, it was found to be eminently productive.
Manitoba has approximately twenty-four million acres
suitable for agricultural purposes, and about one-
fifth of this has so far been brought under cultivation.
Owing to the ease with which the prairie land can be
broken and cropped, the new settler very quickly makes
a home for himself, and often, within eighteen months,
has a surplus of grain to dispose of. A hundred years
ago the territory now included in the Province of Mani-
toba was the home of thousands of buffalo. Until the
advent of the Canadian Pacific Railway, comparatively
few settlers found their way into this country. Those
who came had no inducement to grow more than would
supply the home market.
The first attempts at farming in the Province were
made by the Selkirk settlers, in 1816. This colony
numbered two hundred and seventy people, who were
chiefly Scotch, sent out by Lord Selkirk, but, later, the
settlement included some Irish, French and Swiss.
These were intended to colonize the one hundred and
ten thousand square miles of land granted to Lord Sel-
68 • AGRICULTURE
kirk, by the Hudson's Bay Co. Each of the settlers
bought one hundred acres for which he agreed to pay
one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre. The farms
were from six to ten chains wide and ran back from the
river front about two miles, and were hence often re-
ferred to as ' 'lanes. ' ' This kind of subdivision, however,
had its advantages; the river, which was the principal
highway, was close to all settlers, and enabled them to
secure an abundant supply of water and fish. This
system of survey also made the settlement more com-
pact, and hence was safer in times of danger. The
settlers congregated around Fort Douglas, sowed in
the spring of 1816 a few bushels of wheat and barley,
and planted a few pecks of potatoes. From this first
crop the returns were excellent, wheat yielding 40, bar-
ley 50, and potatoes 100 fold. The grain was cut with
a sickle or cradle and was threshed with a flail, and the
' ' Quern ' ' or hand stone was used to crush the grain
into flour. In 1817, the settlement was called Kildonan,
after the native parish of the Scotch settlers. From 1818
to 1821, the crops were more or less destroyed by grass-
hoppers, and in 1820, there was no seed grain whatever
in the settlement. In February, 1821, a party was form-
ed to bring 250 bushels of wheat from Prairie du Cluen,
in the United States. This grain cost $2.50 a bushel
at the place of purchase, but yielded well in the fall of
1821, and was all kept for seed the next year. The first
importation of cattle took place from the United States,
in 1822, when the prices paid were $150 for a milch cow,
and $90 for an ox. A few ploughs were in use in 1823,
but most of the settlers still used the hoe and spade.
About this time the two-horse tread-mill for grinding
wheat was introduced, followed later by a Hudson Bay
windmill, at Fort Douglas. A slight check was given to
agriculture by the flood of 1826, but the supply of grain
soon exceeded the demand, and a large stock was left
IN MANITOBA 69
over each year. The Hudson's Bay Company could
purchase only eight bushels of wheat from each farmer,
and four bushels from ' ' trip ' ' men, the price paid being
87 cents per bushel. The settlers, however, were able
to raise, even with their primitive implements, ten times
as much as they could sell.
In 1816, Lord Selkirk endeavored to assist the set-
tlers by establishing an Experimental Farm, his am-
bition being to improve the breeds of cattle and horses,
and to increase the yield of grain and dairy products.
The Hudson's Bay Company also started an Experi-
mental Farm about 1830, near Upper Fort Garry. Good
buildings were erected and animals of the best breeds
were imported, among them being a fine stallion from
England, at a cost of $1,500, and also a number of mares.
These excellent animals greatly improved the breed of
horses in the settlement. In 1832, a company was
formed for the purpose of breeding large herds of cattle,
for the sake of their hides and tallow, but owing to bad
management, the enterprise failed. A few years later
efforts were made to grow flax and hemp on a large
scale, but, although these grew well, labor was too scarce
to make the venture profitable. According to the
census of 1849, the live stock in the country had
increased to nearly 13,000, and over 6,000 acres were
under cultivation. After the first Riel rebellion, settlers
came pouring into the country and the acreage under
cultivation increased rapidly. It is difficult at this dis-
tance of time to speak positively in regard to the first
varieties of wheat used but thirty-five years ago there
were two varieties in cultivation — an early stiff-bearded
variety not very productive, and a beardless kind having
a hard red kernel, rather longer than Red'Fyfe, and
apparently of good milling value. The last mentioned
was grown on the Brandon Experimental Farm for some
years under the name of the ' ' Old Red River Wheat. ' '
70 AGRICULTURE
About 1877, the Golden Drop Wheat was grown exten-
sively by some of the best farmers. This was a very fair
wheat but somewhat soft, and inclined to smut badly.
About 1880, the famous Red Fyfe Wheat was intro-
duced into the West, a variety supposed to have or-
iginated on the Baltic coast. It is very productive, has
a healthy, vigorous plant, the berry being hard and
bright, the bran thin, and the gluten contents high,
making its milling qualities unequalled. This variety
has done more to keep up the reputation of the Province
as a wheat-producing country than any other, and the
greater proportion of the wheat exported is of this sort.
On the establishment of the Dominion Experimental
Farm in this Province, in 1888, an effort was made to
introduce new varieties of early ripening wheat for sow-
ing in the more northern parts of the country. The
first to be tested was imported from northern Russia,
and was called Ladoga. This was an early variety, but
the quality was not equal to the requirements of the
country. Later, Dr. Wm. Saunders, Director of the
Experimental Farms, introduced several cross-bred
wheats, such as the Preston and Stanley. These have
been grown with more or less success in the less favoured
parts of the country, but are not to be recommended
in preference to the Red Fyfe, where that variety can
be ripened successfully.
The acreage sown with barley in Manitoba is increasing
very rapidly. Within six years the area occupied by
this useful grain has doubled. The results of many years '
experience show that the Chevalier varieties of two-
rowed barley have not succeeded well. The ear seldom
fills perfectly, and every year these varieties are more
or less lodged, and they are late in maturing. The two-
rowed sorts of the Duck-Bill type, such as Canadian
Thorpe, are much stiffer in the straw, and generally
speaking, the heads fill well. The six-rowed varieties
IN MANITOBA 71.
are those best adapted for general cultivation. They
ripen early and can be sown later than other grain,
and even then will mature early enough to escape injury
from autumn frosts. The straw is nearly always stiff
and bright, and the ears well filled. Of these varieties
the Mensury and Odessa are excellent. The average
yield of Mensury barley on the Brandon Experimental
Farm, for the five years ending 1907, was 63 bushels
and 40 pounds per acre. Odessa gave an average re-
turn of 64 bushels and 40 pounds per acre for the same
period.
Barley is largely grown as a cleansing crop. The
method is to spread barnyard manure on the stubble
in spring, ploughing it under and sowing about the end
of May. This practice gives a good crop and the land
is left comparatively clean and ready for wheat the
following year.
The yield of oats is usually very satisfactory through-
out the Province, when proper care is given to their
production. Although not so important as wheat, the
sale of this grain for oatmeal and feeding purposes is
increasing each year, and the price obtained is higher
than in former years. A fairly pure and clean sample
of heavy Manitoba oats is looked upon with much favor
by oatmeal millers throughout the Dominion, and finds
sale at remunerative prices. In some districts of this
Province, where the soil is better adapted for oats than
for wheat, that grain is grown almost exclusively. By
careful selection of seed, and thorough cultivation, im-
mense yields are obtained, and many farmers report an
average of eighty bushels per acre over their entire
farms. The "Banner" oat has been the favourite for
a number of years. This is a thin, hulled sort, of ex-
cellent quality, and very productive. Other valuable
varieties are ' ' Abundance, " " Ligowa ' ' and ' ' New-
market. ' ' These are all white oats, and sell at a good
72 AGRICULTURE
figure for milling purposes. The place occupied by oats
in the rotation of crops is usually after wheat and just
previous to either a barley crop or summer fallow. For
this reason the returns per acre are not as large as they
otherwise would be. On the Experimental Farm at
Brandon, on summer fallowed land, without fertilizer,
the average yield of "Banner" oats for the five years
ending 1907, was 116 bushels and 4 pounds per acre.
This is an indication of what can be accomplished on
our rich soils with good cultivation.
In the newer settlements there is an abundant sup-
ply of natural hay on the lower lands and water meadows.
For some years, this supply will be sufficient for all de-
mands. Later, when these lands are drained and turned
into grain fields, the farmer will be compelled to look
elsewhere for his supply of hay.
Fortunately there are many varieties of cultivated
grasses and other fodder plants, that give profitable
yields in this country. The most popular grass is ' ' Tim-
othy;" this excellent grass is grown most extensively
on the more moist soils of the Province, and returns
on such soils are exceedingly good. Where "Timothy"
fails to give large returns, Western Rye grass is grown
with profit. This is an excellent native grass and is
now extensively cultivated. In other districts where
the soil is light ' ' Austrian Brorne ' ' is grown with good
results. Among the annual fodder plants the follow-
ing are cultivated with success: — German, Japanese
and Common Millet, Broom, Corn and Hungarian
grass ; these all give excellent returns of useful hay.
Although Indian corn is not grown for the grain, it is
a decided success here as a fodder plant. When sown
about the middle of May it grows rapidly during our
long bright days, and soon reaches a height of from 8 to
10 feet, the yield often amounting to from 15 to 20 tons
of green fodder per acre. This is either made into
IN MANITOBA 73
ensilage or stocked in the fields until required for feed-
ing. Whether used as fodder or ensilage it is excellent
for fattening cattle, and is one of the very best foods
for milch cows.
In all parts of the Province where the original prairie
sod is thick and tough, it is customary to "break and
back-set," but where the land is covered with small
trees and scrub, breaking and back-setting is not neces-
sary. The breaking of new prairie is best accomplished
with the hand breaking plough, having a rolling coulter,
but fairly good work can be done with a sulky plough
if the land be very smooth and level. For the best re-
sults the breaking should be shallow, and the work com-
pleted by July 1st. A few weeks after breaking the
sod will be rotted and the land should then be "back-
set. ' ' This is carried out by ploughing in the same
direction about two inches deeper then previously, there-
by bringing up some additional soil for a seed-bed.
After ' ' back-setting ' ' the land must be made as fine
as possible with a disc-harrow or some other similar
implement. If this plan be adopted only a light har-
rowing will be required when the land becomes seeded
in the following spring. In some parts of the Province,
the land is too rough to permit of thin breaking. In
such districts, the land should be ploughed from 4 to
5 inches deeper than in the smoother lands, and as early
as possible in the year. It should also be well harrowed
in order to level the surface. In such cases a second
ploughing is not necessary, but the ground must be again
harrowed the following spring,' before the grain is sown.
A considerable portion of the best land in Manitoba
is covered with small timber and scrub which, when
cleared, produces magnificent yields of all kinds of farm
produce, and the work of clearing is very light when
compared with that of preparing the heavy timbered
land of other countries. The method of clearing such
74 AGRICULTURE
lands is just to chop out the larger poplars and willows
during the winter. A fire is then run over the land in
order to burn the remaining portion of the scrub. After
this the ground may easily be broken with a strong
brush plough; all the additional levelling can be accom-
plished with a disc-harrow or other similar implement.
The land is then ready for seeding, and usually yields
large returns. Immense areas of this class of land are
still open for settlement, principally in the northern part
of the Province, and can be obtained either as free
homesteads or for a nominal price.
The larger proportion of the wheat crop of Manitoba
is grown on land that has produced a grain crop of some
kind the previous year. The stubble land is ploughed
in the autumn as early as possible ; the land is then har-
rowed and sown in the following spring. This system
is very inexpensive, and, when the land is new and the
seasons favourable, the profits are large and immediate.
But this exhaustive plan cannot be retained for any great
length of time. Sooner or later a regular system of
rotation has to be adopted. A common practice is to
include a season's summer fallow in the rotation, and
the most approved plan for this operation is to plough
the grain stubble in June, just as soon as the weed seeds
have begun to germinate. The soil is then ' ' compact-
ed ' ' with either a ' ' sub-surface packer ' ' or other sim-
ilar implement, and this proceeding is followed by thor-
ough surface tillage during the summer, in order to kill
weeds and prevent evaporation of soil moisture.
Summer fallowing is practiced in Manitoba by most
farmers, its frequency depending on the character of the
soil and other conditions. Some of the largest and best
crops of wheat are obtained after this treatment, and
the condition of the soil is greatly improved at the same
time. During recent years the more advanced farmers
have included the culture of grass in the rotation. The
IN MANITOBA 75
usual practice is to sow either Timothy or Western Rye
grass with a ' ' nurse crop ; " to cut it for hay during the
two following seasons, then to pasture for the third.
This plan furnishes both hay and pasture for the farm,
gives the land certain rest and so fills the surface with
root fibre that soil drifting is prevented. At one time
it was thought that none of the clovers would thrive
in Manitoba, but, by practicing improved methods of
cultivation, all the perennial and biennial species are
found to be just as hardy and productive as in the eastern
provinces. The fact that these leguminous crops can
be grown suggests great possibilities for the agriculture
of the West. To prove successful on the majority of
farms in this country, clover of all kinds should be sown
without a "nurse crop" of grain, although, in very
favorable seasons, a very light seeding of grain may be
permissible if cut early for green feed. In growing red
clover excellent results have been obtained by plough-
ing grain stubble in spring, harrowing once, then sowing
about 12 pounds of clover seed per acre, harrowing a
second time and rolling. When the weeds and ' ' volun-
teer crop ' ' of grain are about a foot high, a mower should
be run over the land and the cuttings left on the ground
to act as a mulch. By this plan the clover plants be-
come large and well rooted before autumn, and there is
no danger of winter killing. Two cuttings of clover can
be gathered in the following year.
In this country where large areas of land are cul-
tivated, it is necessary that all farm operations be ex-
pedited as much as possible. For this reason the most
improved machinery is on use on all the up-to-date
farms. As soon as the grain is fairly ripe, large grain-
binders are set to work, and kept constantly in opera-
tion from dawn to sunset. Sometimes a score of these
large machines, each drawn by four horses are found
following each other closely around one immense field.and
76 AGRICULTURE
in a few days, hundreds of acres of ripe grain are safely
in the stook. The grain is allowed to cure for a few days,
after which large threshing outfits, consisting of power-
ful steam traction engines and separators, are brought
into the field where the threshing is done directly from
the stook, and so quickly that only a few days intervene
between the ripening of the grain and its delivery on
the market. At the present time the prospects for agri-
culture in the Province are bright; the prices of farm
products are high, the area under cultivation. is increasing
rapidly, and the employment of improved conditions
of agriculture should result in larger returns than in
former years.
THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY
OF MANITOBA
In the early days of the settlement of Manitoba, Live
Stock was considered the mainstay of agriculture, for
some little time was necessary to enable the settlers to
discover the possibilities of soil and climate for the
production of wheat. Many of the early pioneers brought
with them a foundation stock, and in not a few of the
best studs and herds of to-day can be traced a descent
from those early importations. Needless to say, the
stock imported from the older provinces thrived won-
derfully on the nutritious prairie grasses, which for
many generations had sustained vast herds of buffalo.
The pioneer delights to recall the big steers he produced
when the herds fed on the short sweet upland pastures
or revelled belly-deep in vetches and wild pea-vine.
An opening having been made for the export of wheat
by the completion of the railroad between the prairies
and the lake ports, the wealth-producing possibilities
of grain growing were quickly recognized. It happened
IN MANITOBA 77
that the open prairie was easily brought under cultiva-
tion. No expensive equipment was required, an easy
credit system prevailed, wonderful returns were ob-
tained, and settlement rapidly increased. As a result
the live stock interests were neglected, and wheat be-
came the one thing considered worthy of attention.
Many a traveller has marvelled at the myriad beacon
fires that illuminate the autumn sky from the far-reach-
ing stubble fields, where the straw piles are burned as
soon as the threshers have completed their task. This
improvident waste, coupled with careless methods en-
couraging the introduction and spread of weeds, is
causing the pendulum to swing slowly back again. In
order to improve the mechanical condition of the soil,
to restore exhausted fertility, and to control noxious
weeds, grasses and clovers are being introduced, farms
are being fenced and the rearing of live stock is again
receiving serious attention.
The following figures, taken from Government statis-
tics will give some idea of the growth of the live-stock
industry : —
Year Horses Cattle Sheep Swine
1881 16739 60281 6073 17358
1891 86735 230696 35838 54177
1901 163867 349886 29464 126459
1907 215819 521112 28975 200509
1908 230926 531544 29265 192489
The demand for horses is still greater than the local
supply. For a number of years, horses have been ship-
ped into Manitoba from the Eastern provinces, the
Western ranges, and from the States to the South.
During the past year, however, Manitoba-bred horses,
mostly for farm purposes, are beginning to appear in
considerable numbers on the Winnipeg market. The
78 AGRICULTURE
keen demand which exists, and the good prices obtainable,
are stimulating the breeding of horses. In addition to
several breeding studs which have been established,
many farmers are procuring good brood-mares, not a
few of which are registered mares of the draft breeds.
For many years a considerable business in the importa-
tion of stallions has been carried on. Importers from
the United States have not only brought with them
American-bred stallions, but have also introduced their
methods of disposing of these. One of the methods
referred to is commonly known as ' ' syndicating. ' ' Ten
or a dozen farmers are induced to take shares in a stal-
lion, signing joint notes therefore. In many of these
cases, ths stallion so dispDsed of is stated to be worth
from $2,000 to $4,000, which is generally three or four
times its actual value. The notes are of course dis-
counted before maturity, and the salesmen decamp.
Such practices have done much injury to the horse-
breeding industry but happily they are now almost a thing
of the past. Several large dealers, permanently es-
tablished in the West, import direct from Great Britain,
and Ontario dealers may now be expected to take greater
interest in supplying Manitoba with good home-bred
and imported stock horses.
Legislation has been introduced by the Western
Provinces to encourage horse-breeding. The object of
such legislation is educational, and the intention is
to encourage the use of sound, pure-bred stallions, and
to eliminate the unfit. Owners are compelled, under a
penalty, to register stallions with the Provincial De-
partments of Agriculture; certificates are then issued
stating whether the animal is pure-bred, or graded,
soundness, or the reverse, also being indicated. A copy
of this certificate must then be printed on all advertise-
ments and route-bills, which must be conspicuously
posted on the door of every stable occupied by the horse
ix MANITOBA 79
during the breeding season. By this means the farmer
is enabled to know the breeding value of the stallions
he employs.
The draft breeds are undoubtedly the most popular
with the farmers, and of these, the Clydesdales, take first
place. A few Shires have been introduced, and, during
the past few years, a good many Percherons. The
latter would appear to be slowly gaining in popularity.
As there are, however, many registered Clydesdale
mares throughout the country, and in nearly every
section, a good representative Clydesdale stallion, this
breed is likely to hold its own for a long time to come.
Of the horses bred on the average farm, few would scale
up to the "draft" class, the majority having to be
classed as "agricultural" horses, weighing less than
1,600 Ibs., while there are many horses bred from small
nondescript mares that could only be classified as ' ' farm
chunks," a useful enough horse on the farm, although
lacking in weight, but hardy, and generally with good
wearing qualities.
Of the lighter breeds, comparatively few are bred,
although there are many American trotting stallions
in the country and some excellent road horses are pro-
duced. • These are always in good demand, provided
they possess sufficient size and quality. Thorough-
breds, Hackneys and some of the Coach breeds have
been introduced in various parts of the Province but,
so far with little marked effect upon the horse industry.
Some saddle and heavy leather horses are produced,
but most of these crosses are what may be called ' ' Gen-
eral Purposes" horses. This is a good, useful class,
fit for all kinds of light farm work and for certain kinds
of road work, but it will not command high prices in
the market.
The country on the whole is well suited for horse
breeding. The climate is healthy, and feed of good
80 AGRICULTURE
quality is abundant. There are, however, some dif-
ficulties to contend with. The most serious of these
is, perhaps, the mortality among foals, from the disease
known as "joint ill, ' ' and other little understood patho-
logical conditions, which are attributed to insufficient
exercise on the part of the mares during the long idle
winter season. Another disease, which is confined to
the lower-lying districts of the Province, is commonly
known as "swamp fever," an intermittent fever of a
low type, not as yet thoroughly understood.
The cattle industry has advanced with the settling
of the country, and, with improved market and trans-
portation facilities, will doubtless become one of the
most important branches of agriculture.
Manitoba cattle are of a healthy breed, and cost little
to keep, for there is everywhere an abundance of suit-
able fodder. On the smaller farms (and most of those
in the extreme eastern and north-eastern portions of
the Province, come under this category) cattle of the
dairy type predominate. By this it is not meant that
the special dairy breeds are exclusively used, as most
of the cattle in these sections, as well as throughout
the province, show more or less of Shorthorn strain.
The little Red River cow of earlier days, rugged,
vigorous, big middled, short-legged, crumple-horned,
line-backed or brindled., has almost entirely disappeared.
The foundations of several herds of Shorthorns were
laid in the early eighties, and the progeny of these, and
of many subsequently established, have been widely
distributed throughout the country. The blood of
this cosmopolitan breed now flows in the veins of nearly
all our cattle. Other breeds have been introduced,
but still the Red, White and Roan numerically holds
supremacy, and at all leading Exhibitions outnumbers
other breeds in the proportion of two to one. There
are now in Manitoba over 350 members of the Dominion
IN MANITOBA 81
Shorthorn Breeders' Association, and their favourite
breed of cattle seems in no immediate danger of losing
in popularity. Breeders should, however, endeavor
to revive the milking qualities of the breed in order that
it may continue to hold the position of ' ' Farmers' cow. ' '
Of the special "beef breeds," the Hereford and the
Aberdeen Angus are fairly well represented, and a num-
ber of good breeding herds exist. Where the calves
run with their dams, and beef-production only is de-
sired, either of these breeds, or the Galloway, thrive
abundantly. They are good grazers and feeders and
mature heavy, compact carcases of beef of the best
quality. The females, however, are not so useful as
' ' Farmers ' cows, ' ' since they are not such good average
milkers nor as docile as the Shorthorn.
Of the dairy breeds, the Holsteins seem to be steadily
gaining in favour. They are robust and large-framed,
with great capacity for the assimilation of ' ' roughage, ' '
and produce immense quantities of milk of fairly good
quality. There are several excellent pure-bred herds
in the Province. The Ayrshire and the Jersey, have
their fanciers, and small herds have been in existence
for a good many years. The last named breed has made
no headway, but the first is numerously represented
in the dairy districts, and vigorously contests every inch
of ground with her big black-and-white sister.
Year by year, furrow by furrow, wheat has crowded
back the herd from the sweet grasses of the upland
prairies on to the lower-lying natter lands, where tb'
grasses grow coarse, sedgy, and less nutritious. Un''
such circumstances, cattle have suffered some deter/
tion, but with the introduction of more "inten?
methods, including the growing of corn, clover a/
falfa, with greater attention to sanitation of
and the adoption of less laborious methods oi
for stock, better results will accrue to the p/
82 AGRICULTURE
There are already indications that cattle-feeding, will
be carried on more extensively in this Province. The
straw and chaff and screenings of the wheat farms will
' ' be marketed on the hoof ' ' and the manure thus created
will restore the fertility and improve the mechanical
condition of the soil, resulting in better yields of superior
quality, and hastening the maturing of the crops. As
in the corn belt of the States, the cattle from the ranges
of the West will be ' ' finished ' ' on their way to the
world's markets, on the wheat farms of Manitoba and
Saskatchewan.
It is sometimes said that swine-breeding on any ex-
tensive scale cannot be profitably carried on except in
conjunction with dairying, or under such conditions
as exist in the corn States to the South. To a certain
extent, that is true. Every farmer can, however, at
a minimum expense, even without milk, produce a few
hogs on by-products that would otherwise be wasted.
It is necessary, however, to raise the hog in a cheap way,
making him utilize pasture grass, rape, roots and ' ' rough-
age," and then finish quickly on "concentrates." At
the present time there is not sufficient pork produced
in the West to supply the local demand, but, as previous-
ly indicated, the market conditions are not such as to
encourage the industry. The demand being for light,
mild-cured bacon and hams, the bacon type of hog is
preferred to the lard type, consequently the two great
bacon breeds, the Yorkshires and Berkshires, have
virtually taken possession of the trade. A few Tam-
worths are also bred, and their impress may be noticed
in the Stock Yards. One or two small herds of Chester
Whites and Poland Chinas are also maintained in the
Province, but they are not kept in sufficient numbers
to affect the general type of the market hog.
Sheep-breeding in the Province has been losing ground
for the past fifteen years. This is not due to unsuitable
ix MANITOBA 83
conditions of climate, for sheep thrive remarkably well
in this clear, dry atmosphere. Neither is this condition
of the industry attributable to unfavourable markets,
for prices for lambs and mutton — sheep of any kind —
rule high. The market is supplied from the ranges of
the West, from Ontario, and the Maritime Provinces,
and even frozen mutton from Australia has found its
way into the Winnipeg market. The one great enemy
of the shepherd in the West is the coyote or prairie
wolf. While governments and municipalities offer
bonuses for wolf scalps, the breeding grounds of the
wolves are so extensive, stretching as they do into the
Northern wilds, that the only immediate remedy against
their depredations would seem to be the protection of
the flocks by means of fences. Provision of this nature
will undoubtedly be provided ere long by many farmers.
Flocks of many of the leading breeds have been es-
tablished. Any of the medium wooled breeds are suit-
able. The Shropshires and the Oxfords have proved
popular and useful, especially for "grading up" the
common merino-grade range ewe. Leicesters are also
strong favourites and have made conspicuously good
exhibits at our leading exhibitions.
Early in the live-stock history of the province, active
Associations were organized, and through the agency
of these, public interest has been stimulated in the im-
portant work of live-stock improvement. Valuable
concessions in regard to freight rates for pure-bred stock
have been obtained from Railroad Companies. Ex-
hibition Associations have been induced to employ more
efficient judges and to provide larger prizes and more
adequate accommodation for live-stock. Provincial auc-
tion sales of pure-bred stock have been inaugurated, and
farmers have thus been enabled to select bulls for breed-
ing purposes, from among the consignments of many
breeders.
84 AGRICULTURE
Within the last year or so a very successful Winter
Fair, Horse Show and Fat Stock Show has been es-
tablished at Brandon, under the auspices of these as-
sociations, where practical demonstrations in live stock
judging are given and lectures delivered on various
phases of the industry.
DAIRY INDUSTRY IN MANITOBA
Careful consideration of the past and present con-
ditions of the Dairy Industry in Manitoba, justify a
feeling of optimism as to its future. Although this
industry is still in its infancy, it has made steady
progress as a reference to the following table will show :
Average annual yield and value of butter and cheese
by five-year periods.
Periods
BUTTER
CHEESK
Total
Value
Pounds
Value
Av. price
Pounds
Value
Av. price
1896-1WO
19;>l-190i
1906-19J7
2.690,923
4,301.173
5,533,769
$ 377.9R4.73
$ 722,336.78
il, 115.543.38
14 cts.
16.8
20.1
928,587
1,277,772
1,455,020
$ 84,290.60
$ 117,267 44
$ 182,120,85
9 cts.
9.1
12.5
$ 462,255
$ 839,i'03
$ 1,297,664
While this table fairly represents the growth of the
industry, it does not indicate either its magnitude or
its value to the Province, since it does not take into
account the town and city milk and cream supply and
the ' ' by-products ' ' fed at the farm. When it is remem-
bered that the town and city population constitutes
somewhat more than fifty per cent, of that of the Prov-
ince, it is readily seen that there is a large quantity of
milk and cream consumed as such. The columns of
average prices, given in the foregoing table, are quite
as worthy of note as those indicating the growth of
IN MANITOBA 85
the industry, since they point to the growing demand for
dairy products at increasingly remunerative prices.
Our native and cultivated grasses are both suitable
for the production of a fine quality of milk, suitable
for the making of excellent butter or cheese. We can
grow in abundance, suitable- soiling crops for supple-
menting the pastures when necessary, such as
peas and oats, alfalfa (in many parts of the province)
and corn. Furthermore, we can successfully grow such
crops as mixed hay (clover and timothy), brome grass,
alfalfa, corn, roots, and the coarser grains for fall and
winter feeding. With the right kind of cows, properly
cared for, no trouble is experienced in the production
of milk economically and in quantity.
The beef breeds of cattle, particularly Shorthorns,
predominate in the Province. These were introduced
in the early days when every farmer was surrounded
with all the grazing land he desired. Later, as the coun-
try became more generally cultivated, dairying was
combined with beef production, and, as a result, par-
ticularly amongst the Shorthorns and Shorthorn grades
and crosses, many very creditable and even excellent
general or "dual-purpose" cows, whose milking quali-
ties have been developed by careful selection. In ad-
dition to these there are, in the Province, several ex-
cellent pure-bred herds, representative of the Holstein,
Ayrshire and other dairy breeds. The Holsteins prob-
ably being, at least in so far as numbers go, in the as-
cendency. Many good dairy grades are also to be met
with.
A very considerable portion of the Province, par-
ticularly in the east and north, is much more suitable
for mixed farming than for grain growing. Even the
present grain districts cannot sustain indefinitely the
continued impoverishment resulting from the con-
tinual production of grain crops. Continuous grain-
86 AGRICULTURE
growing has additional bad result of increasing the num-
ber of weeds. To restore and maintain soil fertility,
and to eradicate weeds, the adoption of a suitable ro-
tation of crops is imperative. Along with this would
naturally be introduced a certain amount of stock-
rearing. Thus dairying would in due course occupy
a prominent part in any thoroughly satisfactory scheme
of farming. The present conditions of the dairy market
are encouraging, the home market especially is rapidly
developing.
One feature of the Manitoba dairy industry is the ex-
tent to which the manufacture of butter and cheese
has become co-operative. Although the Province is
yet sparsely populated, fully fifty per cent, of the butter
and cheese put upon the market is made in factories.
There are in the Province about forty cheese factories,
situated in the more thickly settled districts. But there
is greater scope for butter-making and cream gathering.
There is at the present time, a marked tendency
towards the centralization of the creamery industry.
This is encouraged by the co-operation of the Express
Companies, who give reduced rates on cream for butter-
making purposes. This system has its advantages, and
its disadvantages. Among the former are a larger out-
put, better equipment and a more economical produc-
tion: while among the latter may be mentioned a lack
of interest on the part of the producer in the scientific
work of the creameries.
HORTICULTURE IN WESTERN CANADA
In considering the agricultural possibilities of the
Province of Manitoba, the subject of horticulture is
too frequently overlooked or given scant consideration.
The fact that cereals can be grown with splendid suc-
cess has been very clearly demonstrated, but up to the
";£-> IN MANITOBA 87
present time comparatively few of the people residing
in Western Canada, have had sufficient confidence in
the fruit-growing possibilities of the country to enter
into the industry on a very extensive scale. However,
a few pioneers have paved the way and to the results
of their work we look for encouragement and guidance.
In a country of such rich agricultural resources as
Manitoba, where excellent crops of cereals can be pro-
duced on an extensive scale with a minimum amount of
labor, one would naturally expect that the people would
turn rather slowly to the production of fruits which re-
quire much greater care and a much more ' ' intensive ' '
system of cultivation. The growing of this finer class
of agricultural products is usually delayed until the
country has become thickly populated and the land has
been brought into a fairly good state of cultivation.
Making an allowance for the difficulties which have to
be overcome in the production of fruits, some splendid
work has been done and substantial progress made.
Attempts in fruit growing have been made since the
first settlement of the country. The first experimenters
were greatly handicapped by a lack of information re-
garding the suitability of the country, and many mis--
takes were made. The introduction of tender varieties
was attended with failure, and it was only at consider-
able personal expense that the early growers learned
that only the hardiest fruits obtainable were suited
to this rigorous climate. Since this lesson has been
learned steady progress has been made. Experiences
have resulted in great efforts to secure hardy varieties
of apples, plums, cherries and other fruits from countries
where the climatic conditions are similar to those of
Manitoba. The Experimental Farms have given splen-
did assistance in this work and have been instrumental
in introducing some fruits that undoubtedly will be of
great value in future years.
88 AGRICULTURE
Among the valuable introductions is the Pyrus Bac-
cata or Siberian Crab Apple, which was first planted on
the Experimental Farm at Brandon, in the year 1890,
the trees having been grown at the Central Experimen-
tal Farm, Ottawa, from specially selected seed that had
been imported from Russia. The introduction of this
hardy Russian apple has done much for the advance-
ment of apple growing in Manitoba. It furnishes a
hardy stock on which the tenderer standard varieties
may be grafted and their hardiness very much increased.
Dr. Saunders, Director of the Central Experimental
Farm, Ottawa, has also endeavoured to increase the
hardiness of some of the standard varieties by hybrid-
izing them with the Pyrus Bacata. Several promising
hybrids have been produced in this way and are now
being grown to some extent in the Province.
Among the earliest attempts in fruit growing in the
district of Winnipeg, may be mentioned those of the
late Mr. W. B. Hall, of Headingly. In the early sixties
some not unsuccessful experiments were conducted by
him with currants, tomatoes, gooseberries, Siberian
crab apples and rhubarb. The results were indeed so
satisfactory that he and others in the neighborhood were
induced to carry on fruit growing on a large scale. Among
other pioneers whose experiments on fruit growing have
been of value, may be mentioned the late Mr. Thomas
Frankland, of Stonewall, and Mr. A. P.Stevenson, of
Dunstan. Mr. Stevenson has experimented very largely
with plums, cherries, grapes, gooseberries, currants, rasp-
berries and strawberries, and his untiring efforts in this
direction have been a great incentive to others within
the province to interest themselves in the growing of
fruits. His work, together with the work that has been
done on the Experimental Farms, has demonstrated
very clearly that hardiness is one of the first essentials
of a fruit suited to the Province of Manitoba. From
IN MANITOBA 89
the time of the introduction of the crab apple and the
hardy Russian sorts may be said to date the first suc-
cessful attempt at apple culture in this province.
The Experimental Farm at Brandon, under the direc-
tion of Mr. S. A. Bedford, has done a great deal for Mani-
toba horticulture. Hundreds of varieties of the various
classes of fruits from different parts of America and
Europe have been tested there and the results publish-
ed. In the month of April, 1899, about five hundred
fruit trees, consisting of apples, crabapples, plums and
cherries, were placed under test at the Experimental
Farm. These included many of the large standard
varieties together with a number of hardy imported
kinds. Numerous varieties of grapes, currants, goose-
berries, raspberries, blackberries and strawberries were
also tested. Many of these trees did not survive the
first winter and in a few years only the hardiest sorts
were found to be alive. Since the first planting, many
other varieties of fruits have been introduced and ex-
perimented with and much valuable information has
been gained. Among the numerous introductions was
the Russian-Berried Crab Pyrus Baccata. Its extreme
hardiness makes it eminently suitable for this country.
It is used as stock on which the less hardy standard
sorts are grafted, for the purpose of increasing their
hardiness and thereby adapting them to an environment
that would otherwise be uncongenial to them.
Small-fruit culture in the Province of Manitoba has
always been attended with a very fair degree of success.
Currants, gooseberries, red and black raspberries, and
strawberries have been grown since the early settlement
of the country. They yield profitable returns when
intelligently cultivated. They apparently possess an
inherent hardiness not shared by many tree-fruits, and
this renders them much more suitable for the severe
climate. It is only a matter of a few years until these
90 AGRICULTURE
smaller fruits will be grown in all parts of the Province ,
in sufficient quantities to supply the local demand.
Another phase of horticultural work to which con-
siderable attention is being given, is the decoration of
home and school grounds by the planting of ornamental
trees, shrubs and flowers. The prairie is bare and un-
attractive and round many prairie homes there has been
a lack of trees and shrubs. The work of beautifying
the surroundings of residences is the most necessary step
in the horticulture of the Province ojf Manitoba, and a
great deal is being done in the cities, towns and rural
districts to increase their attractiveness by ornamental
planting.
In regard to the growing of vegetables the Province
occupies a splendid position. Practically all garden
vegetables with the exception of a few that require a
long season, may be grown to a high state of perfection.
The richness of the soil and the shortness of the seasons
tend to give a flavour and tender crispness not attain-
able elsewhere, to the vegetables.
The splendid yields that may be obtained from these
fertile fields make vegetable growing a very profitable
branch of agriculture, as there is an abundant demand
in the home market.
The work of fostering the cause of horticulture within
the Province is carried on largely by the Agricultural
College and certain societies; among these are the West-
ern Horticultural Society, the Brandon Horticultural
and Forestry Society and others of a more or less local
character. The objects of these societies are to bring
together those persons interested in horticulture, to
gather together horticultural literature and to stimulate
in every possible way a greater interest in horticultural
pursuits. Much good work has been accomplished by
these societies and to their efforts is largely due the in-
IN MANITOBA 91
creasing interest that is being taken in the various lines
of horticultural work within the Province.
There are several directions in which progress may
be made in Manitoba horticulture; for example, a better
selection of varieties; an improvement by breeding and
selection of wild and native fruits and varieties grown
in the country; and by improved systems of culture.
Much is being done in plant improvement, and the Prov-
ince of Mantioba offers an excellent field for the im-
provement of native fruits. Various wild fruits grow
very abundantly in many parts of the Province, and if
a combination could be effected whereby the hardiness
and productiveness of these could be combined with the
larger size and better quality of the cultivated fruit, a
great step in advance would be achieved.
POULTRY RAISING
The possibilities of the poultry industry in Manitoba
are just beginning to be understood. When the country
becomes more thickly populated and mixed farming is
more generally practiced, poultry raising will no doubt
occupy a prominent place on the farm. To many people
living in small towns in Manitoba, a flock of hens is
sufficiently profitable to be a source of considerable
income. The question is sometimes asked: "Is the
return likely to be sufficiently great to render it worth
while to devote one's entire energies to the rearing of
poultry?"
The best reply to this question may be deduced from
the following facts:—
From the Province of Ontario and the Northwestern
States, over one million pounds of dressed poultry, having
a value of at least from $150,000, were imported into
Winnipeg for its own consumption during the past win-
ter. From the same districts no less than 4,500,000
92 AGRICULTURE
eggs, of a total value of about $100,000, were brought
into the city during the winter. Thus we see that the
City of Winnipeg with 130,000 inhabitants imports for
its own consumption about $250,000 worth of poultry
and eggs each year. To these figures must be added the
amount imported for Brandon and some of the other
larger towns.
The above mentioned values of poultry products im-
ported into the Province are so great that the industry
ought to be a good investment. It has been estimated
that in the neighborhood of Winnipeg alone, there are
openings for about fifty poultry farms. A serious draw-
back to profitable poultry keeping in Manitoba is the
extreme cold during some of the winter months. But
since the air is remarkably dry this disadvantage may
easily be exaggerated. It is, however, necessary that
adequate protection should be afforded the poultry dur-
ing the severe weather.
MARKETS AND MARKETING
Co-incident with an increase in the area of cultivated
land, improvement has been made in the organization
of systems of marketing farm products. In no par-
ticular is this more apparent than in the building up
of the grain trade of the West. Primarily, a grain-
producing country, her whole prosperity bound up in
the annual product which a bounteous nature gives her,
it is but natural that Manitoba should find the business
of handling the crops, so as to bring them to the various
markets of the world, a task of the first magnitude.
This is no less urgent a duty than the actual production
of the crops.
Six different railway companies now run trains to
Winnipeg. These give complete connection with every
part of the continent, and their branches radiating to
IN MANITOBA 93
all parts of the West make it easy for the farmers to
transport their products to the world's markets. By
statutes of the Canadian parliament, all inspection cer-
tificates for grain or other products that come under
inspection in Western Canada, must be issued by in-
spectors in Winnipeg. The Western crop of 1908, was
estimated at over two kundred and thirty-six million
bushels, about eighty-five per cent, being marketed for
export. All of this amount passed through Winnipeg
and went out bearing Winnipeg Inspection Certificates.
Of the total Western crop Manitoba produced 113,-
058,189 bushels of grain, nearly one-half of which was
wheat. From the crop of 1909, Winnipeg grain dealers
will handle enough bread stuffs to furnish a year's sup-
ply for all the inhabitants of Canada, and 10,000,000
people besides.
For the handling of this grain, there are in Western
Canada, 1,416 elevators and 41 warehouses with a total
capacity of 43,037,000 bushels. Most of these are situ-
ated on the Canadian Pacific or the Canadian Northern
Railway. In the Province of Manitoba, on the Canadian
Pacific Railway, there are 462 elevators and 12 ware-
houses with a total capacity of 14,574,600 bushels, while
on the Canadian Northern in the same Province there
are 205 elevators and two warehouses having a total
capacity of 5,921,000 bushels. Besides these elevators,
at every station there is built a loading platform over
which a farmer may load grain from his wagon direct
to the car, thus allowing him to ship his grain inde-
pendent of the elevator companies. During the mar-
keting of the crop of 1908, about 33 per cent, of the
grain was shipped in this way.
The marketing season usually begins early in Septem-
ber, and a great bulk of the grain is disposed of before
December. All the grain handled in this space of time
is reloaded at the lake ports, Fort William and Port
94 AGRICULTURE
Arthur and shipped by lake. At these points thirteen
elevators, classed as ' ' terminals, ' ' are owned and oper-
ated as follows:—
At Port Arthur, Ontario, the Canadian Northern
Railway owns two, with a joint capacity of 7,000,000
bushels. These are operated by the Port Arthur Ele-
vator Company. There is also -at Port Arthur, the ele-
vator of Jos. G. King and Company, with a capacity
of 800,000 bushels. This elevator is on the line of the
Canadian Pacific Railway At Fort William, the Can-
adian Pacific Railway owns and operate three, with a
respective capacity of 2,258,000; 2,209,700 and 1,221,000
bushels each. Four other elevator companies have
storage capacity amounting to 2,360,000 bushels.
At Keewatin, Ontario, the Lake of the Woods Milling
Company have two milling elevators having a capacity
of 700,000 and 500,000 bushels respectively. And at
Kenora, the Maple Leaf Flour Mills Company own one
that will store 500,000 bushels.
The greater portion of the grain taken into the hun-
dreds of smaller elevators in the West, and shipped
from loading platforms at country points, finds its way
into the above mentioned terminals at the Lake front
and is shipped from there to its ultimate destination,
the bulk going by vessel to Georgian Bay ports, Mon-
treal and Kingston, although last year close on to 9,000,-
000 bushels went to Buffalo and other United States
ports. In addition, 1,571,940 bushels were shipped in
1908, by rail over the Great Northern Railway to Duluth.
During the crop year of 1907-1908, there was a total
shipment of 62,107,513 bushels, and of this 47,743,336
bushels were shipped by boat, and 14,364,177 went by
rail. The total amount invested in terminal and coun-
try elevators and warehouses in the Manitoba Grain
Inspection Division is approximately $11,707,000.
The rates in force at Public Terminal Elevators are —
IN MANITOBA 95
For receiving, elevating, cleaning, spouting and insur-
ance against fire, including fifteen days free storage,
y± cent per bushel. When it is necessary to re-clean
grain in order to ascertain the amount of domestic
grain of commercial value contained in the screenings,
a charge of one-half cent per bushel is made for extra
treatment.
Foremost in the business interests of the West, stands
the Winnipeg Grain Exchange, which, in the compar-
atively short space of twenty years, has reached an en-
viable position among the leading grain institutions
of the world. The Winnigeg Grain and Produce 'Ex-
change was incorporated in 1891, after having been or-
ganized for several years. Commencing with a member-
ship of ten, and an entrance fee of $15, the Exchange
has, in less than two decades, reached such a commanding
position that the leading grain dealers of the continent
consider it imperative to become members. The value
of the seats has reached $2,500, and the membership
numbers 300.
The objects of the Exchange, as outlined in the ar-
ticles of incorporation, were declared to be — "to com-
pile, record and publish statistics, and acquire and dis-
tribute information respecting the produce and provision
trades, and promote the establishment and the main-
tenance of uniformity in the business, customs and
regulations among the persons engaged in the said trades
throughout the province, and to adjust, settle and de-
termine controversies and misunderstandings between
persons engaged in such trades." The record of the
past years clearly indicates that these objects have been
fully attained.
Through the efforts of the Exchange, permanent
standards have been secured for the various grades of
grain, and those have proved of great benefit to both
the producer and grain dealer throughout the West
90 AGRICULTURE
The different grades are named thus : — ' ' No. 1 Mani-
toba Hard," "No. 1 Manitoba Northern," "No. 2
Manitoba Northern," "No. 3 Manitoba Northern,"
' ' Commercial grade No. 4, " " Commercial grade No,
5," "Commercial grade No. 6," "Commercial grade,
feed. ' ' The grade ' ' No. 1 Manitoba Hard, ' ' consists
almost altogether of hard, red, plump kernels. In
every hundred only about three immature, shrunken
kernels are allowed and the sample must be practically
free from "frosted" kernels, i.e., kernels with pale,
roughened skin, due to the action of frost or water, and
there must be no appreciable odor of smut.
' ' No. 1 Manitoba Northern ' ' is distinguished from
"No. 1 Hard," chiefly by the larger proportion of
starchy kernels present, and of those which are somewhat
shrivelled. It has about ten shrunken kernels in every
hundred, and is practically free from kernels showing
the action of water or frost. "No. 2 Northern" is
very much like "No. 1 Northern," but with a slightly
larger proportion of defective kernels, about twelve
in every hundred. ' ' No. 3 Northern ' ' contains about
twenty-three defective kernels in every hundred. ' ' No.
4" has about thirty defective kernels in every hundred,
while "No. 5" contains about fifty-six defective kernels,
forty of which may be shrunken. "Commercial grade
No. 6" contains about sixty-five damaged kernels,
while Commercial grade rated as ' ' feed ' ' contains about
eighty-eight defective kernels in every hundred, and the
sample usually possesses a distinct odour of smut.
In the prices received for those different grades, there
is considerable variation. "No. 1 Hard" always sells
for one cent more than ' ' No. 1 Northern, ' ' while there
is a difference of from four to six cents between each
of the following grades. During the four months from
September 1st, 1908, to January 1st, 1909, about 83
per cent, of the crop was marketed. The average price
IN MANITOBA 97
for all grades of wheat has been estimated in one com-
putation at 85 cents, and with the price for "No. 1
Northern ' ' hovering about a dollar, as was the case
during those four months, this average may be con-
sidered fairly representative. The price of oats held
fairly steady between 35 and 40 cents, and, if allowance
be made for low 'grades and freight rates, the average
return to the farmer may be placed at not less than
27 cents per bushel. Barley held up in price throughout
the season and has been valued at the rate of 40 cents
per bushel. •
Manitoba is not merely a wheat growing and exporting
country. Every branch of farming has made rapid
strides of late years. The products include oats, barley,
flax, rye and peas; the Manitoba root crop alone amounts
to 8,568,386 bushels and the dairy products to 3,918,-
568 Ibs. of the value of $10,604.31.
The development of the live stock trade has been
very great. This is shown by the increase in the stock
marketed. The past year was an excellent one for the
rearing and shipping of live stock, the receipts at the
Winnipeg stock yard were nearly double those of any
similar period. Not only is there much improvement
in the number of cattle marketed, but also in their
quality. The total receipts at Winnipeg for 1908, were
170,088 head, and of these about 91,045 cattle were
suitable for export. The remainder were sold as ' ' stock-
ers" and "feeders."
Many farmers now ship their own cattle and do their
own selling on the market. This fact has made the com-
petition much keener between buyers than it was
previously. However, most of the arrivals of butchers '
and feeders' stock are sold by farmers to buyers in the
country, who again sell to dealers in Winnipeg. The
prices for average export cattle have been about $47
per head at the shipping point. For butchers' stock
OS AGRICULTURE
the average price to the farmers has been about three
cents per pound. This price is small but is accounted for
very largely by the fact that the Winnipeg market for
butchers was glutted during most of the past season.
A number of ' ' butchers ' ' and ' ' feeders ' ' were taken
East to Toronto and Montreal, and others, South to
St. Paul and Chicago. The Winnipeg market, however,
provided for nearly 64,000 head, a number slightly
out of proportion to actual requirements. Each year
a greater number of these cattle are being ' ' fitted ' ' be-
fore being marketted, and, as this process becomes more
general, the price will improve.
The average weight of the ' ' butchers ' ' and ' ' feeders ' '
at Winnipeg, was 1,061 pounds, in 1908, and the average
price $3.53, giving a total value of $2,966,483 for one
year. The total amount paid out for cattle at the yards
was $7,245,589.
It is believed that the West will become a great hog-
raising country. In the year 1908, there was an in-
crease of 63,640 as compared with the previous year,
the total receipts at Winnipeg numbering 145,269.
The yearly packing capacity of Winnipeg, is 450,000.
The Winnipeg market price for hogs is very largely
controlled by the price for which bacon can be brought
in from the United States. Hogs, like butchers' cattle,
are mainly bought in Winnipeg through middlemen, but
the prices vary less than for cattle. The average price
paid last season was $5.70 per cwt. at Winnipeg, and, to
the farmers at their own station, about 5 cents per pound.
The sheep industry is not yet very extensive. The
mutton receipts show each year but slight increase,
as Winnipeg still continues to bring frozen mutton from
Eastern Canada during the past year; as much as eight
cents per pound was paid on the hoof for lambs off cars
at Winnipeg. The live stock industry in Western Canada
is still in its infancy, but there are already indications
IN MANITOBA 99
of a considerable increase in a very short time, Farmers
are beginning to realize that the fertility of the soil must
be retained, and that this is best done by the rearing
and feeding of live stock.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION
The Province of Manitoba is so young that most of its
industries are still in the making. The first and par-
amount of these is farming, but even this is only in its
infancy. "Extensive" rather than "intensive "meth-
ods have been followed. The farmers reaped crop after
crop of wheat until they found that their land would not
continue for many years to respond to this treatment.
To-day in Manitoba, conditions are such as to demand
the employment of more scientific methods of agri-
culture. To disseminate a knowledge of these is the
function of our system of agricultural education.
Until within the last few years, agricultural education
has been carried on by the Experimental Farms, the
Agricultural Societies, the Breeders' Association, and
the Agricultural Press. The first Experimental Farm
was founded by Lord Selkirk, in 1816, at Hayfield, and
was carried on until 1822. In 1837, the Hudson's Bay
Company founded an Experimental Farm a short dis-
tance from Fort Garry, on the Assiniboine River. This
farm also had only a short career of some ten or eleven
years. In 1888, the Dominion Government called upon
Dr. William Saunders and Professor S. A. Bedford, to
choose sites for two farms in the West. Tha|g are situ-
ated at Brandon and Indian Head. The farm at Brandon
was ably managed ^by Mr. Bedford, for over eighteen
years. During this time good work was done for the
West in introducing early-ripening varieties of wheat
by experiments in raising and feeding stock, and in the
100 AGRICULTURE
testing of fruit and forest trees, as well as grasses and
fodder plants.
The Provincial Department of Agriculture has been
active, also, in educational work, and has always been
generous in making grants of money to the Agricultural
Societies, Farmers' Institutes, Dairy Association, Breed-
res' Association, and Horticultural Society, and in
other ways. Farmers' Institute meetings have been
-held in Manitoba ever since 1890, and Agricultural
Fairs since 1892. Reports show that 56 Agricultural
Fairs and 122 Institute meetings were held in Manitoba
during the year 1908. In the winter of 1907-1908, the
Provincial Government offered $50 to each of ten Agri-
cultural Societies if they would subscribe equal amounts
in order to hold Seed- Grain Fairs. This experiment
proved so satisfactory that the offer has been made gen-
eral, with the result that some thirty fairs were held
during the past winter. The summer of 1908, was the
first in which farming competitions were held, although
previous to this, prizes had been offered for the best
fields of standing grain. Special mention should be
made of the judging-schools, which have been held since
1902, under the auspices of the Live Stock Association,
whose meetings were formerly held in Winnipeg but
are now held in Brandon during March, in each year.
In 1906, a seed-grain special train carrying a corps of
Institute speakers, travelled through the provinces
and called at all the important towns, and in 1907, a
special dairy train, suitably equipped, visited the leading
dairy sections of. the province.
The magazines giving space to agriculture .in Mani-
toba, are the Nor '-West Farmer, the Farmers' Advo-
cate, The Canadian Thresherman, Farm Crops, and the
weekly editions of the Free Press, Telegram, and- Tribune.
The value of such periodicals in disseminating agricul-
tural information cannot be over estimated. In the
IN MANITOBA 101
schools, agriculture has been a subject of the curri-
culum since 1896. The work prescribed is, however,
rather "nature study" than systematic agriculture.
For the High Schools and Collegiates, a short course
in agriculture is outlined, to be taken by pupils pur-
suing the Third-Class Teachers' Course. This covers
a brief study of plants in their relation to water, soil
and air; the origin, drainage and improvement of the
soil; the different crops; and the live-stock of the farm.
Experiments are performed in elementary physics and
chemistry, bearing upon agriculture. During the past
summer, a further step has been taken in elementary
agricultural education. All second and first-class
teachers are required, while taking their professional
training at the Normal School, to spend one month at
the Provincial Agricultural College.
In 1906, the Manitoba Agricultural College was opened
and 85 students registered in the general course. The
next session 143 were enrolled, while during the past
session 170 were in regular attendance. A special dairy
course is held for those who wish to prepare themselves
to manage and operate cheese factories and creameries
in the province. In 1908, a short course in Engineering
was begun to meet the demand for instruction in working
steam and gasoline engines, which are so much used
in modern farming.
' ' Farmers ' Week ' ' at the college has now become an
important factor in agricultural education. The Agri-
cultural Societies, Dairy Association and Horticultural
Society hold their annual conventions at this time, and,
in order to make the gathering of greater interest to the
hundreds of farmers who attend, the regular classes,
are suspended, and short courses are given in stock-
judging, grain-judging and engineering, for their special
benefit.
Over half a million dollars have been spent in the
102 AGRICULTURE
buildings and equipment of the college. These include
a main or administration building, a mechanical and
engineering building, a students' residence, power-
house, greenhouse, principal's residence, farm foreman's
residence, stock judging pavilion, and barns. The
mechanical building, recently erected, is 100 feet square
and three storeys in height and contains a blacksmith 's
shop equipped with 50 forges and anvils, an equal num-
ber of work benches in the carpenter shop, and a machin-
ery department containing all kinds of farm machinery,
such as ploughs, harrows, seeders, binders, mowers,
manure spreaders, hay loaders, packers, wagons, a
threshing machine, and steam and gasoline engines,
the majority of which have been presented to the col-
lege. In the stables pure-bred stock — horses, cattle,
sheep, swine, and poultry — are kept for educational
purposes.
The work in the regular course is covered by the fol-
lowing departments- Field Husbandry, Dairying, Veter-
inary Science, Horticulture and Forestry, Agricultural
Chemisrty, Soil Physics, Biology, Farm Management,
and English. The regular course extends over a period
of two winter sessions of five months each and is con-
trolled by an Advisory Board, which issues a diploma
in agriculture to each student who completes the two-
year course and returns to the farm to engage in prac-
tical agriculture. This Board is composed of the Minis-
ter of Agriculture of Manitoba, two members appointed
by the Lieutenant- Governor in Council, two appointed
by the University of Manitoba, and five by the Agri-
cultural Societies of the Province. In 1908, the college
was affiliated with the University of Manitoba, and a
course has been added for those wishing to proceed to
a degree in agriculture.
A society called the M.A.C. Research Association was
organized in 1907, and has already done good work.
IN MANITOBA 103
It has for its object the making observations and cel-
lecting data on agriculture by the past and present
students of the college. The young farmer has every
reason to be grateful for the generous provision which
the Province has made for his education ; and it is hoped
that before long adequate provision will be made for the
teaching of domestic science. Before many years have
elapsed it will probably be necessary to establish agri-
cultural high schools throughout the Province, as has
been done in Ontario. We may reasonably hope that
the foresight exemplified in our institutions for agricul-
tural education will produce a race of farmers who will
consider not merely their personal aggrandisement but
will have regard to the advantages to be reaped by
posterity from a scientific tillage of the land.
THE GEOLOGY OF CANADA
By R. W. BROCK,
Director of Geological Survey, Dominion of Canada.
FOR an outline of the geology and physical features
of Canada. I have thought that nothing better
could be presented than the chapter prepared
by the late George M. Dawson for the Hand-
book of Canada issued by the local executive of
the British Association for the Toronto meet-
ing. The present sketch is therefore based upon
Dawson's Physical Geography and Geology of Canada,
revised and in parts expanded. This has been done
with the co-operation of Mr. W. Mclnnes, Mr. R. G.
McConnell, Mr. G. A. Young, and Mr. O. E. Leroy.
A great part of Canada is as yet unexplored, and over
a large portion only reconnaissance surveys have been
made, but enough has been done to establish a correct
conception of the general geological structure of the
country.
Since the greatest part of Canada is unprospected, we
do not know what latent mineral wealth awaits develop-
ment, but we do know that there is in Canada one of t he
greatest tracts of unexplored mineral land in the world,
and sufficient has already been accomplished to demon-
strate that Canada is destined to become one of the great
mining countries. .
The development of the mineral resources has been
slow, on account of the abundance of excellent agri-
cultural land, which made Canadians an agricultural
people. In recent years, however, attention has been
directed to its mineral resources, and a mining industry
is rapidly developing. In 1886 the mineral production
Model of Cascade Basin. Focky Mountains
The Plains, frcrn Relief Model
OF CANADA 105
of Canada was under ten and a quarter million dollars in
value, while last year it was eighty-seven million.
This development is making necessary a corresponding
increase in the attention given to the study of the geology
of the country, so that the knowledge of the geological
structure of Canada may be expected to rapidly extend.
Canada embraces the northern half of the continent
of North America with its adjacent islands, including
those of the Arctic Ocean, between the 141st meridian
and Greenland, but exclusive of Alaska in the extreme
north-west, the island of Newfoundland, which still
remains a separate British colony, and the small islands
of St. Pierre and Miquelon, retained by France. The
total area, of Canada is estimated at about 3,729,665
square miles, of which the Arctic islands to the north
make up over 500,000 square miles. This area is some-
what larger than the United States (including Alaska),
and not much less than all Europe.
The form of the North American continent may be
described as that of an isoscles triangle, of which the
narrower part, pointing south, constitutes Mexico, a
wide central belt, the United States, while the broader
base is the Dominion of Canada. The northern margin
of the continental land lies approximately on the seven-
tieth parrallel of north latitude, but in the east the land
area is continued northward by the great islands of the
Arctic archipelago, while south of these the continent is
broken into by the large but shallow sea named Hudson
Bay, 800 miles from north to south and some 600 miles
in width.
Surrounding Hudson Bay lies the Laurentian plateau
or "Canadian Shield," a tract of land underlain by pre-
Cambrian rocks and, though relatively elevated, never
rising over 2,000 feet above the sea except in the extreme
north-east. Spreading widely in the Labrador penin-
sula, this upland runs with narrow dimensions round
105 THE GEOLOGY
the southern extremity of Hudson Bay and thence is
continued north-westward to the Arctic Ocean. Along
the southern margin of the Laurentian plateau lies the
great waterway, the River St. Lawrence, running to the
very centre of the continent and expanding there into
the group of inland fresh water seas generally spoken of
as the Great Lakes, while the Winnipeg system of lakes,
with Athabasca, Great Slave and Great Bear Lakes,
occupy a very similar position on the outer rim of the
north-western extension of the plateau.
Never far distant from the oceans, and following the
trends of the south-east and south-west sides of the
Laurentian highlands respectively, the Appalachian
mountains and those comprised in the western Cordilleras
converge to the south, embracing between them, to the
south of the Great Lakes, the central plain of the conti-
nent that, west of the Laurentian plateau, extends
northward through Canada to the Arctic Ocean. But
in the east, in Canada, the Appalachian range more
closely follows the border of the Canadian Shield, separ-
ated from it, till the Great Lakes are reached, only by
the valley of the St. Lawrence River. While the two
mountain systems of the continent are, with respect to
one another, symmetrically disposed, they are opposed
in extent and character. The Cordillerian system of the
west embraces a truly mountainous tract, over which
large areas are elevated more than 5,000 feet above the
sea, with peaks rising to heights of 10,000 feet and more.
On the other hand, the mountains or hills of the Appala-
chian system, in Canada, seldom rise more than 2,000
feet above the sea, and over the greater part of the
eastern provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and
Prince Edward Island the land lies below the one
thousand foot datum line.
Only the most general notice can be given to the rivers
and lakes of Canada, but no feature of the country is
OF CANADA 107
more important, whether historically or geographically,
than the great length and volume of its principal water-
courses and the manner in which these interlock and
penetrate almost every part of the area. Besides the St.
Lawrence, with its drainage basin of 530,000 square
miles, there are three more rivers of the first class of
which the watersheds are wholly or in great part included
in Canada. These are the Nelson, the Mackenzie and the
Yukon. The first-named reaches Hudson Bay, bringing
with it the waters of the Saskatchewan and other large
and long rivers which drain a vast region in the centre of
the continent. Its basin is estimated at 367,000 square
miles. The Mackenzie, flowing into the Arctic Ocean,
drains not only most of the northern part of the interior
plain of the continent, but also considerable portions of
the Rocky Mountain region and the Laurentian plateau,
with a basin of about 677,000 square miles. Next to the
St. Lawrence it is the longest river of Canada, being not
less than 1,800 miles from its source to its mouth. The
Yukon, discharging into the northern part of Behring
Sea, drains a great tract of the northern part of the
Qordillerian region comprised in Canada, besides flowing
across the whole width of Alaska.
It is only by contrast with these greatest rivers that
many more are relegated to a second or third rank, as an
examination of a map will show. It will also be apparent
that much the larger part of the country lies on the
northern slope of the continent regarded as a whole, and
that the remainder is divided between the Atlantic and
Pacific sides, only an inconsiderable region being tribu-
tary to the southward-flowing system of the Missouri and
its branches.
It may be useful in this connection to state the heights
of a few of the larger lakes, as ruling features in physical
geography. The Great Lakes, although they stand at
•four levels, in reality occupy only two distinct stages,
103 THE GEOLOGY
separated by the Niagara Falls. Below this cataract is
Lake Ontario, 246 feet above the sea, above it Lake Erie,
572 feet, Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, 581 feet, and
Lake Superior, 002 feet. Further to the west and north-
west are Lake of the Woods, 1,057 feet, Lake Winnipeg,
710 feet, Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis, 810 and 828
feet respectively, Athabasca Lake, 690 feet, Great Slave
Lake about 520 feet, and Great Bear Lake about 390 feet.
Each of these lakes marks the lowest level of large tracts
of adjacent land.
From a physiographical and geological standpoint, the
Canadian part of the continent may very naturally be
regarded as composed of two great divisions — an eastern
and a western — the line between these beginning at the
south near Winnipeg and running thence along the outer
edge of the Laurentian plateau north-westward to the
Arctic Ocean. To the east of this line, while the surface
is generally broken and irregular, the relief is nearly
everywhere comparatively low. The rocks are almost
altogether referable to the Palaeozoic systems or to
systems older than these, and there is little evidence of
important changes during the later geological periods-
beyond such as is incident to the gradual wearing away
and denudation of ancient highlands and mountain
systems.
To the west the Mesozoic and Tertiary systems become
important. The entire spread of the great plains is
floored by such rocks, and they occupy also a large part
of the western Cordilleran belt, although there mingled
with important areas of much older rocks. Many of the
mountain ranges of the Cordillera are rugged, new and
lofty, and the processes of denudation are still going on
very rapidly, with rivers and streams flowing at high
grades and very far from that passive condition, where
the drainage system has approximately reached the base-
level of erosion.
OF CANADA 109
A two-fold division of the northern part of the conti-
nent, of the kind above indicated, although based upon
fundamental facts, is, however, much too general for the
purposes of description of its several regions. The
boundaries of the several provinces, resulting from cir-
cumstances of a more or less political kind, do not always
correspond with the natural features and cannot there-
fore be adopted as the best for purposes of geographical
and geological description. Relying chiefly upon the
physical and geological facts, we may therefore further
subdivide Canada as follows: —
(1) The Appalachian Region, including the Maritime
Provinces of the Atlantic and the south-eastern part of-
the Province of Quebec bounded by a line running from
the Straits of Belle Isle to the City of Quebec and thence
to Lake Champlain.
(2) The Lowlands of the St. Lawrence Valley, extending,
with an irregular width, from the City of Quebec to Lake
Huron and including the Ontario peninsula.
(3) The Laurentian Plateau.
(4) The Arctic Archipelago.
(5) The Interior Continental Plain, running from the
49th parallel to the Arctic Ocean and including part of
Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and the North- West
Territories.
(6) The Cordillera, or great mountain belt of the west,
including the greater part of British Columbia and the
whole of the Yukon district.
The Appalachian Region of Canada includes the Mari-
time Provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and
Prince Edward Island and the portion of the province of
Quebec lying east of the St. Lawrence River up to the
City of Quebec and from there east of a line running
south-westerly to Lake Champlain. The region is part
of a zone that has been the seat of successive mountain
1 10 THE GEOLOGY
building forces that gave form to the eastern part of the
North American continent and yielded the Appalachian
mountain system that, commencing not far north of the
Gulf of Mexico, runs north-eastward through the At-
lantic states and eastern Quebec to the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. This mountain system is represented in
Vermont and New Hampshire by the Green and White
Mountains, and its main line runs on, though with much
decreased elevation, through the south-eastern part of
the Province of Quebec, under the name of the Notre
Dame Mountains. Not far below the City of Quebec it
approaches the St. Lawrence, and thence continues
parallel with that river and its great estuary, all the way
to Gaspe on the open gulf. In the Gaspe peninsula it is
known as the Shickshock Mountains. Considerable
parts of these mountains rise above 3,000 feet, but the
Notre Dame range seldom exceeds 1,000 or 1,500 feet,
and its elevations resemble rolling and broken hills and
ridges rather than mountains properly so called. The
whole length of this main continuation of the Appala-
chian system in Canada is about 500 miles.
Subordinate and less continuous elevations, nearly
parallel to the main ridge thus outlined, occur in New
Brunswick, chiefly along two lines, one of which strikes
Chaleur Bay below its head, the other, somewhat diver-
gent in direction to the eastward, borders the southern
shore of the province along the Bay of Fundy. Though
lying at some distance to the south, eastward of the main
line, the peninsula of Nova Scotia may best be regarded
as a member of the Appalachian system of uplifts, with
which it is parallel. Its elevation nowhere exceeds 1,200
feet, and is in general very much less. A broad range of
broken hills and uplands e'xtends along the Atlantic coast
of the province and into the island of Cape Breton.
In the general sense in which the term "Appalachian
Region" has been employed, it has thus a width of
OF CANADA 111
about 350 miles between the outer coasts of Nova Scotia
and the St. Lawrence estuary. Followed to the south-
westward, this belt of country embraces the New England
States and part of New York, all with very similar
physical features. In the opposite direction it is inter-
rupted by the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but reappears in
the great island of Newfoundland, still preserving most
of its characteristic features. Throughout this region,
including Newfoundland, the geological structure is very
similar, the formations represented are nearly the same,
and both in composition and from a palaeontological
standpoint they often resemble those of the opposite
side of the Atlantic more closely than they do those of
other parts of America.
Much of the area comprised in what has been desig-
nated the Appalachian Region, in Quebec and New
Brunswick, affords excellent arable land or supports
valuable forests. The character of the soil varies greatly,
chiefly in conformity with that of the subjacent rocks,
but it has also been considerably affected, as almost all
parts of Canada, by the nature and amount of the de-
posits due to the glacial period. The best arable lands
of Nova Scotia are situated towards the Bay of Fundy
and along the northern side of the peninsula generally.
The surface of Prince Edward Island is for the most part
fertile and highly cultivated, and nowhere exceeds 500
feet above the level of the sea.
The geological scale is well represented in the Appalac-
hian Region from the pre-Cambrian to the Triassic, but
thereafter ensues a long gap, during which no deposits
appear to have formed, probably because the area in
question then existed as land, exposed to denuding
agencies alone. Closing this unrepresented lapse of time ,
we find only the clays, sands and drift referable to the
glacial period.
Though lying eastward of the chief axis of elevated
country in Quebec, and no longer mountainous the
112 THE GEOLOGY
Maritime Provinces owe their main physical features and
geological structure to the same general forces that
operated in the case of the more typical mountainous
districts in Quebec. The depression of the Bay of
Chaleur, the northern highlands of New Brunswick and
the hilly country of the same province bordering the
Bay of Fundy, this body of water itself and the peninsula
of Nova Scotia, all at least roughly parallel the general
north-easterly Appalachian trend. These physical fea-
tures reflect the broader geological structures of the
country, whose strata up to and including the Devonian
are in general folded along axes following a north-easterly
course. But the Carboniferous and overlying Permian
strata occupying the low, triangular basin in New Bruns-
wick fronting on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, lie flat and
comparatively undisturbed, and with similar attitudes
underlie the Province of Prince Edward Island, though
in their extension eastward through Nova Scotia into
Cape Breton, they frequently occur in a highly disturbed
condition.
Rocks of pre-Cambrian age occur along the lines of
main uplift in south-eastern and north-eastern Quebec,
in the northern and southern highlands of New Bruns-
wick and in Cape Breton. In Quebec, the pre-Cambrian
is largely, if not solely, composed of igneous rocks, chiefly
basic eruptives and their derivatives; in New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia, crystalline limestones, various schistose
rocks, possibly of sedimentary origin, and acid and basic
igneous rocks occupy the pre-Cambrian areas.
Forming the backbone of the peninsula of Nova Scotia,
and bordering the whole Atlantic coast, is a belt charac-
terized by a group of sediments invaded by large batho-
litic bodies of granite, probably of Devonian age. This
sedimentary group has yielded a section at least 5,000
feet thick, and has generally been regarded as of Lower
Cambrian age, though possibly it should be classed as
pre-Cambrian. The group is divisible into a lower
OF CANADA 113
quartzite series and an upper argillaceous series. The
strata have been thrown into a great series of parallel,
sharp flexures with which the distribution of the wide-
spread aurifeous quartz veins is so closely connected.
Undoubted Cambrian strata, often richly fossiliferous,
occur in Cape Breton, in the neighborhood of St. John,
New Brunswick and in Quebec, where they almost con-
tinuously border the St. Lawrence River from the ex-
tremity of Gaspe peninsula to Quebec City, continuing
thence in a more broken zone to the Vermont border. In
all the areas the strata in general are argillaceous or
arenaceous, and range in age from the lowest to the highest
Cambrian, at times passing upwards, without a break,
into the Ordovician. But while the lower beds of the
5,000 to 6,000 foot. Quebec section, are characterized by
the presence of the Ollenellus fauna, the corresponding
strata of the 2,000 to 3,000 foot section of the Maritime
Provinces are distinguished by the occurence of the
Holmia fauna.
Ordovician strata occur throughout the eastern part
of the Province of Quebec, often infolded with the Cam-
brian and pre-Cambrian formations. Fossiliferous beds
of this age occur in northern New Brunswick, but the
system is chiefly represented in this province and in
Nova Scotia by areas of highly disturbed, mainly vol-
canic rocks.
Silurian rocks are widely spread in northern New
Brunswick and in the adjacent portions of Quebec, oc-
cupying the greater part of this area which drains to the
Bay of Chaleur. They recur in the southern p^,rt of New
Brunswick and in the northern part of Nova Scotia, and
though comprising limestones, calcareous shales and
sandstones, are often greatly intermixed with' con-
temporaneous volcanic material.
Devonian strata, only sparingly represented in south-
eastern Quebec, are extensively developed in Gaspe,
where this system has yielded a section of about 9,000
114 THE GEOLOGY
feet, of which the lower 2,000 feet are largely of marine,
calcareous strata, while the upper portion is chiefly of
sandstone and conglomerates containing a remarkably
rich flora. About the head of the Bay of Chaleur rocks
of this age have yielded many interesting fish remains,
comparing closely with those of the Old Red Sandstone.
Somewhat analogous conditions appear to hold elsewhere
in the Maritime Provinces, while, at times, the lower part
of the Devonian in Nova Scotia is represented by fossilif-
erous limestones with iron ore.
While during Devonian times a large part of the Ap-
palachian Region appears to have been a basin of deposi-
tion, the period was also marked by extensive invasions
of plutonic rocks, chiefly granites, in south-eastern
Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Towards the
close of the Devonian, or in early Carboniferous times,
the activities of the mountain building forces in this
region seem to have culminated, and over extensive areas
the Carboniferous and Permian strata still occur in nearly
horizontal beds.
The Carboniferous system, both from its extent and
because of its economic value, must be considered as one
of the most important features of Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick, and there is reason to believe that much
larger tracts of this formation still lie beneath the
waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Atlantic.
Its total thickness is, in some parts of Nova Scotia, esti-
mated at 16,000 feet, but it is very irregular in this re-
spect and over the greater part of New Brunswick is
comparatively thin. At the Joggins, on the north arm of
the Bay of Fundy, is a remarkable continuous section
showing 14,570 feet of strata, including seventy seams
of coal. From beds in this section numerous specimens
of a land-inhabiting reptilian fauna have been described.
The flora of the period is well represented in many places,
particularly in Nova Scotia, and includes that of several
distinct stages, beginning with the Horton group at the
OF CANADA 115
base (comparable with the "calciferous sandstone" of
Scotland) and at the top containing so many forms re-
ferable to the Permian that the name Permo-Carbon-
iferous has been applied to this part of the section.
Several local unconformities have been determined in
different parts of this great succession of beds. With
the marine limestones important deposits of gypsum are
found. The workable coal seams occur in what is called
the Middle Carboniferous, and some of these, in the Pic-
tou district, are of unusual thickness. Coal mining is
actively in progress in Cumberland and Pictou counties
and in Cape Breton, the total annual output being be-
tween six and seven million tons. In New Brunswick
the productive area for coal appears to be small, and the
seams so far found are of inconsiderable thickness.
Triassic measures occur along the greater part of the
Nova Scotia shore of the Bay of Fundy, by dikes and cut
sills of diabase or overlain by thick sheets of the same
material. Similar, but much less extensive beds, occur
on the opposite, New Brunswick, shore. From Triassic
times onwards to the Glacial period the Appalachian
Region of Canada appears to have been continuously
elevated, undergoing denudation, and perhaps during
the Cretaceous period the eastern part was pene-planated.
Some facts respecting the glacial deposits of the Appalac-
hian Region are given on a later page, with general state-
ments relating to this period in Eastern Canada
To complete this very brief review of the geology of
what has been called the Appalachian Region it now only
remains to add a few words concerning that main line of
uplift and disturbance the course of which was first
traced through the Province of Quebec, from the vicinity
of Lake Champlain to Gaspe. This structurally compli-
cated belt of country has been the subject of much con-
troversy, and possesses a literature of its own. It is
bounded to the north-westward by an important disloca-
tion or break, known as the St. Lawrence and Champlain
116 THE GEOLOGY
fault, which may be traced from Lake Champlain to
Quebec City and thence follows the estuary of the St.
Lawrence, probably running to the south of Anticosti.
To the west of this line are the flat-lying Ordovician
strata of the St. Lawrence plain, chiefly limestones, and
doubtless resting upon a strong shelf of the Laurentian
nucleus at no great depth. Against this stable edge the
eastern strata have been folded, faulted and ridged up by
the forces which produced the Appalachian range. Were
this all, a careful study of the beds on the two sides of
the line would readily show their identity ; but it appears
that previous to the great epoch of disturbance the
original physical conditions themselves differed. To the
west a sheltered sea came into existence about the close
of the Cambrian period, in which Ordovician strata, in
large part limestones, were laid down. To the east sedi-
mentation began much earlier, and the circumstances of
deposition were different and more varied. Even the
animal life present in the two districts was largely dis-
similar at the same period. Thus it was not until much
study and thought had been given to the problem that
Logan was enabled to affirm the equivalency of a great
part of the strata on the two sides of the St. Lawrence
and Champlain fault. To those on the east, differing in
composition and fauna from the rocks of the typical New
York section, he applied the name "Quebec Group."
Subsequent investigations have shown, however, that in
the ridging up of this part of the Appalachian region not
onlv are some verv old Cambrian rocks brought to the
surface, but considerable areas of crystalline schists,
which are evidently pre-Cambrian.
The Appalachian Region in Canada, as in the United
States, is productive of minerals. In the eastern town-
ships of Quebec are the celebrated asbestos deposits that
furnish 90 per cent, of the world's supply. Chromite,
copper and iron pyrites are also mined in this region.
Considerable placer gold has been recovered. In Nova
OF CANADA 117
Scotia are some of the principal coal mines of Canada,
notably at Sydney, Port Hood, Mabou, Inverness,
Chimney Cove, Pictou, Cumberland and Joggins. Gold
has been produced for over forty years. Antimony, tin
and tungsten are also receiving attention. Iron ore has
been mined for many years. Manganese ore occurs in
both Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, sometimes of
exceptional purity. Gypsum occurs in large bodies up
to 150 feet in thickness, and is extensively worked. Bi-
tuminous shales, rich in oil, and ammounium sulphate
are found in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Whet-
stones and building material of excellent quality are
found in abundance.
Lowlands of the St. Lawrence Valley. The tract of
country , which it is found convenient to include under
this name, comprises but a small part of the hydrographic
basin of the great river, which in all is about 530,000
square rniles in extent. Although not altogether un-
interrupted, it is clearly enough defined in a general way
by the edge of the Laurentian plateau on the north, the
Appalachian highlands to the south-east, and on the
south, further west, by the line of the St. Lawrence River
and the lower members of the svstem of the Great Lakes.
It may be described as extending from a short distance
below the city of Quebec to Lake Huron, with a length of
over 600 miles and an area of more than 35,000 square
miles, all of which may be regarded as fertile arable land
— the greatest connected area of such land in Eastern
Canada.
These lowlands are based upon nearly horizontal
strata, ranging in age from the latest Cambrian to the
Devonian. On a geological map its limits are readilv
observable, but in order to understand its character it is
necessary to consider it somewhat more closely, and
under such scrutinv it is found to break up naturally
into three parts. The first of these lies partly in Quebec
and partly in Ontario, extending west along the St.
US THE GEOLOGY
Lawrence and its great tributary, the Ottawa, to a north-
and-south line drawn about twenty-five miles west of the
city of Ottawa, or somewhat past the 76th meridian. It
is here interrupted by a projecting, but not bold, spur of
the Laurentian plateau, which crosses the St. Lawrence
at the lower end of Lake Ontario, forming there the
Thousand Islands, and runs southward to join the large
pre-Cambrian tract of the Adirondacks in the State of
New York. This eastern division, with an area of
11,400 square miles, constitutes what may be called the
St. Lawrence plain proper. Much of its surface is almost
absolutely level, and it nowhere exceeds a few hundred
feet in elevation above the sea, although a few bold
igneous hills stand out in an irregular line, with heights
of 500 to 1,800 feet. Mount Royal, at Montreal, is one
of these, and from it all the others are in sight, while the
Laurentian highlands may also be seen thirty miles to
the north, and to the southward the Green Mountains
and Adirondacks, forming the boundary of the plain in
that direction, are apparent on a clear day.
Beyond the projecting spur of ancient crystalline rocks
above referred to, from the lower end of Lake Ontario,
near Kingston, to Georgian Bay of Lake Huron, the
southern edge of the Laurentian plateau runs, in a slightly
sinuous line, nearly due west for 200 miles. Between
this edge and Lake Ontario on the south lies a second
great tract of plain, the lowest parts of which may be
considered as level with Lake Ontario (246 feet), but of
which no part exceeds 1,000 feet above the sea. This
plain is naturally bounded to the south and west by the
rather bold escarpment of the Niagara limestone, which,
after giving rise to the Falls of Niagara between Lakes
Ontario and Erie, runs across this part of the Province
of Ontario to Lake Huron, forming there a long pro-
jecting point and continuing still further west, in the
chain of the Manitoulin Islands. The area of this second
tract of plain is about 9,700 square miles. It is scarcely
OF CANADA 119
more varied in its surface than that to the eastward, and
throughout most of its extent is a fertile farming country.
The third and last subdivision of the lowlands of the
St. Lawrence Valley is an area of triangular form, in-
cluded between the Niagara escarpment and Lakes Erie
and Huron. This constitutes what is generally known
as the Ontario peninsula, and its south-west extremity
touches the 42nd parallel, the latitude of Rome. The
area of the Ontario peninsula is 14,200 square miles, and
both in soil and climate it is singularly favored. Grapes,
peaches and maize are staple crops in many districts. To
the north some tracts of this land are high and bold, but
most of its surface varies from 500 to 1,000 feet above
the sea.
The geological features of the lowlands of the St.
Lawrence valley are comparatively simple. The rocks
flooring the region lie either horizontally or at very low
angles upon the spreading base of the pre-Cambrian mass
to the northward, the crystalline rocks of which have
frequently been met with in deep borings. The forma-
tions represented correspond closely with those of the
New York section, and the series, beginning with the
Potsdam sandstone, continues upward without any
marked break to the Chemung or later Devonian.
In the first or eastern subdivision of this region, the
Potsdam sandstone, although strictly speaking referable
to the Upper Cambrian, physically considered is really
the basal arenaceous and conglomeratic member of the
Ordovician series which follows. The several members
of the Ordovician occupy almost the entire surface, di-
versified merely by a few light structural undulations,
which in several districts result in the introduction of
some higher beds that are referred, although with some
doubt, to the Silurian.
Passing to the second or central subdivision, to the
west of Kingston all but the lower Ordovician formations,
just referred to, are found to be repeated, in ascending
120 THE GEOLOGY
order, along the north shore of Lake Ontario, with very
similar characters and equally undisturbed. The Tren-
ton limestone occupies the greatest area, extending in a
wide belt to Georgian Bay of Lake Huron. Above this
lie the Utica shales, and over these the Hudson River
formation. This is the highest member of the Ordovi-
cian, but the plain also overlaps the lower members of
the succeeding Silurian system irregularly, finding its
natural boundary from a physical point of view only at
the massive outcrop of the Niagara limestone.
The course of the escarpement produced by this out-
crop has already been traced; above it, and to the south-
west, lies the higher plain generally known as the On-
tario peninsula, constituting the third subdivision of the
St. Lawrence lowlands. More than half of the area of
this peninsula is occupied by Devonian rocks, which
succeed the Silurian regularly in ascending order, the
highest beds being met with in the extreme south-west of
Ontario, beyond which they are soon followed by the
Carboniferous basin of the Michigan peninsula. The
Silurian and Devonian strata are affected only by slight
and low undulations, but these are important in connec-
tion with the exploitation of the oil and gas of the region.
Though not a portion of the Laurentian lowlands,
mention may be made at this point of the island of Anti-
costi, lying in the wide estuary of the St. Lawrence. The
island is about 140 miles in length, and consists of nearly
flat-lying rocks, chiefly of the Silurian, with some of Ordo-
vician age, (Hudson River) along its northern side. The
island evidently represents part of a submerged and un-
disturbed Ordovician and Silurian tract of the northern
part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the rocks of which differ
in some respects from their representatives further to
the west, while in some instances the enclosed fauna find
their closest analogy in the fauna of the distant Mani-
toulin Islands of Lake Huron. On the mainland, oppo-
site to the island, lower members of the Ordovician occur,
Paulson's Narrows, Lake Opasatria
Typical Laurent ian Scenery
Crumpled "Ottawa" Gneiss. IVontebello, Quebec
OF CANADA 121
resting on the pre-Cambrian, while further east, towards
the Straits of Belle Isle, Cambrian strata repose on the
ancient crystalline rocks.
In the two eastern subdivisions of the lowlands of the
St. Lawrence valley, with the exception of structural
materials, such as stone, lime and clay, minerals of eco-
nomic value are scarcely found, but the clay and cement
industries are becoming highly important; but in the
third or westernmost subdivision, however in addition to
these, gypsum, salt, petroleum and natural gas have
become important products. The gypsum and salt are
derived from the Onondaga formation of the Silurian.
The salt is obtained in the form of brine from deep wells,
but beds of rock-salt are known to occur at consider-
able depths. Petroleum is chieflv derived from the
Corniferous limestone of the Devonian, and natural gas
is obtained from several horizons in the Devonian,
Silurian and Ordovician.
The Laurentian Plateau. The great region thus named,
composed of very ancient crystalline rocks, has an area
of over 2,000,000 square miles, or more than one-half
that of the entire Dominion of Canada. In a horse-shoe-
like form, open to the north, it surrounds three sides of
the comparatively shallow sea known as Hudson Bav.
Its southern part is divided between the Provinces of
Quebec and Ontario, its eastern side expanding into the
Labrador peninsula, while the western runs, with narrow
dimensions, to the Arctic Sea, west of the great bay.
In geographical extent it is thus very important,
although somewhat monotonous in its physical and
geological features. It contributes little to the fertile
areas of the country in proportion to its size, but in the
aggregate comprises a considerable amount of land which
is either cultivated or susceptible of cultivation. Else-
where, in its southern parts, it carries forests of great
value, and its mineral resources are already known in
122 THE GEOLOGY
some places to be very important. It constitutes, more-
over, a gathering ground for many large and almost
innumerable small rivers and streams, which, in the
sources of power they offer in their descent to the lower
adjacent levels, are likely to prove, in the near future, of
greater and more permanent value to the industries of
the country than an extensive coal field. Particularly
notable from this point of view is the long series of avail-
able water power which runs from the Strait of Belle
Isle nearly to the head of Lake Superior, coincident with
the southern border of the plateau.
Although it is appropriate to describe this region as a
plateau or tableland, such terms, it must be understood,
are applicable only in a very general way. Its average
elevation of about 1,500 feet is notably greater than that
of the adjacent lands, and is maintained with considerable
regularity, but its surface is nearly everywhere hum-
mocky or undulating. Away from its borders, the
streams draining it are, as a rule, extremely irregular and
tortuous, flowing from lake to lake in almost every direc-
tion, but assuming more direct and rapid courses in
deeply cut valleys as they eventually leave it. Many of
the surface features are of very great antiquity, and in
Labrador and elsewhere a number of the larger valleys
existed much in their present form long before the Cam-
brian period.
The average height of the central parts of the Labrador
peninsula is about 1,700 feet, and the most of its drainage
is divided between Hudson Bay, Ungava Bay and the
Atlantic coast, the main watershed lying not very far to
the north of the St. Lawrence estuary and gulf. Along
the Atlantic coast, to the north of Hamilton Inlet, the
region assumes a really mountainous character, numerous
elevations attaining 3,000 feet and some as much as
5,000 or 6,000 feet. These are the highest known points
connected with any part of the Laurentian region, and
are quite exceptional in character.
OF CANADA 123
To the south of Hudson Bay the watershed is, at least
in one part, as low as 1,000 feet. North of Lake Winni-
peg the Nelson and Churchill Rivers cro&s the Laurentian
plateau in a wide depression, to reach Hudson Bay.
Still further north this part of the plateau has a height
of over 1,200 feet above the sea.
Generally speaking, the surface of the plateau is barren
and rocky, with wide, swampy tracts, especially towards
the height of land. To the south and south-west of
Hudson Bay it is overlapped by an important area of
Silurian and Devonian rocks, over which, and the ad-
jacent parts of the crystalline rocks, is rather uniformly
spread a mantle of boulder clay of two distinct ages,
overlain by remnants of marine clay which reach to a
height of over 450 feet above the level of the bay. La-
custrine clays, deposited in the basins of glacial lakes,
cover large areas, notably north-west of Lake Winnipeg
and south of James Bay, where they constitute large
tracts of arable land which will eventually be of value.
The striking features of the Laurentian plateau are
innumerable lakes, large and small, with intervening
rounded rocky elevations, wooded in their natural con-
ditions to the south but rising above the tree line to the
northward, while in the far north, on both sides of Hud-
son Bay, hills and valleys become eventually character-
ized by grasses, mosses and lichens alone, constituting
the great "barren lands" of North America. The rivers
and lakes are everywhere well stocked with fish, while
deer and moose in the southern parts, and to the north
the caribou, abound. Thus, where the region can be
entered without undue difficulty, it has already become
a much favored resort of the sportsman.
The Laurentian plateau, also known as the Canadian
Shield and as Laurentia, is composed of several groups
of rocks. As at present known, the oldest consists
largely of volcanics, "greenstones," often schistose, ac-
companied by some sedimentary schists, limestones and
124 THE GEOLOGY
an "iron formation." This group, found in northern
and western Ontario, and known as the Keewatin, rests
on intrusive granitic rocks that also occupy large areas
over which they are frequentlv gneissic. Some basic
igneous rocks are also found intrusive in these older
rocks.
This whole assemblage of prevailingly igneous rocks
is characterized by its great metamorphism. It has
been subjected to intense disturbances, regional in ex-
tent. It formed a land area whose surface was eroded
into hill and vale, very much like the present surface of
the Laurentian plateau, before the next succeeding, well
recognized system of rocks known as the Huronian was
laid down. This svstem is largely sedimentary, as the
preceding was largely igneous; conglomerates, slates and
quartzites are the characteristic rocks of this svstem.
These relationships are best seen in the Lake Superior
and Temiskaming regions, but over considerable districts
they have been obscured by later intrusions of granitic
rocks.
The Huronian as it occurs in the original locality on
the north shore of Lake Huron is divisible into two por-
tions, known as the Lower and Middle Huronian.
Traced westward into the United States, the Huronian
svstem has been found to be divisible into three portions,
of which the upper, the Upper Huronian or Animikie, is
typically developed in Canada near Port Arthur on Lake
Superior. Younger than the Animikie, a group of
sandstones, conglomerates and trap known as the Ke-
weenawan or Nipigon system, is well developed near
Lake Nipigon, north of Lake Superior. The, age of these
rocks is generally supposed to be pre-Cambrian, though
by some held to be Lower Cambrian.
In eastern Ontario and the adjoining portions of
Quebec the pre-Cambrian rocks consist of a distinctly
stratified series of limestones and other sedimentary
OF CANADA
125
rocks, usually highly altered and crystalline, with a
second series of more gneissic intrusive rocks, whose
apparent bedding is really a foliation due to pressure and
which frequently pass into granites by imperceptible
gradations. The first of these is known as the Gren-
ville series, the second has been termed the Fundamental
or Ottawa Gneiss.
Sir William Logan, who studied the "Fundamental"
(Ottawa) Gneiss, the Grenville series and the Huronian,
recognized the great unconformity between the Huronian
and the older rocks and the metamorphosed character of
the latter as contrasted with the comparatively un-
altered, distinctly sedimentary nature of the former. He
therefore divided the pre-Palaeozoic rocks into Huronian ,
which he defined as embracing the pre-Cambrian above
this unconformity, and Laurentian, which embraced
everything below.
An international committee on nomenclature, repre-
senting Canadian and American geologists, has recom-
mended the following classification of the pre-Cambrian.
Opposite is placecl a classification based on Logan's and
in general agreement with the use of the terms in the
reports of the Canadian Geological Survey, though in
reconnaisance work the distinction between Keewatin
and Huronian has not always been observed.
(For the Lake Superior Region)
Keweenawan
unconformity
/ Upper
\ unconformity
Huronian -; Middle
i unconformity
V Lower
unconformity
Keewatin
intrusive contact
Laurentian
(For Eastern Ontario)
Grenville (Hastings)
intrusive contact
Laurentian
Keweenawan
unconformity
C Upper (Animikie)
\ unconformity
Huronian < Middle
I unconformity
' \ Lower
unconformity
Keewatin
(Hastings —
f Grenville —
< intrusive contact
( " Fundamental " (Ottawa) Gneis
In reference to the above table, it may be stated that
126 THE GEOLOGY
the Laurentian as defined by the International Committee
is restricted to the pre-Huronian granites and gneisses,
and that the relationships between Grenville and Kee-
watin, owing to their geographical distribution, is not
yet established.
The greater part of the great Laurentian plateau,
following the usage of the Canadian Geological Survey,
may be represented as Laurentian, since it is dominantly
underlain by granite rocks or their gneissic modifications,
Keewatin or the Grenville series as found in their typical
localities. But throughout this vast region are many
areas, 'often of considerable extent, occupied by Hu-
ronian and, possibly, Keweenawan rocks. Both east
and west of Hudson Bay rocks similar to the Animikie
characterize considerable districts, and in the far north,
west of Hudson Bay, are areas of rocks probably referable
to the Keweenawan.
Though the region of the Canadian Shield was, during
pre-Cambrian time, the seat of repeated widespread
disturbances and invasions of plutonic rocks, amongst
which the extensive bodies of anorthosite distributed
along the south-western border of the region and the
varied alkali and nephiline syenites of Eastern Ontario
are especially notable, yet, since earliest Palaeozoic
times the region does not appear to have been affected
by regional disturbances, nor does there appear to have
been even local intrusions of igneous rocks.
The rocks of the pre-Cambrian are remarkable for
the variety of useful and valuable minerals they contain.
Iron, copper, nickel, cobalt, -silver, gold, platinum, lead,
zinc, arsenic, pyrite, mica, apatite, graphite, molyb-
denite, feldspar, corundum, talc, actinolite, the rare
earths, ornamental stones and gems, building materials,
all are found, and most of them are being or have been
profitably mined.
In the tongue of these rocks, which in the Lake
Superior region extends into the United States, are the
OF CANADA 127
great iron ranges, which have produced 400 million tons
of ore, and which are expected to furnish 1,500 million
tons more; and here also are the great Lake Superior
copper mines that have produced four and a half billion
pounds of copper and are still increasing their annual
production. The fringe of the Laurentian plateau that
is explored in Canada has also been prolific. Near Sud-
bury are the greatest nickel mines in the world, and in
the Cobalt-Montreal River district what promises to be
one of the greatest silver districts. Iron ore formation,
which occurs in the Keewatin, Lower and Upper Hu-
ronian, occurs in patches throughout the whole extent
of Northern Ontario into Quebec. Iron ores are also
found in Eastern Ontario and Quebec. Copper is im-
portant in the nickel deposits, and is also found in
separate deposits. Mica is an important product in
Eastern Ontario and Quebec. Some of the deposits are
probably unexcelled anywhere. The corrundum deposits
of Eastern Ontario are unique. Gold has been mined in
Eastern Ontario and in the Lake of the Woods district.
Feldspar and pyrite mining is important. In the far
north, explorers report occurrences of much the same
minerals as known along the southern fringe of the
Laurentian plateau.
The Arctic Archipelago. The islands of the Arctic
archipelago extend from the north side of Hudson Bay
and Hudson Strait for a distance of 1,500 miles, while
their greatest extension east and west is along the 73rd
parallel, a distance of 500 miles. The total area of these
northern islands is well over 500,000 square miles, of
which Baffin Island, the largest, occupies about 200,000
square miles.
Though naturally much diversified in their physical
aspects, the Arctic Islands are characterized in the east,
in Baffin, North Devon and Ellesmere Islands by a
general tableland rising to elevations of 2,000 to 3,000
128 THE GEOLOGY
feet, but increasing in the north-eastern part of Baffin
Island to 5,000 feet, with hills rising perhaps one or
two thousand feet higher, while in the northern part of
Ellesmere Islands isolated mountain peaks reach nearly
to 5,000 feet. Westward of Ellesmere Island the general
elevations of the islands of the Parry and Sverdrup
groups lie below 1,000 feet. The large islands lying
along the border of the continental land, south of the
preceding groups and west of Baffin Island, have general
elevations of usually less than 500 feet, though in the
westernmost island, Banks Island, the general elevation
is above 1,000 feet, while the southern part reached an
altitude of 3,000 feet.
The greater part of Baffin Island is occupied by pre-
Cambrian rocks resembling those of the Labrador penin-
sula, which extend on northward through North
Devon and Ellesmere Islands. Virtually, the pre-
Cambrian rocks of Baffin and the adjoining islands to
the west occupy an area which, with the U-shaped
Laurerttian plateau, entirely encloses Hudson Bay.
Save in the extreme north, on Ellesmere Island where
Cambrian rocks passing up into Ordovician rest on the
pre-Cambrian, there is usually a considerable time break
in the geological sequence between the ancient crystalline
rocks and the earliest Palaeozoic measures, usually of
Ordovician age. Parts of the western portion of Baffin
Island and of the islands to the west, including Victoria
Island, are largely occupied by limestones of Ordovician
and Silurian age. Banks Island still further west and
the Parry Group to the north, and the islands north of
Lancaster Sound, are occupied by Devonian and Car-
boniferous strata, as well as older formations, while the
Sverdrup group is largely of Mesozoic strata. Isolated
patches of lignite-bearing Tertiary beds occur on the
coast of Baffin Island and elsewhere.
Mention mav here be made of the extensive Palaeozoic
basin of flat-lying measures bordering the southern
OF CANADA 129
shores of Hudson Bay from the north of the Churchill
River eastward to the foot of James Bay, a distance of
about 800 miles. This relatively narrow basin extends
south-westward of James Bay to within 120 miles of
Lake Superior. South of James Bay the area is largely
occupied by Devonian beds, with an interrupted fringe
of Silurian and sometimes Ordovician measures. West-
ward of James Bay the strata are largely Silurian, bor-
dered over considerable areas to the south by Ordovician.
Palaeontological evidence suggests a former connection
on the one hand with the Palaeozoic basin of the Arctic
Islands, and on the other with the ancient inland sea at
one time occupying Manitoba. Also, in the Devonian
times at least, it seems probable that a Palaeozoic sea
stretched southward from James Bay to the region of
the Great Lakes.
Glaciation of Eastern Canada. Something may be
added here on the events of the glacial period as affecting
the eastern part of Canada as a whole, although many
points connected with this particular period still remain
uncertain and the subject of debate. Like the Scandi-
navian peninsula, the Laurentian plateau at one stage in
the glacial period apparently became the seat of a great
confluent ice-sheet, which, when at its maximum, flowed
down from it in all directions in general conformity with
its main slopes. Climatic conditions and relatively
local physical features may have conspired to render
the discharge of glacial ice more important in some direc-
tions than in others, and it is even possible that at no
single time was the whole extent of the plateau equally
ice-clad. To this continental ice-sheet the name Lauren-
tian glacier has been given, and as there is reason to
believe that at times, probably both at the beginning
and near the close of the glacial period, there were two
principal subordinate centres of distribution, one to the
west, the other to the east of Hudson Bay; to these the
130 THE GEOLOGY
names Keewatin and Labradorian glacier have been
given.
During the whole of this period the Laurentian plateau
was in the main an area of denudation. From it the
surface material was carried away in all directions, even
to the northward, for there is absolutely no evidence
that any "polar ice-sheet" ever trenched upon the con-
tinent of North America. The generally bare ice-scored
rocky surface of these highlands is evidence of this
denudation, while the existence of broken, angular
masses of unmoved local debris in the central part of
Labrador and in the central area of the Keewatin glacier
shows that across these neutral gathering-grounds no
ice ever passed.
As to the distance to which the solid glacier-ice came
southward from the Laurentian plateau, the evidence
with respect to the Labradorian glacier is yet incon-
clusive. Neither is it certain at how many times or to
what extent the glacial period was interrupted by rela-
tively warm epochs, but it may be stated that the flora
of at least one of these interglacial epochs, as represented
in the vicinity of Toronto, is such as to indicate a climate
fully as warm as that at present existing, during which
it seems improbable that much, if any, glacier-ice could
have persisted on the Laurentian highlands.
These problems cannot be discussed here, but it is
certain that towards the decline of the glacial period,
the region of the Great Lakes was occupied by a succes-
sion of fresh-water basins, presumably impounded by
the northward, retreating edge of the continental glacier.
The evidence of the former existence of these lakes is
furnished by numerous beaches, such as the Iroquois
and Algonquin beach; somewhat analogous, high-level
beaches also exist in the valley of the lower St. Law-
rence. As a result, southern Ontario is covered by
deposits of till, glacial clays, glacial lake clays, etc.
After the final disappearance of the ice-sheet, the
Foothill Types, Al bert;
Selkirk Types
OF CANADA 131
eastern part of Canada, as a whole, stood at a relatively
low level. Without quoting in detail the heights to
which the sea is known to have reached at this time in
various places, it may be stated that it invaded the St.
Lawrence valley as far at least as Lake Ontario. De-
posits holding marine shells of sub-arctic type have been
found at Montreal to a height of 560 feet, and near
Ottawa to a height of 470 feet. As a result of the cir-
cumstances noted, the St. Lawrence plain as far west as
Ottawa, and nearly to Kingston on Lake Ontario, is
deeply covered by deposits due to the glacial period,
including boulder-clay, Leda clay, and an overlying
Sazicava sand, the two last often full of fossil shells of
the period. In the coastal regions of the maritime pro-
vinces similar deposits occur, to which the same names
have been extended, but to the west, around the Great
Lakes, no marine forms have been found.
Before leaving the subject it may be noted that it is
doubtful if the Laurentide glacier in the east ever crossed
the Gaspe peninsula. In New Brunswick and adjacent
parts of the State of Maine, during some part of the
glacial period, a separate, small gathering ground of ice
existed, which has been called the Appalachian glacier.
The Magdalen Islands, in the centre of the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, appear never to have been glaciated, and it is
at least a matter of doubt whether any ice, except that
originating on the peninsula itself, ever passed ovei
Nova Scotia.
The Interior Continental Plain. This is bounded on
the west by the Rocky Mountains, running about north-
north-west, and on the east by the edge of the Laurentian
plateau, which, taking a more westerly direction than
the mountains, causes the gradual narrowing of the inter-
vening plain to the north. Thus on the 49th parallel,
here constituting the southern boundary of Canada, the
plain has a width of about 800 miles; but it is reduced to
132 THE GEOLOGY
less than 400 miles on the 56th parallel. North of the
62nd parallel it is greatly narrowed, the surface becomes
more irregular, and is broken by several narrow mountain
ranges paralleling the Rocky Mountains.
The southern part of the great plain is much the most
important from an economic point of view, and is also
that about which most is known. It includes the wide
prairie country of the Canadian west, with a spread of
about 193,000 square miles of open grass-land, an area
more than twice that of Great Britain. Beyond the
North Saskatchewan River the plain becomes essentially
a region of forest, with only occasional prairie tracts,
such as those of the Peace River valley. By chance,
rather than by intention, the boundary line of the 49th
parallel, to the west of the Red River, nearly coincides
with the low watershed which separates the arid drainage-
basin of the Missouri from that of the Saskatchewan and
its tributaries, cutting off only 20,000 square miles from
the Missouri slope. Another line, nearly coinciding
with a second low, transverse watershed, may be drawn
on the 54th parallel. The watershed crosses this line
several times, but in the main it may be taken as di-
viding the Saskatchewan system of rivers from those of
the Mackenzie and the Churchill. The belt of country
comprised between these latitude lines is 350 miles wide,
with a total area of about 295,000 square miles.
The whole interior plain slopes eastward or north-
eastward, from the Rocky Mountains towards the foot
of the Laurentian highlands, so that a line drawn from
the base of the mountains near the 49th parallel to Lake
Winnipeg shows an average descent of over five feet to
the mile, fully accounting for the generally rapid courses
of the rivers of the region. There are, however, in the
area to the south of the 54th parallel two lines of escarp-
ment or more abrupt slope, which serve to divide this
part of the plain into three portions, and although such
OF CANADA 133
a division is by no means definite, it may usefully be
alluded to for purposes of description.
The first or lowest prairie-level is that of the Red River
valley, of which the northern part is occupied by the
Winnipeg group of lakes, its average elevation being
about 800 feet above the sea, although gradually rising
to the southward, along the axis of the valley, till it
reaches a height of 960 feet about 200 miles to the south
of the International boundary. Its area in Canada is
about 55,000 square miles, including the lakes, and to
the south of Lake Winnipeg it comprises some 7,000
square miles of prairie land, which to the eye is abso-
lutely flat, although rising uniformly to the east and
west of the river. This is the former bed of the glacial
"Lake Agassiz," the sediments of which constitute the
richest wheat lands of Manitoba.
The escarpment bounding the plain on the west begins
at the south in what is known as " Pembina Mountain,"
and is continued northward in the Riding, Duck, Porcu-
pine and Pasquia Hills, which overlook Manitoba and
Winnipegosis Lakes, constituting the main eastern out-
crop of the Cretaceous rocks of the plains. From this
escarpment the second prairie-level extends westward to
a second and nearly parallel marked rise, which, in
general, is known as the Missouri Coteau. The area of
this plain is about 105,000 square miles, of which more
than half is open prairie. Its average elevation is about
1,600 feet, and its surface is more diversified bv undula-
tions and low hills and ridges than that of the last, while
the river- valleys are often deeply cut as well as wide.
The greater part of the surface is well adapted for agri-
culture, although in places the scarcity of trees consti-
tutes a disadvantage. The character of the soil is also
more varied than that of the lower plain.
The third and highest plain, lying between the last
and the base of the Rocky Mountains, may be stated to
have an average height of 3,000 feet, with an area,
134 .. THE GEOLOGY
between the parallels of latitude referred to, of about
134,000 square miles, of which by far the greater part
is absolutely devoid of forest, its wooded area being
confined to its northern and north-western edges, near
the North Saskatchewan River or its tributaries. The
surface of this plain is still more irregular than that of
the last, and it is evident that both before and after the
glacial period the denuding forces of rain and rivers
have acted upon it longer and more energetically.
Table-lands like those of the Cypress Hills and Wood
Mountain must be regarded as outlying remnants of an
older plain of the Tertiary period, and the slopes and
flanks of such outliers show that similar processes of
waste are still in operation, adding to the length and
depth of the ravines and "coulees," by which the soft
Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks are trenched. The de-
posits of the glacial period, with which even this high
plain is thickly covered, have tended to modify the
minor asperities resulting from previous denudation.
The soil is generally good, and often excellent, but large
tracts to the south and west are sub-arid in character;
these, while suited naturally rather for pasturage than
for ordinary agriculture, are easily rendered fertile by
irrigation, and are also responding to the methods of
"dry farming." Along the base of the Rocky Mount-
ains is a belt of "foot-hills," forming a peculiar and
picturesque region, of which the parallel ridges are due
to the differing hardness of the Cretaceous rocks, here
thrown into wave-like folds, as though crushed against
the resistant mass of the older strata of the mountains.
Taken as a whole, the central plain of the continent
in Canada may be regarded as a great shallow trough,
of which, owing doubtless to post-Tertiary differential
uplift, the western part of the floor is now higher in
actual elevation than its eastern Laurentian rim. But
although thus remarkably simple and definite in its
£rand plan, there are many irregularities in detail. The
OF CANADA 135
second prairie-level has, for instance, some elevations
on its surface as high as the edge of the third plain, both
to the west and east of the valley of the Assiniboine
River, which, again, is abnormally depressed. It is not
possible here to do more than characterize its features
in a general way.
Ever since an early Palaeozoic time, the area now
occupied by the interior plain appears to have remained
undisturbed, and to have been affected only by wide
movements of subsidence or elevation, which, although
doubtless unequal as between its different parts, have
not materially affected the regularity of the strata laid
down. Upon this portion of the continental platform,
in its eastern parts on Lake Winnipeg and its associated
lakes, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian rocks are found
outcropping along the stable base of the Laurentian
plateau. Following this line of outcrop northward, the
Devonian rocks gradually overlap those of older date
and rest directly upon the pre-Cambrian. They con-
tinue to the Arctic Ocean and there occupy a great part
of the Northern Archipelago. To the south of Athabasca
Lake they rest, without any apparent angular uncon-
formity, upon sandstones referred to very late pre-
Cambrian or possibly Lower Cambrian, giving evidences
in the stratigraphical hiatus of prolonged periods during
Palaeozoic time in which land as well as water existed
in some parts of the area. On the western side of the
Great Plains the Palaeozoic strata reappear crumpled
and broken in the Rocky Mountains, where the vast
crustal movements of the Cordilleran belt found their
inland limit.
These rocks consist for the most part, of pale-grey
or buff, often magnesian, limestones along the eastern
outcrop, and from them has been described an extensive
and somewhat peculiar fauna. Some, at least, of the
Palaeozoic formations represented probably extend
136 THE GEOLOGY
beneath the entire area of the Great Plains, but they
are wholly concealed there by later strata of Cretaceous
age, consisting chiefly of clay-shales and sandstones,
generally but little indurated and flat-lying, or nearly so.
The uniformity of the surface features of this country is
principally due to that of these deposits, which, although
since greatly denuded, have worn down very equally
and have apparently never been very long subjected to
waste at a great height above the base-level of erosion.
The whole area has in fact been one rather of deposition
than of denudation up to a time geologically recent,
and has very lately been levelled up still further by "the
superficial deposits due to the glacial period.
The Cretaceous rocks are for the most part distinctly
marine, although, beginning with the Dakota sandstones
in the south, the tar-cemented sands on the Athabasca
and elsewhere in the north-west, and the parallel beds,
often of coarse material and in greatly increased volume,
of the upturned measures of the Rockies, perhaps indi-
cate river-born detritus won from the elevated western
country.
In the eastern part of the plains, the Dakota sand-
stones are succeeded by the Benton shales, the Niobrara,
largely calcareous and foraminiferal in some places, the
Pierre shales and, lastly, the Fox Hill sandstones. These
beds were probably all deposited in a shallow sea,
spreading over the territory underlain by the Dakota
measures. But further west in Alberta, during the
interval represented by part of the Pierre and possibly
the Niobrara, the country, over a wide extent, for a
time was in a fluctuating state, so that brackish water
and fresh water deposits, the Belly River formation,
with beds of lignite, formed, but finally were again
succeeded by marine deposits. The Dunvegan series of
the Peace River, to the north, similarly characterized, is
perhaps somewhat older. The Cretaceous strata in fact
change very materially in composition and character
OF CANADA 137
toward the Rocky Mountains, and when followed to the
north give rise to the necessity for local names arid
render a precise correlation difficult in the absence of
connecting sections over great tracts of level country.
All the Cretaceous strata so far referred to belong to
the later stages of that system, but in the foot-hills the
earlier Cretaceous is represented by the Kootanie
formation, holding coal, and reappearing as in folds in the
eastern ranges of the Rocky Mountains. One of these is
followed by the valley of the Bow River between Banff
and Canmore, and affords both anthracite and bitu-
minous coal.
Overlying the Cretaceous rocks proper, in considerable
parts of their extent, particularly in Alberta, are those
of the Laramie, which, although perfectly conformable
with the marine strata beneath, contain brackish water,
and in their upper part entirely fresh water forms of
molluscs, together with an extensive flora and numerous
beds of lignite-coal or coal. As a whole, this formation
may be regarded as a transition from the Cretaceous to
the Tertiary, with a blending of organic forms, elsewhere
considered as characteristic of one or the other. The
lower parts are undoubtedly most nearly related to the
Cretaceous, and particularly to the Belly River beds,
which were laid down under similar physical conditions
at an earlier stage. The remains of Dinosaurian reptiles
are still abundant in these. The upper beds, consti-
tuting what was originally named the Fort Union group,
with its local representatives under different names,
is, on the contrary, more nearly allied to the Eocene.
A still later stage in the Tertiary is represented by
beds of Oligocene, found particularly as an outlier
capping the Cypress Hills. These have afforded nu-
merous mammalian bones, referred to the stage of White
River beds of the Western States.
The aggregate thickness of the Cretaceous strata of
the plains, so far as known, may in the eastern part be
13S THE GEOLOGY
stated as about 2,000 feet; in the west, in northern Al-
berta, it is about the same, but exceeds 2,500 feet in
south-western Alber.ta, without including the Kootanie
series of some 7,000 feet or more. The thickness of the
Laramie is also great towards the Rocky Mountains,
reaching probably 3,700 feet. The Pliocene (with per-
haps the latter part of the Miocene) appears to have
been a time of erosion only, in the area of the Canadian
plains; wide, flat-bottomed valleys were cut out in the
foothills, and to the east of these great tracts of country
between the now outstanding plateaux must have been
reduced to the extent of 1,000 feet or more in height.
The Interior plateau is pre-eminently an agricultural
country; minerals are practically confined to the non-
metallic substances. These, however, will give rise to
important industries. The most important are the
mineral fuels in the form of coals, lignite coals and
natural gas, with which the plateau is richly supplied.
These are obtained from the Cretaceous and Laramie
rocks. , The coal-bearing region of the north-west, be-
tween the International Boundary line and the 56th
degree of latitude is approximately 65,000 square miles
in extent. The Souris River country and the region
about Medicine Hat yield lignite only. In western Al-
berta excellent lignite coals occur, which are being
worked at a number of points. In the foot-hills adjacent
to the mountains are many deposits of bituminous coal.
Natural gas has been found in great quantity, particu-
larly in the region about Medicine Hat, and also two
hundred miles north of Edmonton. There is good evi-
dence of the gas fields having a wide extent throughout
this region. Great outcrops of Cretaceous sandstones
saturated with tar or maltha occur along the Athabasca
River, probably evincing the existence of important
petroleum reservoirs. Salt springs occur on the borders
of Manitoba Lake and in the Athabasca basin. Gypsum
also occurs along the eastern outcrop of the Silurian and
. OF CANADA 139
Devonian rocks, and on the Peace River. Building
stones are found, and clay suitable for brick and certain
kinds of pottery. The Devonian limestones will prob-
ablv prove important for cement-making in the East
and North, as the Devona Carboniferous of the Rockies
have already begun to be.
The Cordillera. Of this great mountainous region of
the Pacific Coast, a length of nearly 1,300 miles, is in-
cluded by the western part of Canada. Much of this is
embraced in the Province of British Columbia, where it
has a width of about 400 miles between the Great Plains
and the Pacific Ocean. To the north it is continued in
the Yukon district to the shores of the Arctic Ocean on
one side, and on the other passes across the 141st meridian
of west longitude into Alaska. Its strongly marked
features result from enormous crustal movements parallel
to the edge of the Pacific, by which its strata have at
several periods, and along different lines, been crumpled,
crushed and faulted. These movements having con-
tinued at intervals to times geologically recent, the
mountains produced by them still stand high and rugged,
with streams flowing rapidly and with great erosive
power down steep gradients to the sea.
Although preserving in the main a general north-
westerly trend, the orographic features of this region are
very complicated in detail. No existing map yet
properly represents even the principal physical out-
lines, and the impression gained by the traveller or ex-
plorer may well be one of confusion. Disregarding,
however, all minor irregularities, two dominant moun-
tain systems are discovered — the Rocky Mountains
proper on the east, and the Coast Range of British
Columbia on the west.
The first of these it has been proposed to name, from
an orographic point of view, the " Laramide Range," as
it is essentially due to earth movements, occuring about
140 THE GEOLOGY
the close of the Laramie period, and rocks of that age
are included in its flexures. Although not quite con-
tinuous (for there are two echelon-like breaks), this
range, beginning two or three degrees of latitude to the
south of the 49th parallel, forms the eastern member of
the Cordillera all the way to the Arctic Ocean, which it
reaches not far to the west of the Mackenzie delta. It
is chiefly composed of Palaeozoic rocks, largely lime-
stones, and where it has been closely studied, is found
to be affected by series of overthrust faults, parallel to
its direction, of which the easternmost separates it from
the area of the Cretaceous foot-hills. Here the older
rocks have been thrust eastward for several miles over
the much newer strata. The structure has as yet been
worked out in detail only along the line of the Bow River
Pass. In width this range seldom exceeds sixty miles.
The heights formerly attributed to some peaks appear
to have been exaggerated, but any points in its southern
part exceed 11,000 or 12,000 feet.
The Coast Range of British Columbia constitutes the
main western border of the Cordillera. Beginning near
the estuary of the Fraser River, it runs uninterruptedly
northward, with an average width of about 100 miles,
for at least 900 miles, when it passes inland beyond the
head of Lynn Canal. This range is largely composed of
granite and more basic plutonic rocks, with infolded
masses of altered Palaeozoic and possibly later strata.
It is not, as a rule, so rugged in outline as the last, but
its western side, rising from the sea, shows the full value
of its elevation there, while its main summits often
exceed 8,000 or 9,000 feet. Several rivers rising in the
plateau country to the eastward flow completely across
this range to the Pacific, where the lower parts of their
valleys, as well as those of many streams originating in
the mountains themselves, in a submerged state consti-
tute the remarkable system of fiords of British Columbia.
Even in the arrangement of the islands adjacent to the
OF CANADA 141
coast, the further extension of these valleys, and of
others running with the range, may be traced, the evi-
dence being of great subaerial erosion, when the land
previously stood at a higher stage. The cutting out of
these deep valleys probably began in Eocene times, but
was renewed and greatly increased in the later Pliocene.
Outside the Coast Range, and in a partly submerged
condition, lies another range, of which Vancouver Island
and the Queen Charlotte Islands are projecting ridges.
This stands on the edge of the Continental plateau, with
the great depths of the Pacific beyond it. The rocks
resemble those of the Coast Range, but include also
masses of Triassic and Cretaceous strata which have
participated in its folding, while horizontal Miocene and
Pliocene beds skirt some parts of the shores.
In the inland portion of British Columbia, between
the Coast and Rocky Mountain systems above particu-
larly alluded to, are numerous less important mountain
ranges which, while preserving a general parallelism in
trend, are much less continuous. Thus, in travelling
westward by the line of the Canadian Pacific Railway,
after descending from the Rocky Mountain summit and
crossing the Upper Columbia vallev, the Selkirk Range
has to be surmounted. Beyond this, the Columbia on
its southern return is again crossed, and the Gold Range
is traversed by the Eagle Pass before entering the In-
terior Plateau of British Columbia, which occupies the
space remaining between this and the Coast Range.
The system of ranges lying immediately to the west of
the Rocky Mountains proper, notwithstanding its breaks
and irregularities, is capable of approximate definition,
and its components have been designated collectively the
Gold Ranges. Further north it is represented by the
Cariboo Mountains, in the mining district of the same
name. The highest known summit of this svstem is
Mount Sir Donald, 10,645 feet, one of the Selkirk Moun-
tains. This mountain svstem is believed to be the
142 THE GEOLOGY
'- 'i. /
oldest in British Columbia. It comprises pre-Cambrian
rocks with granites, and xa great thickness of older
Palaeozoic beds, much disturbed and altered.
The Interior Plateau region constitutes, an important
physical feature. Near the International Boundary it
is terminated southward by a coalescence of rather ir-
regular mountains, and again, to the northward, it ends
about latitude 55° 30' in another plexus of mountains
without wide intervals. Its breadth between the mar-
gins of the Gold Ranges and the Coast Range is about
100 miles, and its length is about 500 miles. It is con-
venient to speak of the country thus denned as a plateau,
because of its difference, in the large, from the more
lofty bordering mountains. Its early Tertiary topo-
graphy has been greatly modified by volcanic accumula-
tions of the Miocene, and by river-erosion, while it stood
at a considerable altitude, in the Pliocene ; but its
plateau-like character is not obvious until some height
has been gained above the lower valleys, where the eye
can range along its level horizon-lines. It is highest to
the southward, but most of the great valleys traversing it
are less in elevation than 3,000 feet above the sea. To
the north, and particularly in the vicinity of the group
of large lakes occuring there, its main area is less elevated
than 3,000 feet, making its average height about 3,500
feet.
Beyond this plateau to the north, the whole width of
the Cordillera, very imperfectly explored as yet, appears
to be mountainous as far as the 59th parallel of latitude,
when the ranges diverge or decline, and in the upper
basin of the Yukon, rolling or nearly flat land, at mod-
erate elevations, again begins to occupy wide intervening
tracts.
As a whole, the area of the Cordillera in Canada may
be describee! as forest-clad, but the growth of trees is
more luxuriant on the western slopes of each of the
dominant mountain ranges, in correspondence with the
OF CANADA 143
greater precipitation occuring on these slopes. This is
particularly the case in the coast region and on the sea-
ward side of the Coast Range, where magnificent and
dense forests of coniferous trees occupy almost the whole
available surface. The Interior Plateau, however, con-
stitutes the southern part of a notably dry belt, and in-
cludes wide stretches of open, grass-covered hills and
valleys, forming excellent cattle ranges. Further north,
along the same belt, similar open country appears inter-
mittently, but the forest invades the greater part of the
region. It is only toward the Arctic coast, in relatively
very high latitudes, that the barren Arctic tundra
country begins, which, sweeping in wider development to
the westward, occupies most of the interior of Alaska.
With certain exceptions the farming land of British
Columbia is confined to the valleys and tracts below
3,000 feet, by reason of the summer frosts occuring at
greater heights. There is, however, a considerable area
of such land in the aggregate, with a soil generally of
great fertility. In some of the southern valleys of the
interior, irrigation is necessary for the growth of crops.
Fruit growing is becoming one of the important indus-
tries.
The geological structure of the Cordillera is extremelv
complicated, and it has as yet been studied in detail
over limited tracts only. There have been no appro-
priate terms of comparison for the formation met with,
and these it has consequently been necessary to investi-
gate independently by the light of first principle. The
difficulty is increased by the abundance of rocks of vol-
canic origin referable to several distinct periods, re-
sembling those of the Appalachian mountain region,
though on a vastly greater scale, and, like them, almost
entirely devoid of organic remains. The recognition,
early in their investigation, has rendered it possible,
however, to understand the main geological features,
144 THE GEOLOGY
which at first appeared to present an almost insoluble
problem.
The oldest rocks recognized consist of crystalline
schists probably of pre-Cambrian age, though possibly
intricately associated with highly-altered Palaeozoic
strata and metamorphosed igneous material. In the
Gold Range and Interior Plateau region they have been
distinguished as the Shuswap series. They include rocks
lithologically resembling the Laurentian gneisses of the
east, together with crystalline limestones, quartzites
and gneisses like those of the Grenville series. In the
Yukon, where similar rocks are widely developed, they
have been grouped under the name of the Nasina series,
held to be at least pre-Ordovician in age.
In the Rocky Mountains, Gold Ranges, and elsewhere
is a great thickness of Palaeozoic rocks which, in the
Rocky Mountain Range, towards the south, is underlain
by a considerable volume of relatively unaltered, pre-
Cambrian sediments. Cambrian fossils have been re-
covered from the lower Palaeozoic beds in the south,
where the whole of the Cambrian is represented by highly
fossiliferous measures, and again in the far north. West
of the Rocky Mountains the Cambrian and, in general,
the succeeding Palaeozoic systems, are largely repre-
sented by volcanic material. The Ordovician and Si-
lurian, on the evidence in each case of a few character-
istic fossils, are known to exist at several points in the
Rocky Mountains proper. The Devonian has not been
distinctly recognized.
In the Rocky Mountains, the Carboniferous is largely
represented, chiefly by massive limestones, and the
fossils found in these pass down to a stage which has
been characterized as Devono-Carboniferous. No single
trace of the flora of the Carboniferous period has yet been
discovered in the western regions of Canada. In the
Interior Plateau and along the Coast, the Carboniferous
consists below of volcanic accumulations and quartzites
OF CANADA 145
and above of limestones, some of which are largely fora-
miniferal.
The Triassic, in the southern part of the Rocky
Mountains proper, is represented by red sandstones, the
deposits of an interior Mediterranean of the period. To
the west and north it becomes a marine formation, with
peculiar fossils of the "Alpine Trias" type, but over
large areas it consists almost entirely of contemporaneous
volcanic accumulations.
The Jurassic occurs in the Queen Charlotte Islands
and the Fernie shale, underlying the Kootanie formation
in the southern portion of the Rocky Mountains, probably
belongs to the same system. Rocks of earlier Cretaceous
occur in places in the Rocky Mountains and throughout
British Columbia as far as the coast, also northward to
the Porcupine River, between latitudes 67° and 68°, in
the Yukon District. Newer Cretaceous rocks are de-
veloped particularly in Vancouver Island, where they
constitute the productive coal measures. In the Crow's
Nest Pass region and elsewhere in the Rocky Mountains,
as well as in the Queen Charlotte Islands, the earlier
Cretaceous rocks contain abundance of good coal. All
the strata of the Cretaceous period are more or less filted
and folded, and are evidently prior in date to the last
great organic movements of the Cordillera. Evidences of
contemporaneous volcanic action are again abundant in
some parts of the extent of the Cretaceous.
Rocks referable to the Laramie or transition period
between the Cretaceous and Tertiary, are found in the
Yukon District and in the vicinity of the Fraser delta,
holding lignite coals and numerous remains of plants.
Beds assigned to the Oligocene and Miocene are also well
developed in the southern part of the Interior Plateau of
British Columbia, where the latter period has been an
epoch of notable volcanic eruptions, producing both
effusive and fragmental rocks, but toward the close
flooding large tracts with basaltic flows. Traces of
146 THE GEOLOGY
similar volcanic activity, of the same date, are found in
the Queen Charlotte Islands and in Vancouver Island.
The Pliocene was chiefly a time of erosion, but deposits
referred to this period are not entirely wanting.
Until the completion of the Canadian Pacific trans-
continental railway, the west coast of Canada was a
remote region, accessible with difficulty; but long before
this coal has been successfully mined in Vancouver
Island, and in 1858 and succeeding years the discovery
and working of placer gold deposits brought the then
isolated colony of British Columbia into considerable
prominence. From the time of the quarrel with Spain
on the Nootka question, in 1870, little had been heard of
the region, which remained unprized and suffered
naturally in consequence when the "Oregon" boundary
was settled with the United States.
Lode mining may be said to have commenced about
fifteen years ago. In 1893 the annual production of
minerals in British Columbia had a value of about three
and a half million dollars. It now runs in the neighbor-
hood of twenty-five millions. The lead of Canada is
obtained from the silver-lead mines of East and West
Kootenay. Gold-copper ores are mined extensively at
Rossland, and in the Boundary Creek district are
enormous copper-gold deposits of the contact meta-
morphic type, which are worked on a gigantic scale.
Copper is also found in many other parts of British
Columbia, particularly along the Pacific Coast. Lode
gold is mined in West Kootenay and the Similkameen.
The Cordilleran belt in Canada is not only rich in gold,
silver, copper and lead, but it has enormous resources of
coal of excellent quality, ranging from lignites to an-
thracite, conveniently situated. It is mined extensively
in the Crow's Nest Pass, on Bow River, at Nicola, and
on Vancouver Island. The great unprospected areas
are known to contain the coal formation, and will no
doubt when explored add greatly to the coal resources.
OF CANADA 147
While well opened up along the southern fringe of the
province, and to some extent along the coast, and while
the main streams have been prospected for placer gold,
the great part of the Cordilleran belt in Canada may be
said to be as yet untouched and its potential wealth in
minerals unknown, though it is certain to become one
of the great mining countries.
Glaciation of Western Canada. Like the eastern part
of Canada, the western has been largely affected by the
events of the glacial period. Most of the superficial
deposits can be explained only by reference to this
period, and to it also the diversion of many rivers and
streams and other important changes are due. It is
not yet possible to give a connected account of these
events, which will meet with general agreement, but, as
in the east, the main facts have already been made suffi-
ciently plain.
At an early time in the glacial period, the Cordillera,
standing probably at a relatively high elevation, became
covered by a confluent ice-sheet, extending approxi-
mately from latitude 48° to latitude 63°, with a total
length at its maximum of some 1,200 miles. The form
of the surface prevented the ice from discharging in all
directions like that of Greenland, and forced the bulk of
the outflow to move south-eastward and north-westward,
in conformity with the direction of the ruling mountain
ranges, from a central neutral gathering-ground or neve,
situated approximately between the 55th and 59th
parallels. The southward-moving portion of the great
glacier filled the Interior Plateau of British Columbia,
whilst its opposite extremity in the main flowed into the
Yukon basin. Smaller streams from the main mass un-
doubtedly crossed the Coast Range by transverse valleys,
to reinforce secondary, but large glaciers, which reached
the sea to the south and north of Vancouver Island,
while others extended through the Bow River valley
148 THE GEOLOGY OF CANADA
and similar depressions to the western margin of the
Great Plains.
This Cordilleran glacier, as shown by late observations
in the western part of the Great Plains, was the first to
affect the region, and may perhaps prove to be the first
notable ice-cap developed during the glacial period in
North America. At a later time it became gradually
very much reduced, but subsequently, at least once
again extended to dimensions in some places approach-
ing those first held by it. Rock striation and the tran-
sport of erratics, show that the southern part of the
Cordilleran glacier, when at its maximum, passed unin-
terruptedly over projecting points between 6,000 and
7,000 feet in height above the sea.
In the area of the Great Plains, as above noted, the
first recognized evidences of glacial conditions are those
connected with the eastward spread of comparatively
limited tongues of glacier-ice from the Rocky Mountains,
and the deposit, on the western plains, of boulder-clay
and rolled gravels attributed to what it has been pro-
posed to name the Albertan stage. Subsequently at
least two more distinct boulder-clays, separated by im-
portant interglacial deposits, have been laid down over
the whole western part of the Great Plains, ending above
in silty, sandy and gravelly beds, with large scattered
superficial erratics. In connection doubtless with one
of these boulder-clays is the remarkable monument of
the glacial period known as the Missouri Coteau (crossed
by the Canadian Pacific Railway, west of Parkbeg station) .
These later boulder-clays differ from those of the Al-
bertan stage in being largely composed of debris of the
Laurentian and Huronian rocks and Palaeozoic lime-
stones found in places on the eastern side of the interior
continental plain. The direction of transport of these
erratics has been from the north-east or north north-east.
THE CLIMATE OF MANITOBA
By R. F. STUPART,
Director of the Meteorological Service.
THE Province of Manitoba is almost in the centre
of the continent, about midway between the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and also midway
between the Gulf of Mexico and the Arctic Sea. It is
many hundreds of miles distant from any high mount-
ains, and there are no important water areas to the
westward. The topographical features of the province
are not pronounced. About two-thirds of the total area,
including the basins of Lakes Winnipeg and Manitoba,
are at a level of less than one thousand feet, while to
the westward the levels increase gradually to about six-
teen hundred feet, with some few districts a little higher.
Its highest uplands are the Porcupine Mts. between
52° and 53° N. (2,500ft.), the Duck Mountain between
51° and 52° N., a portion of the Riding Mountain- on
about 51° (2,000 ft.), and a portion of the Turtle Mt.
immediately north of the 49th parallel (2,300 ft.). To
the northward and north-eastward of the province the
levels fall away towards Hudson's Bay.
Such being, in brief, an outline of the geographical
and topographical features of the province, it is not surr
prising that the climate is typically continental in its
character and that such differences as exist between
different districts are due chiefly to latitude, and the
general meteorology of the zone within which the
territory lies.
This zone, within which the other Western provinces
are also situated, is one of. peculiar interest from a meteor-
ological standpoint, inasmuch as the trajectories of a
large percentage of the cyclonic areas moving across
150 THE CLIMATE
America lie within it, and the passing of these disturb-
ances causes some very abrupt temperature changes.
The fact also that the maxima of the winter mean
pressure is in some years to the northward and in other
years to the southward leads to very decided varia-
bility in the character of the winter season in different
years, some instances of which will be given.
The very pronounced contrast between the continental
and littoral type of climate is well evidenced by the fact
that the mean range in temperature between the warmest
and the coldest months of the year is 68° at Winnipeg,
while it is but 21° at Victoria, British Columbia. The
absolute recorded range of temperature at Winnipeg is
153°. A change of temperature of 40° in twenty-four
hours is not very exceptional in winter in Manitoba, and
.a range of 49° has been registered. Very pronounced
also are the departures from the normal in correspond-
ing months in different years, there being a January on
record with the mean temperature 8° above normal and
another with the mean 13° below normal, and a Feb-
ruary with a mean temperature 25° above normal and
also one with the mean 13° below normal.
The monthly variations from normal are not so pro-
nounced in summer, the mean temperature of the
warmest July having been 70°. 2 and of the coldest GO3. 6.
As will be obvious from the figures just given, the
change from winter to spring and summer is more rapid
than in Great Britain or Western Europe, and frequently
an April, which is wintry at the beginning, ends with con-
ditions approaching those of summer. An average April
is not so warm a month in Manitoba as it is in England.
The season is not, however, so backward as the monthly
mean temperatures might seem to indicate. The daily
range is large, approximately 25°, and, while the nights
are cold, the day temperatures are high; the frost soon
leaves the ground and the farmer may commence sowing.
The mean temperature of May is as high as in the south
OF MANITOBA 151
of England, with the mean maximum considerably
higher, and while frosts occasionally occur they are
seldom severe. Light snowfalls also occasionally occur
in this month, and at times are accompanied by high
winds, but these storms are seldom injurious to agri-
culture.
The rapid upward trend of the temperature curve
continues during June, the average daily maximum of
which month is 74° at Winnipeg and 72° at Minnedosa.
Warm days with frequent showers produce an almost
phenomenally rapid growth, which continues through
July, for which month the mean temperature at Winnipeg
is 66°, with an average daily maximum of 78°. Few
summers go by without several heat spells, during which
the temperature rises to 90° or over, and in August, 1886,
103° was recorded in Winnipeg and 104° in the more
western districts.
August shews a declining mean temperature after the
middle of the month, and the last fortnight is a period
of uneasiness among farmers, as it is known that in some
years slight frosts have occurred, injuring such crops as
were not yet fully ripe. Summer is, however, by no
means over, and periods of exceedingly warm weather are
not infrequent even in September ; it is only occasionally
that there are night frosts in that month. October is
the true autumn month, during which the temperature
curve begins its most rapid decline ; and before its close
severe frosts are of nightly occurrence, and on some
days the temperature may not rise above the freezing
point.
The winter may be regarded as of five months duration,
viz., from November to the end of March. It is not
usually, however, until the last week in November that
the temperature falls to zero, and this occurs on a few
days only, and it is seldom that zero is registered after
March 25th.
January, with an average mean temperature of — 3% is
152 THE CLIMATE
colder than February, but in both these months there
are generally long spells of exceedingly low temperature,
during which for days together the thermometer does
not rise above zero. As an example of this, in January,
1883, on twenty-two days the temperature did not reach
the zero point, and a minimum reading of — 46° was re-
corded. This was, however, exceptional and in marked
contrast to January, 1878, when there were only three
days bn which the temperature did not rise above zero,
and minus readings were registered on but twelve days.
The most exceptional winter month on record was
February, 1878, when the mean temperature was 24°
and the temperature fell below zero on but one day. In
most years — 40° is registered at least once during the
winter; — 46° has been recorded four times, and — 50°
was registered on December 24th, 1879.
The snowfall of Manitoba ranges from 52 inches in the
eastern districts to 44 inches in the western districts, and
while the ground is usually well covered from December
to March, it is seldom that the depth is great. In most
winters there are several heavy north-west gales succeed-
ing the passage of cyclonic areas, and in these storms, as
the temperature drops quickly, accompanied by a
blinding drift of the dry snow, we have the well-known
blizzard of the prairies.
Winter in Manitoba and in the Canadian West gener-
ally is not a season that is dreaded. It is, on the con-
trary, a season which, with its bright, dry, exhilarating
atmosphere, is looked forward to with pleasure by most
people. With the cold weather, bright sunshine, ex-
treme dryness and lack of precipitation become the
predominating features of the continental interior; 94
hours of sunshine in November and 88 in December
increase to 111 in January and 137 in February. As with
the increasing cold the humidity diminishes, the electric
spark between the body and any conductor bears witness
in a striking manner to the extreme dryness of the
OF MANITOBA 153
atmosphere. The thin cirro-stratus cloud which fre-
quently overspreads the winter sky when cyclonic areas
are passing eastward across the western and north-
western states is peculiarly productive of displays of
parhelia ranging from the ordinary "Mock Suns" to the
more intricate and beautiful phenomena which at times
include several circles and prismatic colouring.
As jnight be expected from the general similarity of
the face of the country, there are no wide differences in
the monthly and annual amounts of precipitation in the
different parts of the Province ; the mean annual amount
for the Province is about 19 inches, the heaviest, about
21 inches, occurring in the extreme eastern portion, and
the least about 17 inches in the more southern and
western districts. As, however, most of the precipita-
tion, especially the summer rainfall, comes from local
storms, there is sometimes a considerable difference in the
amounts recorded at places not far distant from each
other. Between 9 and 10 inches of rain, or approxi-
mately 50% of the total annual precipitation occurs
between May and August and is nearly equal to the
amount that occurs during the same period in Ontario
and in the midland counties of England. At Winnipeg
the greatest annual precipitation recorded was 29.24
inches in 1878 and the least 14.38 inches in 1886, in
which year only 4.23 inches fell during the May to
August period. Most of the summer rainfall occurs in
thunderstorms, which at times are quite heavy, ac-
companied by violent squalls and, less frequently, by
hail. It is but very seldom that these storms attain the
energy of the tornado, which is not uncommon on the
more heated prairies to the south.
Reference to Table II will show at a glance that
Manitoba has plenty of sunshine, and that both summer
and winter the percentage of the possible duration is
larger than in the older Canadian Provinces or in Great
Britain.
154
THE CLIMATE OF MANITOBA
TABLE I.— The average mean highest, mean lowest and mean temperature;
the highest and lowest temperature and mean daily range; also percentage
of cloud precipitation and sunshine, at various stations in Manitoba.
20years 1888—1907. WINNIPEG. Lat. 49° 53', long. 97° 7'.
MONTH
MEAN
ABSOLUTE
Per
cent,
of
cloud.
Pre-
cipit-
ation.
Hours
of
sun-
shine.
High-
est.
Low-
esf
Temper-
ature.
•>
Daily
range.
Hith-
est.
Low-
est.
January ....
February ..
March
April ...
8.0
11.1
26.2
50.1
64.2
74.2
77.6
75.4
65.8
51.8
30.5
16.8
—13.3
—13.4
3.0
27.0
37.8
49.9
54.0
50.3
41.8
30.9
12.4
- 2.7
- 2.6
- 1.2
14.6
38.6
51.0
62.1
65.8
62.9
53.8
41.3
21.4
7.0
21.3
24.5
23 2
23.1
26.4
24.3
23.6
25.1
24.0
20.9
18.1
19.5
41.8
46.0
61.8
89.6
93.6
100.5
95.8
97.0
99.0
84.8
64.8
44.8
-46.1
—46.5
—36.5
-12.8
14.0
21.0
35.5
30.3
17.0
- 2.8
—33.4
—39.1
47
42
55
49
53
59
50
51
54
58
57
53
0.96
0.70
1.25
1.51
1.91
3.62
3.33
2.04
1.93
1.27
1.16
0.74
Ill
137
182
204
255
251
286
257
176
127
94
88
May
June....
July
August
September
October
November..
December..
Year
34.6
100.5
—46.5
52
20.42
2172
20 years 1888-1907.
MINNEDOSA. Lat. 50° 15', long. 99° 50'.
January .. ..
10.5
—11.6
— 0.6
22.1
46.0
—50.2
42
1.25
February ..
12.4
--11. 3
0.6
23.7
51.5
—52.2
45
0.88
March
26.8
3.1
14.9
23.7
66.2
—37.0
53
1.27
April
49 4
26.0
37 7
23.4
82 5
—14.7
54
1.18
May.i
62 9
36 4
49.7
26.5
96.1
9.4
55
2.02
June ....
71.8
47.3
59.6
24.5
103.8
22.5
60
3.37
July
76 3
51 1
63 7
25 2
97 8
32.7
51
2.67
August
74.7
48.0
61.3
26.7
102.8
24.5
49 '
2.08
September
65.1
39.4
52.2
25.7
97.0
11.2
53
1.53
October
51.7
29.5
40.6
22.2
82.8
1.8
60
1.22
November .
30.7
11.6
21.1
19.1
65.8
—32.8
55
1.59
December..
19.4
— 1.3
9.1
20.7
47.1
—37.0
49
1.02
Year
34.2
103.8
—52.2
53
20.13
18 years 1890-1907.
BRANDON. Lat. 49° 51', long. 99° 57'.
January .. ..
February...
March..,
April
May
8.8
10.8
25.6
50.9
64.6
—14.1
—13.2
2.0
26.1
36.4
— 2.7
- 1.2
13.8
38.5
50 5
22.9
.24.0
23.6
24.8
28 2
43.5
47.6
60.0
88.4
99 3
-47.2
-52.0
-41.9
-11.7
7 0
0.91
0.87
0.85
0.81
1.81
10T
132
158
158
229
June .. .
72.9
47 0
60 0
25 9
106 3
26 3
3 42
22S
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77.8
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September.
October
November.
December..
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17.7
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52.5
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27.8
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22.5
106.5
95.6
81.6
69.1
49.1
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0.86
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FLORA OF MANITOBA
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
By A. H. REGINALD BULLER, D. Sc., Ph D.(
Professor of Botany in the University of Manitoba.
THE Flora of Manitoba up to the present has been
studied but very little, so that it is not yet possible to
present any adequate account of the Algae, Fungi,
Liverworts, or Mosses. The first list of Phanerogamia
and Pteridophyta was compiled for this hand-book by
the late Rev. Canon Burman, whose death occurred on
January 80th of this year. Canon Burman, who was
born in Yorkshire, England, came out to Manitoba
whilst still a young man, and lived in the Province for
more than thirty years. During this time he gradually
obtained a unique acquaintance with the flora, and last
year was induced to compile a list of the Phanerogamia
and Pteridophyta. Unfortunately his illness prevented
any revision of the list. Canon Burman was perhaps
the only man in Manitoba who possessed a comprehen-
sive knowledge of the local flora, and the Province could
ill afford to lose him. His death is particularly re-
gretted in view of the visit of the British Association to
Winnipeg.
A few plants not recorded by Canon Burman were
found by Mr. C. W. Lowe last summer. They have been
included in the list, and are marked with an asterisk.
THE PHANEROGAMIA AND PTERIDO-
PHYTA OF MANITOBA
By the late REV. W. A. BURMAN,
Of St. John's College, Winnipeg.
IN presenting the following list of Manitoba Plants,
no claim is made to completeness. There is a large
amount of work yet to be done within the bounds of the
Province as at present constituted; while, with the ex-
tension of the boundaries to Hudson's Bay, doubtless
the flora will be enriched by the discovery of many sub-
Arctic species. Most of the Plants included in the
present list were collected by the writer. The
remainder have been added from the records of Dr. G.
Macoun and Mr. G. M. Macoun of the Geological
Survey, and chiefly consist of species collected in the
extreme North- Western part of the Province.
The nomenclature adopted is that used in the cata-
logue of plants issued by the Geological Survey of Canada,
which gives a very full list of synonyms ; for the sake of
economising space, the authors of the nomenclature
used have not been named.
For the study of Plant distribution, the Province may
be divided into four districts:
(1) EASTERN DISTRICT. This extends from the
Eastern shore of the Lake of the Woods almost to the
Red River, and includes a number of small lakes which
are drained by the Winnipeg River. The rocks towards
the Eastern side of the district belong to the Laurentian
and Huronian formations, but towards the West they
gradually disappear and are succeeded by fine lacrustine
deposits of glacial age.
158 THE PHANEROGAMIA AND
In the Southern part of the district occur a number of
sandy ridges, which are covered with "Jack" pine and
poplar. The intervening areas are largely occupied by
swamps, in which the prevailing trees are Tamarac,
Spruce and Poplar.
Towards the extreme West the woods become replaced
by open, low-lying prairie, which forms part of the fertile
Red River Valley. Further North there is a strip of
park-like country, about 50 miles in width, in which
occur occasional exposures of limestone, as at Tyndall,
and deposits of Glacial Drift. Still further North, the
Laurentian system dips beneath the waters of Lake
Winnipeg and forms the Eastern shore.
The Eastern District is marked by the final occurrence
toward the West of a good many species of plants be-
longing to Western Ontario, the Winnipeg River valley
being roughly the Westerly limit of their distribution.
Here the white and red pine disappear, also Acer spica-
tum and Pirus Americana, along with a number of her-
baceous plants affecting rocky uplands.
(2) THE NORTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. This district
sweeps away from the Red River, North of Winnipeg,
to the North-Western corner of the Province. It is ex-
tensively wooded, its forests consisting of poplar, birch
and spruce, accompanied by willows and bog-plants.
At intervals it is broken up by extensive inter-glades of
lowlands, which produce a large number of species of
grasses and sedges. Its extreme North-Western division
is an interesting region, in which occur the Riding, Duck
and Porcupine Mountains, with which are associated
many lakes and rivers. We here find a good many-
plants which also occur towards the East.
(3) THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. This includes
the rising ground which once provided the Western
shores of the so-called old Lake Agassiz. The various
elevations, such as the Pembina and Turtle Mountains,
PTERIDOPHYTA OF MANITOBA 159
ultimately became the first prairie plateau, and present
a flora characteristic of the high prairie regions. In the
extreme West of the Province are even found t)''pes be-
longing to the semi-arid regions further West. Examples
are : Mamillaria vivipara, Opuntia Missouriensis, Arte-
misia frigida, and Oxytropis splendens. The series of
ridges known as the Pembina Mountains are especially
interesting, for they produce both lowland and upland
types and also yield a few rarities such as Sanguinaria
Canadensis. The Assiniboine River and its tributaries
drain a large part of this plateau, and the valleys, par-
ticularly that of the Assiniboine — deeply cut through
the elevated prairie — furnish a varied and profitable
field for systematic work.
(4) THE CENTRAL DISTRICT. This covers the alluvial
region of the Red River Valley. Included within it are
the low-lying lands on both sides of the Red River, which
extends Westward up to the foot of the Pembina Moun-
tains and the other elevations to the North of it. This
district has its characteristic flora, a marked feature of
which is the large number of species of Compositae.
Winnipeg comes within this district. A few miles North
of the city is the limestone ridge known as Stony Moun-
tain. Although its elevation is inconsiderable, the
rocky substratum furnishes conditions favourable to the
growth of a number of species differing greatly from those
on the plain a few feet below. Among them are some
which are not common in any other part of the Province,
such as Gerardia tenuifolia, Boltonia asteroides, Boute-
loua racemosa, and the curious little fern Pellaea atro-
purpurea, which is found on the exposed limestone
boulders. Within the bounds of the City of Winnipeg
is located the Northern limit for the occurrence of
Amorpha Gruticosa, which, so far as the writer knows,
is confined entirely to the Red River Valley, down which
it has travelled from Dakota.
1GO THE PHANEROGAMIA AND
It only remains to be added that beyond the Orders
covered by the accompanying list very little work has
been done in collecting and recording the plants of
Manitoba. The Thallophyta and Bryophyta have been
practically left untouched, and offer an inviting field for
future investigation.
PHANEROGAMIA
ANGIOSPERMAE
DICOTYLEDONES
Ranuculaceas :
Clematis Virginiana, Linn.
Anemone patens.
nemorosa.
cylindrica.
Virginiana.
multifida.
dichotoma.
Thalictrum dioicum.
purpurascens.*
sparsiflorum.
Myosurus minimus.
Ranunculus aquatilis, var. tricophyllus.
var. stagnatilis.
multifudus, var. repens.
Cymbalaria.
rhomb oideus.
abortivus.
acris.
Pennsylvanicus.
repens, var. hispidus.
Macounii.
scleratus.*
PTERIDOPHYTA OF MANITOBA 1G1
Caltha palustris.
.\quilegia Canadensis.
Actaea alba.
spicata, var. rubra.
Menispermaceae :
Menispermuin Canadense.
Nymphaeceae:
Nymphaea odorata.
Nuphar adverna.
pumilum.
Sarraceniaceae :
Sarracenia purpurea.
Papaveraceae :
Sanguinaria Canadensis.
Fumariaceae :
Corydalis glauca.
aurea.
Crucif erae :
Nasturtium palustre.
Arabis lyrata.
hirsuta.
Holbeolii.
retrofracta.
Drummondii.
Barbarea vulgaris, var. stricta
Erysimum cheiranthoides.
asperum.
parviflorum.
Sisymbrium canescens.
incisum, var. Hartwegianum.
Brassica Sinapistrum.
campestris.
Draba incana.
nemorosa.
Alyssum calycinum.
Vesicaria Ludoviciana.
Camelina sativa.
162 THE PHANEROGAMIA AND
Capsella Bursa, — pastoris.
Thlaspi arvense.
Lepidium sativum.
intermedium.
Cappardaceae :
Cleome integrifolia
Cistaceae :
Helianthemum Canadense.
Violaceae :
Viola blanda.
cucullata.
delphinifolia.
canina, var. sylvestris.
var. adunca
Canadensis.
pubescens.
Nuttallii.
Polygalaceae :
Polygala verticillata.
Senega.
Caryophyllaceae :
Silene antirrhina.
noctiflora.
Lychnis Drummondii.
Githago.
Saponaria vaccaria.
Arenaria Michanii.
Stellaria longifolia.
longipes, var. minor.
Cerastium nutans.
arvense.
Sagina nodosa.
vSpergularia media.
Paronychiceae :
Paronychia sessiliflora.
Portulacaceae :
Portulaca "oleracea.
PTERIDOPHYTA OF MANITOBA 163
Hypericaceae :
Hypericum ellipticum
mutilum.
Canadense
Ascryon.*
Elodes Virginica.
Malvaceae :
Malva rotundifolia.
Malvastrum coccineum
Tiliaceas :
Tilia Americana.
Linaceae :
Linum sulcatum.
rigidum.
perenne.
usitatissimum.
Geraniaceas :
Geranium .Carolinianum.
Robertianum.
Herodium cicutarium.
Impatiens fulva.
Oxalis corniculata, var. stricta.
Celastraceae :
Celastrus scandens.
Rhamnaceae :
Rhamnus alnifolia.
Vitaceas :
Vitis cordifolia.
Ampelopsis quinquefolia.
Sapindaceae :
Acer spicatum.
Negundo aceroides.
Anacardiaceae :
Rhus toxicodendron.
Leguminosae :
Thermopsis rhombifolia
Trifolium pratense.
164 THE PHANEROGAMIA AND
Trifolium repens.
Melilotus alba.
officinalis.
Medicago lupulina.
sativa.
Hosackia Pursliana.
Psoralea argophylla.
esculcuta.
Amorpha canescens.
fruticosa.
microphylla.
Petalostemon candidus.
violaceus.
Glycyrhiza lepidota.
Astragalus caryocarpus.
adsurgens.
hypoglottis.
aboriginorum.
bisulcatus.
pectinatus,
flexuosus.
multoflorus.
CanadensisA
Oxytropis campestris
Lamberti.
splendens.
deflexa.
Hedysarum boreale.
Desmodium Canadense.
Vicia Americana.
Lathyrus venosus.
palustris.*
maritimus.*
ochroleucus.
Amphicarpaea monoica.
PTERIDOPHYTA OF MANITOBA 165
Rosticeae :
Prunus Americana,
pumila.
Pennsylvanica.
Virginiana.
Spiraea salicifolia.
Rubus Chamasmorus.
articus.
triflorus.
strigosus.
Geum strictum.
rivale.
triflorum.
Chamaerhodos erecta.
Fragaria Virgiana.
vesca.
Potentilla arguta.
Norvegica.
rivalis, var. millegrana.
Hippiana.
effusa.
argentea.
palustris.
fruticosa.
Anserina.
Agrimonia Eupatoria
Rosa blanda.
Arkansana.
Pyrus Americana.
Crataegus coccinea.
Amelanchier alnifolia.
Saxif ragacaceae :
Saxifraga tricuspidata.
Mitella diphylla.
Heuchera hispida.
Parnassia palustris.
16(3 THE PHANEROGAMIA AND
Ribes oxyacanthoides.
rub rum.
prostratum.
Hudsonianum.
fioridum.
Droseraceae :
Drosera Anglica.
linearis.
Haloraceae :
Myriophyllum spicatum.
Hippuris vulgaris.
Onagraceae :
Epilobium angustifolium.
coloratum.
palustre.
paniculatvun.
(Enothera biennis.
albicaulis.
serrulata.
Caura coccinea.
Circaea alpina.
Cucurbitaceae :
Echinocystis lobata.
Cactaceae:
Mamillaria vivipara"
Opuntia Missouriensis.
Umbellif eras :
Sanicula Marylandica.
Musenitim divaricatum.
Carum Carui.
Thaspium trifoliatum.
Cicuta virosa.
Lium cicutaefolium.
Osmorrhiza longistylis.
divaricata.*
Peucedanum foeniculaceum.
Heracleum lanatum.
PTERIDOPHYTA OF MANITOBA 167
Araliacese :
Aralia nudicaulis.
Cornaceae :
Cornus Canadensis.
stolonifera.
Caprifoliceae :
Sambucus Canadensis.
Viburnum Lentago.
pubescens.
Opulus.
Linnaea borealis.
Symphoricarpos occidentalis.
racemosus.
Lonicera Sullivantii.
glauca.
Diervilla trifida.
Rubiaceas :
Houstonia purpurea, var. longifolia.
Galium trifidum.
triflorum.
boreale.
Composite*; :
Eupatorium purpureum.
perfoliatum.
Liatris scariosa.
punctata.
Gutierrezia Euthamiae.
Grindelia squarrosa.
Chrysopsis villosa.
Haplopappus spinulosus.
Solidago humilis, var. B.
Missouriensis.
Canadensis.
rigida.
lanceolata.
Bellis perennis.
Townsendia sericea.
1(58 THE PHANEROGAMIA AND
Aster laevis.
cordifolius.
Lindleyanus.
multiflorus.
Salicifolius.
Novi-Belgii.
ptarmicoides.
lutescens.
pauciflorus.
umbellatus.
miser.
Erigeron caespitosus.
glabellus.
Philadelphicus.
strigosus.
Canadense.
Antennaria plantaginifolia.
dioica.
Anaphalis margaritacea.
Iva axillaris.
xanthiifolia.
Ambrosia trifida.
artimisiaefolia.
psilostachya.
Xanthium Canadense.
Heliopsis scabra.
Rudbeckia hirta.
laciniata.
columnaris.
Echinacea angustifolia.
Helianthus rigidus.
giganteus.
annuus.*
Maximiliani.
Doronicoides.
Bidens frondosa.
connata.
PTERIDOPHYTA OF MANITOBA 169
Bidens cernua.
Helenium autumnale.
Gaillardia artista.
Boltonia asteroides.
Achillea Millefolium.
multiflora.
Manila cotula.
Chrysanthemum leucanthemum.
Matricaria inodora.
Artemisia dracunculoides.
Canadensis.
cana.
Leudoviciana, var. gnaphalodes.
vrulgaris.
biennis.
frigida.
Absinthium.
Petasites sagittata.
Arnica foliosa.
alpina.
Senecio palustris.
lugens.
intergerimus.
aureus, var. Balsamitae.
canus.
eremophilus.
Jacobaea.
Arctium Lappa.
Cnicus undulatus.
Drummondii.
arvensis.
Cichorium Intybus.
Crepis runcinata.
Hieracium umbellatum.
Troximon glaucum.
Taraxacum omcinale, var. alpinum.
170 THE PHAXEROGAMIA AND
Latuca pulchella.
leucophaea.
Prenanthes alba.
racemosa.
Sonchus oleraceus.
asper.
arvensis.
Lygodesmia juncea.
Lobeliaceae :
Lobelia Dortmanna.
spicata, var. hirtella.
Kalmii.
Campanulaceae :
Campanula rotundifolia.
aparinoides.*
Vacciniaceae :
Vaccinium Canadense.
Vitis-Idaea.
Oxycoccus vulgaris.
Chiogenes hispidula.
Ericaceae :
Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi.
Gaultheria procumbens.
Cassandra calyculata.
Cassiobe tetragona.
Andromeda prolifolia.
Kalmia glauca.
Ledum latifolium.
Pyrola secunda.
elliptica.
rotundifolia.
Monotropeae :
Monotropa uniflora.
Primulaceae :
Primula farinosa.
Mistassinica.
Androsace septentrionalis.
PTERIDOPHYTA OF MANITOBA 171
Dodecatheon Meadia.
Trientalis Americana.
Steironema ciliatum.
Lysimachia thyrsiflora.
Glaux maritima.
Centunculus minimus.
Oleaceae :
Fraxinus viridis.
Apocynaceae :
Apocynum androsaemifolium.
cannabinum.
Asclepiadaceae :
Asclepias speciosa.
ovalifolia.
verticillata.
Acerates viridiflora.
Gentianaceae :
Gentiana crinita.
serrata.
Amarella, var. acuta.
var. stricta.
affinis.
puberula.
Andrewsii.
alba.
Halenia deflexa.
Menyanthes trifoliata.
Polemoniaceae :
Phlox Hoodii.
canescens.
Collomia linearis.
Hydrophyllaceae :
Ellisia Nyctelea.
Borraginaceae :
Heliotropium Curassavicum
Echinospermum deflexum.
Lappula.
172 THE PHANEROGAMIA AND
Echinospermum Redowskii.
Eritrichium glomeratum.
Mertensia paniculata.
Lithospermum canescens.
angustifolium.
Onosmodium Carolinianum.
Convolvulaceae :
Convolvulus spithamaeus.
sepium, var. repens.
Cuscuta Gronovii.
Solanaceae :
Solanum triflorum.
Physalis grandiflora.
laneolata.
Scrophulariaceae :
Pentstemon cristatus.
acuminatus.
confertus, var. caeruleo-purpureus.
gracilis.
Mimulus ringens.
Gratiola Virginiana.
Veronica Americana,
scutellata.
peregrina.
Gerardia tenuifolia.
Castilleia coccinea.
miniata.
sessiliflora.
Orthocarpus luteus.
Pedicularis Canadensis.
lanceolata.
Orobanchacese :
Aphyllon fasciculatum.
Lentibulariaceee :
Utriculariavulgaris, var. Americana,
intermedia.
' PTERIDOPHYTA OF MANITOBA 173
Verbenaceae :
Verbena hastata.
bracteosa.
Labiatae :
Mentha Canadensis.
Lycopus lucidus.
sinuatus.
Monarda fistulosa, var. mollis.
Lophanthus anistatus.
Nepeta glechoma.
Dracocephalum parviflorum.
Scutellaria lateriflora.
galericulata.
Brunella vulgaris.
Physostegia Virginiana.
Stachys palustris.
Plantaginaceae :
Plantago major.
eriopoda.
decipiens.
Nyctaginaceas :
Oxybaphus nyctagineus.
hirsutus.
Illecebraceae :
Paronychia sessiliflora.
Amarantaceae:
Amarantus retroflexus.
albus.
Chenopodiacese :
Monolepis chenopodioides.
Chenopodium album.
hybridum.
glaucum.
capitalum.
rub rum.
Axyris Amaranthoides.
Atriplex patula, var. hastata.
17-i THE PHANEROGAMIA AND
Atriplex Nuttallii
Salicornea herbacea.
Suaeda depressa.
Salsola Kali, var. tragus
Sarcobatus vermiculatus.
Polygonaceae :
Erigonum flavum.
Polygonum aviculare.
erectum.
ramosissimum.
tenue.
incarnatum.
lapathifolium, var. incanum.
amphibium.
Muhlenbergii.
Persicaria.
Convolvulus.
dumetorum, var. scandens
Rumex occidentalis.
Salicifolius.
crispus.
maritimus.
Aristolachiaceae :
Asarum Canadense.
Elaeagnaceae :
Elaeagnus argentea.
Shepherdis Canadensis.
argentea.
Santalacese :
Comandra umbellata.
pallida.
livida
Euphorbiaceae :
Euphorbia maculata.
Urticaceae :
Ulmus Americana.
Humulus lupulus
PTERIDOPHYTA OF MANITOBA 175
Laportea Canadensis.*
Urtica gracilis.
dioica.
Parietaria Pennsylvania.
Cupulif erae :
Betula lutea.
papyrifera.
pumila.
Alnus incana.
Ostrya Virginica
Corylus rostrata.
Americana.
Quercus macrocarpa.
Salicineas:
Salix Candida,
cordata.
discolor,
longifolia.
lucida.
nigra.
rostrata.
Populus tremuloides.
balsamifera.
monilifera.
Empetraceae :
Empetrum nigrum.
Ceratophylleae :
Ceratophyllum demersum
MONOCOTYLEDONES.
Hydrocharidaceae :
Elodea Canadense.
Orchidaceae :
Microstylis monophyllos.
Ophioglossoides.
176 THE PHANEROGAMIA AND
Calypso borealis.
Corallorhiza innata.
Listeria convallarioides.
Spiranthes Romanzoviana.
gracilib.
Goodyera repens.
Orchis rotundifolia.
Habenaria bracteata.
hyperborea.
dilatata.
obtusata.
orbiculata.
psycyodes.
Cypripedium parviflorum.
pubescens.
spectabile.
candidum.
Iridaceae :
Iris versicolor.
Sisyrhincium mucronatum.
Amaryllidaceae :
Hypoxys erecta
Liliaceae :
Smilax herbacea.
Asparagus officinalis.
Polygonatum giganteum.
Streptopus amplexifolius.
Smilacina stellata.
Maianthemum Canadense.
Allium cernuum.
reticulatum.
Lilium Philadelphicum.
Disporum trachycarpa.
Clintonia borealis.
Trillium erectum, var. declinatus.
Lygadens elevans.
PTERIDOPHYTA OF MANITOBA 177
Juncaceae:
Juncus Balticus, var. montanus.
tenuis.
longystylis.
alpinus.
nodosus, var. genuinus.
var. megacephalus.
Typhaceae :
Typha lastifolia.
Sparganium eurycarpum.
minimum.
Aroideae :
Calla palustris.
Acorus Calamus.
Lemnaceae :
Lemna trisulca.
minor,
polyrrhiza.
Alismaceae :
Alisma Plantago.
Sagittaria variabilis.
Naiadaceae :
Triglochin palustre.
maritimum.
Potamogeton natans.
amplifolius.
gramineus, var. heterophyllus.
pusillus.
mucronatus.
marinus.
pectinatus.
Zannichellia palustris.
Cyperaceae :
Heleveharis palustris.
tenuis.
acicularis.
pauciflora.
178 THE PHANEROGAMIA AND
Scirpus pungens.
lacustris.
maritirnus.
rufus.
F.riophorum alpinum.
vaginatum.
polystachyon.
Carex filifolia.
polytrichoides.
scirpoidea.
obtusata.
Baekii.
siccata.
disticha.
Douglasii.
Marcida.
teretiuscula, var. ramosa.
stipata.
rosea.
stenophylla.
festiva.
canescens.
areta.
Deweyana.
echinata, var. microstachys.
pratensis.
scoparia.
straminea, v.v.
alpina.
aurea.
flava.
aquatilis.
tetanica.
granularis.
Crawei.
Torreyi.
eburnea.
PTERIDOPHYTA OF MANITOBA 179
Carex Pennsylvanica.
Assiniboinensis.
longirostris.
capillaris.
rostrata, var. utriculata.
Pseudo-Cyperus.
trichocarpa varistata.
Gramineae :
Beckmania erucaeformis.
Panicum capillare.
Crus-galli.
pauciflorum.
Spartina cynosuroides.
grecilis.
Zizania aquatica.
Andropogon provincialis.
seoparius.
Chrysopogon nutans.
Phalaris arundinacea.
Hierochloe borealis.
Alopecuris geniculatus, var. aristulatus.
Stipaspartea.
viridula.
Oryzopsis cuspidata.
Muhlenbergia glomerata.
Phleum pratense.
Sporobulus cuspidatus.
depauperatus.
heterolepis.
Agrostis scabra.
Cinna pendula.
Deyeuxia Canadensis.
neglecta.
Maccuniana.
Ammophila longifolia.
Deschampsia caespitosa.
Avena fatua.
180 THE PHANEROGAMIA AND
Avena pratensis, var. Americana.
striata.
Danthornia spicata.
Bouteloua oligostachya.
racemosa.
Phragmites communis.
Koeleria cristata.
Eatonia Pennsylvanca.
Distichlis maritima, var. stricta.
Dactylis glomerata
Foa caesia.
compressa.
laxa.
pratensis.
serotina.
tenuiflora.
Glyceria arundinacea.
fluitans.
Festuca ovina.
rubra.
Bromus breviaristattis.
ciliatus.
Kalami.
Pumpellianus.
Lolium perenne.
Agropyrum caninum.
dasystachyum.
glaucum.
tenerum.
Hordeum jubatum.
Elymus Canadensis.
Virginicus.
PTERIDOPHYTA OF MANITOBA 181
PTERIDOPHYTA.
Equisetaceae :
Equisetum arvense.
pratense.
palustre.
laevigatum.
variegatum.
scirpoides.
Ophioglossaceae :
Botrychium Lunaria.
ternatum.
Virginianum.*
Filices :
Polypodium vulgare.
Pellaea atropurpurea.
Pteris aquilina.
Asplenium Filix-foemine.
Phegopteris polypodioides.
Dryopteris.
Aspidium Thelypteris.
cristatum.
marginale.
spinulosum.
fragens.
Cystopteris fragilis.
Onoclea Struthiopteris.
sensibilis.
Osmunda regalis.
cinnamomea.
182 THE PHANEROGAMIA AND
Lycopodiaceae :
Lycopodium annotinum.
complanatum.
Selaginaceae :
Selaginella rupestris.
Marsileaceae :
Marsilea mucronata.
GYMNOSPERM^).
Conifer 3e :
Thuya occidentalis.
Juniperus communis.
Sabina, var. procumbens.
Taxus baccata, var. Canadensis.
Pinus strobus.
resinosa.
Banksiana.
Picea nigra.
alba.
Abies balsamea.
Larix Americana.
FAUNA OF MANITOBA
(Mammals and Birds)
By ERNEST THOMPSON SETON,
Naturalist to tha Government of Manitoba.
MANITOBA is 268 by 252 miles, or 74,448 square
miles. It lies wholly within the great wheat
belt of the north-west, but faunally speaking it is
in the Temperate Region, partly in the Canadian Life-
zone and partly in the Alleghanian portion of the Tran-
sition Zone. A line drawn from the south-east corner
to the north-west corner would nearly demark these
two zones. The Canadian area, north-east of this line,
is nearly all forested. The prevailing trees being black
spruce, white spruce and jack pine. The Alleghanian
area, south-west of the line, comprises the prairies of
the Province, and a considerable region of aspen forest.
Riding, Duck and Porcupine Mountains may be con-
sidered Canadian islands in the Alleghanian region.
MAMMALS OF MANITOBA
(The nomenclature is that of the United States Biological
Survey.)
1 . Wapiti or Canadian Elk, Cervus canadensis Erxleben.
Formerly found in all the Alleghanian region of the
Province. Reduced to a few stragglers twenty
years ago, but since then, owing to good game laws,
they have speedily increased and now furnish a
regular supply of game. The estimated number of
Wapiti in Manitoba to-day is 5,000.
2. Northern White-tailed Deer, Odocoileus virginianus
borealis Miller. Unknown in the Province until
184 FAUNA
about thirty years ago, since then it has greatly
increased, following the settlers ; now found wherever
there are settlements adjoining woods.
3. Mule-deer, Odocoileus hemionus (Rafinesque). For-
merly abundant in all the Alleghanian Region;
greatly reduced some twenty years ago, but now
once more abundant in its proper region, wherever
there is cover combined with broken ground.
4. Moose, Alces americanus Jardine. Abundant in all
' the forested area of the Province; apparently in no
danger of extinction, since reasonable game laws
have come in force. Several thousand are killed
each year in the Province. The estimated total
head of Moose within our limits is between 20,000
and 30,000.
5. Woodland Caribou, Rangijer caribou (Gmelin) .
Found only in the Canadian region, and nowhere
common. It is more or less migratory, coming
fifty to one hundred miles farther south for the
winter.
6. Prong-horned Antelope, Antilocapra americana
(Ord). Formerly found in all the prairies of the
south-west. Recorded once or twice in early days
very near Winnipeg; last seen on the Souris about
1881. Now extinct in the Province.
7. American Bison or Buffalo, Bison bison (Linnaeus).
Formerly found in great abundance on all the prai-
ries of Manitoba. Last seen wild near Winnipeg in
1819. Last great wild herd on the Souris 1867; the
last wild individual on the Souris 1883.
8. Red-squirrel, Sciuus hudsonicus Erxleben. Abun-
dant in every timbered portion of Manitoba, and
active the year round.
9. Eastern Chipmunk, Tamias striatus griseus Mearns.
Abundant in the woods of the south-eastern part of
OF MANITOBA. 185
the country and westward to Portage la Prairie.
Hibernating during the winter.
10. Little Chipmunk, Eutamias quadrivittatus neglectus
(Allen) . Of general distribution in the southern
half of the Province wherever there is timber and
•'dry land. Exceedingly abundant, living like the
preceding. Hibernating all winter.
1 1 . Franklin Ground-squirrel, Citellus jranklini (Sabine) .
Abundant in all the Alleghanian Region of Mani-
toba wherever there is woodland alternating with
open sunny places. Like the rest of the Ground-
squirrels it is quite omnivorous, but stores up only
vegetable substances for bad weather supplies. It
hibernates for six months of each year.
12. Richardson Ground-squirrel, Citellus richardsoni
(Sabine) . Exceedingly abundant on all the dry
rolling prairies west of Pembina Mountain and
south of Lake Manitoba extending up a little way
in the Gilbert Plains country and the Upper Assini-
boine. Hibernating all winter.
13. Striped Ground-squirrel, Citellus tridecemlineatus
(Mitchill). Common on all the prairies of Mani-
toba, but much less so than in primitive times. Its
burrow is so easily disturbed by the plow that culti-
vation is bound to exterminate it. It hibernates
for six months of each year.
14. Woodchuck, Marmota monax canadensis (Erxleben) .
Found in all parts of the Province where there is
dry woods, but nowhere abundant. More common
, probably about Duck Mountain than elsewhere. It
hibernates for four or five months of the year.
15. Canadian Flying-squirrel, Sciuropterus sabrinus
(Shaw). Common in all parts of the country.
Some years very abundant, but rarely seen on ac-
count of its nocturnal habits. It is active all winter.
186 FAUNA
16. Canada Beaver, Castor canadensis Kuhl. Formerly
very abundant in all parts of Manitoba. Reduced
to very few some years ago, but owing to fostering
laws it has since increased and may once more
become plentiful.
17. Common House-mouse, M-us musculus Linnaeus.
Introduced with settlers in 1882; now abundant in
, all towns.
18. Grasshopper-mouse, Onychomys leucogaster (Wied).
Found only on the dry prairies at the extreme
south-western corner of the Province.
19. Arctic Deermouse, Peromyscus maniculatus arcticus
(Mearns). Abundant throughout the country
wherever there is woods; especially fond of fre-
quenting barns and outbuildings that are near the
edge of the forest. Closely related to it, probably
mere races, are the Prairie Deermouse (bairdi)
found in the prairie regions and the plains, or Ne-
braska Deermouse (nebrascensis) found in the
Souris country. True maniculatus should be found
in western Manitoba.
20. Red-backed Vole, Evotomys gapperi (Vigors). Gen-
erally distributed throughout the Province, though
nowhere abundant. It appears in two races, the
bright colored, large prairie race (loringt) and the
small dark race of the Canadian woods
21. Drummond Vole, Microtus pennsylvauicus drum-
mondi (Audubon and Bachman). Abundant in all
sedgy regions of the Province. A harmless species
when not in excessive numbers, confining itself to
lowlands overgrown with tall grass.
22. Little Vole, Microtus minor (Merriam). Generally
distributed in the south-west or Alleghanian region,
but nowhere very abundant.
OF MANITOBA. 187
23. Muskrat, Fiber zibethicus (Linnaeus) . Found in great
numbers wherever there is water throughout the
Province. This animal is an important fur-bearer.
Two million of its skins are shipped to London
every year by the Hudson's Bay Company, repre-
senting of course the entire north-west. It lives in
the water, and is rarely seen away from it except
when forced to migrate.
24. Northern Bog-lemming, Synaptomys borealis (Rich-
ardson). Never actually taken in the Province,
but recorded from surrounding localities which
justify its inclusion. It is abundant in the far
north, but not elsewhere common.
25. Gray Pocket-gopher, Thomomys talpoides (Richard-
son). Abundant on the high, dry prairies of Mani-
toba, but not extending very far into the woods.
It is commonly called Mole by the residents, as it
forced up mounds of earth in the fashion of the
Mole. It is, however, a herbivorous rodent.
26. Jumping-mouse, Zapus hudsonius (Zimmermann) .
This extraordinary creature, famous for its long
tail and its jumping habits, is found throughout
Manitoba, except on the bare prairies. It appears
in two forms. The typical Hudsonian, found in the
Canadian forest, and the prairie form (campestris) ,
a bright colored race peculiar to the woodland edges
T in the prairie portions of the south-west.
27. Canada Porcupine, Erethizon dorsatum (Linnaeus).
Generally distributed in the Canadian area of Mani-
toba, but nowhere abundant. Its quills were for-
merly the favorite material for embroidery among
the Indians, but in recent times the squaws have
used glass beads in preference, so that the art is
dying out.
188 FAUNA
28. Snowshoe-hare or White-rabbit, Lepus araericanus
phaeonotus Allen. Found in all parts of Manitoba
wherever there is cover. In summer it is brown, in
winter pure white. In Turtle Mountain it is repre-
sented by the race bishopi, distinguished by its short
ears and pale color. The prevailing form in Mani-
toba is the dusky backed race (phaeonotus) . This
hare has long been noted for the excessive fluctua-
tion of its numbers in cycles of seven to ten years.
One hundred or more may be seen every day when
its numbers are at its height, but usually the plague
breaks out at this time and speedily reduces the
Snowshoe population to near zero.
29. Prairie-hare, Lepus campestris Bachman. For-
merly found only in the extreme south-west of the
Province, and exceedingly rare; now abundant in
all the prairie regions, especially in the vicinity of
cultivated fields.
30. Canada Lynx, Lynx canadensis Kerr. Found in all
the wooded parts of the Province, but varying
greatly in numbers on different years.
31. Kit-fox or Swift, Vulpes velox (Say). Formerly
common on the high dry prairie of the south-west;
now exterminated within our limits.
32. Royal Fox, Vulpes regalis Merriam. Common on
the prairies of the province; probably replaced in
the woods by the form called julvus. Less nu-
merous than formerly.
33. Gray- wolf or Buffalo- wolf, Canis occidentalis Rich-
ardson. Generally distributed, but nowhere com-
mon.
34. Prairie-wolf or Coyote, Canis latrans Say. Abun-
dant in all the south-western half of Manitoba;
probably as numerous now as in the days before
settlement.
OF MANITOBA 189
35. Canada Otter, Lutra canadensis (Schreber). Found
all along the rivers, but exceedingly rare now.
36. Bonaparte Weasel, Putorius cicognanii (Bonaparte).
Common in most parts of the Province, but varying
greatly in numbers on different years.
37. Least Weasel, Putorius rixosus Bangs. Nowhere
numerous, but ranging over the whole Province.
This is the smallest known beast of prey.
38. Long-tailed Weasel, Putorius longicauda (Bona-
parte) . Abundant in all the prairie region of Mani-
toba, etc.
39. Mink, Putorius vison (Schreber). Abundant
throughout the Province wherever there is water
and swamp.
40. Spruce Marten, Mustela americana abieticola Preble.
Found only in the coniferous forest, and rare there.
41. Pekan or Fisher, Mustela pennanti Erxleben. Found
only in the coniferous forest, and rare.
42. Wolverene, Gulo luscus (Linnaeus). Rare every-
where, but found in most of the heavily timbered
parts of North-eastern Manitoba.
43. Prairie Skunk, Mephitis hudsonica Richardson.
This large Skunk is abundant, especially in the half-
wooded region.
44. Common Badger, Taxidea taxus (Schreber). Com-
mon in all prairie region, but not found in the
woods; it is less common than before settlement.
45. Raccoon, Procyon lotor (Linnaeus). Very rare and
confined to the south-western part of the Province,
along rivers whose banks are heavily wooded.
46. Grizzly-bear, Ursus horribilis Ord. ' Now extinct in
Manitoba, for perhaps 100 years. The records
190 FAUNA
show that at one time there were Grizzlies in all the
Pembina Hills, Brandon Hills and Turtle Mountain
regions.
47. Black-bear, Ursus americanus Pallas. Quite com-
mon yet in all parts of Manitoba where there is
cover. Both black and brown phases occur in the
same litter.
48. Cooper Shrew, Sorex personatus I. Geoffroy St.
Hilaire. Generally distributed, and very abundant
in some seasons.
49. Richardson Shrew, Sorex richardsoni Bachman.
Apparently of general distribution, but not common
I have records from Carberry, Shoal Lake, Norway
House, etc.
50. Hoy Shrew, Microsorex hoyi (Baird). All of Mani-
toba falls within the known range of this species.
Yet there is but one actual record, that from Red
River Settlement.
51. Marsh-shrew, Neosorex palustris (Richardson). All
Manitoba falls within its known range, but there are
only two or three records. It is an inhabitant of
marshes and river banks, nowhere common.
52. Mole-shrew, Blarina brevicauda (Say) . Found only
in the woods east of Winnipeg; common there.
53. Star-nosed Mole, Condylura cristata (Linnaeus) . Re-
corded once from Winnipeg, but rare, and near the
west end of its range at this point.
54. Little Brown-bat, Myotis lucifugus (Le Conte). All
Manitoba falls within its known range. But I
know of but one specimen taken within our limits;
that I got from Poplar Point.
55. Say Bat, Myotis subulatus (Say). The accredited
range of this Bat includes Manitoba, and the re-
OF MANITOBA 191
cords nearly surround the Province, but it has not
yet been taken in our limits.
50. Silver-haired Bat, Lasionycteris noctivagans (Le
Conte). This species is commonly and generally
distributed in Manitoba. It comes from the south
about the vernal, and retires about the autumnal
equinox.
57. Big Brown-bat, Eptesicus fuscus (Beauvois). There
is a single Lake Winnipeg record for this species
Its proper range is to the southward, and Manitoba
is its northmost limit so far as known.
58. Red-bat, Lasiurus borealis (Muller). The records
show that this handsome bat is found in all the
south-western part of the Province as a summer
visitant.
59. Hoary-bat, Lasiurus cinereus (Beauvois). This fine
species is found in all parts of Manitoba. It is
somewhat common, and, like the rest of our Bats,
is a migrant, never, so far as known, hibernating
within our limits.
THE BIRDS OF MANITOBA
(The nomenclature used is that of the A.O.U. latest
check list.)
1. Swan-grebe, Western Grebe. Aechmophorus occi-
dentalis. Common summer resident in parts of the
Alleghanian region, chiefly towards the north.
Quite common at Shoal Lake, near Lake Manitoba,
breeding in colonies in the marshes about Lake
Winne'pegosis. Very local in distribution.
2. Silver-cheeked Grebe, Holboell Grebe. Colymbus
holboelli. Summer resident in Red River Valley.
192 FAUNA
Breeding in most of the large marshes of the Alle-
ghanian portion of Manitoba.
o. Horned Grebe. Colymbus auritus. Abundant sum-
mer resident throughout the Province, April to
October.
4. American Eared-grebe. Colymbus nigricollis cali-
jornicus. A common summer resident in all the
prairie region, but not yet found in the Canadian
or north-eastern half of the Province.
5. Pied-billed Grebe, Dabchick. Podilymbus podiceps.
Common summer resident in all parts of the Pro-
vince where there are small ponds, from mid-April
to October.
(>. Loon. Gavia immer. Common summer resident
on all the large lakes and rivers that are well sup-
plied with fish.
7. Red-throated Loon. Gavia stellata. Rare; known
only as a migrant.
8. Long-tailed Skua. Stercorarius longicaudus. In
September, 189(>, Samuel Slater brought to Alex-
ander Calder of Winnipeg, in whose collection it
now is, an immature Long-tailed Skua, shot on
Lake Winnipeg. Its dimensions are: Length, 16^
inches; wing 12 inches; tail, 6X inches; tarsus, 1^
inches; middle toe and claw, 1^ inches. All above
sooty, except the neck, which is cream color, and
crown, which is sharply blackish.
9. American Herring-gull. Larus argentatus. Abun-
dant; of general distribution. Breeding in all the
large lakes and prairie ponds. Arrives April 20.
10. Ring-billed Gull. Larus delawarensis . Common
summer resident. Breeding in all the lakes and
large prairie ponds.
11. Franklin Gull, Rosy Gull. Lams iranklini. Abun-
OF MANITOBA 193
dant; common summer resident, breeding in most
of the large marshes of the Alleghanian region.
12. Bonaparte Gull. Larus Philadelphia. Regular
summer visitant. A few breed on the large lakes
of the Province region.
13. Forster Tern. Sterna forsteri. Common summer
resident* breeding about the larger lakes.
14. Common Tern. Sterna hirundo. Common sum-
mer resident on the large lakes, breeding with the
preceding.
15. Black Tern. Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis .
Abundant summer resident everywhere, breeding
in colonies on the prairie ponds. Arrives May 20;
departs August 30.
1C. Double-crested Cormorant, Crow-duck. Phalacro-
corax auritus. Generally distributed, and breeding
in colonies about the large lakes of the Alleghanian
part of the country.
17. American White Pelican. Pelecanus erythrorhyn-
chos. Apparently of general distribution, breeding
about most of the lakes, chiefly west of Lake Winni-
peg; less numerous than formerly.
18. American Merganser, Sheldrake. Mergus ameri-
canus. Common summer resident, breeding com-
monly in the rivers of the Lake Winnipegoosis
basin.
19. Red-breasted Merganser, Fish-duck. Mergus ser-
rator. Common summer resident. Generally dis-
tributed, but breeding only in the northernly parts
of the Province.
20. Hooded Merganser. Lophodytes cucullatus. Com-
mon summer resident of general distribution,
194 FAUNA
breeding wherever it finds hollow trees near the
water.
21. Mallard. Anas- platyrhycnhos . Very abundant
summer resident everywhere, breeding in all
marshes. Arrives April 15; departs late in Oc-
tober.
22. Black Mallard or Dusky Duck. Anas rubripes.
Very rare. Three or four specimens taken at Long
Lake in four years. In my collection is a specimen
from Shoal Lake, taken by Geo. H. Measham in
1901, and another taken near Winnipeg, by W. R.
Hine. According to Measham, two more were shot
at Shoal Lake in 1899. C. C. Helliwell reports one
taken on Lake Manitoba in the fall of 1898.
23. Gad wall. Chaulelasmus streperus. Common,
breeding about all the large lakes and the ponds of
the prairie region.
24. Baldpate or Widgeon. Mareca americana. Sum-
mer resident. Not common, but generally dis-
tributed and breeding.
25. Green-winged Teal. Nettion carolinense. Abun-
dant summer resident everywhere ; breeding. Ar-
rives April 20; departs in October.
26. Blue-winged Teal. Querquedula discors. Very
abundant summer resident. Arrives late in April;
departs early in October.
27. Shoveller. Spatula clypeata. Common summer
resident everywhere. Departs late in October,
like the other Ducks, when the frost seals the
ponds.
28. Pintail. Daf-ila acuta. Common summer resi-
dent, breeding. Arrives late in mid- April; departs
in October.
OF MANITOBA 195
29. Wood-duck. Aix sponsa. A rare but regular
summer visitant as far north as Lakes Winnipeg
and Winnipegosis. I saw a pair taken at Carberry
in 1883, and in 1886 got a male at Kenora. It is
reported from Cook's Creek, Westbourne, Portage
la Prairie, Lake Winnipegosis. Over a dozen were
taken on the Souris River, about 25 miles south-
west of Brandon, between 1882 and 1899, by H. W.
O. Boger. Three were killed at Brandon by C. C.
Helliwell, who saw also two on the roof of the town
station, one day about 1890. G. H. Measham re-
ports it rare at Shoal Lake, but one or two are seen
there each year.
These, with previous records, completely spot
the map of south-western Manitoba. The species
is doubtless found throughout the Alleghanian
region of the Province, as it has been recorded
from Qu'Appelle and Cumberland House.
30. Redhead. Mania americana. Abundant summer
resident of the Alleghanian region. Arrives in
April; departs in October.
31. Canvas-back. Marila vallisneria. Generally dis-
tributed in the Alleghanian region and breeding,
but nowhere common.
32. American Scaup-duck, Big Blue-bill. Marila marila.
Common in spring and fall in all parts of Manitoba ;
a few may breed in the northern district. Arrives
late in April; departs in October.
33. Lesser Scaup-duck, Little Blue-bill. Marila affinis.
Very abundant summer resident in all parts of the
Province. Breeds.
34. Ring-necked Duck, Marsh Blue-bill. Marila col-
lar is. A rare summer resident. Reported from
Winnipeg, Portage la Prairie, Waterhen River.
196 FAUNA
35. American Golden-eye, Whistler. Clangula ameri-
cana. A common sximmer resident in all parts
of Manitoba where there are large trees near water.
36. Barrow Golden-eye. Clangula islandica. "1 shot
a brace at Lake Manitoba in 1879, and a drake at
Shoal Lake in the spring of the following year.
And I saw a drake which was killed at the mouth
of the Red River." ( R. H. Hunter.}
37. Bufflehead. Charitonetta albeola. Common sum-
mer resident wherein there is timber and water.
Arrives April 15; departs in October.
38. White-winged Scoter. Oidemia deglandi. Summer
resident, breeding in marshy ponds. Found it
quite common at Shoal Lake.
39. Surf Scoter. Oidemia perspicillata. Rare migrant;
reported from Lake Winnipeg (Hine), Red River
(Hunter), Nelson River (Blakiston).
40. Ruddy Duck. Erismatura Jamaicensis. A. sum-
mer visitant; not common, erratic in distribution.
Breeds in most of the large marshes.
41. Blue Goose, Silver Brant. Chen caerulescens . Noted
as a rare migrant. Specimens taken at Winnipeg,
Portage la Prairie and Brandon. At Fort Chipe-
wyan, Lake Athabaska, where 10,000 or more geese
were killed each autumn, only one of this species
was taken in several years. This is now in my
collection.
42. Snow-goose, Wavey. Chen hyperborea. Abundant
spring migrant; less common in the fall. Arrives
May 15, and again in October.
43. Ross Goose. Chen rossi. A specimen was taken on
Red River near Winnipeg by Frank Marwood of
that city, Sept. 20, 1902. It is now in the collection
of Alexander Calder at Winnipeg.
OF MANITOBA 197
44. White-fronted Goose. Anser albifrons gambeli.
Rare, but regular migrant.
45. Canada Goose, Wild Goose. Branta canadensis .
Abundant in the migrations. Arrives in April; de-
parts late in October.
45. Hutchins Goose. Branta canadensis hutchinsi. A
rare migrant or straggler. Taken on Red River by
Kennicott, observed at Portage la Prairie by C. W.
Nash, and noted at Brandon by C. C. Helliwell.
46. Brant. Branta bernicla glaucogastra. A rare mi-
grant.
47. Whistling Swan. Olor columbianus. A rare mi-
grant of general distribution.
48. Trumpeter Swan. Olor buccinator. A very rare
migrant. George H. Measham secured three on
Roseau River. A single specimen is in Manitoba
Museum.
49. American Bittern. Botaurus lentiginosus. Com-
mon summer resident; of general distribution, es-
pecially about the extensive marshes of the Alle-
ghanian region. Arrives the middle of April;
departs in October.
50. Least Bittern. Ixobrychus exilis. Very rare sum-
mer visitant. On Nov. 9, 1907, E. W. Darbey
showed me a Least Bittern, a young male, that was
taken about Oct. 20 at Oak Point, Lake Manitoba,
by J. C. McNab.
According to W. R. Hine, a specimen was shot in
the Bishop's Marsh near St. Boniface in 1885 by
Wm. Gordon (of Winnipeg) . C. C. Helliwell has
seen one or two about Oak Lake, Manitoba. Frank
M. Chapman saw one at Shoal Lake, June, 1901.
51. Great Blue Heron. Ardea herodias. Generally dis-
tributed as a summer resident; nowhere common.
198 FAUNA
52. American Egret. Herodias egretta. In the summer
of 1888, David Armit, an officer of the Hudson's
Bay Company stationed at Manitoba House, while
out shooting at Duck Bay, Lake Winnipegosis,
came across and collected a fine adult specimen of
this bird in breeding plumage. He has most gener-
ously sent the prize to me ; it is now No. 1 ,776 of my
collection. This is, I believe, the northernmost
record for the species.
53. Black-crowned Night-heron. Nycticorax nycticorax
naevius. Summer resident of general distribution
in the Alleghanian region. I found it quite nu-
merous and breeding in colonies at Shoal Lake. In
other parts of the region it is somewhat rare.
54. Whooping Crane. Grus americana. Formerly
common and breeding; now nearly extinct.
55. Little Brown Crane. Grus canadensis. Summer
resident of general distribution; much less common
than formerly. Arrives in mid- April; departs in
September.
56. Virginia Rail. Rallus virginianus. Rare, but regu-
lar, summer resident of the Alleghanian region.
The specimen in my collection was taken near
Morden by D. Nicholson. I saw another in the
collection of Geo. E. Atkinson of Portage la Prairie,
and heard of another at Brandon. I have seen
several taken near Winnipeg.
57. Sora, Common Rail. Porzana Carolina. Abun-
dant summer resident throughout Manitoba. Ar-
rives May 1; departs in October.
58. Yellow Rail, Water Sparrow. Coturnicops novebo-
racensis. On the 13th of July, 1883, a specimen of
this Rail was brought to me alive, by a farmer who
caught it in a slough where he was cutting wild hay.
OF MANITOBA 199
Being just then called away, I placed the bird in a
coop, and on my return it was gone. But the re-
cord is, I believe, safe, as Preble found the species
numerous at York factory, and there are other
records to completely surround the Province.
59. American Coot. Fulica americana. Abundant
summer resident. Arrives in mid- April; departs
late in October.
60. Northern Phalarope. Lobipes lobatus. Rare strag-
gler in migration; noted about Winnipeg only.
61. Wilson Phalarope. Steganopus tricolor. Common
summer resident, breeding on most of the large
ponds and marshes in the Alleghanian region.
62. American Avocet. Recurvirostra americana. While
abundant in the adjoining Province of Saskatche-
wan, the species is a rare straggler in Manitoba.
R. H. Hunter writes: "I have killed the bird
along the Souris, south-west of Plum Creek." In
the Museum of the Geological Survey at Ottawa is
a specimen of the Avocet, marked "from Mani-
toba." Shaw Cottingham killed neariy a dozen at
a place 9 miles south of Brandon in 1899, and C. C.
Helliwell got three or four out of a flock at Oak
Lake, ten years before.
63. American Woodcock. Philohela minor. Very rare
summer resident. At Winnipeg W. R. Hine re-
ports that he got four during four years. At Por-
tage la Prairie, one or two pairs seen each year by
C. W. Nash. At Stuartburn, on Roseau River,
George H. Measham shot one in 1891.
64. Wilson Snipe. Gallinago delitcata. Abundant sum-
mer resident on all extensive bogs. Arrives April
20; departs September 30.
65. Dowitcher. Macrorhamphus scolopaceus. Abun-
dant migrant in the western part of Manitoba.
200 FAUNA
66. Stilt Sandpiper. Micropalama himantopus. On
August 29, at Carberry, I made the first positive
capture of this species in the Province. It was in
a mixed flock of Sandpipers of several species.
67. Knot, Robin Snipe Tringa canutus. Occasional
migrant; noted along Red River and west of
Brandon.
68. Pectoral Sandpiper. Pisobia maculata. A common
migrant; noted along Red River.
69. White-rumped Sandpiper. Pisobia juscicollis. Mi-
grant; sometimes common, chiefly in western
Manitoba.
70. Baird Sandpiper. Pisobia bairdi. Common mi-
grant, chiefly in Angust.
71. Least Sandpiper. Pisobia minutilla. A common
migrant in all the western part of the Province,
especially during August.
72. Red-backed Sandpiper, Blackheart. Pelidna alpina
sakhalina. Reported a common migrant along
Red River (Hine) and at Portage la Prairie in fall
(Nash). I have not seen a Manitoba specimen.
73. Semipalmated Sandpiper. Ereunetes pusillus. Gen-
erally distributed as a migrant ; especially abundant
in the country west of Red River.
74. Sanderling. Calidris lucophaea. Common mi-
grant; recorded from Lake Winnipeg, Lake Mani-
toba, Portage la Prairie and Oak Lake.
75. Marbled Godwit. Limosa fedoa. Summer resident,
frequenting the wet prairies near Winnipeg and on
the plains of the Souris, etc. Formerly common,
now becoming rare.
76. Hudsonian Godwit. Limosa haemastica. A rare
migrant, chiefly along Red River and westward.
77. Greater Yellow-legs. Totanusmelanoleucus. Abun-
or MANITOBA 201
dant migrant. Spring migration, late in April; fall,
early in August.
78. Yellow-legs. Totanus ftavipes. Abundant migrant
in mid-May and in August.
79. Solitary Sandpiper. Helodromas solitaries. Com-
mon migrant, especially in fall; probably also it
breeds.
80. Western Willet. Caioptrophorus semipalmatns inor-
natus. Common summer resident on all the wet
prairies of south-western Manitoba.
81. Bartramian Sandpiper, Prairie Plover. Bartramia
longicauda. In early days this was an extremely
abundant summer resident on all the prairies of the
Province. It has now become very scarce. Ar-
rives May 7; departs August 30.
82. Spotted Sandpiper. Actitis macularia. Common
summer resident. Arrives May 1, departing late
in September.
83. Long-billed Curlew. Numenius americanus. Sum-
mer resident on the wet prairies of the Red River
and on the Souris. Formerly common about Lake
Manitoba, now rare.
84. Black-bellied Plover. - Squatarola squatarola. Rare
spring migrant ; no autumn records.
85. American Golden Plover. Charadrius dominions. .
Common spring and fall migrant. Affects burnt
prairies and ploughed land. Spring migration,
middle of May; fall, in August and September.
86. Killdeer. Oxyechus vociferus. Common summer
resident throughout the Province. Arrives late in
April; departs last of August.
87. Semipalmated Plover, Ring-plover. Aegialitis semi-
palmata. Rare migrant.
88. Belted Piping Plover. Aegialitis meloda. Some-
202 FAUNA
what common, migrant throughout the Province,
and, according to Macoun, found actually breeding
on Lakes Manitoba and Winnipeg.
89. Turnstone. Arenaria inter pres morinella. A rare
migrant. Goes north about May 15; returns about
August 15.
90. Spruce Grouse. Canachites canadensis. Common
permanent resident of all the Canadian or north-
eastern half of the Province.
91. Canadian Ruffed Grouse. Bonasa umbellus togata.
Common permanent resident of the Canadian por-
tion of Manitoba.
9 la. Gray Ruffed Grouse. Bonasa umbellus umbel-
loides. Abundant resident of the Alleghanian or
south-western half of the country whereon there is
woods.
92. Willow Ptarmigan. Lagopus lagopus. A common
resident of the extreme northern parts of Manitoba,
moving southward in winter as far as Shell River,
Lake Manitoba and Shoal Lake.
93. Prairie-hen. Tympaunchns americauns. In 1871
Dr. Coues wrote : " I have no reason to believe that
it occurs at all in North-western Minnesota or
Northern Dakota." In 1882, when first I visited
Manitoba, the species was nearly unknown in the
country, the only known specimen having been
taken near Winnipeg in 1881. In 1883 W. R. Hine,
informs me, it began to be common at Pembina.
In 1884 it was not only common at Winnipeg, but
had also for the first time made its appearance at
Portage la Prairie, on the Assiniboine. In 1886 I
first saw it at Carberry. Since then it has spread
with cultivation, and is now abundant in all the
settled parts.
OF MANITOBA 203
94. Columbian Sharp-tamed Grouse, Prairie Chicken.
Pediocaetes phasianellus columbianus. Abundant
resident everywhere, especially in the country west
of Lake Winnipeg, north to the narrows of Lake
Winnipeg, and thence eastward as iar as Long
Lake and Pic River, on Lake Winnipeg (Bell).
This species lives by preference on the prairies in
summer and in the wooded districts during winter,
so that it is in a sense migratory.
95. Passenger Pigeon. Ecto pistes migrator ins. In 1885
I wrote as follows: ''Common summer resident,
probably everywhere, as it was noted on Riding
Mountain, along the Assiniboine, on Big Plain, on
Turtle Mountain (Cones} and northward, as well
as all over the Red River Valley, throughout the
Winriipegosis region. Often abundant during the
migrations. I am not aware of the existence of any
extensive 'rookeries.' Arrives early in May; de-
parts in October."
In 1908 my notes on the species are : " The follow-
ing are all the specimens I know of in Manitoba: —
Adult male taken at Winnipeg in 1892, now in col-
lection of Father Blain, St. Boniface College; adult
male taken at Winnipeg in 1894 by E. Wilson, now
in possession of J. K. Hardy of St. Boniface; adult
male taken at Winnipegosis on 13 April, 1898, by
J. J. G.Rosser."
The last year in which the Pigeons came to Mani-
toba in force was 1878. Next year they were com-
paratively scarce, and each year they have become
more so. ' In the early eighties a few were seen each
season. The above three specimens were the last
reliable recorded. None have been seen since. It
is interesting to note that 1878 was also the last year
of the vast Buffalo herds on the Saskatchewan. In
my collection are three specimens of Passenger
204 FAUNA
Pigeon: young male taken at Carberry, Man., by
Miller Christy, 30 Aug., 1883; adult male and female
taken at Fort Holmes, Ind. T., U.S., by C. Dewar,
Jan. 1889.
96. Mourning Dove. Zenaidura macroura carolinensis .
Formerly far from common, now abundant in all
parts of the Alleghanian region where there is
timber, frequenting barnyards that are near the
woods.
97. Turkey Vulture. Cathartes aura septentrionalis .
Common summer resident of the prairie region,
probably breeding here.
98. Swallow-tailed Kite. Elanoides forficatus. Geo.
Grieve tells me that two have been taken at Winni-
peg, one in 1889 and one in 1892, neither seen by
me. I observed one in Minnesota, near Pembina, in
1883. Coues reports it as occasional at Pembina,
and R. H. Hunter writes me that he has seen it at
Selkirk, Pembina Mountain, and Fort Qu'Appelle.
99. Harrier. Circus hudsonius. Abundant summer
resident. The adults, in blue plumage, are common
in spring and fall. Arrives April 15; departs
October 15.
100. Sharp-shinned Hawk. Accipiter velox. Common
summer resident in all wooded regions. Arrives
April 15; departs October 15.
101. Cooper Hawk or Chicken Hawk. Accipiter cooperi.
May be entered as a rare summer resident. Re-
ported by Hine and Hunter. I saw one at Edmon-
ton, but do not know of a specimen taken in the
Province.
102. American Goshawk. Astur atricapillus . Common
fall and winter visitant, usually appearing in
August. Not rioted during the breeding season.
IN MANITOBA 205
103. Red-tailed Hawk. Buteo borealis. Common sum-
mer resident of the wooded regions. Apparently
complementary of the Swainson Hawk, which is
. found in more open country and on the prairie.
Arrives April 15; departs October 15.
103a. Krider Hawk. Buteo borealis krideri. Three
specimens of this beautiful Hawk have been taken
at Winnipeg — one shot at Rosenfeld by Charles
Stewart, Sept. 20, 1905; two now in the collection
of A. Calder.
104. Red-shouldered Hawk. Buteo lineatus. R. H.
Hunter writes me that he found this species in
Eastern Manitoba.
105. Swainson Hawk. Common Henhawk Buteo sivain-
soni. Very abundant summer resident of the
prairie region; breeds perhaps twice each season.
Have seen several black specimens. Arrives April
15; departs October 15.
106. Broad- winged Hawk. Buteo platypterus. Regular
summer visitant wherever there is woods. In my
collection are two specimens, one collected near
Winnipeg May 3, 1905, by Ashley Hine. It is re-
ported from various parts of the Province where
well timbered, and is generally distributed, though
not abundant. A. Calder has a beautiful melanistic
specimen, killed at Winnipeg, April, 1907.
107. American Rough-legged Hawk. Archibuteo lagopus
sancti-johannis . Migrant; only seen in spring and
fall, but not numerous.
108. Red Roughleg, Gopher-hawk. Archibuteo ferru-
gineus. One in the collection of E. W. Darbey was
shot, in 1895, at Niverville, fifteen miles south-west
of Winnipeg, by Geo. Grieve. There is another
specimen in the Manitoba Museum.
206 FAUNA
109. Golden Eagle. Aquila chrysaetos. Rare, but ap-
parently resident.
110. Bald Eagle. Haliaetus leucocephalus. Summer
visitant, of general distribution wherever there are
fish.
111. Gray Gyrfalcon. Falco rusticolus. A rare winter
visitant. A specimen was killed near Winnipeg in
the fall of 1904, and mounted by E. W. Darbey for
the Manitoba Museum. Two fine specimens taken
by W. R. Hine were at one time in the same col-
lection.
112. Duck Hawk. Falco per egrinus anatnm. Much like
the Goshawk in movements and distribution.
Probably breeds in the neighborhood of the large
lakes. Quite common on the Big Plain about
August.
113. Pigeon Hawk. .Falco columbarius. Common
spring and fall migrant, breeding in the woods of
northern Manitoba.
113a. Richardson Merlin. Falco columbarius richard-
soni. A Plains race, said to be a regular summer
resident along Souris River. A fine specimen was
killed in Winnipeg during the summer of 1900 and
brought in the flesh to A. Calder, in whose collection
it may now be seen.
114. American Sparrow-hawk. Falco sparverius. Abun-
dant summer resident; of general distribution
wherever there is woods.
115. American Osprey. Pandion haliaetus carolinensis .
A summer resident about all the fish-stocked rivers
and lakes. Reported from all parts of the Province,
but rare.
110. American Long-eared Owl. Asio.wilsonianus. Sum-
OF MANITOBA 207
mer resident in all wooded sections. Arrives April
15; departs October 20.
117. Short-eared Owl, Marsh-owl. Asia flammeus. Com-
mon summer resident in all marshy and prairie
sections. Arrives April 1; departs October 30.
118. Barred Owl. Strix varia. Summer resident of the
wooded sections. The records show it to be more
widely differed than was once believed. In 1886 I
saw a specimen taken at Kenora. In my collection
is one taken at Winnipeg, March 30, 1906, by Harry
Jones. E. W. Darbey writes me that he had four,
taken at Winnipeg in 1906. and one early in April,
1908. At Portage la Prairie I was shown a female
taken by G. E. Atkinson. May 19, 1899. J. S.
Charleson writes me that on May 9, 1901, while
canoeing up the Assiniboine near Winnipeg, he saw
a Barred Owl in a tree. Also he secured a specimen
from Riding Mountain in January, 1905; it was
killed by T. S. Kittson, and had in its stomach a
flying squirrel. Arrives about April 1; departs
about November 1.
119. Great Gray Owl. Scotiaptex nebulosa. One speci-
men, taken on the Big Plain, September 29, 1884.
Rather common along the Red River, and resident
in the woods about Lake Winnipeg.
120. Richardson Owl. Glaiix funerea richardsoni. A
common winter visitant in the Alleghanian region,
but probably resident and breeding in the Canadian
part of the Province.
121. Saw- whet Owl. Glaux acadica. Rare, but appar-
ently a permanent resident.
122. Western Horned Owl. Bubo virgiuianus pallescens.
Common resident wherever there is woods.
122a. White Horned Owl. Bubo virginiamts subarcticus.
208 , FAUNA
Rare in Manitoba; in A. Calder's collection are two
superb specimens of this northern form. They
were taken recently at Winnipeg. It is recorded
also from MacDonald, Duck Mountain, and Touch-
wood Hills.
123. Snowy Owl, White Owl. Nyctca nyctea. Common
winter visitant, sometimes appearing in large
numbers. Arrives October 1 ; departs April 15.
124. American Hawk-owl. Surma ulula caparoch. Very
abundant some years. Arrives late in September,
and remains until April. May yet be found breed-
ing in the extreme north of the Province.
125. Burrowing Owl. Speotyto cunicularia hypogaea.
There is one of the species that have appeared in
Manitoba recently. In the early eighties it was
quite unknown.
In August, 1899, at the taxidermist shop of G. E.
Atkinson, Portage la Prairie, I saw two Burrowing
Owls that were taken by a farmer about four miles
north-west of the town, on June 2, 1897. Two
others were brought to the shop in May, 1899. The
specimen in my collection (No. 2,594) is one of two
taken at Morden by D. Nicholson, the taxidermist.
He reports it rare, but regular and increasing. Two
others were taken in 1902. E. W. Darbey tells me
that it is becoming quite common along the Pipe-
stone and on the slope of Riding Mountain.
In 1904 J. P. Turner found a nest eight miles
north-west of Winnipeg. The species utilizes the
burrows of the Richardson ground-squirrel for a
nesting place.
126. Black-billed Cuckoo. Coccyzus erythrophihalmus .
A common summer resident in all the Alleghanian
region; not yet recorded beyond that limit. Ar-
rives late in May, departing at the end of August.
OF MANITOBA 209
127. Belted Kingfisher. Ceryle alcyon. Common sum-
mer resident everywhere along streams and fish
frequented lakes. Arrives April 20; departs in
October.
128. Northern Hairy Woodpecker. Dryobates villosus
leucomelas. Common resident of woods every-
where.
129. Downy Woodpecker. Dryobates pubescens medianus .
Common resident throughout the Province, ex-
cepting possibly the north-eastern corner.
130. Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker. Picoides arcticus.
Common resident in the forested region. Most
plentiful in winter, therefore probably in some
degree migratory.
131. American Three-toed Woodpecker. Picoides ameri-
canus. Rare permanent resident of the Canadian
region. Unfortunately no specimens are available.
Both W. R. Hine and R. H. Hunter claim to have
seen it in the woods eastof Winnipeg, and at Kenora,
in 1886, I saw a supposed specimen, beside which
its known range includes the forested portion of the
Province.
132. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker. Sphyrapicus varius.
Common summer resident of all the Alleghanian
region; not yet recorded from the Canadian. Ar-
rives about May 1.
133. Pileated Woodpecker, Cock-of-the- Woods. Phloeoto-
mus pileatus abieticola. Rare resident in heavy
timber and spruce woods throughout the Province.
134. Red-headed Woodpecker. Melanerpes erythroce-
phalus. A rare summer resident of south-western
Manitoba, apparently confined to regions where
oaks are found.
135. Flicker, Highholder. Colaptes auratus luteus. Very
210 FAUNA
abundant summer resident throughout the Pro-
vince wherever there are trees. Arrives April 15;
departs September 30.
136. Red-shafted Flicker. Cola-pies cafer collaris. A full
plumaged female in my collection (No. 2,546) was
shot near Winnipeg, Sept. 30, 1904, by T. Dolphin.
At Portage la Prairie, in August, 1899, I saw in G.
E. Atkinson's taxidermist shop a fine adult hybrid
Flicker, shot in the vicinity, April 16, 1897.
137. Whip-poor-will. Antrostomus vociferus. Abun-
dant summer resident in woods and partly wooded
regions throughout the Province.
138. Night-hawk. Chordeiles virginiauns. The Night-
hawk is common throughout Manitoba, and thus
the typical form seems to be the one in all but the
true prairie region.
138a. Western Night-hawk. Chordeiles virginianus henr-
yi. Very abundant summer resident of the prairies
in south-western Manitoba. Arrives May 24; de-
parts August 30.
139. Chimney Swift. Chaetura pelagica. Summer resi-
dent of the Alleghanian region, nowhere very com-
mon, and most numerous about the towns. Arrives
about May 15; departs early in September.
140. Ruby-throated Hummingbird. Trochilus colubris.
This is a summer resident in the Alleghanian region,
wherever it finds suitable surroundings — that is, a
warm sheltered garden with red flowers. Arriving
about May 23.
141. Scissor-tailed Flycatcher. Muscivoraforficata. Ac-
cidental straggler. One found by C. W. Nash, at
Portage la Prairie, October 31, 1884. (See Auk,
April, 1885, p. 218.)
142. Kingbird. Tyrannus tyrannus. Very abundant
OF MANITOBA 211
•
summer resident throughout the Province wherever
there are trees or even small bushes. Arrives May
20; departs August 30.
143. Arkansas Kingbird. Tyrannus verticalis. Two
specimens of this, an adult and one in first plumage,
were taken by D. Losh Thorpe at the Souris coal
fields, August 20, 1891. This is not many miles to
the west of the Province, and justifies the insertion
[of the species as probably Manitoban.
144. Crested Flycatcher. Myiarchus crinitus. Summer
resident about Winnipeg; noted several times at
Carberry. Taken by Professor Macoun at Lake
Manitoba, June 17, 1881. Quite common along the
Assiniboine. On Aug. 20, 1904, I got one at Lake
Winnipegosis. This is the northernmost that I
know of.
145. Phoebe. Sayornis phoebe. Rare summer resident,
but apparently found in all parts of the Province;
recorded even from Norway House.
140. Olive-sided Flycatcher. Nuttallornis borealis. A com-
mon summer resident in all the wooded parts of the
Province.
147. Wood Pewee. Myiochanes virens. Summer resi-
dent of the heavy woods in the Alleghanian region.
148. Western Wood Pewee. Myiochanes richardsoni.
Common summer resident of the willow thicket and
open groves throughout the Alleghanian region.
149. Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. Empidonax flaviventris.
Summer resident, frequenting woodlands. Noted
at Winnipeg, Portage la Prairie, Duck Mountain,
and Oak Lake. Probably throughout the Alle-
ghanian region.
150. Alder Flycatcher. Empidonax trailli alnoruwt. Re-
corded from Pembina, Carberry, Lake Manitoba,
212 FAUNA
Duck Mountain, Riding Mountain, and Norway
House, so doubtless it is generally distributed
throughout the Province wherever there is cover.
An abundant summer resident.
151. Least Flycatcher. Empidonax minimus. Very
abundant summer in all wooded localities. Arrives
May 20; departs late in September.
152. Prairie Horned Lark. Otocoris alpestris praticola.
Abundant, breeding in all the prairie regions.
Resident, excepting during December, January,
and February. Breeds twice each season.
152a. Shore Lark. Otocoris alpestris. Fall migrant.
Taken at Carberry and Kenora.
153. American Magpie. Pica hudsonia. Irregular,
rare resident. Found west of Fort Ellice, and oc-
casionally along the Upper Assiniboine. A single
specimen reported from Brandon.
154. Blue Jay. Cyanocitta cristata. Common summer
resident of woodlands throughout the Province.
Arrives early in April; departs late in November.
May be resident in southern localities.
155. Canada Jay, Whiskey-jack. Wis-ka-tjan, Periso-
reus canadensis. Abundant resident throughout
the wooded region. The common name of this bird
is a corruption of the Indian Wis-ka-tjan. This
last name should not be lost sight of.
156. American Raven. Corvus cor ax principalis. Win-
ter visitant in all the Alleghanian region. Said to
be resident, and of course breeding, in the Canadian
regions to the north ; not common anywhere.
157. American Crow. Corvus brachyrhynchos. Summer
resident throughout the Province. Abundant in
the Alleghanian region; scarce in the Canadian.
OF MANITOBA 213
158. Bobolink. Dolichonyx oryzivorus. Abundant sum-
mer resident in all the prairie region. Arrives May
20, departs September 7.
159. Cowbird. Molothrus ater. Very abundant sum-
mer resident throughout the prairie region. Arrives
May 15; departs late in the fall, but disappears for
a time during the moult at the end of August.
They are then to be found, I believe, in the sloughs
and marshes with the Crackles.
160. Yellow-headed Blackbird. Xanthocephalus xantho-
cephalus. A summer resident of the marshes
throughout the Alleghanian region ; found also, but
much less numerously, in the Canadian region;
wherever there are extensive marshes. Arrives May
1, departs late in October.
161. Northern Redwing. Agelaius phoeniceus arctolegus.
Abundant summer resident of the whole Province.
Arrives April 20; departs late in October.
162. Western Meadow Lark. Sturnella neglecta. Abun-
dant summer resident of all the prairie regions.
Arrives April 15; departs October 15.
163. Orchard Oriole. Icterus spurius. One specimen,
taken at Pembina, June 6, 1873, by Dr. Coues.
164. Baltimore Oriole. Icterus galbula. Abundant sum-
mer resident of the Alleghanian region. Arrives
May 30; departs August 30.
165. Rusty Blackbird. Euphagus carolinus. Extremely
abundant migrant during April and late September.
Not found in the Alleghanian region during summer,
but probably breeding in the north-west parts of the
Province within the Canadian.
166. Brewer Blackbird, Satin Bird. Euphagus cyanoce-
phalus. Abundant summer resident, apparently
214 FAUNA
confined to the Alleghanian region. Arrives April
15; departs November 1.
167. Bronzed Grackle. Quiscalus quiscula aeneus.
Abundant summer resident wherever there is wood-
land. Arrives April 20, departs October 15.
168. Evening Grosbeak. Hesperiphonavespertina. Com-
mon winter visitant in the vicinities of Winnipeg,
Portage la Prairie, and Qu'Appelle, Big Island in
Lake Winnipeg, and Selkirk. (R. H. Hunter.}
169. Pine Grosbeak. P-inicola enudeator leucura. Com-
mon winter visitant in all the wooded sections,
probably breeding in the northmost parts of the
Province.
170. Purple Finch. Carpodacus purpureus. Common
summer resident of all wooded regions. Arrives
early in May; departs middle of September.
171. English Sparrow. Passer domesticus. This species
is now found in all the settled portions of Manitoba,
and at ever)'' farmhouse and in all the towns of the
North-west as far as AthabaSka Landing, Alberta,
about N. Latitude 55. W. Longitude 113. It first
appeared at Carberry in 1892, but was not found in
numbers until 1894. According to Criddle, it is
developing a habit of migration.
172. American Crossbill. Loxia curvirostra minor. Com-
mon as a winter visitant at Winnipeg, Portage la
Prairie and Big Plain, possibly breeding, as it is
known to do so in Minnesota (Trippe) .
173. White- winged Crossbill. Loxia leucoptera. Com-
mon winter visitant about Winnipeg and Big Plain;
may breed in the Canadian region.
174. Gray-crowned Finch, Pink Snowbird. Leucosticte
tephrocotis. I have in my collection an adult of
species taken near Birtle, Manitoba, in January,
OF MANITOBA 215
1891, by George Copeland. Also in the Manitoba
Museum are two specimens taken in the Province
by W. R. Hine. These give a considerable east-
ward extension to the range of the species.
175. Hoary Redpoll. Acanthis hornemanni ev-ilipes.
Noted only as a rare migrant; in fall and winter
accompanies A. linaria.
176. Redpoll. Acanthis linaria. Abundant fall and
winter visitant, arriving from the north about
October 20, and departing about May 1.
177. American Goldfinch. Astra^alinustristis. Common
summer resident of the Alleghanian region. Arrives
last week of May; departs middle of September.
178. Pine Siskin. Spinus pinus. An irregular and
abundant spring and fall visitant ; may breed in the
Canadian region.
179. Snowflake, Snow-bunting. Plectrophenax nivalis.
Very abundant spring, fall, and winter resident,
arriving about the middle of October and staying
until the end of April.
180. Lapland Longspur. Calcarius lapponicus. Very
abundant spring and fall migrant. Arrives May
15, and again September 20.
181. Painted Longspur. Calcarius pictus. Abundant
spring and much less plentiful fall migrant. Ar-
rives on May 10, stays two weeks, and again on
September 15 for a few days.
182. Black-breasted Longspur. Calcarius ornatus. Com-
mon summer resident of the dry prairies. Local in
distribution, many pairs sometimes affecting a
limited area of dry prairie, while again for miles no
more of the species are to be seen. Arrives May 16 ;
departs August 30.
183. McCown Longspur. Rhynchophanes mecowni. A
210 FAUNA
specimen of this bird, taken by D. Losh Thorpe,
near Dalesbro, just west of our borders, justifies its
inclusion as a probable straggler.
184. Western Vesper-sparrow. Pooecetes gramineus con-
finis. Very abundant summer resident of the
prairie region. Arrives May 1 ; departs Septem-
ber 30.
185. Savanna Sparrow. Passerculus sand\vichensis sa-
vanna. Doubtless found as a summer resident in
open places throughout our Canadian area, as
Preble found it general in Keewatin and at Nor-
way House.
185a. Western Savanna-sparrow. Passerculus sand-
wichensis alaudinus. Abundant summer resident
of the prairie region. Arrives May 1 ; departs Sep-
tember 30.
186. Baird Sparrow. Coturniculus bairdi. Abundant
summer resident throughout the prairie region
wherever there are alkaline flats. Taken at Grand
Rapids (Nutting).
187. Leconte Sparrow. Ammodramus lecontei. Abun-
dant summer resident of willow bottom-lands
throughout the prairie region. Arrives May 1 ;
departs September 30.
189. Nelson Sparrow. Ammodramus nelsoni. In 1892
I found this sparrow abundant at Carberry and
secured specimens, both breeding and migrant. In
1901 I found it common at Shoal Lake. In my
collection are three specimens taken at Winni-
peg. There can be little doubt that it is found
throughout south-western Manitoba, and breeds
wherever found.
189. Lark Sparrow. Chondestes grammacus. Rare sum-
mer resident. Noted only in the vicinity of Winni-
peg and at Portage la Prairie.
OF MANITOBA 217
190. Black-faced or Harris Sparrow. Zonotrichia que-
rula. Abundant spring and fall migrant. Arrives
May 15 and again September 20, remaining a week
or ten days each time. Breeds in Hudsonian fauna.
Nest found in far north. See Auk, Jan. 1998, p. 72.
191. White-crowned Sparrow. Zonotrichia leucophrys.
Migrant, not common. Passes through in early
May and late September. Probably breeds in the
extreme north-eastern part of the Province.
191a. Gambel Sparrow. Zonotrichia leucophrys gambeli.
A migrant only, abundant on the Souris in fall
migration (Coues}. I have seen specimens taken
at Carberry and at Portage la Prairie.
192. White-throated Sparrow. Zonotrichia albicollis.
Common summer resident of all the wooded country
Arrives early in May; departs late in October.
193. Tree-sparrow. Spizella monticola. Abundant mi-
grant in all parts of the Province from mid-April
to mid-May, and again through October.
194. Chipping Sparrow. Spizella passerina. Summer
resident about small towns and along wooded edges,
apparently throughout the Province, as it is re-
corded from Pembina, Winnipeg, Norway House,
Oxford House, Grand Rapids, Prince Albert, and
Ou'Appelle, as well as Carberry and Portage la
Prairie. Not common; mid- April to late Sep-
tember.
195. Clay-colored Sparrow. Spizella pallida. Very
abundant summer resident of the Alleghanian re-
gion. Arrives May 15; departs October 1.
196. Slate-colored Junco. Junco hyemalis. Abundant
migrant throughout the Province, and doubtless
breeding in all the Canadian region, though there
are few records of it. Arrives the first week of
April, and departs in October.
218 FAUNA
197. Montana Junco. Junco hyemalis montanus. Among
the migrant flocks of the preceding I have several
times seen this race near Carberry ; one or two
were collected.
198. Song Sparrow. Melospiza melodia. Summer resi-
dent throughout the Province. Not common.
Arrives late in April; departs early in October.
199. Lincoln Sparrow. Melospiza lincolni. Spring and
fall migrant. Noted during first week of May and
last week of September. Probably breeding in the
extreme north-eastern part of the Province.
200. Swamp Sparrow. Melospiza georgiana. Common
summer resident throughout the Province, but
most abundant in the Alleghanian region.
201. Fox Sparrow. Passer ella iliaca. Common migrant
in the prairie region, arriving in mid-April. Breed-
ing abundantly on Duck Mountain and apparently
in all the Canadian region of the Province.
202. Towhee. Pipilo erythropthalmus. Common sum-
mer resident of the Alleghanian region north at
least to Carberry; not yet recorded beyond.
203. Arctic Towhee. Pipilo maculatus arcticus. This
Western species appears in this list on the strength
of a specimen -taken on the Souris at the boundary,
September 16, 1873. by Dr. Elliot Coues.
204. Rose-breasted Grosbeak. Zamelodia ludoviciana.
Common summer resident of the Alleghanian region,
possibly farther, as there is one record for the north
end of Lake Winnipeg.
205. Indigo Bunting. Passerina cyanea. A male adult
Indigo Bunting (No. 2,531 Seton Coll.) was killed
on June 3, 1893, by W. R. Hine, near St. Boniface,
between the Seine and Assiniboine Rivers, on the
OP MANITOBA 219
land between the Bishops's Marsh and the River
Seine. Another adult male was taken at Estevan,
South Saskatchewan, by D. L. Thorpe, 29 May,
1892. Estevan is eighty miles west of Manitoba.
In the collection of Father Blain, St. Boniface
College, is an extraordinary specimen killed at
Winnipeg. After careful examination E. A. Preble
and I agree that it is probably a hybrid Indigo
Bunting X Common Canary, maybe escaped from
captivity. With the general form and color of an
Indigo Bunting female, it has some patches of
yellow, and a white tail and wings.
206. Dickcissel or Black-throated Bunting. Spiza ameri-
cana. August 10, 1899, I was shown an adult
specimen of this bird by G. E. Atkinson, who shot
it at Portage la Prairie, June 1 , 1897. This was
'recorded in "Man. Free Press," March 5, 1904.
207. Scarlet Tanager. Piranga erythromelas. I have
seen two specimens that were taken at Winnipeg in
1892, one in the collection of George Grieve, the
other in the collection of W. R. Hine. He also
took another, and saw a third in 1888. It was
about the end of May, during a sudden cold spell.
The third he saw on the bank of Red River in the
city limits; he was within two yards of it for some
time, but did not collect it.
R. H. Hunter writes me that in Jane, 1880, while
camping east of Winnipeg, he observed a pair,
evidently nesting, and adds that his companion,
Clementi-Smith, has "seen several pairs on the
shores of Lake Winnipeg." "Lake Winnipeg"
(Ridgway). "Rare at Qu'Appelle" (Guernsey).
208. Purple Martin. Progne subis. Common summer
resident of all the Alleghanian region wherever there
is large timber to furnish nesting sites ; also in towns.
220 FAUNA
209. Cliff Swallow. Petrochelidon lunifrons. Abundant
summer resident in all parts of the Province where
cliffs or tall buildings in quiet places furnish nesting
sites. Arrives May 15; departs August 30.
210. Barn Swallow. Hirundo erythrogastra. A summer
resident of erratic distribution. Seldom seen about
Winnipeg, not recorded from Portage la Prairie,
and yet in 1904 J. S. Charleson the taxidermist told
me it was common at MacDonald and at Brandon.
There is quite a colony at the former place under
the long bridge. At Carberry I saw one or two
each year; they arrived in the first half of May.
Thus there are many records to show that, though
rare, it is of general distribution, and further, it is
increasing with the advance of settlement. Near
Wawanesa, on September 13, 1904, I saw a long
straggling flock of nearly a hundred of the species
flyng south-west ; many were within three or four
feet of me as I drove.
211. Tree Swallow. Tridoprocne bicolor. Abundant
summer resident in all parts of the Province where
there are large trees.
212. Bank Swallow, Sand Martin. Riparia riparia.
Common summer resident wherever it can find suit-
able banks for nesting. Arrives mid-May; departs
late in August.
213. Saw- winged Swallow. Stelgidopteryx serripennis.
In the Manitoba Museum is a specimen of this
Swallow, taken at Winnipeg by W. R~ Hine.
214. Bohemian Wax- wing. Bomby cilia garrula. A
common winter visitant in most parts of Manitoba ;
often seen in November and April. Not known to
nest here.
215. Cedar Wax- wing, Cherry Bird. Bomby cilia cedro-
OF MANITOBA 221
rum. Abundant summer resident throughout the
Province. Arrives late in May.
216. Northern Shrike. Lanius borealis. Common spring
and fall visitant, passing through toward the
north in the first half of April, returning during
October.
217. White-rumped Shrike. Lanius ludovicianus excubi-
torides. Abundant summer resident throughout
the Alleghanian regions. Arrives early in May;
departs late in September.
218. Red-eyed Vireo. Vireosylva olivacea. Abundant
summer resident wherever there is cover in all parts
of the Province. Arrives May 24; departs late in
August.
219. Philadelphia Vireo. Vireosylva philadelphica. A
regular summer resident, not abundant, but prob-
ably in the woodlands throughout the Province. I
found the nest and eggs near Fort Pelly (north-west
of Duck Mountain), June 9, 1884. (See Auk, July,
1885, pp. 305, 306.)
220. Warbling Vireo. Vireosylva gilva. Common sum-
mer resident of the Alleghanian region. Arrives
May 30.
221. Yellow-throated Vireo. Lanivireo flavifrons. This
species has not yet been taken in Manitoba, so far
as I know, but being an Eastern species taken at
Yorktown, Sask., by W. Raine, and at Moosejaw
by Miller Christy, it is included as probable. W. R.
Hine claims to have seen it on the Red River.
222. Blue-headed Vireo. Lanivireo solitaries. Summer
resident in all parts of Manitoba; not common.
Arrives about May 15.
223. Black and White Warbler. Mniotilta varia. Sum-
mer resident in all the wooded parts of the Province ;
222 FAUNA
apparently most numerous in the spruce forests of
the Canadian region. Arrives about May 15;
departs at the end of August. v1.
224. Nashville Warbler. Helminthopkila rubricapilla.
Rare summer resident. Noted at Aweme, Lake
Manitoba, Duck Mountain, and along Red River.
225. Orange-crowned Warbler. Helminthophila celata.
Common summer resident of all woodlands, appar-
ently throughout the Province. Arrives May 12;
departs end of September.
226. Tennessee Warbler. Helminthophila peregrina.
Summer resident, breeding in most woodlands, but
not plentiful. Noted on Big Plain and Duck Moun-
tain, and along Red River near Winnipeg. At
Pembina common in the spring migration (Coues}.
North shore of Lake Winnipeg (Kennicott}. Aweme
(Griddle). Arrives in mid-May; departs at the end
of September.
227. Cape May Warbler. Dendroica tigrina. Abundant
migrant along Red River and a common summer
resident in some regions, but erratic in distribution.
Recorded from Winnipeg, Shoal Lake, and Moose
Factory. Migrates in mid-May and late August.
228. Yellow Warbler. Dendroica aestiva. Very abun-
dant summer resident of all thickets and woods
throughout the Province. Arrives May 15; departs
September 7.
229. Myrtle Warbler. Dendroica coronata. Abundant
migrant throughout the Province, breeding in the
Canadian region. Arrives April 23; departs Sep-
tember 12.
230. Magnolia Warbler. Dendroica magnolia. Noted
only as a migrant, but doubtless breeds in the
Canadian region. Arrives mid-May: departs early
September.
OF MANITOBA 223
231. Chestnut-sided Warbler. Dendroica pennsylvanica.
Common summer resident in woodlands of the Alle-
ghanian region. Arrives about May 20.
232. Bay-breasted Warbler. Dendroica castanea. A
regular migrant, especially along Red River; not
common. Probably breeds in the northernmost
part of the Province. Arrives mid-May.
233. Black-poll Warbler. Dendroica striata. Noted
only as a migrant ; not plentiful. Arrives at Aweme
about May 13.
234. Black- throated Green Warbler. Dendroica virens.
Norman Criddle reports this at Aweme on May 13
and 17, 1898.
235. Blackburnian Warbler. Dendroica Uackburniae.
A rare migrant in the Alleghanian region, probably
breeding in the Canadian. Arrives l^te May.
236. Pine Warbler. Dendroica vigorsi. A rare summer
resident in the evergreen forests of South-eastern
Manitoba. "A-irives about May 10; departs about
September 2" (Criddle}.
237. Palm Warbler. Dendroica palmarum. A common
spring and fall migrant in the Alleghanian region;
may breed in the Canadian. Passes about the first
week of May, and again about September 15.
238. Ovenbird. Seiurus aurocapillus. Common sum-
mer resident of woodlands; apparently found
throughout the Province. Arrives in mid-May;
departs in mid-September.
239. Water-thrush. Seiurus noveboracensis notabilis.
Common summer resident of all woodlands where
there is water. Arrives in mid-May ; departs late in
September.
240. Connecticut Warbler. Oporornis ag-ilis. Somewhat
common summer resident from mid-May to early
224 FAUNA
September. Noted on Duck Mountain, Big Plain-,
and along Red River. Nest found June 21, 1883.
(See Auk, April, 1884, pp. 192, 193.)
241. Mourning Warbler. Oporornis Philadelphia. Com-
mon summer resident of dry scrub lands throughout
the Alleghanian region, arriving in late May, "de-
parting early in September" (C riddle].
242. Northern Yellowthroat. Geothylpis trichas. Com-
mon summer resident of thickets in the Alleghanian
region, arriving about May 20, departing in Sep-
tember.
343. Wilson Warbler. Wilsonia pus-ilia. Summer resi-
dent throughout the Province; not common. Ar-
riving in mid-May, departing in mid-September.
244. Canadian Warbler. Wilsonia canadensis. Appar-
ently found throughout the Province as a rare
summer resident. According to N. 'Criddle it
arrives about May 20 and departs the last of
August.
245. American Redstart. Setophaga ruticilla. Common
summer resident of all woodlands Arrives in mid-
May; departs in mid-September.
246. American Pipit. Anthus rubecens. Abundant
spring and fall migrant throughout the Province.
247. Sprague Pipit., Missouri Skylark Anthus spraguei.
Formerly resident summer of Assiniboine region
wherever there were high dry prairies, arriving May
1, departing September 1. This bird was very
abundant on the Big Plain in 1882, but in 1892 I
failed to see or hear a single individual in the
country. It appears to have totally disappeared.
This is unquestionably owing to the breaking up of
the virgin prairie.
248. Catbird. Dumetella carolmensis. Abundant sum-
OF MANITOBA 225
mer resident of the Alleghanian region. Arrives in
mid-May; departs mid-September.
249. Brown Thrasher. Toxostoma rufmn. Common
summer resident of the Alleghanian region wherever
there are open woodlands. Arrives May 15; de-
parts September 7.
250. Western House Wren. Troglodytes aedon parkmani.
Abundant summer resident, apparently confined to
the Alleghanian region. Arrives May 20; departs
about the end of September.
251. Winter Wren. Nannus hiemalis. This is a wood-
land species, apparently common in the south-
eastern quarter of the Povince only. R. H.
Hunter found it a common summer resident in the
woods east of Winnipeg. C. W. Nash saw one at
Winnipeg, and another at Portage la Prairie. N.
Criddle found it at Aweme.
252. Short-billed Marsh-wren. Cistothorus stellaris.
Summer resident of the Alleghanian region ; erratic
in distribution. Preble found it at Norway House.
Arrives May 15; departs Sept. 15.
253. Long-billed Marsh-wren. Telmatodytes palustris
iliacus. Summer resident; of extensive, though
erratic, distribution. Common at Winnipeg, Shoal
Lake, and Portage la Prairie. Recorded at Oak
Point, Aweme, Waterhen River, and on Saskat-
chewan. Arrives early in May.
254. Brown Creeper. Certhia familiaris americana. A
rare summer resident. Noted at Winnipeg and
Portage la Prairie, and Riding Mountain.
255. Slender-billed Nuthatch. Sitta carolinensis aculeata.
Somewhat rare resident of the heavily timbered
regions. Absent from the Province only during
the hardest part of the winter.
226 FAUNA
256. Red-breasted Nuthatch. Siita canadensis. Rare
summer resident of the woods in all parts of the
Province; abundant during the migration in Sep-
tember.
257. Long-tailed Chickadee. Penthestes atricapillus sep-
tentrionalis. Resident; abundant in all the wood-
lands. The Manitoba bird is not strictly septentrio-
nalis, but. is nearer to that form than to atricapillus.
258. Hudsonian Chickadee. Penthestes hudsonicus. The
only record is as follows :-—" In flocks around the
Porcupine Mountains" (Macoun). The bird is
certainly not found in the Assiniboine region, and
there are no Red River records, though it should be
the prevailing species in the Winnipeg Basin.
259. Golden-crowned Kinglet. Regulus satrapa. Rare
migrant. Noted at Carberry, November 5, 1884,
and recorded also from Aweme, Portage la Prairie,
and Winnipeg.
260. Ruby-crowned Kinglet. Regulus calendula. Com-
mon migrant. Noted on Big Plain about May 15,
along Red River, and at Portage la Prairie. "On
Souris in September" (Cones). Probably breeds in
the north-east part of the Province. Passes
through in late April and early May; again about
the 1st of October.
261. Willow Veery. Hylocichla juscescens sahcicola.
Abundant summer resident of all thickets in the
Alleghanian region. Arrives in mid-May: departs
early in September.
262. Gray-cheeked Thrush. Hylocichla aliciae. Common
migrant. Imperfectly observed, as it is not usually
distinguished from the next.
26o. Olive-backed Thrush. Hylocichla ustulata swain-
son i. Common summer resident of. woodlands
OF MANITOBA 227
apparently throughout the Province. Arrives May
1; departs early in October.
201. Hermit Thrush. Hylocichla guttata pallasi. Com-
mon summer resident of woodlands in the Canadian
region. A migrant in the Alleghanian, passing in
late April and early October.
265. American Robin. Planesticus migratorius. Abun-
dant summer resident throughout the Province.
Arrives April 15; departs October 15.
266. Bluebird. Sialia sialis. Formerly very rare; has
become quite a regular summer resident in the
country along the Assiniboine, and nearly every
grove of oak of any extent is found to have a pair
making their home in it along with the Purple
Martins.
268. Mountain Bluebird. Sialia currucoides. E. H.
Patterson secured one of a pair that he found at a
place two miles west of Brandon, and sent the same
to G. E. Atkinson, who recorded it in "Man. Free
Press," March 5, 1904. To this, Norman Griddle
(the naturalist responsible for records from Aweme)
adds ("Ottawa Naturalist," July, 1904, pp. 85, 86)
that the species is by no means uncommon about
the Carberry sandhills, and that he has taken nu-
merous nests there.
THE FISH AND FISHERIES OF
MANITOBA
By PROFESSOR EDWARD E. PRINCE,
Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries and Canadian Representative on the
International Fisheries Commission.
IT has been justifiably claimed for the fishing industries
of Manitoba that they are the greatest fresh-water
fisheries in the world. The earliest fishery was carried
on by the native Indian tribes for food for themselves
and their dogs, but the officers of the Hudson's Bay
Company, at their numerous posts in this region, de-,
pended upon fish very largely, and since 1811, when the
first white settlers were brought to the banks of the Red
River by Lord Selkirk, a regular fishery has been pursued,
which has grown to enormous dimensions, especially
during the last thirty years. The species of principal
importance are the lake whitefish (Coregonus clupei-
formis), the pike-perch or yellow pickerel (Stitzostedion
vitreuni), the sturgeon (Acipenser), and the pike or
jackfish (Lucius). The whitefish of Manitoba, especially
of Lake Winnipeg, have an envied reputation in the
markets of this continent; and the caviare and flesh of
the sturgeon from these waters have always ranked very
high.
The relative economic importance of the following
species may be judged from the figures given below.
1887 1897 1907
Weight
Value
Weight
Value
Weight
Value
Whitefish .
2,300,000 IDs.
$106,000
3,363,900fts.
$16S,193
3,695,000 Ibs.
$258,650
Pike-perch.
144,500 "
5,800
1,343,000 "
53,721
3,995,000 "
239,700
Pike
311,000 "
8200
639,973 "
6,399
2,321,000 "
81,235
Tullibee . .
18,736 "
650
359,410 "
3,594
1.380,000 "
4S.300
THE FISH AND FISHERIES OF MANITOBA 229
During the last twenty years the annual value of the
fisheries of the Province has risen rapidly, partly owing
to the exploitation of new waters, and partly owing to
the higher market value of food-fishes in recent years.
Thus, in 1887, the total value was $129,084, in 1897
$261,126, and in 1907 it was $806,615. While a propor-
tion of the catch is sent to local and to Eastern Canadian
markets, the greater part (fully 75%) is sent to the
United States markets, certain large foreign "fish com-
bines" having undoubted control over the handling of
these supplies of Canadian fish. The last official
returns (1907) credit the Province with a total
catch of 16,538,500 Ibs. of fish of all kinds for that
year.
The total area of the waters fished is not less than
20,000 square miles, the three largest lakes, Lake Winni-
peg (9,460 sq. miles), Lake Winnipegosis (2,068 sq.
miles), and Lake Manitoba (1,775 sq. miles) exceeding
the Netherlands in extent, but other lakes, St. Martin,
Dauphin, Shoal, Swan and Waterhen, contribute their
quota, these lakes ranging from 100 to 200 square miles,
while Moose (552 sq. miles), Cedar (285 sq. miles), Play-
green (223 sq. miles) and other more distant lakes,
though beyond the Provincial boundary, must be in-
cluded in the Manitoba fisheries, all the catches being
sent down to the main shipping points in the Province.
It is interesting to note that the Manitoba lakes are
exclusively in Canadian territory, and are not shared, as
are the Great Lakes to the east, with the Republic to
the south. Hence, while Lake Superior is more than
three times the area of Lake Winnipeg, Huron twice,
and Erie almost of the same area, yet the superficial ex-
tent of the Canadian portion of these eastern waters does
not greatly exceed the total area of the Manitoba fishing
grounds.
To develop the fishing industry on an adequate
230 THE FISH AND FISHERIES
scale, in waters so vast, large capital was essential.
Fishing companies were accordingly organized, with
fleets of steam tugs, immense outfits of nets, ice houses
and stores, refrigerators and other necessary equipment.
Fishing on a limited scale had always been engaged in
by the settlers and Indians, and the numerous Icelandic
colonies in more recent years have assiduously continued
this practice. Much of this fishing is carried on through
holes in the ice in winter. But even so recently as 1899
the Winnipeg Board of Trade stated that the fishing
industries of the Province were only "in their infancy,"
and undoubtedly, with proper safeguards against de-
pletion, these industries, which have increased, like the
population of the Province, more than sixfold during the
last twenty years, are still capable of further develop-
ment. The productiveness of the waters of the Province is
proved by the fact that from 1890 to 1907 84,000,000 Ibs.
of whitefish were shipped from Manitoba and 5,329,000
Ibs. of sturgeon, including a large quantity of caviare,
much of it exported to German)'- to be sold as the best
Russian product. Like all fisheries, those of this
Province have been subject to fluctuations ; some
branches, such as the sturgeon fishery, have alarmingly
declined, while others, like the pike-perch or pickerel
fishery, have greatly expanded. The whitefish supply,
in the opinion of many, has decreased, and the large
annual catch, in 1906 exceeding 5,000,000 Ibs., was, it
is held, due only to more persistent fishing and the use
of excessive amounts of gear. All fishing operations are
carried on under license from the Dominion Government,
and under the supervision of a staff of Federal fishery
officers, who have authority to enforce the laws and
regulations under the Dominion Fishery Act.
The parties who carry on fishing consist of (1) large
fishing companies in which United States firms have
very considerable interest, they operate in the northern
OF MANITOBA 231
parts of Lake Winnipeg and the more distant lakes,
chiefly in summer and in extensive areas where fishermen
without capital, tugs, fish-houses and refrigerators could
not take or handle the fish. (2) Settlers, largely Scandi-
navians, with a proportion of Austrians and Germans,
who fish in summer in small boats, and, on a vastly more
extensive scale, through the ice in winter, mainly in the
shallower southern parts of Lake Winnipeg and in the
smaller lakes. (3) Indians and half-breeds, who fish
from their reserves for food but also for sale, and
have specially carried on. a sturgeon fishery. In the
rivers, such as the Red River, settlers and others use
seines and other apparatus for catching pickerel or pike-
perch, catfish, gold-eyes (an excellent fresh-water
herring), perch, and coarse fish.
It is estimated that at least 5,000 persons are more or
less engaged in the fisheries, but the number of regular
fishermen is now about 2,000, as compared with 850
twenty years ago. In 1837, it may be noted, there were
7 steam tugs, 550 tons total, valued at $26,500; and 65
fishing boats, 118 tons, valued at $6,785; whereas there
are now 22 tugs of 1,034 tons total tonnage, valued at
$132,000 and employing about 150 men, and in addition
530 boats, valued at $24,000, with crews totalling up to
1,800 men. Fishing by means of baited lines, fyke or
hoop nets, etc., is extensively pursued, and the takes are
principally coarse fish, the present annual catch of which
amounts to no less than 5,000,000 Ibs. The cleaning
of the fish, icing, and other processes are carried out at
various points on the lakes, such as Spider Island, Black
River, Eagle Island, Poplar River, Beren's River, Snake
Island, Bull Head, Horse Island, and Warren's Landing,
these resembling busy villages, with wharves and crowded
dwellings. Warren's Landing is about 400 miles from
Winnipeg city. About ten years ago fresh fish, in
broken ice, were first brought from Selkirk Island (at the
232 THE FISH AND FISHERIES
north end of Lake Winnipeg) and shipped from the town
of Selkirk in refrigerator cars, and were found in some
United States cities to be preferred to the frozen fish
heretofore imported. A large business has been since
then maintained. The main catches brought from the
fishing grounds by tugs and sail-boats to the various
islands referred to, after being cleaned, packed, and iced,
are brought down to Selkirk from Lake Winnipeg, and
to Winnipegosis Town, from Winnipegosis, Cedar, and
other lakes. From over a hundred of these remote
establishments, with plants valued at nearly $250,000,
the principal summer catches are received at the large
refrigerators. That of the Dominion Fish Company at
Selkirk is said to be the largest in Canada, if not on the
whole American continent, having a capacity of two
million pounds, though many times that amount passes
through the freezing rooms in a single season. In the
large freezers the fish are neatly laid on flat trays, sub-
jected to a temperature of 15° below zero, and exported
by the carload when the markets are favourable. The
ammonia process has been adopted, the ammonia being
forced by powerful engines into vacua, thus reducing the
temperature, and the cold gas is then driven through
circulating pipes, which pass along the insulated store
rooms, where a temperature of 20° below freezing can be
readily attained, but the usual temperature is only about
zero. The ammonia, after circulating, is restored to
its original density by the action of running water and
is ready for the circulating process again. In the large
refrigerator establishment just mentioned about 3,000
Ibs. of ammonia are used, emptying and re-filling being
carried out several times in the course of the year.
Unlike the fisheries of Ontario and the eastern Pro-
vinces and British Columbia, in which each Province
has property rights, the property and jurisdiction are,
in Manitoba, vested solely in the hands of the Dominion
OF MANITOBA 233
Government; and the Minister of Marine and Fisheries,
Ottawa, issues licenses, authorizes restrictions, close
seasons, etc., for the preservation of the fishery re-
sources. As an effective safeguard against depletion the
Federal Government has erected fish-hatcheries (at
Selkirk, Beren's River, Winnipegosis, and other places) ,
and vast quantities of fry of whitefish, and various valu-
able species, are planted each season from these estab-
lishments.
NOTES ON THE FISHES OF MANITOBA
Apart from their commercial importance, the fishes of
the Province have a scientific interest arising from the
fact that they form a fish fauna distinctly marked off
from that of the great lakes and eastern waters, and have
nothing in common with the Pacific fish fauna. None of
the ancient fresh-water types of Canada such as the
Gar-pike (Lepisosteus osseus, Linn) and Bowfin (Amia
calva, Linn) occur, though sturgeon of two species are
found, but the sturgeon is doubtless, primitively, an
anadromous ocean fish. The speckled char or brook
trout (Salvelinus fontinalis, Mitch.), the lesser whitefish
(Argyrosomus artedi, Le Sueur), the sea salmon (Salmo
salar, Linn.), as also the black spotted trout (S. clarkii)
of Albertan waters, the Inconnu (Stenodus mackenzii,
Richardson) of the Mackenzie, and certain Arctic and
Pacific salmon and trout are absent, and bear out the
geologist's view that the Manitoba system of lakes and
rivers is unconnected with the eastern and western
drainage systems, and really comprises the remnants of
a northern expansion of the Missouri and Mississippi
system with a former outflow to the south. Geographi-
cally these lakes are the western members of the great
lake chain lying, for a thousand miles, along the southern
margin of the vast Archaean shield which dips, to the
234 THE FISH AND FISHERIES
north, beneath the waters of Hudson Bay. Geologi-
cally they are all that remain of the vast post-glacial
Lake Agassiz, of an estimated area of 1 10,000 sq. miles, the
sediments of which, as the late Dr. George Dawson said,
"constitute the richest wheat lands of Manitoba."
Near the Cypress Hills on the west and in the opposite
direction (south of Lake of the Woods) the Manitoba
waters still maintain communication by muskegs and
marshy streams with the Mississippi system to the south.
The presence in abundance of a lesser whitefish, not
found to the east or the west, viz., the Tullibee (Argyro-
somus tullibee, Richardson), a soft inferior lesser white-
fish or lake herring, and of the Gold-eye (Hiodon chrysop-
sis, Richardson), an ally of the Clupeidae, a very plentiful
and excellent food-fish, emphasises the separateness of
this aquatic area, while the presence of the sturgeon and
of the Methy or Lake Ling (Lota maculosa, Le Sueur)
indicates that connections with the sea, such, as geology
demonstrates, . have occurred, owing to subsidence
at various epochs. Certain universally distributed
species are found, e.g., the pikes or jack-fishes (of which
two species occur, Lucius lucius Linn., and Lucius
masquinongy, Mitchill), both of exceptionally good
table qualities, as well as the bearded cat-fishes and
carp-like suckers; but the glutinous nature of their eggs
may explain their wide dispersion, probably by water
birds.
The following list of species is believed to include most
of the fishes authentically known to occur, but many
other species await discovery in this extensive area of
waters where investigations, so far, have been frag-
mentary and inadequate.
OF MANITOBA 235
LIST OF MANITOBA FISHES
FAMILY Petromyzontidae.
Ichthyomyzon castaneus, Girard. The Northern
Lamprey. •
FAMILY Acipenseridae.
Acipenser rubicundus, Le Sueur. The Lake
Sturgeon.
Acipenser sturio, Linnaeus. The Common Sturgeon.
FAMILY Siluridse.
Ictalurus punctatus, Rafinesque. Channel
or Spotted Catfish.
Ameiurus lacrustis, Walbaum. Great Lake Cat-
fish or Mathemeag.
,, vulgaris, Thompson. The Dark Catfish,
nebulosus, Le Sueur. Common Bullhead
or Horned Pout.
FAMILY Caostomidae.
Ictiobus cyprinella, Cuv. and Valenciennes. Buffalo
fish.
bubalis, Rafinesque. White or Small-
mouth Sucker.
Catostomus catostomus, Forster. Northern
Sucker.
,, commersonii, Lacepede. Common
White Sucker.
Carpiodes velifer, Rafinesque. The Ouillback
Sucker.
Moxostoma anisurum, Rafinesque. White-nosed
Red Horse.
,, aureolum, Le Sueur. The Mullet or
Red Horse.
,, lesueuri, Richardson. Northern Red
Horse.
236
THE FISH AND FISHERIES
FAMILY Cyprinidae.
Hybognathus nuchalis, Agassiz.
Minnow.
,, argyritis, Girard.
Minnow.
Pimphales promelas, Rafinesque.
Bull Minnow.
Notropis blennius, Girard.
Minnow.
,, hudsonius selene, Starr Jordan.
Spawn Eater.
,, jejunus, Forbes. The Poor Minnow.
,, atherinoides, Rafinesque. The Great
Minnow.
Hybopsis storerianus, Kirtland.
FAMILY Hiodontidse
Hiodon chrysopsis, Richardson.
Eye.
tergisus, Le Sueur.
alosoides, Rafinesque.
Eye.
FAMILY Salmonidae.
Coregonus clupeiformis, Mitchill.
Lake Whitefish.
labradoricus, Richardson.
Whitefish.
Cristivomer namaycush, Walbaum. Great Lake
Trout, Touladi or Grey Trout.
Argyrosomus tullibee, Richardson. The Tullibee
or Mongrel Whitefish.
FAMILY Esocidae or Luciidfe.
Lucius lucius, Linnaeus. The Jack-fish or Pike,
masquinongy, Mitchill. The Maskinonge"
(erroneously Muskellunge.)
The Silver
The White
The Fathead or
Straw-coloured
The Shiner,
Storer's Minnow.
Western Gold-
The Moon-Eye.
The Shad Moon-
The Common
Labrador
OF MANITOBA
237
FAMILY Gastrosteidae.
Pygosteus pungitius, Linnaeus.
back.
Eucalia inconstans, Kirtland.
FAMILY Percopsidae.
Percopsis guttatus, Agassiz.
Sand Roller.
FAMILY Centrarchidae.
Pomoxis sparoides, Lacepede.
Nine-spined Stickle-
Brook Stickleback.
The Trout Perch or
The Calico Bass.
Small-mouth
Large-mouth
Yellow Pickerel,
Ambloplites ruprestris, Rafinesque. Green Rock
Bass.
Micropterus dolornieu, Lacepede.
Black Bass
salmoides, Lacepede.
Black Bass.
FAMILY Percidae.
Stizostedion vitreum, Mitchill.
Pike-perch or Dore.
canadense griseum, DeKay. Grey
Sauger or Pike perch.
Perca flavescens, Mitchill. The Yellow Perch.
Hadropterus aspro, Cope and Jordan. Black-sided
Darter.
" guntheri, Eigenmann and Eigenmann.
Gunther's Darter.
Boleosoma nigrum, Rafinesque. Johnny Darter.
boreale, Starr Jordan. Northern Darter
FAMILY Sciasnidae. .
Aplodinotus grunniens, Rafinesque. Sheephead or
Lake Drum-fish.
FAMILY Cottidae.
Cottus pollicaris, Jordan and Gilbert. Olivaceous
Miller's Thumb.
FAMILY Gadidae.
Lota maculosa, Le Sueur. Lake Ling, Burbot,
Lake Cusk, Losh and Methy.
THE INDIANS OF WESTERN CANADA
By THE HON. DAVID LAIRD,
Commissioner of Indian Affairs.
WESTERN CANADA may be described as ex-
tending from the eastern watershed of the
watershed Lake Winnipeg basin west to the
Rocky Mountains and from the International Boundary
to the Arctic waters and the Hudson's Bay.
This territory since first known to white men has
been inhabited by four distinct families of aborigines:
the Esquimaux, who frequent the coasts of the Arctic
Ocean and of the bays and estuaries of rivers opening
thereunto; the Dene or Athabascan, whose habitat
extends from the domain of the Esquimaux south to
the Peace and Churchill Rivers and west to the Rocky
Mountains; the Algonquins, extending from Eastern
Canada over the country south of the Athabascan
habitat to the International Boundary; and the Sioux
or Dakotah family, whose habitat in Canada is small
portions of the prairies south of the North Saskatchewan
River.
The principal branch of the Athabascan family
are the Chipewyan, often on account of the similarity
of name confounded with the Chippewas or Ojibways
who belong to the Algonquin family. Another tribe
belonging to the Athabascan family are the Beavers
of the Peace river. The Sarcees, now settled upon a
reserve near Calgary, belong to the Beaver tribe. In
time long past they left the habitat of the race, moved
into the Algonquin country, and remaining there,
came to be commonly regarded as a distinct people.
The Slaves, Yellow Knives, Dog Ribs, and other small
CROWFOOT
Chief of the Blackfoot Nation. Died 25th April, 1890, Aged 69 Years
"Crowfoot died beloved t,v his people, feiired h.v his foes, esteemed 1>> all." Indian Report I'd
THE INDIANS OF WESTERN CANADA 239
tribes of the Great Slave Lake and Mackenzie River
country also belong to the Athabascan family.
The main divisions of the Algonquins in Western
Canada are the Saulteaux or Chippewas, the Crees,
and the Blackfoot tribe, which latter originally included
the Bloods and the Peigans. The Assiniboines are the
Canadian branch of the Sioux. They separated from
the main group, and in time their interests became
so diverse that they came to be regarded as a separate
people, and in fact joined in alliance with the Saulteaux
against the Sioux nation. The Sioux proper in this
country are refugees from the United States, who escap-
ed into British territory after displaying some of the
worst features of Indian warfare in Minnesota in the
year 1862. They had no claim to lands in Canada,
but were allotted small reserves and given some
assistance in stock and implements to prevent them
from trespassing upon settlers' holdings. Most of these
Sioux have become industrious and self-supporting.
Apart from family and tribal distinctions the Indians
of Western Canada can be grouped into two classes —
those of the wooded country, and those of the open
prairie. The former made their livelihood mainly
by trapping and fishing, and moved as single families
or as small family groups. They did not develope any
well-defined tribal or band organization. As a conse-
quence there was less conflict among them, and the
country which they inhabited was free from tribal
wars. They developed, therefore, a more peaceable
disposition. Being trappers of fur-bearing animals,
they first came under the influence of fur traders.
The Indians of the prairies formed into bands under
the leadership of chiefs, and their principal means of
subsistence was the buffalo. The different tribes came
constantly into conflict.: the Crees of the plains and'
the Blackfeet were continually at war, the Assiniboines
usually siding with the Crees. Sometimes tribal jealousy
240 THE INDIANS OF
and often the mere desire for bloody war and barbaric
torture, led to the conflict; but the main cause of strife
among the Indians of the plains was the horse. The
Blackfeet possessed herds of horses which grew larger
from year to year as a result of raids upon Indians to
the south and beyond the mountains. And the Crees
kept themselves supplied amply with horses for the
buffalo hunt by raids on the Blackfeet. The last great
fight between the Crees and the Blackfeet ended in a
pact made upon the Peace Hills that rise beyond the
Battle River — the river taking its name from the fight,
and the hills their appellation from the treaty.
The traders made little impression for good upon the
Indians, and the mission field being vast and the laborers
therein few, it took a long time to bring the aborigines
to any extent under the influence of the Gospel, particu-
larly those of the prairie country, who were not readily
susceptible to its teaching. Writing as late as 1868,
Archbishop Tache described the Saulteaux as "gener-
ally fine men," with "a very great liking for intoxic-
ating drink." "War songs," he wrote, "still exist there
(the vicinity of Winnipeg), and often in the midst of
starvation and privation they undertake journeys of
several hundred miles on foot to surprise and scalp an
enemy who is generally defenceless, and return triumph-
antly to perform the war dance and to shout the hideous
scalping song."
After the Dominion of Canada, through the British
Government, obtained by purchase from the Hudson
Bay's Company the transfer in 1870 of all the territory
which now forms Western Canada, a comprehensive
policy was adopted in dealing with the Indians of
the said territory. In regard to all such portions of
the transferred country as were required for settlement,
or for mining, lumbering or railways, treaties were made
with the Indians of the districts successively needed for
WESTERN CANADA 241
such purposes. Though the sovereign right to the soil
was held by the Crown, yet it was recognized that there
was an Indian title that ought to be extinguished before
the land was granted by patent to settlers or corporations.
This title is simply an admission by the Government that
the Indians should not be deprived of their possessory
rights without their formal consent and compensation.
Besides the compensation, the Indians were conceded
reserves at places generally selected by themselves.
These reserves set aside for the occupation of the Indians
were in most cases so extensive as to allow one square
mile to every five persons, or at the rate of one hundred
and twenty-eight acres for every man, woman, and child.
Not only were the Indians thus dealt with, but the
Halfbreeds wherever the land they occupied was covered
by an Indian treaty, on account of their possessing Indian
blood, have been allowed lands or scrip to extinguish
the share of title which comes to them through that
blood .
The Indian treaties made under the Dominion Govern-
ment since 1870 are ten in number, though one of them,
Treaty nine, does not come under the scope of this paper,
as it was undertaken in co-operation with the Provincial
Government of Ontario. Treaties one and two, which
cover the Province of Manitoba, were negotiated in 1871,
and the others in different years since, the last being
in 1906. These treaties embrace all the territory in
Canada east of the Rocky Mountains and south of the
60th parallel of north latitude, except a tract south and
west of Hudson's Bay.
In general the compensation granted under the treaties
was a payment of twelve dollars for every man, woman,
and child on the chief's signing the instrument, and an
annuity forever of five dollars per head to the ordinary
members of the band, fifteen dollars to each of the head-
men, and twenty-five dollars to each of the chiefs. A
242 THE INDIANS OF
uniform suit of clothing befitting these two ranks is given
every three years. An annual allowance of ammunition
and twine is also granted to the hunting and fishing
Indians. And where farming and grazing operations
are practicable and engaged in, a supply of agrictiltural
implements, seed grain, cattle, and carpenter's tools are
provided. Schools are also established on the reserves
where a reasonable attendance can be secured.
It may be considered by some philanthropists that the
terms to the Indians were not generous. There was a
difficulty on this point. It is not desirable that large
numbers of able-bodied men, Indians or others , -should
be maintained in idleness. The promises in the treaties,
consequently, were made moderate. But it was foreseen
that, owing at that time to the rapid disappearance of
the buffalo, the only resource of the plains Indians, and
that with the advance of settlement other large game
would decrease in number, a heavy expenditure would
have to be incurred by the Dominion Government to
keep them from starvation. This anticipation was
unfortunately too soon realized. In the eighties the
expenditure of the Indian Department for destitute
Indians averaged over three hundred thousand dollars;
a year. Of late this expenditure has been gradually
decreasing, the report for 1907-1908 showing that the
cost of supplies for the destitute in that year amounted
to only $143,033. When the Indians become almost
wholly self-supporting, large annuities would be burden-
some to the country and demoralizing to them as wards
of the Government. The averaging up, therefore, of the
very large outlay that has been incurred in provisioning
and educating them durng their years of helplessness
and tutelage, with the promises made to them in the'
treaties, has made the allowances to them for the extin- !
guishment of their title fairly liberal.
A few figures will show that this contention is not'
WESTERN CANADA 243
over-stated. As the Indians of the plains were totally
ignorant of agriculture and the care of stock, farm
instructors had to be appointed for grain and vegetable
raising reserves, and cattlemen for the stock ranges, to
train them for their new duties. These, with agents for
reserves or groups of reserves, and inspectors to report
upon their work, make the administration of Indian
affairs somewhat expensive. Taking this outlay into
account, along with $271,365 for schools, for the supplies
already mentioned, and for the provisions under treaty,
the expenditure on Indians in Western Canada in 1907-
1908 was $792,979. This amount cannot well be de-
creased in the near future, because, though the plain
Indians are becoming self-supporting, the others who
live by the chase, owing to the increasing scarcity of fur-
bearing animals and large game, will require considerable
assistance from the Government. It may be set down,
therefore, as almost a certainty that the expenditure of
the Indian Department will not for many years be much
less than $800,000 per annum. This sum capitalized at
three and a half per cent, amounts to about $22,800,000 —
a fairly just sum to pay for the extinguishment of the
Indian title to the lands in the western provinces and
territories.
As has been already stated, when the buffalo disap-
peared, provision had to be made for feeding the Indians
of the plains who had depended upon the herds for food,
for clothing, and for lodges. Ration houses had to be
established. They met the urgent need, but incidentally
did not operate for good. Free food does not tend to the
uplifting of men, and when the system was once
inaugurated, it took long and careful work to bring about
its restriction.
In the Blood Agency five years ago 450,000 pounds of
beef were issued free to the Indians. During the last
fiscal year the issue was only 139,000 pounds. At this
244 THE INDIANS OF
rate it will be seen that the time is not distant when the
issue will be restricted to those who are unable, through
age or physical infirmity, to provide for themselves.
In 1902 the free issue of beef to the Peigan Indians
amounted to 216,416 pounds; in 1906 it was reduced to
64,564 pounds. Last year there was a further decrease
of 1,604 pounds. This band is now practically self-
supporting, only the aged and infirm being provided for.
On the Sarcee reserve the free rations continue to diminish
towards the vanishing point. In the Stony Agency,
where the Indians turn their beef into an abbatoir to be
held for their own use, there were 6,142 pounds at the
credit of the Indians, and to those who had exhausted their
supply there were loaned but not given gratis, some 1 ,000
pounds. On the Blackfoot reserve the earning power
of the Indians in the past two years is estimated to have
increased fifty per cent., and now, outside of those inca-
pacitated for labour, they are close to self-supporting.
It was thought that because he had formerly lived by
the buffalo, the Indian would take more kindly to cattle-
raising than to farming as a means of livelihood, but the
early efforts to make him a cattle-raiser were disappoint-
ing. The Indian rather thought that, like the buffalo,
the bovine should live without trouble on the part of
man, and that he should be shot irrespective of the time
or the season, whenever appetite suggested the desira-
bility of a meat supply. Constant effort is, however,
now being rewarded, and the Indian is coming to realize
that in cattle-raising, as in every other avocation, work
is essential to success. The live stock now held by the
Indians of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta are
valued at about $1,100,000.
It was difficult to induce the Indian to till the soil.
He would put his hand to the plough only to quickly
withdraw it. When game was plentiful, he would leave
the field for the hunt. The scarcity of game, the pangs
WESTERN CANADA 245
of hunger, the constant urging and teaching of the
officials of the Indian Department, and the example of
white farmers, whom the Indians saw grow rich through
agriculture, at length led them to gradually make some
use of the land set aside for them. At the beginning of
their farming ventures, occasional failures so discouraged
the Indians that it was difficult to induce many of them
to resume work, and others continued reluctantly the
tillage of the soil without the will which makes labour
pleasant and profitable. Now, however, a fair propor-
tion know the good results that the earth, notwith-
standing occasional drawbacks, will yield to cultivation,
and after failure they return to the tillage of the soil with
hopefulness and energy. There, of course, is still much
to be done before the Indians avail themselves to the
full of the splendid agricultural possibilities of most of
their reservations. But the present results are en-
couraging. According to the last returns, the Indians of
Manitoba have agricultural implements and vehicles to
the value of upwards of $71,500, the Indians of Saskat-
chewan to the value of about $165,500, and those of
Alberta to the value of some $141,300. In the same
year the Indians of Manitoba harvested some 83,000
bushels of grain, the Indians of Saskatchewan 132,000
bushels, and those of Alberta 42,448 bushels. They
raised 18,659, 18,649, and 12,353 bushels of potatoes and
other roots respectively.
The Blood Indians, one of the groups most averse to
agriculture, having a reserve in a portion of southern
Alberta, which long was regarded as unsuitable for
farming, have been moved by the success of their white
neighbors to assay the growing of fall wheat. Out of
their funds a complete steam plowing outfit has been
purchased, and fifteen Indians have broken 840 acres of
land, 600 of which is now under wheat, not in a com-
munity farm, but in individual holdings. They have
246 THE INDIANS OF
availed themselves of insurance against hail, and have
evinced an unlooked-for interest in their farming opera-
tions. Last fall these Indians shipped 20 car-loads of
wheat, for which they received $17,832. The yield per
acre went as. high as 45 bushels. Chief Running Ante-
lope, who a few years ago scorned the man who plowed
and sowed and looked to the harvest for return, had
from his grain-growing a cash balance of $1,309 after
every debt was paid. One Indian had a balance of
$1,203, and another of $1,200.
Fishing and hunting still form a considerable means
of support, but it grows smaller as settlement advances.
In 1907-1908 the estimated value of, the fishing and
trapping was in Manitoba $51,500 and $72,491; in Sas-
katchewan $27,751 and $80,107; in Alberta $5,690 and
$17,471.
With respect to the Indian population in the Pro-
vinces and Territories embraced within the scope of this
paper, various estimates have been formed. The first
official one, which was made in 1871, put the Indian
population at 20,998. In 1880 the population was
returned at 36,185, and in 1885 at 43,932, inclusive of
an estimated population of 11,978 in the territory in-
clusive of the Peace River basin and extending to the
Arctic, an estimate which has since been found to be
excessive. The last census was made in 1907, and with
some later returns gives the following results : —
Ontario, Treaty 3 2,927
Manitoba (including proposed extension) 11,300
Saskatchewan 8,043
Alberta 8,109
North- West Territories. . ... 7,247
37,626
Of this number about 28,732 are receiving annuities
WESTERX CANADA -247
under treaty. In regard to their tribal character, these
•Indians may be approximately classified as follows: —
Crees, 12,249; Saulteaux, 10,826 ; Blackfeet and their
kindred the Bloods and Peigans, 2,465; Stonies or
Assiniboines,924; Sarcees,203; Sioux, 1, 029 ; Chipewyans,
Beavers, Slaves, and other tribes of the Athabascan
nation, 7,430 ; Esquimaux, 2,500. It is practically
impossible with the figures available to form a correct
conclusion as to the ratio of increase or decrease in the
Indian population in the West. It can be safely
asserted however that, all things considered, the Indian
has not, as is often stated, rapidly disappeared since
coming under Government control.
Before the extension of Canada's Indian policy to the
territory acquired from the Hudson's Bay Company,
and its being policed by the splendid force of the Royal
North- West Mounted Police, the Indians were often re-
duced by famine and epidemics, with which they were
unable to cope; tribal feuds and fights continued;
immorality was rampant, and but little account was
taken of the female portion of the bands. However
much it is to be regretted that even a greater measure
of good has not been effected, credit must be given for
what has been achieved, and from what has been done
the Indian Department can with hopefulness look
forward to the results which a continuation of its policy
will produce. Inter-tribal feuds have ceased, polygamy
•has been practically eliminated, the position of women,
and particularly of female children has been improved,
and no agencies are so potential as the efforts of the
missionaries and the work of our Industrial and Board-
ing Schools.
It is true that the pushing of settlement up against
many reserves, which until the marked western develop-
•ment of recent years were practically isolated, has inten-
sified the strain which sudden contact with the settled
248 THE INDIANS OF
conditions of Canadian civilization put upon the Indian,
unprepared by his environment to readily make tise of
the advantages, while avoiding the evils of the new
order. The history of the progress of civilization shows
that it often creates difficulties for those whom it is des-
igned to benefit before removing the evils which it is
intended to cure. Where not long ago Indian settlements
could only be reached by devious trails or through the
bushlands, railways have entered, and in place of scatter-
ed Indian dwellings, towns have arisen. With the towns
has come the readier access to intoxicating liquor, so
tempting to the red man and so destructive to all hope
of his advancement. One of the greatest problems has
been to find means to adequately cope with drunken-
ness, which, despite all effort, increases its baneful in-
fluence among many of the bands. And with every
measure of increase in the liquor traffic goes a propor-
tionate measure of immorality. It is consoling, how-
ever, to note that among a goodly number of the tribes
the liquor traffic is gradually growing less, that groups
are now noted for temperance, and that a healthier
moral condition has taken permanent form. It is to
be remembered, in justice to the Indian, that cases of
dissoluteness generally obtrude themselves on the public
notice, while virtue quietly practiced passes unobserved.
Unfortunately tuberculosis, which is the scourge of
the white as well as of the red man, continues to claim
many victims among the aborigines. But the Indian
medical service, hampered though it has been, is produc-
ing beneficial results. There is a notion that the ravages
of tuberculosis are entirely a consequence of the change
from the former roving life of the Indians under tepees
to their now more sedentary conditions of existence and
to their life in unsanitary and ill-ventilated dwellings.
As a matter of fact, the Indian was previously a victim
of the dire disease. The Indians, who followed the
WESTERN CANADA 249
buffalo generally wintered in mud-plastered cabins with
flat thatched roofs, with scarcely ever more than one
door, and usually but one window. The only means of
ventilaton was the open fireplace made of mud, but
this passed away and stoves were introduced, which the
Indian, like the white man, preferred because of their
greater heating capacity. It is just such of those huts
as remain that continue to afford rich breeding grounds
for the germs of tuberculosis; and it cannot be too
strongly insisted upon that step by step with material
progress the Indians must be led to provide themselves
with better housing. The Indian himself is beginning
to realize this, and, despite the discouraging ravages
still wrought by the dread disease of tuberculosis, there
is reason to look forward to the day when the Indian will
be at least as free from this plague as his more favored
white brother. And the reports indicate that improve-
ment in health as a rule keeps pace with improvement
in conditions.
Reference has already been made to the large expendi-
ture which is being incurred for the education of the
Indians in Western Canada. In Manitoba there are two
industrial, nine boarding schools, and forty-five day
schools ; in Saskatchewan three industrial, thirteen
boarding, and nineteen day schools ; and in Alberta
two industrial, nineteen boarding, and nine day schools.
According to the last complete reports there were 10,308
pupils enrolled in the schools, and the average attend-
ance was 0,451. Schools are grouped into three classes:
day schools, boarding schools, and industrial schools. The
day schools are a distinct class. Between the boarding and
industrial schools it is not always easy to draw a clear
line of demarcation, for many of the larger and better
equipped boarding schools provide a measure of indus-
trial training for the pupils. Indeed, in every case it is
insisted upon that as far as possible some manual or
250 THE INDIANS OF
industrial training be given.1 And in the case of the
'boarding schools erected within the last few years at
Fort Alexander, Fort Frances, and Sandy Bay, it was
specially arranged that means should be provided for
giving the boys such training as would enable them to
take up the tillage of the soil after they had finished
their school course. Day schools have never been re-
garded as very effective agencies of Indian education,
and indeed with the small salaries paid it would scarcely
be reasonable to look for any large results. There are
points, however, at which day schools are capable of
. doing and do effect good.
The work of the class-room is not allowed to absorb
the whole time and attention of the Indian boys and girls.
It is sought to have the hand trained as well as the head.
The girls are taught household duties by taking part in
the regular domestic work of the schools; they learn to
cook meat and vegetables and to bake bread by seeing
such cooking done and by helping thereat. They are
taught to care for their clothes, and by example as well
as precept are taught the pleasures as well as the advan-
tages of cleanliness. The}' devote some time-each week
to sewing and mending, and their handiwork in this
direction has been praised by many competent judges.
Every industrial school takes measures to train the boys
in practical agriculture, and in some of the boarding
schools there are farming instructors who teach the
rudiments of farming. No attempt is made to teach
scientific farming, for the Indian has not reached a stage,
and must not be expected to for many years, where he
can grasp the significance of the chemistry of the soil.
Effort is being confined to measures designed to make
him familiar with the handling of the plough, and with
the sowing and reaping of the grain. Carpentry and
blacksmithing are also taught. It is riot, however,
aimed as a rule to give such technical training in these
WESTERN CANADA 25 1
branches as would turn out finished artisans, but rather
-to make the Indian boy when he leaves school competent
to do the carpentry work which a handy white farmer
does, and to be able to make the ordinary repairs to
implements, wagons, and harness. Indian boys have in
one respect an advantage over the ordinary boy. As has
been already stated, when the treaties were made, liberal
reserves were set aside for the Indians, and now every
'Indian boy, when he leaves school has awaiting him an
ample area of land, in most cases very good, and in all
cases cultivable, upon which he can at once settle and
make a home.
Each year seems to make the Indian more amenable
to the restrictions of school life, and more ready to
benefit by the advantages afforded. Indeed, the children
were not at any time most to blame, for, apart from
scattered individual cases, they seemed to appreciate
what was being done for them. Many of the parents,
however, suspicious of the new order and preferring to
have their children grow up like unto themselves, often
induced boys and girls, who had been placed in the
schools, to desert, or in their intercourse with them so
worked upon their minds as to make school life seem
irksome, and rendered the children restive of discipline.
It would be invidious to make comparison among the
several schools. The standing of each can be pretty
correctly gauged from the particular reports which are
published by the Department. An unbiased reading of
these reports leads to the conclusion that it would be
difficult to find more effective agencies for the uplifting
of the Indian and the placing of him eventually in the
position of a self-supporting citizen of the country.
It is only about one-third of a century since the prin-
cipal treaties were made with the Indians of the plains.
Though this term is a large proportion of man's allotted
span, yet it is but a short period in the evolution of a
252 THE INDIANS OF WESTERN CANADA
race. It is a question whether in the history of abori-
ginal tribes the world over, such progress towards civiliza-
tion can be shewn in the same space of time as is indicated
by the foregoing statistics. It has taken many centuries
to bring the barbarians of Europe up to their present
state of enlightenment; and though industrial and other
education, the bath-tub and the flesh brush cannot make
a red-man white, yet it has been amply proved that he
is capable in a very few centuries of becoming the equal
of his pale-faced brother.
THE GAME FIELDS OF THE WEST
By J. P. TURNER,
Secretary Manitoba Game Protection Association.
IN this age of huge enterprise and great achievement,
not many of those whose daily life draws them ever
deeper into the meshes of the complex net of modern
commercialism, ever pause in all seriousness to view
the outside world. An age of tireless ambition and
splendid attainment goes on apace ; but in the great
centres of population the tramp of feet and clatter of
wheels, the clang of warning bells, the heavy monotone
of ceaseless traffic, the smoke and dust and grime have
blotted out from the lives of many that supreme exhilar-
ation of soul and body, that sense of freedom and un-
restraint, to be found only in the breadth and sweep of
the great out-doors.
There are granted to us in this life many opportunities
for honest diversion and pursuit other than in the in-
cessant struggle for material gain and to draw the best
from the world in all that makes for moral and physical
uplift we must at times turn our steps far from the noisy
street. The lover of the country, the sportsman, the
naturalist, in fact all wholesome-minded citizens, ir-
respective of professional or commercial pursuit, know
the supreme content attainable from close mental and
bodily intimacy with the out-door world. Words fail
to plead the fascinations of the wilds. The charm and
beauty of the autumn season ; the grandeur and sense of
freedom; the clear blue skies; the winds playing and
whispering through the nodding flowers and grassy
billows; the shrieking winter storms; the glory of the
break of day as the shadows slink away and the sun
25-i THE GAME FIELDS
steals mysteriously across the open; the beauty of its
close as the shadows creep back, the day slips away and
the star-lit night comes on — in such elements do we find
that "something" which we call the Spirit of the Wes't.
In emerging from the obscurity of pioneer days, in
hewing from the primeval forests her first rude clear-
ings, in sowing the seeds of settlement across her wide
untimbered prairies, and in planting on river, lake and
plain the foundations for great cities, the Canadian
West has maintained in her making a wonderous wealth
of wilderness and rural beauty. The pen can here com-
mit to paper only fragmentary pictures of this Last
Great West— a land the very atmosphere of which must
be breathed to be rightly understood. And only in brief
form can we review amidst its natural environments,
that great game heritage so essentially a feature of the
Western wilds.
When the rugged shore lines of primitive America
first loomed before the roving adventurers of the Old
World, and the eager crews scrambled up the lonely
cliffs where wilderness and ocean met, the country fairly
teemed with wild life. Innumerable $ deer roamed
through the forests where now the great business centres
of modern America palpitate with the thousands of this
heterogeneous race; on the open plateaus stretching
inland from the Alleghany Mountains, where wealthy
country mansions now nestle amidst the conventional
luxuries of their well-kept estates, the mighty bison
raised his shaggy head to stare and wonder at these
strange intruders. When the gallant explorers of New
France first ascended the St. Lawrence River, now the
main artery of the Dominion's commerce, they found
the wapiti living where to-day the very mention of its
name arouses only a blank stare among the traditional
country folk. The Puritan of later date, if hungry,
shouldered his gun and disappeared beyond the clear-
OF THE WEST . '' 255;
ing to return shortly with a fat turkey. Along the
country of the present eastern States, the heath-hen, •.
prototype of the western "chicken," rose in coveys
before the traveller's approach; and twice a year from
north to south and east to west, the sky was darkened with
myriad hosts of pigeons bound to and from their northern
breeding grounds. The bison soon turned his bowed
head westward, never to return, and massing in his
fabled herds beyond the Mississippi, began his brief
struggle for existence against the advancing hordes of.
Europe. The wapiti or elk was assailed on all sides and
driven to the wildest corners of the West. The turkey
now lingers apprehensively in the scattered brush-lands
of his last retreats; the heath-hen has long since ceased
to sound her booming call across the uplands ; and the
pigeon has become a mere memory of the past.
Moving rapidly from east to west this stupendous
elimination of wild life in America has been both melan-
choly and relentless, yet with few exceptions the finest
game animals and birds of the northern continent still
find room and tolerable protection in the Great North-
West. The bison will never again roam at" large over
the huge prairie ocean as in bygone days. Empire-
building has been of far greater importance than the
preservation of a million or so of wild cattle; but for
long years to come the moose and wapiti, caribou, prong-
buck, deer, mountain sheep and goat, and all the long
list of feathered game will here survive civilization's
encroachment if but reasonably protected.
Over the north-esatern half of Manitoba and out
beyond the Saskatchewan country there lies in marked
contrast to the Great Prairie of the Canadian West,
which sweeps from the Red River to the foothills of the
Rockies, a vast, thinly-settled forest. Here, far from
the steel-shod roads of commerce and the little frontier-
towns, lies the wilderness; and though showing the
256 THE GAME FIELDS
ravages of forest fires and the bite of the woodman's
axe, it still defies the destroyer's hand and holds aloof
the persistent tread of settlement. Here 'in one of the
finest game-lands of modern time the mighty moose and
lordly wapiti still live and thrive. Across the huge
prairie ocean of the West so recently the pasture land
of countless herds of buffalo, where innumerable towns
have risen as tho' by magic above the ruin of trading
post and Indian camp, and where thousands of home-
seekers have flocked in the feverish race-movement from
the East, leagues upon leagues of rolling prairie as vir-
ginal and wild as ever filled the human vision yet re-
main, where the fleet-footed prong-buck or antelope
lives as in the frontier days. Far away in the heart
of the Rocky Mountains, where the sun-kissed fields
of perpetual snow lie above the timber belts on the
shoulders of the continent, and where the mountain
streams trickle down the long defiles to surge eastward
in majestic rivers to the plains, midst wild sanctuaries
of crag and ledge, dwell flocks of mountain sheep and
goats. Westward from the Great Lakes and northward
across Keewatin and Mackenzie to the barren Lands,
lies the home of the caribou, and everywhere throughout
the length and breadth of the West are scattered tracts
of forest, marshland and prairie, so prolific of wild life
as to baffle description.
The vast, natural range of the moose occupies the
forest regions of the northerly half of North-America
from coast to coast, with the chief exceptions of por-
tions of British Columbia and most of the country con-
tiguous to Hudson Bay. Assisted, not only by its
superior cunning and capabilities of self -protection, but
by the impenetrable nature of its forest home this giant
deer can be said to have held its own against the white
man 's lust for killing. But next to the bison, the wapiti
has suffered more than any American big game, and
OF THE WEST' 257
though it once roamed from the Atlantic to the Pacific
and from New Mexico to the valley of the Saskatchewan,
the most easterly portion of its range now lies in Mani-
toba, where with the exception of north-western Wyom-
ing it is probably more plentiful than in any other part
of the continent.
In the Avoods of Maine and New Brunswick, the moose
is hunted in a manner planned to ensure the taking of
either trophies or vension with the least possible ex-
ertion upon the hunter's part; and to be successful
the .hunter requires no knowledge of the animal nor
need he move himself to unusual exertion, other than
to shoot at the right spot when the guide has ' ' called ' '
the quarry within easy range. But in penetrating the
forests of the North- West, the hunter meets with the
grandest and wildest conditions of the hunt and must
depend for success almost entirely upon his own skill
and endurance. Here in the sublimity of the winter
forest the chase narrows down to tracking or stalking
and even though no more than a fleeting glance of moose
be seen in a day's tramp, Nature will simply reward
him who loves her for her own sake rather than for a
set of antlers on the wall. Penetrate the timbered
country almost where you will and you will find moose
tracks leading seductively away into the forest aisles.
Here you will find nature running riot in a bewildering
chaos of muskeg and ridge, rock and swamp— in summer
an endless sea of green, palpitating with wild life; in
winter a huge, frozen solitude. Tangles of forest growth
hedge you in on all sides. Deep-furrowed heaps of
storm-tossed trunks lie piled in countless confusions of
decay, while from the tangled roots and wreckage under-
neath the young straight-stemmed forest of second
growth springs up. Or where the forest fire has swept
along bare, sullen wastes of blackened tamaracs rear
their branchless tops above the swamps. Here and
258 THE GAME FIELDS
there between the dense belts of forest lie broad, park-
like ridges, over which the jack-pines grow planted and
spaced off by Nature's hand with wonderful exactness.
Groves of poplar and birch, hazel and willow thickets,
tamarac and cedar swamps spread away in endless
succession towards the barren tundras of the North. Such
is a rough description of the moose country of the West.
When winter has tightened the forest land beneath a rigid
grip of snow and ice, the camp is made. Robbed of
the charm of other seasons the frozen wilds yet have a
beauty of their own and the very spirit of the West
instils the hunt. The impulse to move on and into the
heart of the whitened world stirs stout hearts and limbs
to tireless action. The strange traceries of the wood's
creatures in the snow; the frost-tanged air; the long
and patient stalk ; the exultant kill and at last the ruddy
glow and comfort of the little camp — from such features
of the hunt do we reap for future years a harvest of
pleasant memories from the past.
Though found in Manitoba and less frequently across
the northern portions of Saskatchewan and Alberta,
the wapiti is of necessity more fastidious in its choice
of surroundings and more local in its distribution than
the moose. Though most of the herds now existing
are found in mountains or hill-country, it roamed freely
over the Western plains ere it was forced to seek refuge in
the wildest and most inaccessible retreats. Owing to
its gregarious habits and the comparatively open char-
acter of much of its Western range, it had little to protect
it against the ruthless warfare waged upon it in the
winning of the West ; and to the fact that it will adapt
itself and thrive under widely different conditions, can
thanks alone be given that it has not followed in the
bison's wake. It is the most imposing, the stateliest, and
the grandest type of all the antlered tribes on the earth
and like a defeated remnant of a once powerful clan, it
259
has chosen from its former range of half a continent the
wildest, pine-clad mountains and lofty uplands in which
to face the final tragedy which would forever seal its
•doom. The moose loves the lower levels of the dank,
marsh-strewn forest wherein to glean his fare of willow
browse and water-growths, but the royal wapiti seems
to revel in the grandest scenery Nature has to offer.
Where the giant Redwood and Douglas firs deluge the
rolling bases of the Rockies in perpetual gloom, or where
the rugged, brush-clad hills of Manitoba rise in majestic
skylines from the plains, the wapiti has found the last
wild strong-holds of his race.
Not so long ago but that many can recall the time, the
wapiti was to be met with almost anywhere in the wooded
tracts of the Canadian West. In the Turtle Mountains
and the Cypress Hills along the American boundary,
in the foothills of Alberta, and through the cotton-wood
belts of the western river-bottoms it was plentiful up
to the late '70's. But it is now only to be found in
several localities along the northern outskirts of its
former range. In the wild area between Lakes Winnipeg
and Manitoba it is plentiful ; over the hills of the Riding
and Duck Mountains in north-western Manitoba large
scattered herds still roam; and across northern Sas-
katchewan and Alberta and into the valleys of the
Rockies small numbers wander restlessly back and forth.
All that has been written and told of the far-famed
stag-hunting of the Scottish Highlands or of the wild
adventure of moose-hunting in the American forest,
can not excel in point of interest or adventure the ele-
ments which surround the hunting of this noble deer.
True, one may stumble upon it at times under circum-
stances sweet to the meat-hunter's heart; but under
normal conditions no game the world over is more
worthy of the practiced skill of the clean-minded sports-
man. Now a frequenter of uplands and timbered ridges
260 THE GAME FIELDS
it leads the hunter into the midst of the wildest corners
of the West and extols a tribute of unfaltering persever-
ance and Avood-craft from him who would follow it
unaided into its wild retreats.
In the wooded regions of the North- West frequented
by sportsmen probably more uncertainty attaches to
the hunting of the caribou than to that of any other deer.
In the fur country of the far North the barren ground
caribou presents an almost ridiculously easy object of
pursuit during its bi-annual migrations to and from the
bare coast-lines of its Arctic home ; but the larger wood-
land caribou of lower latitudes is an almost constant
sojourner of the great moss-grown muskegs and is more
difficult of pursuit and approach. From Newfoundland
to Alaska the caribou, or American reindeer, is found
in an almost hopeless diversity of species; but much
as the individuals from one locality may differ in weight,
color and character of antlers, from those of another,
there seems little necessity to sub-divide them beyond
the two general types. In Western Canada the wood-
land caribou is found in the low, coniferous regions of
the Lake of the Woods, thence northward beyond Lake
Winnipeg, where its range gradually overlaps that of
the barren ground species, and westward into British
Columbia. In comparison to other deer it possesses a
strange perversity of character and habits. Its favorite
food consists of the dry, astringent mosses that clothe
the muskegs and festoon the trees; with its razor-edged
hoofs and slithering gait it is at ease upon the barest
ice; hair covers its broad, bovine muzzle; and the female
annually grows a set of antlers. Ever restless and on
the alert the caribou of Manitoba and New Ontario is.
no easy prey for the most seasoned hunter; and as it
rarely stays long in one locality but continually moves
in small travelling herds from one treeless savanna to
another, it is exceedingly difficult to overtake. On
OF THE WEST 261
the mountain sides it is more easily approached by stalk-
ing, and as the traveller proceeds northward he will
find it correspondingly easier to bring to his rifle.
Across the plains from Montana to the valley of the
Battle River and from the Elbow of the Saskatchewan
to the foothills of the mountains the antelope or American
prong-buck, is still tolerably plentiful. Barring the
buffalo, no animal claimed more attention from those
whose fortunes led them hither in the frontier days;
and upon this fleet-footed dweller of the open wastes
the traveller of the early West relied much for his daily
fare. It has long since ceased to provide a staple neces-
sity, but it still clings tenaciously to the treeless slopes
of the open country and with surprising resourceful-
ness continues to elude civilization's intrusion. Though
it has learned many of the white hunter's ways and the
possibilities of the modern rifle, the mode of hunting
it has changed little with the lapse of time. Riding
away from the last vestige of settlement the hunter
scans the sky-lines and valleys before him till a band
of antelope appear in the far distance. Then begins
a long and not always successful stalk under the cover
of surrounding crests and coulees and as the location
of the animals is approached the hunter dismounts and
stealing cautiously to the top of a commanding rise
prepares to open fire on the unsuspecting herd just
beyond. But to his dismay he will more often reach
his point of vantage only to catch a fading vision of
his intended quarry as the herd goes sailing away be-
yond the succeeding hill tops. Returning to his pony
he resumes the hunt, working over the long rises and
depressions of undulating pasture, often following the
old, deep-cut buffalo trails which wind away towards
the distant lakes and watered hollows in the plains
Perhaps he amy come unexpectedly over the brow of
a hill and get an unlooked-for shot at the fleeing form
262 THE GAME FIELDS
of some old buck, who, wandering off alone, has loitered
here to enjoy a quiet siesta on a sunny slope; or again
sighting a distant band he may repeat the long, cir-
cuitous stalk with happier results. Such hunting car-
ries the rider into the very heart of the Western plains.
Some would say that imagination could not picture a
more dreary aspect of land and sky ; but others recognize
a peculiar attraction and charm in this naked space
and immensity which rolls away into the blue distances
like the halted upheaval of an ocean.
Of all American deer the white-tail is the least effected
by settlement and the most general in its distribution.
It is by nature a frequenter of tangled brush lands and
wooded valleys and strange to say, it is more often met
with in the belts of wild, scrub-country bordering on
the settlements than in the deep forests frequented by
the caribou or moose. It responds readily to protective
mesaures, adapting its ways, like the stag of England
and Scotland to semi-domestication if necessary, and
thus it is to-day the typical big game of Eastern Canada
and the southern and eastern States. It flourishes
under a host of different names from Mexico to Manitoba
and from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains. It is
the ' ' red deer ' ' of the lower Canadian and Ontario
woods, the "Virginia deer" of the eastern South, the
"jumping deer" of Manitoba and the Canadian West,
and elsewhere the bearer of almost endless misnomers
fashioned from the whims and fancies of its pursuers.
Thousands upon thousands of white-tails annually fall
to the rifle in the older hunting grounds of Canada and
the States, but in the North- West where larger or more
valued game demands the hunter's attention it is little
sought for, and in Manitoba at least is rapidly increasing
The favorite mode of hunting it in Eastern Canada and
the States is by hounding, the dogs doing the actual
hunting while the shooter takes his stand on some likely
OF THE WEST 263
run-way and by dint of patience and indifferent sports-
manship awaits results. In the West hounds are rarely
if ever employed, and never legally, and much the same
rules must be followed in pursuing it as in moose or
elk-hunting. No deer is more secretive and graceful
in its movements than the little whitetail, no game knows
better how to tangle and elude the hunter, and by
doubling and circling back and forth in a small area of
brushland, no animal will leave a trail so intricate and
confusing by which to baffle its pursuers.
The mule-deer or black-tail is typically a deer of the
West and like the wapiti has rapidly disappeared from
many localities, owing to the open character of its haunts.
It shuns the low-lying valleys and thickets in preference
for broken and exposed hill country or mountain sides,
and being sometimes curious to a fault upon the ap-
proach of danger, and unable to employ the scanty
growths of its favorite uplands in eluding detection,
it often presents a comparatively easy mark to the
practiced rifle-shot. Through the Canadian West the
name "jumping deer" is commonly applied to it also,
and with more reason as its stiff-legged and almost
awkward motions when running bear rude contrast to
the white-tail's symmetrical leaps and bounds. It is
widely distributed over various portions of the West
and across the mountains to the Pacific Coast. The
hunter who picks up the black-tail's track on a clear
morning in early winter and hopes ere night-fall to bring
it to bay must be keenly alert and ready to act quickly
in spite of the animal's shortcomings in habits and sur-
roundings. In most cases he will be led away over
bare hill-tops, through gullies and broken- ground, out
across park-like expanses and occasionally into brush-
checked creek-bottoms; and when least expected the
erect ears and antlers will suddenly appear before him
either outlined in bold relief upon some rising knoll or
204 THE GAME FIELDS
blended in a patch of grey and brown amidst the tangled
woods. Then must the eye and finger act together in
ready aim, for with the first mis-directed shot the deer
has vanished and the disappointed hunter relinquishes
the chase, ravenously hungry and exhilerated from the
hunt, but minus other reward for his long and tedious
tramp.
To seek the wild creatures of the mountain tops the
hunter leaves the great alluvial plains, passes the in-
tervening foothills, plunges into the depths of canyons
and timbered valleys, and after days of toil toward the
pinnacles of the continent, assails a land of sky and
glacier far above the world. Here from the wing-point
of the eagle the eye falls upon a thousand varied scenes
staged in terrible immensity and chaotic grandeur; and
here on the rugged back-bone of the West where the
foot of man but seldom treads, are found the dizzy pas-
tures of the mountain sheep and goat.
As compared with trie Rocky Mountain big-horn, the
mountain goat is a dweller in the most exposed and un-
protected elevations. In places where no other creature
may follow and at which man might well shudder in the
bare thought of reaching, the white goat of the Rockies
is as much at ease as the seafowl on her wind-swept
crags. Along the narrowest of overhanging ledges
where the smallest crevices or irregularities in the moun-
tain sides often afford the only footholds, it will pass with
sure-footed precision, cropping the protruding tufts
of vegetation as it goes. Rarely does this uncouth
denizen of the mountain tops descend to the timber
belts or valleys, but contented and at home it dwells
amidst the wide snow-capped slopes and frowning cliffs,
serenely oblivious of the world beneath.
The big-horn roams the upper levels where the great
slides and glacier beds have seared the mountains and
left their time-worn pathways down the rocky wastes,
OF THE WEST
or wandering to the fringes of the stunted forest that
struggles upward from the valleys, it seeks protection
from the bleak seasons on the heights above. Stout-
hearted and rugged must be the man who would hunt
the big-horn or mountain goat ; and the supreme test
of human perseverance will be wrung from him who
has set his face to follow amidst the stupendous
masses of the Rockies, this most exacting and difficult
of big-game hunting in the West.
Far away in the semi-tropical bayous and lagoons
bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, where the sun pours
out his latent heat amidst the winter clouds, where the
dull rumble of the surf along the sand-ribbed beaches
lulls to sleep the drowsy world of marsh-strewn waters,
there rests in quiet content a vast host of feathered
life. One lazy day succeeds another, the sun mounts
higher in the heavens, a strange restlessness moves
across the waters and lifting with the south winds from
the Gulf long streams of noisy wildfowl move across
the sky. The winter wanes upon the prairies of the
West; with crush and turmoil the rivers break their
icy bonds; beneath the crooning winds the tumbled
drifts of snow shrink and sink away ; little lakes awaken
'midst a thousand widening pools; frogs chant their
endless chorus from the sodden fields; and in the silent
watches of the night the sound of hurrying wildfowl
bound to their northern haunts heralds the coming
spring. Day after day and through the frosted nights
the winnowing of beating wings goes by, and every lake
and lowland marsh and slough stirs from its winter
sleep.
To the lover of the wilds the brief buoyancy of spring
is only rivalled by the painted witchery of the autumn
months. No other time of the year on the Western
prairies, is so alluring or so full of nature's sorceries
and attractions as that which follows the fading summer.
266 THE GAME FIELDS
It is the season of ripened maturity and when the wild
fowl rise from their vast nursery of the north to return
to the bays and marshlands of their southern home,
the sportsman turns afield with dog and gun. As the
Indian summer draws her hectic glow across the dying
year and the night-frosts deck the lowlands in their
robes of brown, the muffled echoes of the hunt sound
far and wide across the prairies. Peculiarly attractive
is a morning on the great duck marshes. The first
pink flush of dawn creeps up the eastern sky, transform-
ing the cold, limpid waterways to sinuous-colored reaches
that interlace in all directions the endless growths of
reeds and sedge. To westward the vast levels of marsh
lie dark and sullen beneath the lingering coverlet of
night; and the morning star low-hung upon the sky,
grows pale before approaching day. Preceding the first
faint signs of dawn, no sounds seem to mar the expectant
silence of the lonely waters; and over the lowlands and
marshes there floats a penetrating chill. As the sun-
rise steals out across the sleeping world of swamp, the
sounds of restless wildfowl spread in all directions, and
the clammy night-mists lift and vanish from the marshes.
A cold breeze springs up, rustling through the withered
marsh-growths; ruffling the dormant waters into little
waves that lap among the reeds. As the light increases
little flocks of ducks speed across the eastern sky, then
more flocks, big and small, in lines and clusters, then it
seems as if a continuous army of wildfowl streams far
and near, and in the thin cold air the booming of the
guns rolls back and forth across the marshes.
When the harvest clothes the land in realms of gold,
the prairie chicken flocks to the stubbles of the West.
This is the typical game bird of the open country and
is as characteristic of the prairies as the bison formerly
was among the animals. It is doubtful if man's fancy
could conceive any grander game birds, or game that
OF THE WEST 267
could give more profound satisfaction in everyway to
the lover of dog and gun than the two varieties of grouse
commonly called "chicken". Few game birds the
world over can boast of superior beauty. Vigorous
and rugged they are fitted to withstand the severest
tests of winter, and as they rise in covies from their
scanty shelter they offer easy wing shots to any who
would seek change and recreation in the wide freedom
of the prairies.
Almost endless seem the haunts of small game. We
might go on and wander into the brushy uplands of
the ruffed grouse, across the soggy snipe marshes, over
the low-lying beaches where the shore-birds gather, and
into a thousand wild corners, replete with life. Such
is the outside world, the nation's playground. By upland
arid meadow, through sedge-grown marshes, and into
the forest depths the sportsman turns his steps. Here
no cares nor worries born of the inner world of toil
and strife find place ; but round the camp fire and in the
hunting lodge are found the truest friends, the most last-
ing friendships, and above all that splendid freedom and
health of outdoor life so essential in the making of
the West.
TRANSPORTATION IN CANADA
By GEO. H. HAM. Esq., '
Canadian Pacific Railway Company.
TRANSPORTATION has been a serious problem
in Canada from the beginning, as was ne-
cessarily the case in a country of such enor-
mous area. In early times, when France was in
possession, the immigrant followed the rivers.
First of all, however, he crossed the Atlantic in vessels
of 200 to 400 tons, the voyage lasting two or three
months, with scurvy or typhus usually raging on board.
On entering the St. Lawrence the ships anchored at night-
fall; the charts of the river were imperfect, and there
were no lights, except here and there a kettle of blazing
pine-knots hung on a tree outside a King's post. If
he did not join the fur-traders, the new settler began
clearing the forest in some seigniory, for a feudal land
tenure, based on the Custom of Paris, existed down to
1854. As may be seen to this day, the French Canadian
farms were very narrow and very long, this mode of sub-
division giving every holder a frontage on the river,
bringing the people closer together, brightening their social
life and affording them better protection against the Iro-
quois. The St. Lawrence and its affluents were the
channels of such primitive trade as was carried on in the
interior. Commercial intercourse with the British and
Dutch Colonies to the south was prohibited, although
many a package of beaver was conveyed down Lake
Champlain or the Kennebec and bartered for English
goods. Vessels built at Quebec with the aid of bounties,
carried lumber and flour to the French West Indies and
Acadia, but the chief export trade, that in peltries, was
done with France.
s
•< (D
fl) T!
10 0
0 1
TRANSPORTATION IN CANADA. 269
In those times the maritime nations of Europe were
seeking a short route to Asia. Jacques Cartier, Champ-
lain, and many others supposed from what the Indians
told them that, if they sailed up the St. Lawrence to the
middle of the Continent, they would meet waters flowing
the other way, down which they could sail into the
Oriental seas. So sure were they that this would turn
out to be the true North-West passage, that when some
of them got to Lachine, a few miles west of Montreal,
they fancied they were on the high road to China and
accordingly gave it that name. Two centuries later it
has become possible to reach China via Canada, not,
however, by the St. Lawrence, but by rail as far as
Vancouver. Although France has lost her North Ameri-
can Empire, the names of her missionaries and explorers
will live forever in the history of the Continent. They
discovered the Mississippi, Lake Superior and the Red
River of the North; established posts where Chicago,
Detroit and other Western American cities now stand,
for, as one of them said, they had a remarkable instinct
for good situations, and did much then, and later, for
the Canadian North- West. We owe not a little to those
intrepid men, who sallied forth into the wilderness with
no selfish motives, but with the object of extending the
King's dominions and promoting the glory of God.
When the colonisation of Upper Canada commenced
under British rule, the immigrant in his Western journey
still followed the water routes, for there were as yet no
roads. The canoe or Durham boat containing his worldly
effects had to be dragged by oxen through forty miles of
rapids between Montreal and Kingston, or, where that
was impossible, portages had to be made through the
forest. The cost of procuring fresh supplies and of ship-
ping produce to market was enormously enhanced by
the difficulties of moving them up and down rivers in
their natural condition. It soon became apparent that,
270 TRANSPORTATION
if the country was to make any substantial progress, it
would be necessary to build canals at various points on
the St. Lawrence and its principal tributaries. The local
advisers of the Imperial Government favoured the pro-
ject, and, though they may have attached more im-
portance to its military than to its commercial aspect,
Canadians are greatly indebted to them for the impulse
they gave and the substantial aid they furnished to the
movement. Between 1820 and 1850 the main rivers
were tolerably well equipped with canals, locks and
dams, most of which have since been enlarged, to meet
the growth of traffic. The Lachine Canal 'was the first
to be built, but the most important was the Welland.
Many of the United Empire Loyalists who came to
Canada at the close of the American Revolution, entered
by way of Niagara, and gradually pushed their settle-
ments into the Western Peninsula of the Province. Their
surplus supplies could not be conveyed to Montreal
within a shorter period than six weeks to two months.
(It may be interesting to recall that the ocean rate on
general merchandise from Liverpool to Montreal was
£1. 2. 6 per ton. while for the next 400 miles westward,
by the St. Lawrence, it was £6. 12. 9.) The Peninsula
was extremely fertile, and whole colonies of settlers
were flocking in from the United Kingdom. But unless
a canal were cut through Canadian soil from Lake Erie
to Lake Ontario, a distance of 27 miles, to overcome the
obstacle to navigation presented by the Falls of Niagara,
it was clear that its trade with England would be diverted
from the St. Lawrence route to the Erie Canal and the
Port of New York, a state of affars which might entail
serious political consequences. The construction of the
Welland canal saved the situation, and it soon became
a formidable competitor to the Erie canal for the traffic
of the Western States.
Such; in a few words, was the origin of the Canadian
IN CANADA 271
canal system. The canals on the St. Lawrence from
Montreal to Lake Erie are, all told, 70 miles in length.
Those on the Ottawa, Rideau and Richelieu rivers and
Lake Champlain are not so long. It is not easy to ascer-
tain the first cost of these canals, but the total expend-
iture on their construction, reconstruction and upkeep,
together with that on inland harbours, has exceeded
$100,000,000. Tolls were abolished some years ago.
In the United Kingdom the canals were built by private
capital, and some have passed under the control of the
railways. The construction of the Welland canal was un-
dertaken by private capital, but, fortunately for us and
fortunately too for the shareholders, the company had
to abandon the project. All our canals without exception
are now owned and operated by the Dominion Govern-
ment. For seven months of the year they render good
service in keeping down rail rates, besides transporting a
considerable tonnage of the bulkier kinds of freight. The
"all -water route" from the head of Lake Superior by
the Welland canal to Montreal usually determines the
rate on wheat from the Canadian West to the seaboard,
just as the Erie canal does for grain from Buffalo to
New York.
The "all-water route" via the St. Lawrence has not,
however, altogether fulfilled its earlier expectations. It
obtained a large share of the traffic of the Western States
thirty or forty years ago when the wheat-belt of the
continent lay round Lake Erie and Lake Michigan, and
the grain was carried East by small sailing vessels, which
traversed the Welland and lower canals at their leisure
and had nothing to fear from the railways of the day.
Such conditions no longer prevail. The wheat-belt has
extended to the Canadian North- West, Minnesota and
the Dakotas. and the present output there and elsewhere
in the West is far in excess of the output of former
times. There are now 40,000,000 people in the States
272 TRANSPORTATION
bordering on or served by the Great Lakes. An im-
mense traffic has arisen between Lake Superior and Lake
Erie, the former sending down wheat, iron ore, lumber,
and other commodities, and taking back coal and gen-
eral merchandise. Before the recent depression, over
50,000,000 tons of freight, valued at $550,000,000, passed
through the locks at the Soo in a single season, that of
1906. The Welland and St. Lawrence canals have a
depth of 14 feet, whereas between Lake Erie and Lake
Superior there is a 20 or 21-foot channel, which has en-
abled the United States companies to create a vast fleet
of steam vessels, most of which are beyond the capacity
of the Welland. Although Canadian vessels are excluded
from the inland or coasting trade of the United States,
our own fleet on the Upper Lakes is growing rapidly;
but many of our vessels are also too large for this canal.
Some carry wheat to the Lake Erie end of it and
" lighter, "since boats carrying more than 75,000 bushels
cannot get through without " lightering," whilst the
larger vessels sail to Georgian Bay ports, transfer their
cargo to the elevators, and steam back to Fort William
or Port Arthur. The grain is transported from the
elevators by Canadian railways to the ocean steamers
at Montreal. In like manner, United States steam
vessels, of which many are of the tonnage of a modern
ocean steamer, run from Duluth and Chicago to Buffalo,
and turn over their grain, not to the Erie canal any
longer, but to the railways, which haul it to New York,
Boston, or Baltimore. Finally, a great deal of grain,
from Canada and the United States, is now carried to
the seaboard from the place of production in the West
by " all-rail." This has been rendered possible by the
improvement of road-beds and the employment of more
powerful locomotives and more capacious cars. When
business on the Upper Lakes is slack, as was the case
recently, Canadian vessel owners on our " all - water
IN CANADA 273
route," reduce the rates to Montreal to so low a figure
that a deluge of United States export grain goes to that
port, with the result that protests are heard from New
York. A natural water-way such as that of the St.
Lawrence can never become a negligible factor in trans-
portation. It is worth noting, also, that the Canadian
" water-and-rail " routes to Montreal are, or can be made,
considerably shorter than the United States " water-
and-rail " route to New 'York. Our Georgian Bay ports
are much nearer Duluth and Chicago than Buffalo is,
while the rail journey from them to Montreal by a new
branch of the Canadian Pacific Railway will be 80 miles
less than that from Buffalo to New York.
The State of New York is enlarging the Erie canal to
allow of its admitting 1,000-tori barges, and various
canal schemes of a more ambitious character are talked
of in the United States. The Canadian Government
contemplates deepening the Welland canal. This, how-
ever, would not be of much avail unless the canals be-
low Prescott were also deepened. Meanwhile the
Georgian Bay Canal project, estimated to cost $100,
000,000, is receiving support in various quarters, not-
ably from the districts where the money would be spent.
Whatever the next few years may bring forth, the Cana;
dian people will make any reasonable sacrifice to ensure
the transport of Canadian traffic by Canadian routes.
Manifestly it is their interest to do so. The old Roman
said that no estimate could be formed of the future
wealth of a district that possessed fifteen miles' of olives
and vines. But what shall be said of the future of a
region like the Canadian West, which, with a present
population of a million, has still 250,000,000 acres of
black loam uncultivated ? In another generation it will
contain more people than all the rest of Canada, and
in time to come, probably more than there are to-day
in the Three Kingdoms. The possibilities of the West
274 TRANSPORTATION
are so great that one can hardly exaggerate the import-
ance of adopting a liberal policy, which shall retain the
traffic all the way from the wheat-field to Europe in
Canadian and British channels.
No sooner had the early canals been completed than it
became necessary to undertake the construction of rail-
ways in Upper and Lower Canada. The canals had
developed in some degree the basins of the rivers and
lakes. The introduction of the locomotive enabled
settlers not only to enter Upper and Lower Canada, but
to pass into the vaster regions beyond. Our neighbours
in the United States began to build railways in 1830,
and, private capital being scarce, the Federal, State and
Municipal Governments, during the next forty years,
voted liberal aid in money, land and guarantees. Canada
followed their example, and, in proportion to population
and resources, carried that form of paternalism to a
greater length. The Imperial Government gave initial
assistance by guaranteeing a loan of $7,500,000. Can-
ada's credit in England was not good, for, after one or two
local railways had been built, a rebellion broke out over
the question of Responsible Government. Moreover
the abandonment by England of the policy of Protection,
which included the preferential treatment of Colonial
exports, dislocated our trade for a time. One of the first
railway surveys was that carried out by Captain Yule
of the Royal Engineers, who laid down a line between
Quebec and St. Andrew's, in New Brunswick, through
territory belonging at that time to the British Crown.
Unhappily, in 1842, the Ashburton Treaty — Lord
Palmerston styled it the Ashburton Capitulation — dep-
rived Canada of the Aroostook District, brought the
northern boundaryof the State of Maine to within a few
miles of the St. Lawrence, and, when the time came for
building the Intercolonial Railway, necessitated a cir-
cuitous route to Halifax and St. John. At first the
IN CANADA 275
Canadian Parliament was disposed to establish Govern-
ment ownership of railways, owing to the difficulty of
enlisting private capital; but British money was found
for the construction of the Grand Trunk, and Govern-
ment ownership remained in abeyance for a time.
The history of the Grand Trunk Railway is well known
in England and Canada. The original prospectus, issued
in 1853, promised a return of 11//2 per cent, per annum on
the share capital, besides the stated interest on the bonds.
Canada and Canadians were blamed for the misfortunes
of the road, but soms of these were unavoidable. There
was a board in England and another in Canada, but as
the actual control was exercised from London, 3,000
miles away, it is not surprising that there was a good
deal of waste in construction. The cost of bringing
in materials for a pioneer road was excessive in those
days, and the Canadian Government did not grant as
much financial assistance to the enterprise as had been
expected. Before the line was completed the panic of
1857 occurred. Wheat, which during the Crimean War
of 1854-56 had realised $2.50 per bushel at Toronto,
dropped to half that figure, and there was a tremendous
collapse in land values. Immigration fell off and re-
mained at a low ebb for a long time, the Western and
North-Western States, with their free prairie homesteads,
being more attractive, even to the native Canadian,
than the bush lands of Canada. The original line of
the Grand Trunk was fairly well constructed, but the
small, wood-burning locomotives and light iron rails were
badly fitted for theCanadian winter. Subsequently the
Canadian Board became involved in politics. In 1862 the
General Manager stated in a letter to the Government
that the cost of the original line had been £12,000,000
sterling, of which the Canadian Government had sub-
scribed over £3,000,000. He added, however, that the
company had afterwards been forced by political
276 TRANSPORTATION
pressure to spend probably more than £3,000,000 " in
constructing parts of the system, which, though of ben-
efit to Canada, are, commercially, entirely worthless and
only drags upon the paying portions of the railway."
Parliament blundered in fixing upon a gauge of 5 feet 6
inches, when most of the United States roads had a gauge
of 4 feet 8^3 inches. As a consequence of this through
traffic had to be transferred from one car to another at
the international frontier. This was a painful chap-
ter of railway history, and, in consequence, Canadian
credit suffered in England for years. Portland in Maine
was selected as the winter terminus, simply because
there was no access by rail to the Canadian ports of St.
John and Halifax, and, by the Ashburton Award the
short all-British route to them had been lost. It may be
added that it was the Ashburton Award which, years af-
terwards, obliged the Canadian Pacific to cut across Maine
on its journey to St. John rather than follow the longer
route on British soil; and it is owing to the Ashburton
Award that the Grand Trunk Pacific is unable to reduce
the distance between Quebec and Moncton, as traversed
by the Intercolonial, by more than 30 miles. If, as a
recent English writer puts it, " both the Canadian Pacific
and the Grand Trunk proper desert the British flag shortly
after leaving Montreal for the Atlantic seaboard in
winter," it is only fair to indicate on whose shoulders
the responsibility really lies.
The east - and - west direction of Canadian lines is
imposed on them by the configuration of the country,
and, in some measure, it may be suspected, by the
American tariff, which taxes all Canadian products
bound south save those going in bond. The Grand
Trunk was carried east and west that it might serve the
settled districts in the St. Lawrence Valley, and connect
Chicago and the Western States with Montreal and
Portland. The Intercolonial joins the cities on the St.
IN CANADA 277
Lawrence ta the ports of the Maritime Provinces, and
hence could not run otherwise than east and west,
whilst the Canadian Pacific was built as a national work
expressly to connect the newer Provinces in the West
with the older ones in the East. At the present time
United States roads are running spurs from south to
north into the Canadian North- West and British Colum-
bia for the purpose of diverting traffic to United
States ports, but so far they have not accomplished
much. In his famous report of 1839, Lord Durham
recommended the establishment of the bonding privilege
between Canada and the United States, which' was
brought about some years later. Railway traffic in both
countries is left free to follow the most economical route.
Goods for Canadian use reach Canada from Europe by
New York or Boston; a portion of the surplus grain and
package freight of the Western States is shipped to
Europe by way of Montreal; the Canadian Pacific takes
products of the Pacific States to the Atlantic or to New
England, and, contrariwise, carries New England wares
to the Pacific States; while American railways handle
shipments from Eastern to Western Canada. All this
intercommunication goes on without interference from
the Customs officers on either side of the boundary, who
merely see that the bonded cars are properly sealed.
When this arrangement — excellent for both countries —
grew up about 1855, it was predicted that henceforth
Canadian roads would all run from north to south in
order to meet the American roads at the boundary, but
the prophecy was not fulfilled. At that time there was
reciprocity of trade with the United States to the extent
of a free interchange of natural products. The treaty
was abrogated by Congress in 1866, and Canada forth-
with set about building up trade with the United King-
dom through the use of Canadian railways and Canadian
ports, which involved the carrying of Canadian produce
278, TRANSPORTATION
from west to east and of British goods from east to
west. The heavy American tariff on Canadian pro-
ductions has fired us with the ambition to be commer-
cially as well as politically independent of the United
States, and has contributed as much as any other
single agency to our recent closer union with Britain.
After the Grand Trunk came the Intercolonial, which,
viewed as an experiment in Government ownership and
operation, has been disappointing. True, the road is
handicapped by its roundabout route and by being ex-
posed to water competition at almost every point. Its
rates in general are low, its special rates on Nova Scotia
iron and steel bound west being probably less than cost
of haul; while the bulk of its local traffic consists of coal,
lumber and other rough commodities in the transport-
ation of which there is little profit. The capital account
now stands at $87,500,000, and no interest has ever been
paid upon it. The system is 1,450 miles long. The Govern-
ment has also 267 miles of road in Prince Edward Island,
making over 1,700 miles in all under its control. The
Island line has never paid operating expenses; its
capital account is $8,000,000. On both roads politics
play a vicious part, and the Government, in despair, is
contemplating their lease to a company railway or
the transfer of the management to a commission.
After the Intercolonial, the Canadian Pacific was con-
structed. The construction of a line from the Atlantic
to the Pacific Ocean had been the dream of enthusiasts
for years, but did not take bodily form till British
Columbia and the North -West were admitted into
Confederation. The Federal Government tried its
hand at building the road, but in 1881 made a contract
with the present Company, which completed the
work. Instead ,of dwelling on the success of the
Canadian Pacific Company, a word may be said on
the development of the West. Burke, in one of his
IN CANADA. 279
speeches on the American Colonies, spoke of their
export of a few thousand quarters of breadstuffs to
England as the splendid act of "this child of your old
age, which, with a true filial piety, with a Roman charity,
has put the full breast of its youthful exuberance to the
mouth of its exhausted parent." At that time the
American Colonies had been settled for more than a
century. This year, with an average harvest, the
Canadian West, which really was not opened till the com-
pletion of the Canadian Pacific 24 years ago, will export,
principally to England, not less than 15,000,000 quarters
of wheat, to say nothing of other grains, and probably
150,000 head of cattle. In 1888 the City of Winnipeg
received and transmitted by rail 110,000 tons of
goods. In 1908 the total exceeded 2,500,000. This
takes no account of the traffic in grain and other articles
passing through Winnipeg en route to other points east
and west, but relates solely to the trade and manufac-
tures of Winnipeg itself. In 1889 the traffic on the
Central division of the Canadian Pacific, which extends
from Lake Superior to Swift Current, through the larger
portion of the wheat-belt, was less than 350,000 tons,
whereas last year it exceeded 10,000,000. Before the
Canadian Pacific was built it cost six shillings, in English
money, to transport a bushel of wheat from Winnipeg to
Liverpool. Now it costs nine-pence, although the haul
by rail, the Great Lakes and the Atlantic, is 4,500 miles
long. The Canadian Pacific has over 5,000 miles of
completed road in the West, and the Canadian Northern,
Great Northern, and Grand Trunk Pacific about 2,000
more. In the older districts no farmer is situated more
than 12 or 15 miles from a railway. Man for man, the
mileage is greater than in Minnesota, Dakota, or any
other portion of the United States ; an,d rates on wheat
and other commodities are as low or lower than those to
and from corresponding American points.
280 TRANSPORTATION
This incomparable region is receiving 150,000 immi-
grants a year even in these comparatively dull times,
the number from the United States, who came in 1908,
exceeding 60,000. Since 1898, when the rush from the
United States began in earnest, neighbours in the South
have invested $ 300,000,000 in lands, stores, mines,
cattle-ranches, lumbering and elevators in the Provinces
of Alberta and Saskatchewan. British Columbia is also
becoming populated, although it must be borne in mind
that its area is enormous, Its coal, gold-copper and
silver-lead mines are prospering, its lumber trade has
grown to formidable proportions, and its fisheries are the
richest in Canada, the annual catch being now worth
more than that of Nova Scotia. Fruit-growing is be-
coming an important industry, and, when Vancouver
Island is properly settled, is likely to expand to great
dimensions. The Canadian Northern Railway has a
large mileage west of Lake Superior, and some day, no
doubt, will reach both oceans. The Grand Trunk
Pacific will soon have to be added to the list of trans-
continental railroads. The Government is building the
section, 1,800 miles long, between Moncton in New
Brunswick, and Winnipeg, and will lease it to the Com-
pany, while the Company is constructing from Winnipeg
westward to Prince Rupert on the Pacific coast. It has
been recently stated in England that a controlling
interest in the Canadian Pacific is held in the United
States. As a matter of fact such holdings of Canadian
Pacific securities are very small indeed, the bulk being
owned in England, Germany and Holland.
The earliest statistics of railway operations in Canada
go back to 1875, and a few figures may be given to
show the progress made since that date, premising that
the mileage increased from 5,000 in 1876 to 21,000 in
1906. In 1908 it was 23,000:—
IN CANADA 281
1876. 1906.
Train mileage (miles) 18,000,000 73,000,000
Passengers 5,500,000 28,000,000
Freight (tons) 6,300,000 58,000,000
Gross Earnings $19,000,000 $125,000,000
Net Earnings $3,500,000 $38,000,000
It will be agreed, that is a very satisfactory advance
in the space of 30 years. The progress made by the
railways from 1900 to 1906 was so remarkable as to
lead one of our public men to declare that if the Nine-
teenth Century belonged to the United States, the
Twentieth belongs to Canada. The aggregate capital
cost of Canadian railways down to 1908, counting the
subsidies granted by the Federal, Provincial and
Municipal authorities, and the expenditure on Govern-
ment railroads, has been $1,600,000,000 ; and, in addi-
tion, land grants have been voted to the total amount
of 50,000,000 acres. So far the railways, as a whole,
have not yielded any large return to the investor.
The net earnings in 1908 were only sufficient to pay a
dividend of 3.20 per cent on the stock and bond issues
of the company roads. The lines built and operated by
the Government yielded nothing. A better condition
of things may be looked for as population increases
and the extensive natural resources are turned to
account.
Synchronising with the developement of the rail-
roads, it became necessary to deepen the St. Lawrence
between Quebec and Montreal. This work has occupied
60 years. The depth of water at the shallowest part
was, in the earlier days of navigation, 11 feet. Ocean
vessels bound for Montreal had to be "lightered" at
Quebec, while those outward-bound from Montreal
loaded only a portion of" their cargo, the remainder
being taken to Quebec in tow-barges. A uniform depth
of 30 feet has now been obtained throughout the 170
282 TRANSPORTATION
miles of river, and the channel has bsen widened. The
cost of this undertaking has been about $10,000,000,and
the quantity of material removed by the dredges amounts
to 45,000,000 cubic yards. The result is that Montreal,
which is 1,000 miles from the open Atlantic, 250 from
salt water and 80 above the nearest tidal influence, has
been transformed into a port capable of accommodating
all but the very largest ocean vessels. We are vain
enough to think that this work is in a measure com-
parable to the deepening of the Clyde from Greenock to
Glasgow. The Allan Company began carrying the mails
between England and Canada in 1856, and in the inter-
vening half-century has rendered splendid service. The
Imperial Government has paid a postal subsidy to the
Cunard Line almost uninterruptedly since 1840, but has
paid nothing to the Allans or to any other Canadian
steamship line operating on the Atlantic, .beyond the
mere sea postage collected on mail matter 'going from
England to Canada. Long ago the Canadian Government
felt some jealousy that Britain should help the Cunard
Line whoss vessels sail to New York, rather than the
Allans, who were doing so much for the St. Lawrence
trade. This seeming neglect may, however, have been
a blessing in disguise. At any rate, thrown upon our
own resources, we have succeed'ed in dissipating the bad
name of the St. Lawrence route among navigators and
insurance men, and in making Montreal one of the chief
ports of North America. Its ocean-going tonnage, in and
out, in 1908 was 4,000,000 ton. The Canadian Pacific
"Empresses" and the Allan turbine steamers, which
now carry the mails, are among the finest vessels afloat.
The contrast between them and the tiny, high-pooped
barks of Jacques Cartier's day sums up the progress of
ship-building in the last 300 years. Ocean freight rates
from Montreal are as low as those from New York and
Boston. Steamers conveying perishable articles are
IN CANADA 283
furnished with an admirable system of cold storage,
which is under Government supervision, while the mo-
derate temperature of the northern route, in summer,
attracts shipments of meats from United States. The
ocean traffic from St. John is growing.rapidly, and Que-
bec, though for tha present eclipsed by Montreal, will
some day become the great port of the St. Lawrence.
Since 18(57, when Confederation took place, the total
tonnage of sea-going shipping entered and cleared at
Canadian ports, has risen from 4,000,000 to 17,000,000
tons register.
The Imperialist who wishes to traverse the Empire
can now travel continuosly under the British flag. The
Canadian Pacific and Allan steamships will convey him
from England to Halifax, St. John, Quebec or Montreal,
whence he may journey across the continent by a
Canadian Pacific express train to Vancouver. Here he
finds " All-Red " steamers sailing to Japan and Hong-
Kong, whence he may proceed in other "All-Red"
vessels to India or South Africa, or may travel back to
England through the Suez Canal.
In conclusion, it is manifest that Canada has made
up her mind to be true to herself and yet to remain
affectionately attached to Britain. An American poet
tells of the little flower which guided the hunter on the
plains : —
"See how its leaves all point to the north, as true
as the magnet —
"It is the compass flower, that the finger of God
has suspended
"Here on its fragile stalk, to direct the traveller's
journey
"Over the sea-like, pathless, limitless waste of the
desert."
284 TRANSPORTATION IN CANADA
And an English writer, commenting on these lines,
has expressed himself in terms with which, I am sure,
the great majority of the people of Canada agree: — -"So
it must be with all Canadians. Their hearts, differ as
men may on political or social or religious questions,
are true to their North-Land — a land of great rivers and
inland seas, of illimitable prairies and lofty mountains,
of rich sea-pastures and luxuriant wheatfields — a land
of free government and free speech — a goodly heritage
with which they can never part to & foreign Power."
Scarth Street. Regina
SOME OF THE CHIEF POINTS TO BE
VISITED ON THE
WESTERN EXCURSION
REGINA
REGINA is the capital of the Province of Saskatche-
wan, and is situated on the main line of the Can-
adian Pacific Railway, three hundred and fifty miles
west of Winnipeg. As capital of the province it is the
seat of government. Here the Legislative Assembly
meets, and all the Departmental and Executive Offices
are situated. In Regina also are the headquarters of
the Royal North-West Mounted Police, and the seat of
the Supreme Court of the province.
Regina is the centre of the most famous wheat growing
district of Saskatchewan. The country in all directions
is level prairie, with the exception of a district some nine
or ten miles away in a north-easterly direction where
the land is somewhat rolling and there is a growth of
small poplar trees.
In 1908, the total yield of all grains in crop districts
1, 2, 4 and 5, an area 264 miles square, of which Regina
is practically the centre, was 93,134,482 bushels, and
the total acreage under cultivation 5,250,857 acres.
From the other five districts which comprise the rest of
the province, each district being of an equal area, the
total yield of all grains was 12. 859., 932 bushels, and the
total acreage under cultivation 721,444 acres.
Regina, itself on the main line of the Canadian Pacific
Railway, is also the terminus of the same Company's line
from Arcola, which is continued through to Brandon,
a line tapping a very rich and well-settled country to
the south-east. The Canadian Pacific Railway has also
286 WESTERN EXCURSION
under course of construction a line running in a norther-
ly direction from Regina to connect with their Pheasant
Hills ' line at a point at or near Bulyea. It is expected
that this will be completed early in the present season.
This gives easy access to Last Mountain Lake, a beau-
tiful sheet of water some sixty miles long, the foot of
which is distant only twenty-five miles from the city ;
this will undoubtedly become a very popular summer
resort for the citizens of Regina.
Regina is the southern terminus of the Canadian
Pacific Northern Railway Company's line from Prince
Albert, and is also the terminus of the same Company's
line from Brandon. When continued through to the
Great Lakes, this will give Regina the benefit of a com-
petitive road through to the head of navigation.
The Grand Trunk Pacific Branch Lines' Company
hold a charter for a line running from Regina to Mel-
ville, a divisional point on the main line of their great
transcontinental railroad, about ninety miles north-
east of Regina. This line will be continued to Yorkton,
and is one of those for the construction of which the
bonds of the Company were guaranteed by.the Provincial
Government at the last session. It is hoped that it will
be completed this year. As soon as this line is complet-
ed, work will be commenced on the same Company's line
in a south-easterly direction, for which the charter reads:
" In a south-easterly direction from Regina to a point
on the International Boundary at or near North Portal.
Charters for many other lines are held by various Com-
panies. Regina will almost certainly become the grea +
distributing centre of the middle West.
The citizens of Regina have always been firm be-
lievers in the principle of municipal ownership, and the
city owns and controls the electric light plant and the
water works system. The electric light plant riot only
WESTERN EXCURSION- 287
gives an excellent service at a very low rate, (nine cents
per thousand k.w. hours for light) but also yields a fair
profit, which goes to reduce the rate of taxation. The
water supply is derived from springs at Boggy Creek,
a distance of about eight miles from the city, where
a dam and reservoir have been constructed with a ca-
pacity of over 700,000,000 gallons and a fall of 85 feet
from the reservoir to the power house basin. In laying
the pipe line from the reservoir to the city, numerous
springs were struck, and these have supplied the city
without the necessity of drawing upon the reservoir.
The water is well adapted for domestic purposes for
use in steam boilers and other industrial purposes.
The city hall built at a cost of $175,000, is one of the
handsomest buildings in the city. It contains offices
for the Civic Officials, a large auditorium capable of seat-
ing a thousand people, a public library and a handsome
and well furnished council chamber.
The city has reserved large areas for park purposes.
The Victoria Park in the centre of the city, contains
about seven acres; Wascana Park, situated on the banks
of the Lake and facing the Parliament Buildings, con-
tains about forty-five acres and has been tastefully
laid out.
The educational requirements of the city are well
served by the five public schools, the ' ' separate school, ' '
and the collegiate institute. All these have been re-
cently erected.
Ajong the churches may be specially mentioned, the
Metropolitan Methodist Church, the Knox Church, St.
Paul's (Anglican) and St. Mary's (Roman Catholic).
There are many handsome business blocks, and perhaps
the finest building in the city, is the new Post Office.
288 WESTERN EXCURSION
CALGARY
At a point on the main line of The Canadian Pacific
Railway, 642 miles east of Vancouver, on the Pacific
Coast, and 840 miles west of Winnipeg, the City of Cal-
gary is picturesquely situated in the valley of the Bow
River, at the confluence of the Bow and Elbow. To
the west, the snowy peaks of the Rocky Mountains are
clearly visible. To the north, the country is of a rolling
nature, and is well adapted for diversified farming.
Southward to the International Boundary, much
grain is grown, although there are many large stock
farms throughout this district. To the east of Calgary,
for a distance of 180 miles, the Canadian Pacific Railway
Company have undertaken the greatest irrigation
scheme in the world. It serves a district extending over
3,000,000 acres.
The situation and climatic conditions of Calgary
are delightful. Attention may be called to its altitude
of 3,389 feet, its large proportion of sunny days, and to
the warm winds from the west and south-west, known
as Chinook winds. The comparative mildness of the
winter is in marked contrast to the cold of the more
central regions of Canada. The following table shows
the average temperature and rainfall, for the ten years
prior to 1908, as recorded at the Government Meteoro-
logical Station at Calgary
Average Average Average Average
Temperature, Rainfall, . Temperature, Rainfall,
0 Parenheit. Inches. • • Farenheit. Inches.
January 17.5 .25 July 60.1 2.56
February ...14.7 .38 August 57.0 3.70
March 21.9 .92 September 49.1 1.56
April 39.1 .55 October 41.9 44
May 47.6 3.44 November ... 28.8 59
June 58.7 4.59 December ...23.2 38
WESTERN EXCURSION 289
The large business blocks and public buildings are
built of the famous Calgary sandstone, which is found
along the banks of the river. There are about a dozen
quarries within the city limits. The following buildings
are under construction or have been completed within
the past twelve months.
Public Library $ 50,000 .00
Two Wholesale Buildings 65,000 .00
High School , • 85,000 .00
Y.M.C.A 95,000.00
Land Titles Office 120,000 .00
Board of Trade Building 130,000.00
Post Office 145,000 . 00
City Hall 150,000 .00
General Hospital 150,000 .00
Normal School 150,000 .00
Court House 220,000 . 00
Can. Pac. Ry. Depot 225,000.00
$1,585,000.00
There are more than nine Public Schools, a High
School and a Normal School, a ' ' Separate School, ' ' a
Convent, the Western Canada College for boys, and St.
Hilda's College for girls. During 1908, there were 3,566
pupils in the Calgary Schools. These pupils represent
eighteen nationalities and speak fourteen different
languages.
The twenty-five churches in Calgary represent the
following denominations : Methodist, Presbyterian, Bap-
tist, Episcopalian, Roman Catholic, Moravian, Lutheran,
Salvation Army.
The numerous Commercial, Industrial and Financial
Institutions established in Calgary, place it in the po-
sition of the Commercial Metropolis of the ' ' Last Great
290 WESTERN EXCURSION
West. ' ' The Bank Clearings for the last six months
of the year 1908, were $38,526,454.00, an increase of
$3,284,363.00 over the last six months of 1907. The
clearings for the last week of February, 1909, show an
increase of 81.5 per cent,. The Customs receipts for
1908, were $426,425.00.
Three daily papers, four weeklies and 'three monthlies,
are published in Calgary.
Calgary was founded in 1882, and incorporated as
a city two years later. The population in 1901, was
6,557 ; to-day it is more. than 25;000. The city water sup-
ply is of the best, and is brought from the Rockies via
the Bow River.Steam coal may be obtained in Calgary, at
$2.75 per ton upwards, natural gas has been discovered
and negotiations are in progress for the development of
water power on the Bow River. Calgary's railway facili-
ties are excellent and a rapid growth and a prosperous
future for the city are well assured.
BANFF*
Banff is situated at an altitude of 4,521 feet, and is the
station for the Canadian National Park and Hot Springs.
This park is a National Reservation of 5,732 square
miles, embracing parts of the valleys of the Bow, Spray
and Cascade Rivers, Lake Minnewanka and several
noble mountain ranges, and beyond the ' ' Divide, ' ' the
Yoho valley and the country to the west and south of it.
The park is the largest in the world, being nearly half
as large again as the famous Yellowstone Park in the
United States. No part of the "Rockies exhibits a greater
variety of sublime and pleasing scenery, and nowhere are
good points of view and features of special interest so
accessible, since many good roads and bridle-paths have
*The notes on Banff are taken, by permission, from the Annotated Time
Table of the Canadian Pacific Railway Company. -
WESTERN EXCURSION 291
been made. The railway station at Banff is in the
midst of impressive mountains. The huge mass north-
ward is Cascade Mountain (9,825 ft.) ; eastward is Mount
Inglismaldie, and the heights of the Fairholme sub-
range, behind which lies Lake Minnewanka. South-
eastward from Inglismaldie, in the same range of the
Fairholmes, the sharp cone of Peechee (called after an
Indian chief), closes the view in that direction; this is
one of the highest mountains visible. To the left of
Cascade Mountain, and just north of the track, rises
the wooded ridge of Stoney Squaw Mountain, beneath
which lie the Vermilion lakes, seen just after leaving
the station. Up the Bow, westward, tower the distant,
snowy, central heights of the Main range about Simpson 's
Pass, most prominently the square, wall-like crest of
Mount Bourgeau. A little nearer, at the left, is seen
the northern end of the Bourgeau range, and still nearer,
the razor-like back of Sulphur Mountain, along the side
of which are the Hot Springs, and on whose summit, at
.8,030 ft., an observatory has been established. The
isolated bluff southward is Tunnel Mountain, while just
behind the station, Rundle Peak, 9,665 ft., rises sharply
so near at hand as to cut off all the view in that direction.
Just before reaching the station, the train passes along
a large corral of 800 acres in which are a number of buf-
falo, the last specimens of the monarchs of the plains.
Plans are now arranged by means of which a collection
of bears will be placed in a corral in some central loca-
tion in the park. The village of Banff is a short distance
southwest of the station, on the*hither side of the Bow,
and the Canadian Pacific Railway Banff Hotel is about
a mile further on. A steel bridge takes the carriage-road
across to the magnificent hotel, built by the Railway
Company, on an eminence between the foaming falls
in the Bow and the mouth of the rapid Spray River.
This hotel, which has every modern convenience and
292 WESTERN EXCURSION
luxury, including baths supplied from the hot sulphur
springs, is kept open from May to October, and thither
people from all lands flock in numbers. It is most
favorably placed for health, picturesque views, and as
a centre for canoeing, driving, walking or mountain-
climbing. There are also a sanitarium and hospital in-
the village, and a museum of more than local interst
has 'been established by the Government. Eight miles
from Banff, is Lake Minnewanka, on which a fine launch
has been placed. There is capital fishing, the trout being
of extraordinary size. Wild sheep (the big-horn) and
mountain goats are occasionally to be seen on the neigh-
boring heights. Some extraordinary fossil remains
and markings of mammoth pre-historic creatures are
found on the mountain .slopes surrounding this lake,
as well as on Cascade Mountain. At the upper end of
the lake is the valley of Ghost River, a strange region
where the mountain rivulets gurgle off into subterranean
reservoirs and the granite walls are pitted with caves.
Between Banff and the lake is Bankhead, where are
located the anthracite mines, operated by the Canadian
Pacific Railway, whose output will shortly provide the
country as far east as Winnipeg with fuel. The hot
springs are at different elevations upon the eastern slope
of Sulphur Mountain, the highest being 900 ft. above
the Bow. All are reached by fine roads, commanding
glorious landscapes. The more important springs have
been improved by the Government, and picturesque
bathing houses have been erected and placed under
the care of attendants. In one locality is a pool inside
a dome-roofed cave, entered by an artificial tunnel; and
adjacent, another spring forms an open basin of warm
sulphurous water. Since the opening of the railway,
these springs have been largely visited, and testimony
to their wonderful curative properties is plentiful.
Twenty miles south of Banff is Mount Assiniboine, the
WESTERN EXCURSION 293
Matterhorn of the new world, the ascent of which, after
several unsuccessful attempts, was made in the autumn
of 1901, by the Rev. James Outram and a party of
Swiss guides. The way to it leads through beautiful
valleys studded with transparent blue lakes and park-
like prairie openings.
VANCOUVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA
Vancouver, the chief commercial capital of the western
half of the Canadian- American continent, is situated
on the extreme western shore of the mainland of British
Columbia, a distance of fifty miles north of the Inter-
national boundary, overlooking the Gulf of Georgia,
which, with Vancouver Island and the Straits of Juan
de Fuca, lies between the city and the open Pacific
Ocean. Vancouver was founded in 1880, and has a
population of 85,000. Its commercial supremacy is
based on the fact that it is the natural gateway for Can-
adian and British-Oriental trade and that it is the con-
verging point of several transcontinental railway lines,
as well as the port of trans-Pacific shipping. Chief
among the transcontinental lines having their terminals
at this point, is the Canadian Pacific Railway, with
through and direct connections from Liverpool and all
European ports via Montreal and St. John, and navi-
gating its own steamships to Japan and China. The
journey from Montreal to Vancouver occupies 96 hours.
There is a regular steamship service to the Orient from
Vancouver. The time from Vancouver to Yokohama
is fourteen days; to Hong Kong 22 days, wirh interven-
ing calls at Kobe, Nagasaki and Shanghai.
Next in importance is the trade with the Antipodes,
carried on by the Canadian- Australian line, with a trio
of ships called the Aorangi, the Moana and Makura.
The sailings on this line are monthly, the time between
294 WESTERN EXCURSION
Vancouver and Sydney, (N.S.W.), being approximately
thirty days, with calls at Honolulu, Suva and Brisbane.
Both the Canadian-Pacific and the Canadian-Australian
are Royal Mail S. S. lines and close connections are made
with the fast through mails from Liverpool.
A " Four- Weekly-Service " between California points,
Mexico, Guatemala, Salvador Honduras and Nicaragua
is also maintained. The trade between these and Can-
adian ports is rapidly increasing in importance. Among
other "freighters" calling regularly at the port of
Vancouver, are those of the Ocean S.S. Co., and the China
Mutual Steam Navigation Co., operating a monthly
service to Liverpool via Japan, China and the Suez Canal.
The local service between Vancouver, Victoria and
Seattle is triangular and three magnificent steamers are
engaged in the trade. Morning and afternoon sailings
are made for Victoria; the distance is 75 miles, and the
time occupied, four hours. From Seattle to Vancouver
150 miles, the time taken is nine hours.
Daily communication is also maintained with Nan-
aimo, the centre of Vancouver Island coal mining in-
dustries. This port is forty miles distant and the journey
occupies three hours. The ' ' Coastwise ' ' service is sup-
plied by a flotilla of steamers operated by numerous
steamship companies having their head offices in Van-
couver. By means of these the whole coast line as far
north as Alaska, Queen Charlotte Island and northern
British Columbia coast ports is covered. Sailings are
regularly scheduled and average four a week. All the
Coastwise steamships of the Puget Sound service also
call at Vancouver on their way to and from the North.
In addition to the freight and passenger delivery
from the Canadian Pacific Railway, the Great Northern
Railway operates three trains daily each way between
Vancouver and Seattle, while extensive plans for ad-
WESTERN EXCURSION 295
ditional terminal facilities have been filed by this Com-
pany, and the work of grading and dock building is
already under way. Other American transcontinental
lines have also charters for rights-of-way to this term-
inal, and construction is being planned, while several
new lines from the interior of British Columbia, having
chartered rights to reach the coast, are hastening con-
struction, so as to bring the whole of the vast interior
of the province within a few hours travel from Vancouver.
Charters were obtained at the last session of the legis-
lature for lines to extend to the north in various direc-
tions and undertakings have been given that the work
of construction will begin at once.
A single glance at the geographical position of Van-
couver will show how suitable was its selection as a
terminus for these numerous railways and steamship
lines. Burrard Inlet, the landlocked harbour, entered
through a narrow channel, wide, deep and sheltered,
affords one of the best anchorages in the world, while
its fourteen odd miles of water front affords facilities
that for wharf and dockage are unsurpassed among the
ports of the world. False Creek, a second waterway
at the south of the business section of the city, needing
only inconsiderable artificial development, affords an-
other channel for docking big ships, and a shore line
furnishing many miles of factory and mill front.
The business portion of the city occupies the centre
of a gently elevated peninsula, which slopes northward
southward and westward to salt water. The oldest
and most fashionable residential section is in the West
End, occupying the terraces between the business por-
tion and Stanley Park, with its shore line at English
Bay. Otherwise, the suburban residential sections
are in the east and across False Creek, from which they
slope southward and eastward like the terraces of a vast
natural amphitheatre.
296 WESTERN EXCURSION
In the business section of the city trie wide, well-
paved and well-kept streets and the substantial charac-
ter and architectural qualities of many of the business
houses furnish impressive evidences of material pros
perity, and of the confidence of investors in the future
greatness of the city. The city is well provided with
tram lines. There is also a double track inter-urban
service with the city of New Westminster, twelve miles
distant, which is being continued through the rich lands
of the Fraser Valley to the city of Chilliwack. A
further rural extension of the tram line connects with
Steveston, the capital of the salmon fishing industry,
at the mouth of the Fraser River.
The scenery of Stanley and English Bay forms one
of the chief charms of Vancouver. Stanley Park con-
sists of 1,000 acres of natural scenery. Situated upon
a peninsula which is almost an island, the park is nine
miles in circumference and within its grounds are some
of the most magnificent specimens of the big trees of
British Columbia. English Bay, the long stretch of
water fronting on the Gulf of Georgia, affords bathing
facilities unrivalled on the Pacific coast. The Gulf,
gemmed with emerald islands studding its placid sur-
face, stretches towards the north and south as far as
the eye can reach, while across its hazy distance is the
Olympic range of mountains with their snow-capped
peaks, and on the north the Cascade range nearer at
hand, with the serrated heights severely outlined against
the sky.
VICTORIA, VANCOUVER ISLAND, BRITISH
COLUMBIA
Victoria being the first port entered by all steamships
from Australia, Japan, China and other Oriental coun^
WESTERN EXCURSION 297
tries, having large and varied commercial enterprises,
and being the capital of the largest and richest of the
Canadian provinces, is of more than ordinary interest
to strangers, and is none the less so because it happens
to be one of the most charmingly situated cities in the
world. It is the Pacific terminus of the Canadian Pa-
cific Railway system in Canada, has a population of
nearly 40,000 and occupies an ideal situation at the
extreme southern end of Vancouver Island, within a few
hours' sail of the mainland of British Columbia and of
the United States.
It is agreed that the picturesque situation of Victoria
is unsurpassed. From Beacon Hill Park can be seen
on one hand the rugged snow-clad Olympians, and on
the other, rising proudly in the distance beyond the
island-studded straits of Juan de Fuca, the lordly Mount
Baker. The combination of magnificent scenery and
almost perfect climate is destined to render Victoria one
of the largest and richest residential cities on the con-
tinent. Victoria has excellent hotel accommodation.
The Canadian Pacific Railway have, in the heart of the
city, overlooking the picturesque harbour, one of the
finest hotels on the continent, ' ' The Empress. ' '
The public schools of Victoria, which are free to every-
one under 21 years of age, are up-to-date in every re-
spect. The High School is in affiliation with the Uni-
versity of McGill, Montreal. Besides its public educa-
tional system, the city is the home of a large number
of private colleges and academies both for boys and
girls. The Parliament Building is acknowledged to be
one of the handsomest and most imposing structures on
the continent. It is one of the first sights to catch the
visitor's eye as he enters the harbour of Victoria. It
stands amid spacious and beautifully kept lawns, the
vivid green of which testifies to the mildness of the
WESTERN EXCURSION
Parlment Brings, there are three
advantages it seems probable
centr Tl
ards in vlf' ' ^ au6 n° less than five OI> six
rt, J rt' and AsThlPbuildmg is becoming lts most
mportant industry Many of the large steamers used
3ife222SnttoBd; have been built here' as well as
the hydrographic and other vessels used by the Domi-
nion Government.
The country immediately surrounding the town is
whicltt7 bfUf ^ the undulatmg promontory upon
which the city stands being covered with woods of pine
?^a h1" T a, Vdy Wild jun^le of arbutus, roses, flower-
ing bushes of many varieties, and English broom In
dpLT7!an tf^ff there is an extraordinary abun-
dance of beautiful wild flowers. Victoria has been des-
P11 fi a' TuA Blt °f EnSland on the Shores of' the
racmc 1 his expression conveys a very excellent idea
of local conditions. The institutions, buildings, clubs
annerS ^ CUStoms bein^ essentially of English
EDMONTON
From the earliest days Edmonton, the capital of
the Province of Alberta, was an important trading post
of the Hudson s Bay Company. It was one of the
chief centres and served as headquarters for the Peace
Kiver district and the upper waters of the North Sas-
katchewan. A trading post it remained till the earlv
eighties when it engaged with the rest of Western Can-
ada in a premature and transcient boom. Naturally it
suffered from the collapse of this boom, but a beginning
had been made for the future city and its population
and prosperity increased slowly and surely till the
299
recent phenomenal developement of Western Canada
commenced a decade ago. Edmonton by reason of its
position and other advantages was able to take the
fullest benefit of the progressive movement, and to-day
finds itself the second city of the prairie provinces.
Built as it is on the steep banks of the North Sas-
katchewan and amid the bush which grows out from
the river, it enjoys the best and most picturesque
situation of any of the prairie cities. The river is both
narrow and rapid at that point, and as a result, has
bored a deep channel in the plains, leaving high banks
covered with trees which give the city, from certain
points, the appearance of standing on a hill and differ-
entiates its aspect from other cities which are surrounded
on every side by the level prairie. It has been laid out
with care and taste. The streets are wide and well
arranged, and every convenience such as electric light,
street car service, telephones and water supplies have
been secured for the inhabitants. The principal tho-
roughfare is Jasper Avenue running parallel to the river:
the other chief streets branch off from it and it contains
most of the banks and important business establish-
ments. The city has twenty two hotels, fourteen banks,
ten schools and twenty churches, and the visitor will be
surprised at the size and excellent appearance of many
of the buildings. Edmonton is the headquarters of the
Provincial Government of Alberta, and the Local Legis-
lature's presence makes it the centre of provincial
Society and public business. The Land Titles Office for
the whole of the vast territory of Northern Alberta is
in the city and a large new Court House has just been
erected.
Edmonton has always been a great fur-trading centre
and to-day the Hudson's Bay Company and their great
rivals, Revilion Brothers, secure a large proportion of
their purchases of fur through their establishment here.
300 WESTERN EXCURSION
But it has ceased to be dependent on this trade alone,
and is now the second largest distributing centre be-
tween the Lakes and the Rockies. It is the place from
which the country storekeepers of North Alberta and
the settlers, traders and construction gangs engaged in
the development of an enormous area of territory derive
their supplies : as a result, every wholesale house of
any importance has a branch or agency and its volume
of annual trade is developing in an unprecedented
manner. It is also a very important railway centre;
the Canadian Northern have had their western terminus
there for four years and the Grand Trunk Pacific have
just completed their tracks into the city. At present, the
Canadian Pacific passenger trains only run to Strath -
cona on the north side of the river, but this Company
intends, in the immediate future, to cooperate with the
two cities in constructing a much needed high level
bridge for railway and other traffic. At present Ed-
monton has 25,000 inhabitants and Strathcona about
7,000 : a friendly but keen rivalry exists between the
two places, but sooner or later they are destined to be
harmoniously united. Edmonton, as the capital, has
the better prospects but the smaller city has recently
received a handsome solatium in the shape of. the Pro-
vincial University.
Edmonton is particularly fortunate in one respect: it
is built on extensive coal beds of fairly good quality
and at least half a score of coal mines are in operation
in the immediate vicinity of the city. This is in itself
an enormous advantage as it must decrease the cost of
living in winter and offer great attractions to the estab-
lishment of manufactures. Again, within 20 miles of
the city, are extensive marl beds, brick or pottery
clay- deposits, asphalt, and, further away, deposits of
iron : successful dredging operations for gold are also
carried on in the river within the city precincts.
WESTERN EXCURSION 301
Not so long ago Edmonton was regarded as the fron-
tier post of civilisation and settlement in the North-
west, but to-day the Canadian Northern and Grand
Trunk Pacific are rapidly pushing their transcontinental
lines westward, projecting new branches and planning
to open up vast tracts of fertile country. Homestead-
ers are nocking in, villages are springing up and the
wilderness is being tamed by science and labor. At Ed-
monton the visitor will hear little else talked of but a
certain land of promise called the Peace River Valley,
to which the eyes of the world are, some day, to be
turned as a greater wheat-growing area than the Sas-
katchewan Valley. The people of Edmonton regard
Manitoba j'and Ontario as old decadent civilisations
and talk glibly of the greater prospects of the vast
country to the north of their city. Their enthusiastic
hopes have certain strong foundations in fact and are
bound at least to be partially realized. But the future
of Edmonton itself is assured though the Peace River
Valley should prove to be a very barren tract which is
unthinkable and the Alberta capital may yet become a
serious rival of Winnipeg for the position of premier city
in Western Canada. Happily there is room for two
graat cities in this vast land and each has a territory,
larger than most European countries to dominate as a
political, social and commercial centre.
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