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LIBRARY OF agen eped (
ce ae DAWSON 3 |
A Handy-Book to the Collection |
and Preparation of Freshwater |
and Marine Algz, Diatoms, Des- |
mids, Fungi, Lichens, Mosses, |
And Other of the Lower Cryptogamia :
WiTH INSTRUCTIONS FOR
Ghe Formation of an Herbarium
BY JOHANN . NAVE
TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY
See REV: W. W. SPICER, M.A.
Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society
wOV 8
LIBRARVE:
LONDON |
ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192 PICCAD
1867
These are Thy glorious works, Parent of geod,
Almighty, Thine this universal frame,
Thus wondrous fair ; Thyself how wondrous then,
Unspeakable! who sitt’st above these heay’ ns
To us invisible or dimly seen
In these Thy lowest works; yet these declare
Thy goodness beyond thought, and power divine.
Mirtoy.
LONDON
PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE ANP 60.
NEW-STREET SQUARE
PREFACE.
ee OO
Or the convenience and utility of an Herbarium to
the Botanist, it is needless to say a word. The first
instinct of the student of Natural History is to col- |
lect together specimens of the objects to which his
attention is directed. Indeed before long he becomes
aware of the positive necessity of having by him
examples, on which he can readily lay his hand, for
reference and comparison. Simple, however, as it
appears to be to make an Herbarium, there is no
point, respecting which the young naturalist (without
experience and without a guide) more frequently
violates the most important canons of science. The
correct representation of the natural habit of the
plant, and the best method of preserving it when
found, are the rocks on which the beginner constantly
makes shipwreck. Speaking generally, his errors
arise from giving either too much or too little atten-
tion to the matter. In the first case he looks only
to the beauty of the specimen, and its neat appearance
in the cabinet. He takes care—too much care, indeed
-—to lay out the various parts in a manner to please
the eye, but without any reference to their natural
V1 PREFACE,
position, or true relation to each other. In the other |
case, he is careless about the preservation of the plant,
and neglects the commonest rules, whereby alone it
can be saved from speedy destruction. The result, in
both cases, is the same. His preparations are un-
trustworthy and well nigh useless—at any rate, can
lay no claim to any scientific valne.
The lower Cryptogamia especially, such as the
Alege and Fungi, require a somewhat complicated
mode of treatment: so much so, indeed, that many a
beginner is frightened from prosecuting his studies,
disgusted by the continued failures, which, without
a guide to lead him, it was next to impossible for
him to escape... And yet so full of beauty and in-—
terest are these lowly orders—enchaining the mind
and arresting the attention of all, who are deeply
DRT 4
engaged in their study, that it seems hard, that any —
should be debarred from the enjoyment of so much f.
pleasure by mere mechanical difficulties, which, after
all, may be easily removed.
As cases of this kind have frequently come under
my own observation, I have prepared the following
pages with a view to place near the novice in botany —
an adviser, who may offer him, in a condensed form, @ fs
some useful suggestions respecting the best methods
of collecting and preparing plants for the Herbarium. |
I have ie this without the intention, or even the
idea, of offering to the public anything ere or
new, or better than what has been already published ; _
PREFACE. Vil
_ but because I know how troublesome and difficult it
is for the tyro, in the commencement of his studies,
to search through numerous works for a description
‘of the method of preparation, which he may chance
to need at the time. Here at least I can promise
him, that he will find the most important facts con-
tained 7m nuce, to the saving of both his time and
patience. And this is the more necessary, because a
novice’s library is not. usually too well stocked with
books of reference ; and, besides, he is not always in a
situation to consult larger and more important works,
bearing on the subjects treated of here.
Therefore I launch this little volume into the
world, with the earnest wish that its perusal may be
of service in lightening the labours and smoothing
the path of more than one self-taught botanist.
JoH. NAVE.
The reader will observe, that the chapters into which
the book is divided, are of very unequal proportions,
and that the greatest prominence is given to the Alew,
which occupy quite one-half of the whole work. This
is owing to the extraordinary variety of form and
habit, which characterises this family, calling for
-Tumerous descriptions of methods of preparation
which need not to be repeated.
JON,
CONTENTS.
. Or THE ALGH GENERALLY
. OF THE DIATOMACER
. Or THE FREE DIATOMACEX
. Or THE Stiprtate DIATOMACE
. OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIATOMACEZ
. Or rHe DESMIDIACEZ, AND SOME SIMILAR MINUTE
ALGE .
. OF THE FinamMentous ALG
. OF THE OSCILLATORLE
. Or THE GELATINOUS, CRUSTACEOUS, AND STONE-LIKE
ALGE-.
. Or THe Marine ALGH ,
. OF THE CHARACEE
. Or THe Funcr.
. Or THE LICHENS
. Or THE MossEs AND THEIR ALLIES .
. OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS .
Or THE HERBARIUM , ; : :
174
LIST OF -ILLUS®PRATICee
See eee
PLATE FIG
Spirogyra : : 1 1-6
Toxonidea Gregoriana . ; ; : : II 9
Donkinia carinata . i : . 3 10
Amphiprora maxima s : : “4 11
Diadesmis Williamson . : ; : é z 12
Triceratium striolatum . ' ; : ; III 13
Amphitetras antediluviaua : : S 14
Closterium Liebleinii = 15
¥9 striolatum . : j Race 16
Evastrum oblongum—front view .*.+ .. . > 17
a $ side view . ; : fs 18
Micrasterias rotata . ; a3 19
Cosmarium margaritiferum . : : v 20
x a empty frond . : si 21
a5 ie end view : : “ 22
Ankistrodesmus falcatus : oC oe tae : 23
Collecting bottle * 24
Navicula didyma .. 3 25
Pinnuiaria major a 26
Isthmia enervis : : v1 i ae
Amphitetras antediluviana : - 28
Licmophora flabellata. : oo ae a
y iy fan ; é : : a! 30
Mastogioia Danseli VIII 31
Dickieia ulvoides a a2
5, pinnata :. 33
Berkeleya fragilis * 34
Coeconeis major ee 38
m nitida
: : " 39
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. * i ae
PLATE FIG PAGE
Schizonema Grevillei ; rx. 40 71
Micromegz helminthosum : fe 41 ab.
Colletonema neglectum . : = 42 1.
Biddulphia pulchelia : : ; : x 46 79
Triceratium castellatum . ; : s 47 20.
Pleurosigma formosum . : . XI 49 87
Penium digitus alee. 5 ce 50 1b.
pee Weviculd* . : é ; a ol a,
Docidium clavatum . : : 3 - 52 10.
a = end of oad : : iB o3 ab.
Staurastrum dejectum : ‘ x. 64 95
- oracile ? toe : # sag 1,
& spongiosum . : : : es 56 2b,
a alternans : : 2 ; 3 oF 95
Hmacstzum didelta .. . : : - 58 1.
Hyalotheca dissiliens 3 iil o9 103
Spiroteenia condensata.. e 60 a.
Cosmarium botrytis : 35 61-70 th.
Volvox globator . 5 mai 71 i11
Pandorina morum . : : : - 72-81 ad.
Press for drying Botanical Sacemens : XV 82 119
Zygnemacee conjugating : j es < So-8o 2b.
Fucus vesiculosus. Soy 86 { Frontis-
piece.
= serratus. : : : : : 87 2b.
» . nodosus es, : , i, VIE 88 127
,, canaliculatus . ; : : : one ee ib.
Torrubia entomorrhiza . : eae 50r 90 135
. > section . ss 9] id.
-. milters. : _ 92 ab.
* eunnil : 5 : : : - 93 0.
ie sphingum . : : é i 94 1b,
3 5, isaroid anni ge eee
4 » fertile stipe : oes LK 96 143
_ stylophora - : ; 5 : z OT ab.
Morchella esculenta § : : ; zh 98 th,
Lycoperdon gemmatum —. : = 99 ib.
X11 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
| 3 PLATE FIG. PAGE —
Lycoperdon saceatum . : : : . | ee: ee
im -atropurpureum . : : : “d 1C1 ab. a
Aregma bulbosum . é : . Xx_. 22 150mm
Triphragmium ulmarie . . > OS 26mm
Spheria herbarum . : : : ; ; 93. se AOA ab. #
Asterosporium Hoffmanni .. x 105, 167m
Puccinia graminis . é 5 es : 5 ome LO ab. i!
Achlya prolifera . ; = ee . xx . 107 (1/om
Marasmius oreades - . 4 Sees. 1 Samm
. » section , ; : ge ae ib. B
Scolopendrium vulgare . - =. 5), See
Ceterach officinarum _.. : Pier t| ib. 4
Osmunda regalis_. : ete : . exvr: le ©1998
Ophioglossum vulgatum . : : coal bg
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT.
Tron Ladle : é : : E ; pe |
Caspary’s Rake . ; : d ; : g 8 5 :
Quetschhahn or Spring Tap 5 eae ; 35 22
Banninae Wachier Apparatus . : 37 26 &
Envelope for Diatoms, &c . : : : 43 35
Slide for 55 ae : 44 ib. @
Diagram representing Diatom . ; 45 388
Valves and Hoop of . : : : 48 41
Digeer -*. : ° . . 114 158
GUIDE TO COLLECTION.
CHAPTER I.
OF THE ALGZ GENERALLY.
Few stupies afford more instruction, or are attended with
more genuine pleasure, than that of the Alee. And this is
not simply due to the boundless wealth of form which they
exhibit, and which astonishes and delights even those who
have never given their attention to Natural History. Nor
is it merely on account of the inexhaustible materials
for observation and comparison which they afford to the
botanist. But the main point of interest consists in this,
that it is only by a close investigation of the conditions
of life existing in the Alge, that we are enabled to get a
true insight into the structure and functions of the higher
plants. In fact, it is not too much to say, that vegetable
anatomy and physiology, and the theory of the nature, deve-
Jopment, and increase of vegetable cells—depend in no
slight degree on the close observation of the Alge ; because
in them the separate existence of each cell is so clearly
seen. Whoever, therefore, would cultivate the study of
vegetable anatomy, must first make himself thoroughly
acquainted with this particular family.
Materials for observation are always near at hand, for
Algee abound everywhere ; often, indeed, where the superficial
observer would scarcely expect to find even the smallest
trace. Wherever water collects in large or small quantities,
in a sea or lake, in a river or pond, and equally in the
smallest ditch or puddle, or even on the face of a damp
wall, there Alez thrive, and invite the attention of the
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2 OF THE ALGEH GENERALLY.
collector. It would be a mistake, therefore, to examine only —
the larger masses of water; for frequently the least impor-
tant localities afford the largest supply: indeed, certain
families (for instance the Scytonemaceze and Nostochacee)
would be constantly overlooked, if the lowlier spots were
habitually neglected. In the same way a careful survey
of a halfdried pool or puddle will often give the richest
returns.
The filamentous Alge (such as the Confervacea,
Zygnemacee, and Vaucherie) are generally the first to
strike the attention of the collector, partly on account of
their mode of growth, in large tufted masses, and partly on
account of their bright green colour, so like that of the -
Phanerogamia.* It is best, therefore, to make our first ac-
quaintance with these, and through them with the more
minute members of the order—the Diatomacesz, Desmi-
_diaceee, &c., numbers of which are generally to be found
adhering to the entangled tufts of their more gigantic
relations. 'The rest may be made out by degrees, as the
necessary amount of observation is given to them. eae
To avoid needless repetitions, we will commence by
offering some suggestions which will be found useful in
collecting these plants. Asa general rule, the collector is
strongly advised to give his attention to everything that
can possibly be of the nature of an Alga; for, without the
- microscope, he will often be unable to decide what he has
before him. And if he is sometimes vexed at finding that
he has carried home some worthless object, he is at least as
likely to regret having thrown away from ignorance some-
thing of value,
* Many members of the Zygnemaceous family are especially con-
Spicuous, when viewed under the microscope or a good lens, on
account of the beautiful manner in which the cell contents are dis-
pesed. Instead of forming a simple uniform ground colour, as is
usually the case, the chlorophyll, or green matter, is arranged in
spirals of exquisite pattern. In a few species the serpentine band is
solitary, but, generaily speaking, there are from two to four spirais
interlacing and crossing each other at regular intervals. Figures 1
to 6, Plate 1., will help to illustrate the above remarks.—Ep,
OF THE ALG GENERALLY? 3
Green and brown excrescences on wood, slimy masses on
_ plants, pieces of wood and stone that have lain long under
_ water, layers of mud of a greenish or rusty brown colour
are things not to be passed by. Neither let him neglect to .
examine such matter as the outflowings from a manufactory,
or walls which have been moistened by the vapour issuing
from a steam engine; for, in situations of this kind, Alge
are often developed, which may otherwise be looked for in
vain except in hot springs. But, above all, the Algologist
should never forbear to collect an object under the suppo-
sition that he already possesses it. In the first place he
cannot be quite sure of this until he has placed it under
the microscope. Next to that, on the same batch of speci-
mens which have been polled early in the season, most
interesting parasites (as, for instance, Characium and
Hydrocytium) will often be found at a later period.
Lastly, it is actually necessary to examine certain species at
different times of the year, if the development and fructi-
fication are to be satisfactorily determined. Let it then be
an axiom with the collector of Alge, to take care to
gather always more, rather than less, than he actually needs.
With regard to the fittest season for collecting water-
weeds it is sufficient to observe, that they are to be
‘Obtained at all periods of the year, not excepting the
winter, many of the Diatomacez showing themselves to
be perfectly indifferent to extreme changes of temperature.
At the same time increase takes place most largely in the
spring. On the other hand the autumn is the best time
_ for gathering Desmidiacee. In fact, the periods of vege-
tation vary considerably. ‘The species of Ulothrix, for
instance, occur only during the early months of summer,
and then vanish almost entirely. Again it is requisite to
observe, whether Algw are constant in any given spot, or
whether (as is often the case) they appear there for a
time only, and then disappear altogether. Thus I have
noticed Hildenbrandtia rosea, CEdogonium fonticola, and
Batrachospermum moniliforme developing themselves,
B 2 :
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4 OF THE ALGEZ GENERALLY.
season after season, in the same situation; while other
species, which were at one time just as abundant, have
entirely vanished, without any apparent reason. ‘Take, for
example, Hydrodictyon utriculatum. It is quite astonish- |
_ ing in what abundance this species will suddenly fill some ~
pond or ditch, at times almost obstructing the flow of
water, only to disappear again after a while without
leaving a trace behind, So that, if a person is anxious to
gather a large number of specimens (for the sake, say, of
making exchanges), he must be careful to do so while he —
has the opportunity, and not leave them to a future period,
under the idea that they will await his convenience; for .
he is likely enough in that case to deceive himself, and, on
returning to the piece of water, to find only emptiness, —
where, the year before, there was superfluity, It is far —
better to secure the requisite number of examples on first
coming across the species; indeed, if necessary, the whole
stock may be taken, as there 1s little likelihood of extir-
pating any kind of Alga.
What few implements are needed in the collection of
Alge are neither complicated nor expensive. The following
will be found useful :—
: pe. small 3 iron or tin ladle, two inches across, fig. 7.
About one-third of the circum-
Fig. 7. ference on the right hand side
is provided with a number of
teeth, three lines long, and bent
inwards. <A short hollow handle
projects from one side of the
ladle, whereby it may be at-
tached to a walking-stick.
This little instrument serves
to fish out plants which lie be-
yond arm’s length; and the
teeth may be usefully employed in entangling small species.
which occur on the surface of the water, such as Rivulariz, |
Cylindrospermum, &c.
OF THE ALGE GENERALLY. 5
2. A tiny sieve, such as is sometimes suspended from
“the mouth of a teapot to intercept the minute portions of
the leaves. It must be of very fine wire, and provided
with a handle. Its use is to secure floating masses of |
_ Desmidiacez, Limnochlids, &c.
__ 8. A common iron spoon is convenient for lifting with
eare the upper layers of mud, where there is reason to
_ suspect the presence of Diatomacez and Desmidiacez. |
4, Where Characezx are likely to be met with, or, indeed,
| for dredging purposes generally, Caspary’s rake is an
admirable instrument, fig. 8. It is made of iron, and is
of the following dimensions:—Length, a, b, ten inches;
width, ¢c, d, from the point of one tooth to the opposite
point, three and three-quarter inches; distance between the
points of the teeth c, e, three-quarters of an inch. The
handle, 7, 9, terminating ina ring, to which a stout cord
may be attached, is five inches long. The weight of the
Instrument must not be less than “two or three pounds;
-if lighter, it is apt to jump over slight obstacles at the
bottom of the water, and thereby miss the object to be
caught. The length of line, which should be about the
thickness of a finger, must of course be adapted to the
depth of the water. An Alpine lake frequently requires
as much as eighty or ninety feet. For convenience
6 OF THE ALGZ GENERALLY,
of carriage, the teeth of the rake may be enclosed in a
wooden channel (just as a crosscut saw is generally
carried), and the rope tied round and round it. It isa
mistake to fix the rake into a long handle (as is sometimes
done), not solely on account of the difficulty of transport, |
but because it can only be used: in water of moderate
depth. Moreover, it is by no means easy to fix the in-
strument with sufficient firmness into the wooden handle,
and it is consequently liable to be lost, if it meets with an
obstruction of more than ordinary size. :
5. A sufficient quantity of oiled paper, or some similar
material, such as waxed cloth, or india-rubber or gutta-
percha sheeting, in which to fold up the specimens, and
prevent the water from draining out. Several small
parcels can be packed in a larger piece of sheeting, and
these again placed in a bag, to be carried across the
shoulders.
6. A number of small bottles with wide ete for
the purpose of holding Diatomacez, and similar minute
specimens. Cork stoppers are to be preferred to glass,
as the latter are apt to get loose and fall out from the
constant friction of sandy particles, whose presence it is
impossible to avoid. Besides, glass stoppers make the
bottles both heavier and more expensive, without any
‘corresponding return. ‘The bottles may be safely carried —
in the breastpocket of a coat—that is, for short expeditions.
For longer journeys, and on occasions where many bottles
must be carried, it is best to provide a kind of knapsack,
not too large, in which they may be laid, one against the
other. To prevent shaking or breaking, some paper or
strips of pasteboard may be laid between each bottle.
7. Lastly, it is of the utmost importance to be pro-
vided with a good lens, or a pocket-microscope, so as
to be able to distinguish in a moment, and on the spot,
useless from useful matter.
There is no need to recommend a stout walking-stick
and a pocket-knife, as no sensible botanist would think of ©
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OF THE ALGE GENERALLY. : 9
going on an expedition without being provided with both
the one and the other. The Ge especially is indis-
pensable to the Algologist, as it forms a ready handle for
his ladle and sieve.
With these few instruments the collector of Alger is
prepared for his outdoor work. A tin vasculum, such as
is commonly used in gathering Phanerogamia, need not
be rejected; still it is by no means a necessity, because
_ the Alege are sufficiently protected by the waterproof paper
or sheeting. Nor are they of the same fragile nature
as the higher plants. Besides, a considerable portion will
_be contained in the bottles. At the same time, however
' carried, care must of course be taken not to squeeze the
_ specimens too closely together.
As soon as the stock of specimens is brought home, the
first business of the collector will be to place them (each
species by itself, as far as may be) in glasses of water
— (which should be, if possible, quite soft), in order to keep
_ them fresh until he is prepared to examine them. Many
_ Species may be preserved in this way for several days
_ without spoiling, especially if the water in which they are
_ placed be in some quantity, and is changed every day.
_ Others however, the Vaucherize for instance, perish very
quickly, and cannot be preserved for long. hee there-
Penny I es hay ete
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fore must be attended to first. But even when any of
these are completely lost, it is well not to throw them
away until they have been carefully searched for Diato-
_Iacez, many of which will survive the decay of the plants
_ to which they were clinging when first removed from the
water. A small quantity of muriatic acid may be poured
into the glass, as this has a tendency to check putridity,
and then the Diatomacez may be separated at leisure.
If from want of time, distance from home, or any like
cause, the specimens collected cannot be at once prepared,
the best plan is to place them. in a bottle, and pour over
them a quantity of gin, which may be procured almost
anywhere. It is true the alcohol destroys the colour of
10 OF THE ALG GENERALLY.
the plants, and turns them yellow or brown; but even
that is to be preferred to losing them altogether. At
the same time the collector should not forget to note the
fact of their having been immersed in alcohol, otherwise, —
if exchanges are made, strange mistakes may arise as
to the original colour of the specimen.
As may be supposed, plants which have grown in os
flowing streams are more liable to decay after they have
been gathered, than those whose home is the stagnant
pond or marsh, since the conditions of life in the latter are
not so much interfered with by their removal; indeed, they |
will often continue to live and vegetate in a room, provided
attention be paid to. the chemical quality of the water in
which they are found.
As this little work is intended for the collector and not
for the systematist, nothing will here be said with regard
to the genera into which the Alge have been divided.
‘That portion of their history must be sought for in other
works, though of course in this, as in every other depart-
ment of Natural History, an coe knowledge of both
genera and species is essential to the student. But, for
convenience sake and to avoid repetitions, we will, in the
following pages, confine our treatment of the subject to
certain heads, corresponding in some degree to the natural —
- divisions of systematic authors.
| Having given on a preceding page one or two examples
of the lovely patterns which distinguish some of the fila-
mentous Algew, it will not be amiss to insert here some
specimens of the families of Diatomaceze and Desmidiacez.
The figures will assist the young student in discriminating
the members of these minute, but important, divisions of
the vegetable kingdom ; they will also help to point out to
him what wonderful treasures lie within his grasp, ready to
be seized as soon as his eye and hand are sufficiently
edueated to make them his own. In the accompanying
Plates (11. 1. Iv. v.) the Diatomacese are represented by
figures 9 to 14, the Desmidiacee by figs. 15 to 23.—Ep. |
OF THE DIATOMACEA, 11
CHAPTER IL
OF THE DIATOMACES.
THESE TINY MEMBERS of the great vegetable kingdom are
generally the first to engage the attention of the collector,
for their distribution is almost boundless. I suppose there
is scarcely a single piece of water anywhere which does
not contain at least some individuals of the commoner
species. They are to be found alike in the lake that
crowns the mountain-top, and the swamps and peat-beds
which fill the lowest valley ; in the water-course employed
to irrigate the meadows; in the broad ocean and the
shallow puddle left by the overflowing of a ditch. The
brackish water, where the tidal river meets the sea; salt-
works and salt-pits; even inland lakes, which have a trace
of salt in them —each affords a rich variety of characteristic
Diatomacee, varying according to the chemical quality of
the water.* They are to be frequently found also on rocks
and masses of stone, damp from overhanging trees, or from
the constant trickling of water. There they nestle among
the tufts of moss, or the layers of Oscillatorie; or, in
company with other minute Alge, form a slimy mass of a
brown or olive green colour on the face of the bare rock.
Never let the collector pass by a spot of this description
without giving it a close examination. He will be often
rewarded with some of the rarest and most lovely species.
_ * Tt is quite astonishing what a slight infusion of salt suffices to
fix the character of the Diatomacez. For example’s sake I may
mention a lake in Hungary, and some pieces of water in Southern
Moravia, which contain an inappreciable quantity of salt, neverthe-
less the Diatomaceous forms answer exactly to those usually found
in brackish water.—J. N.
12 OF THE DIATOMACEA.
In any case he is tolerably sure to come across good speci-
mens of other Cryptogamic orders.
The fact that the separate valves of the Diatomacee are
protected by an almost indestructible coating of silica,
allows of their being recognised years after the organism
itself has ceased to exist, as may be seen in almost any
dried-up pocl. Nay, countless ages may pass away, and
still the valves, on being brought to the light of day, will
exhibit their delicate markings as clearly as though the
hand of the Creator had sculptured them but yester-
day. Numerous deposits of these peculiar Algee are to be
found in different parts of the world. It is sufficient to
mention San Fiore in Tuscany, Franzenbad in Bohemia,
and Berlin, as well-known examples. This remarkable
quality of endurance naturally leads us to look for traces
of their presence in localities where we should not usually
search for the Alge. Guano, for instance, is rich in
beautiful forms. Dwellers by the seaside may furnish
themselvés with numerous species, which vegetate in the
unknown depths of the ocean, by a microscopic examina-
tion of the contents of the stomachs of fishes, mollusks,
and meduse ; a task not much to the taste perhaps of the
beginner, but one which we would recommend him to
undertake boldly, as he is sure to meet with a rich
return. |
So minute are the Diatomaceer, that, with few excep-
tions, individuals escape the eye of the collector altogether,
save when armed with a microscope or powerful lens.
Still he should never hesitate to carry off a supply of what
may, at first sight, appear to be worthless matter. For
oftentimes he will find examples of most interesting species
in gatherings which, to the naked eye, seem entirely desti-
tute of vegetation, and, for the sake of these, he must be
content to draw a few blanks in the vegetable lottery.
It is rare, indeed, to find Diatomacez in any quantity
free from admixture with other members of the Algz, and
uncontaminated by mud and sandy particles. Generally.
_ OF THE DIATOMACER. ~ 433
| Speaking, the cleanest specimens, by which I mean those
best adapted for immediate preparation, are the filamentous
_ genera of Melosira, Odontidium, Fragillaria, and Schizo-
nema; also certain parasitical kinds, such as Cocconeis,
Achnanthes, Synedra, Gomphonema, Licmophora, &c.,
which often cover the plants to which they are attached
_ to such an extent as to hide the original form.
With regard to the fossil Diatomaces it is a singular
fact, that although they exist in such countless quantities,
they are nevertheless ranged under a very small number
_ of species. |
As in the case of the Alex generally, the outfit required
for gathering Diatomacee is of the simplest kind. A
common iron spoon, to scrape the surface of mud; a few
small bottles, wide-necked and cork-stoppered ; a quantity
of oiled paper, or some similar material. With these few
articles the botanist may safely commence an expedition
‘in search of these minute plants.
| The collector will often come across likely-looking spots,
lying beyond the reach of his arm; perhaps a mass of
| Weeds in the middle of a wide ditch, or a tempting hollow
at the base of a steep slippery bank. To meet this con-
tingency, he should provide himself with an ounce vial,
broad-brimmed and wide-mouthed, and, besides, a stout
India-rubber ring. The bottle, when required, can be
easily attached to the end of a walking-stick by means of
the ring (as shown in fips, 24 Pilates), and then w=
‘serted among tufts of Alge, &e., at some distance from the
‘side of the pond or stream.—Ep. |]
a
14 OF THE FREE DIATOMACES.
CHAPTER III. ee oe
OF THE FREE Es
THE Diatowscrz may be conveniently divided into two
classes. the free species, or those which have an indepen-
dent existence ; and the stipitate, or such as are attached to
other objects, generally the larger Alge, by means of a _
stalk. This kind of classification, though purely arbitrary,
is not without a certain importance, so far as the purposes —
of collection and preparation are concerned ; for, as it is
one of the main points in a well-ordered herbarium to
retain the natural habit of each plant, we must not over-
look the various modes of growth to which the Diato-
maces are subject.
{ Acting on the Horatian maxim, that
‘Segnius irritant animos demissa per aures,
Quam que sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus,’
I add here a few examples of the two classes of Diatoms
_ referred to above. Figs 25, 26, Plate v., represent members
of the ‘ Free’ genera, Navicula and Pinnularia.
- In these it will be seen that each plant is a separate and.
independent individual ; whereas in those which follow,
individuals are attached. together, or to some other body,
either by a slender cord, or by a stem, from the ends or
sides of which they are produced ; in other words are
‘ Stipitate :” for these see Plates vi. and vil.
A third form includes the Frondose species, or those in
which numerous individual frustules are enclosed in, and
held together by, a coating of gelatine; bearing, in this —
state, a strong resemblance to the frond of a tiny seaweed.
Figs 31 to 34 (Plate vi.) belong to this group.—-ED. |
PLATE II.
li
_~il
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9. Toxonidea Gregoriana. 11. Amphiprora maxima.
10. Donkinia carinata. 12. Diadesmis Williamsonii.
3
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OF THE FREE DIATOMACES. 17
' The free growing members of the family (or those
which are in no sense parasitic) are found entangled
among the tufts of filamentous Alge, Oscillatorie, Mosses,
&c.; or we see them below the surface of the water,
wherever the soil, or a stone, or fallen leaf, is stained with
a yellowish brown hue. In the latter case the colour is
almost invariably due to multitudes of Naviculaceee and
Nitzschiz, genera which usually prefer shallow spots, only
a few inches deep, though occasionally they occur in
considerable depths, as for example in Alpine lakes. In
swiftly flowing streams they become more scattered, and
numbers of them remain suspended in the foam, consequent
on the water beating violently against stones and other
obstacles, and thus may be easily collected without any
admixture of sand and mud. In like manner they often
rise to the surface with the bubbles of gas, which are
disengaged from water-plants under the influence of the
sun’s rays. Whenever these foam bubbles are seen to be
tinged with a brown colour, the collector knows at once,
that they are charged with numerous specimens of the
plants he is in search of, and he has only to skim them off
into a wide-mouthed bottle to be sure of ample materials
fur study on his return home. Those individuals which are
eaught among the filaments of Algew, or Mosses, must be
gathered with the latter, care being taken to drain as little
moisture as possible from the tuft, lest the Diatomaceze
escape with it. Let the whole mass be carefully laid in
oiled paper, and on afterwards washing it in clean water,
the lesser Alge will be disengaged from their temporary
nidus, and after a while sink to the bottom of the vessel,
when the superfluous water may be poured off. If it is
desired to dry the sediment at once, this can be managed
by filtering it through some fitting material. _
It is less easy, however, to separate them from the
Oscillatorie, because the latter are so fragile, that it is
almost impossible to prevent numerous fragments of their
filaments from being mingled with the Diatomacee. To
. C
18 OF THE FREE DIATOMACEA.
get rid of these, the objects to be cleaned should be placed
in an evaporating dish of porcelain, or in test tubes (such
as are used in chemical laboratories), into which some
strong mineral acid—muriatic or nitric—has been pre-
viously poured, and the whole suspended over a spirit-
lump. By this means the fragments of Oscillatoria and
other organic matter will be dissolved, leaving a residuum
of the silicious coats of the Diatomacez (which are
practically indestructible), and also whatever flinty par-
ticles of sand may have been introduced: these latter
can be got rid of Uy washing, in a way to be presently
described.
During the boiling which ensues, means must be taken
to let the vapour escape that rises from the heated acid,
by placing the apparatus, for instance, on the hob of a fines 3
grate, so that the steam may be carried up the chimney.
If this precaution is neglected, serious damage is likely to
ensue to articles in the room, the lenses of a microscope
will be spoilt, and any metallic substance 1s sure to be
tarnished, not to mention the injury that may be done
to the observer himself, from imbibing the poisonous —
vapour.
How long the boiling should continue can be determined
_ only by practice and experience; a few minutes are gene-
rally sufficient. Sometimes, however, a second application
of acid is needed, before the whole of the organisms are
dissolved. The best test, perhaps, of this having been
accomplished is the clear bright appearance of the acid
that remains in the tube or saucer, and then the Diatoma-
ceous valves may be considered as thoroughly cleansed,
To clear them of the acid, empty the mass into a tolerably
large glass of pure water, and allow the Diatomacez to
sink to the bottom. Immediately pour off the water,
taking the utmost care not to disturb the sediment, and
introduce a fresh supply, which must, in its turn, be
poured off, and the glass refilled. This should continue
until a strip of litmus paper ceases to be tinged with a
OF THE FREE DIATOMACE.? 19
reddish hue; a proof that not an atom of the acid is left in
the glass.
The greatest attention must be paid to this cleansing
process, for, should it be carried out carelessly or incom-
pletely, the valves, on account of the acid still clinging to
them, will make very imperfect preparations for the micro--
scope. Supposing, however, that all has been done as it
should be, the flinty coating of the Diatomaceze suspended
in the water will be seen to give it a sort of flickering
appearance. ‘Time must be given them to settle on the
bottom of the glass, and then they may be passed through
the filter and dried; or, if not wanted immediately, they
may be kept in alcohol for future observation.
The species which lie on the surface of mud must also
go through a process of cleansing, for it is exceedingly
difficult to collect them in so pure a state as is needed for
a really good preparation. ‘They can rarely, in fact, be
gathered without a large infusion of sand and earthy in-
eredients, though, of course, the more careful the col-
lector is in taking them up, the less will be his trouble
and anxiety afterwards.
Generally speaking, these species appear as a yellowish
brown deposit at the bottom of the ditch or shallow pond
in which they are found. ‘The finer the weather and the
brighter the sun, the richer and more conspicuous is this
deposit, because these circumstances are favourable to the
vegetative powers of the Diatomacer, which then move
with considerable activity, and draw themselves towards
the light, forming a thin layer, which may be lifted
carefully off the surface of the mud with an iron spoon,
and dropped into a wide-mouthed bottle. Sometimes,
under the influence of the sun’s rays, causing gases to
bubble up from the underlying mud, myriads of these tiny
plants are caught by passing fragments of Oscillatorize and
other weeds, are raised to the top of the water, and may
then be secured in a perfectly pure condition.
When however, as is more usually the case, earth and
| c 2
20. OF THE FREE DIATOMACEA.
sand are mixed with the captured Diatomacee, the former
must be got rid of by the process of washing alluded to
just now.
os
There are different arrangements for effecting this; in —
the simplest, a few wine glasses are all the apparatus needed.
Empty the contents of a bottle into one of these, and
shake them well together. Let the glass remain at rest
for a short time, until the heavier particles have sunk to
the bottom ; then pour the water slowly and carefully into
another glass, and the Diatomacez and other light bodies
will be carried with it. As some of the material might be -
lost by clinging to the outside of the glass, in consequence
of the slow passage of the water, it is a good plan to smear
the edge with a little tallow or suet: this will cause the
water to flow in a steady compact stream. Now let the
vessel be quite still as before, so as to allow of the heavier
ingredients once more subsiding, and again decant the
contents, leaving the residue in the glass. This process
may be repeated again and again, until the Diatomacez are
entirely purified from all admixture of mud or sand.
Indeed, by the same mode of proceeding, the larger species
may be effectually separated from the lesser; because,
owing to their weight and form, certain kinds are sure to
-reach the bottom more quickly than their lighter com-
panions. ‘The clearer the water appears to the eye, so
much the longer must the glass remain at rest, because, in
consequence of their smaller specific gravity, the lesser
species take a longer time to sink. Lastly, the separate
deposits are to be examined under the microscope, and
their contents filtered and dried.
The plan recommended by Okeden is rather more
complicated than this, but is perhaps more effectual in the
end. The gathering of mud and Diatomacee is emptied
into a tall narrow vessel—a champagne glass for instance—
into which water has been poured to the depth of two
inches, and is then to be stirred with a glass rod. The
vessel is left quiet until the more solid particles have
OF THE FREE DIATOMACES. FI
separated themselves, and sunk to the bottom. This will
take place in about half a minute. The fluid is next
| carefully decanted into a second glass, and the amount of
water lost made up, the same process being gone through
five or six times. ‘The sediment in the second glass now
contains all the Diatomacew and sandy particles, which
were too light to subside during the first half minute. To
separate these still further, this sediment is treated exactly
as was the original gathering, excepting that a longer time
is given if (say two minutes and a half), between each
decanting. In the same way the contents of the third
glass are sorted, only that a still longer period, not less
than five minutes, is allowed. LHvery glass now contains
samples of Diatomacez, mingled with earthy ingredients of
varying weights, the last glass having of course the
lightest. ‘To remove the foreign bodies altogether, each
mass of sediment is placed in turn in a short wide glass,
and about an inch height of water is poured over it, where
it is left for a minute or two. As soon as the whole of the
contents may be supposed to have settled, a rotatory
‘motion is given to the water, by moving the vessel with
the hand in a circular direction. The Diatomacez, con-
sisting mostly of thin plates or valves, are raised by the
agitation of the water to the surface, while, on the other
hand, the sandy particles being more or less round, are
- rolled upon each other at the bottom, and gradually collect
in the centre of the vessel. The fluid is now quickly, but
with great care, decanted into a second glass, where the
_ Diatomacez are allowed to subside. What remains in the
_ first glass may be again and again submitted to the same
process, until it is tolerably certain that not a single
Diatom has been overlooked.
In order to effect a separation of the different species,
by taking advantage of their varying specific gravities,
the following method, introduced by Munro, is excellent,
and has the merit of great simplicity. A glass tube,
three to four teet in length and half an inch wide, is
oF: OF THE FREE DIATOMACES,
suspended, or fixed, in an upright position. 'To the lower
part is attached a short piece of india-rubber tubing,
ending in a glass mouthpiece with a fine opening, and
provided with a kind of tap, known in Germany as a
‘Quetschhahn,’ which may be freely interpreted ‘ spring-
tap. * The Alge having been partially cleansed from
sand and dirt, the mass is poured into the upper opening
of the tube, and a short time being allowed for settle-
ment, the tap is opened, and a portion drawn off into a
glass. The tap being again closed, and a few minutes
allowed to pass, some more of the water is run into a ~
second glass, and so on, a longer period being allowed
between each opening of the tap, until the whole of the
* As this peculiar and most useful form of tap is, I believe, un-
known, or nearly so, to English Diatomolosists I append a short
Fig. 35. : ‘description. It con-
Fig. 36. A sists, as shown in
the accompanying
figures, of anelastic
wire bent round to
form two parallel
8B sides, which are
| again bent at right
angles to its axis, so as to cross one another,
and each ending in a flat button A, B. Its_
elasticity, when made to grasp the india-rubber
tubing, completely prevents the passage of a
fluid. If it is desired that the fluid should
escape from the tube, it is only necessary to
press the buttons A, B, upon which the two
sides separate to any required extent. On re-
leasing the buttons, they immediately fall back
to their former position, and the flow of liquid
is arrested.
This instrument (which may be procured at.
Mr. Baker's. 248, High Holborn) is greatly to
be preferred to the ordinary stop-cock for use
in washing Diatomacee ; being cheaper, more .
easily cleaned, and far less lable to get out
of order, or to be choked by sand or mud.—Ep.
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13. Triceratium striolatum. 14. Amphitetras antediluviana.
15, Closterium Liebleinii.
OF THE FREE DIATOMACER. 25.
fluid is received into several glasses. If now these are
examined, it will be found that they contain individuals of
different species, for the heaviest sorts sank first to the
bottom of the tube, and were the first drawn off, the
lighter swam longer on the surface of the water contained
in the tube, and were the last therefore to leave it.
Another plan, as ingenious as it is easy to put in
practice, is that recommended by Reinicke, the principle of
which is founded on the peculiar property, possessed by
the Diatomacez, of pressing towards the light. Having
collected a quantity of mud, which is seen to be overlaid
by a deposit of Diatomacez, it is spread out on a shallow
plate, a common dinner plate answers the purpose very
well. Upon this is laid a piece of thin linen, or canvass, or
cotton stuff, and sufficient water gently poured upon the
whole to cover it entirely. The plate is then left near the
window of a room in a clear light, or, better still, where
the full rays of the sun may fall upon it. The tiny
organisms immediately begin to creep through the meshes
of the overlying cloth, and, in two or three days, form on
it a thickish coating (free from all earthy matter), which
may be taken up by means of a camel’s hair pencil, and
laid upon a slip of glass. Of course this process is avail-
able only so long as the plants are fresh and full of life. If
left too long in the room, they lose their vitality, and must
-be got at by some other means. .Another point to be
remembered is, that it can be employed only with certain
Species, such as the Nitzschize and Navicule, whose move-
ments are perfectly free and active. There are numerous
genera in which the individuals have but slight inherent
powers of motion; these cannot be prepared after this
method.
Gerstenberger’s plan of propagating Diatomacee in
confinement, depends on nearly the same principle He
also spreads out the mud on a plate or shallow dish, and
places it near a window in the full light of the sun.
Stimulated by its rays, the plants begin to multiply
ree PO TN Ie MOE TT em oe) Ne Renna wey
ae
298
OF THE FREE DIATOMACEA,
rapidly, forming a brown layer on the surface of the mud.
As soon as a sufficient quantity is produced, the water is
carefully poured away, or (preferably in my opinion) is
Fig. 37.
drawn off by the aid of a small
glass syringe. The mass is now
to be swept up with a camel’s
hair pencil, and either deposited
at once on a slip of glass, or im-
mersed in clear water. The mud
remaining in the plate may be a
second time moistened and placed
in the sun, and the ccllection of
the Diatomacee repeated as be-
fore. By degrees, however, the
vitality of the little plants ex-
hausts itself, and it 1s necessary .
to revive their vegetative powers.
This may be accomplished by
creating for them an artificial
spring and winter. And there is, -
in truth, no difficulty in -pro-_
ducing these unseasonable sea-
sons! You have only to allow
the water to evaporate, and the
mud to become nearly, not quite,
dry. Then pour fresh water
over it, and once more the Dia-
tomacee break up, and vegeta-
tion commences anew. In this
way, gatherings originally poor
may be made to yield an abun-
dant supply of plants.
Another contrivance for obtaining the Diatomacez in a
pure state is the washing apparatus of Benning, fig. 37.
It consists of a glass cylinder, two feet six inches in
height and two inches wide, on one side of which four
holes are pierced, ¢, d, e, f, the lowest at four inches from
OF THE FREE DIATOMACE. a
the bottom, the others being about eight inches apart.
Each hole is provided with a short tube, of glass or gutta
percha, and a stopcock, or spring tap, so that water may
be drawn into vessels placed below, through either of the
holes, and in any quantity required. At the apex of the
cylinder a funnel, g, is placed, and to it isattached a narrow
glass tube, h, of sufficient length to reach almost to the bottom
of the cylinder. ‘To the lower extremity of the tube, h, a
kind of mouthpiece of glass is joined (a short piece of
india-rubber tubing will effect the junction), drawn out
into a very fine opening. Above the funnel, g, either
placed on a stand or fixed against the wall, isa tin vessel,
|, with a short pipe, &, leading into the funnel. This vessel
is for the reception of water.
The method of using this little apparatus is as follows:
—The Diatomacex, roughly freed from mud and sand, are
poured into the cylinder, a, 0, and immediately sink to the
bottom. The funnel, g, being replaced, the tap, &, is
opened, and water begins to flow down the inner tube, h.
The effect of this is to cause a grand disturbance among
the imprisoned Diatomacez, which are forced up the sides
of the cylinder, a, 6, the lightest of course being the
highest. On opening the uppermost, c, of the four side
sluices, the water, loaded with Diatomacez, issues into a
Wineglass, or some similar vessel, and this should be
continued as long as the fluid remains thick. As soon as
it appears clear and bright, let the next tap, d, be opened
(the upper one still being allowed to discharge its contents),
and the water caught in a second glass. ‘This second glass
will then contain all those Diatomacee which were too
heavy to rise to the level of the uppermost tap, c, but at
the same time too light to sink below the level of the
third tap, e. And so the process is continued until each
of the taps has been opened.
It will be well to bear in mind, that the flow of water
from the reservoir, 7, can be regulated very nicely, and the
quantity discharged lessened or increased, by means of the
a
EN Ee eee ee ee
28 | OF THE FREE DIATOMACE.
tap, k, leading into the funnel. The amount of disturbance,
also, to which the Diatomacee are subjected can be altered
at will, by having mouth-pieces of different sizes made for the
funnel tube, h, so that the apparatus is completely under
the control of the operator, and any degree of washing can
be given to the contents of the cylinder—the column of
water issuing from the funnel and the opening of the
mouth-piece below being made to bear a certain relation to
each other. |
The Diatomacez being now cleansed from all impurities,
the next step is to put them away in the herbarium. If
the quantity be sufficient, it 1s a good plan to lay them
(using a camel’s hair pencil for the purpose) on stout paper
or cardboard, and there let them dry. Should they be
wanted for examination under the microscope, it is easy to
take up a portion, about the size of a pin’s head, and lay it,
on a glass slide. If, however, the original supply is small,
the whole may be placed at once on a glass slide, protected
by a thin glass covering. The advantage of this method is,
that the object is always ready for microscopical observation
and comparison, and the same preparation may be examined
any number of times. Care, however, must be taken,
while laying on the drop, that the mdividuals are not too
crowded together, but that each one stands out distinctly ;
otherwise the passage of light is interfered with, anda dark
shapeless mass is all that meets the observer's eye.
The scientific value of each preparation is increased by
having at hand some specimens in a ‘ crude’ state, that is
to say, with the endochrome in situ, and not removed by
an acid. The difference between these two states is this:
when the valves have been submitted to the action of a
strong acid, the delicate sculpturing of the silicious coat
comes out, under proper illumination, In a marvellous
way; but the endochrome has entirely disappeared; the
plant is, in fact, a mere shell. In the other case, when
the individuals are not submitted to an acid, and are
examined in a fluid, the markings are scarcely visible;
OF THE FREE DIOTAMACE. > 29
very often they are not to be seen at all; but the contents
of the valves can be made out clearly enough. For this
Jast purpose, then, the plants should be put away in small
bottles, filled with very dilute alcohol. When required for
use, let the bottle be well shaken, insert a glass rod, and
some of the frustules are sure to cling to it, and be drawn
out. The drop may then be placed on a slide, and the
mixture allowed to evaporate.
If, as is often the case, especially with the fossil species,
the valves will not adhere to the slide, recourse must be
had to a very thin solution of gum arabic. By placing a
minute drop on the glass, and then immersing the specimens,
their adhesiveness is ensured. However, this plan should
only be resorted to in extreme cases, for the residuum left
by even the purest gum is very apt to interfere with the
beauty of the preparation, and to spoil the delicate markings
of the valves.
30 OF [HE STIPITATE DIATOMACES.
CHAPTER IV.
OF THE STIPITATE DIATOMACE.
to other bodies by a footstalk or pedicel, not only forms a
convenient ground of division to the collector, but has a
specific value in the eyes of the systematist. That this is :
so is proved by such genera as Cymbella (Agardh), and
Cocconema (Ehrenberg), Sphenella (Kitzing), and Gompho-—
nema (Avuet.), Achnanthidium (Kiitzing), and Achnanthes .
(Bory), which are respectively separated solely on this ac-
count. Cymbella and Cocconema, for instance, are precisely —
the same in form and appearance, except that the former is
free and the latter stipitate. So with regard to many
species of Synedra, great attention is paid to “the manner 1n |
which they are attached, some being adherent during the ;
whole term of their eee while others become free at
a very early stage. And a single glance at the genera
Podosphenia (Ehrenber 'g), Rhipidophora (Ehrenberg), and
Licmophora (Agardh), is sufficient to show how much of }
the characteristic differences existing among these plants is |
made to depend upon the existence and position of the
footstalk. j
The stipitate Diatomacez must naturally be searched for
in somewhat different localities to those in which the free |
species love to dwell. They are, in fact, to be found ad- |
hering to the larger Algee and similar water plants, often in —
enormous quantities, If the smallest atom of one of these”
loaded plants is separated from the parent branch, and |
carefully spread out, with the aid of a needle, on a glass”
slide, then allowed to dry, and submitted to the microscope, —
4
:
:
d
THE FacT that certain kinds of Diatomacee are attached
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ys - Huastrum oblongum (front view). 19. Micrasterias rotata.
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OF THE STIPITATE DIATOMACEZ. ae 3
a whole forest of parasitic Diatomacee will come into view.
The worst of this drying process is, that, in the species with
long pedicels, the connection between me head and the stalk
is almost sure to be broken, the former separating and falling
to the ground. ‘T'he only way to avoid this is to keep the
plants in a mixture of one part of alcohol to six parts of
water. The same solution is recommended asa preservative
for many species, which are united together and form a long
chain, as for instance Odontidium, Melosira, Diatoma, and
Tabellaria.
In searching for these minute plants, the collector will
often be guided by the reddish-brown tint, which colours
the Alez on which they are growing, and which betrays
their presence. ‘This is especially the case in the bright ~
- sunshine, when it often happens that tufts of weed float on
the surface of the water, upheld by the gases which have
been generated by its rays. The quantity of Diatomacee,
which are sometimes found on the larger Algze, is almost
incredible. Species of the genus Cocconeis (Plate vitr. figs.
38, 39) not unfrequently clothe Confervacee (for instance,
Cladophora glomerata) with a deep red brown colour, to
such an extent that not a trace is to be seen of the original
green tint of the Cladophora. The Polysiphonie and
Ceramia are not unfrequently so completely hidden under
masses of Synedra and Achnanthes, that in point of fact
they become, not independent plants, but the invisible
axis of a coating of Diatomacee! Others, however, of
the stipitate species occur more rarely. To secure these,
the collector must not forget to examine closely the
various filamentous Alge he may chance to come across
on his excursions, and to carry off a small piece with him?
He must be careful, too, not to overlook those plants
whose acquaintance he has already made earlier in the
season; for it often happens that a colony of Diatomacee
will fix themselves on an Alga late in the year, of
which not a specimen appeared when the plant was first
examined.
D
34 OF THE STIPITATE DIATOMACEA.
In many species (as, for instance, Melosira varians, Odon-
tidium mesodon, &c.), numerous individuals are united —
together so intimately as to form a sort of chain. These, —
on being detected, may be at once removed from the water,
Jaid on paper or glass, and dried. But this must be done
while the plant is still fresh, for, as soon as its vitality
ceases, the links of the chain separate, and the whole falls
into a mass of minute fragments. The connection, however,
may be preserved for a long time by immersing the plant —
in the alcoholic mixture mentioned above.
Another manner of growth observed among the Diato-—
macee is that of an amorphous mass of gelatine, or gelatinous-
tubes, enclosing numerous individual plants. Each tube or
sheath forms a kind of frond, adhering at one extremity to
the larger Alge, or some similar object under the water.
Of this kind are Encyonema, Homeocladia, Schizonema, and .
numerous other genera, in which the frond is persistent ;
while in Colletonema and Frustulia the sheath appears to be
of a more temporary nature; in fact, to be an abnormal
development due to the influence of some unknown causes,
rather than the regular growth of the plant. The beginner
will be better able to judge of the structure of this group
of Diatomacez by consulting Plate Ix., as also figures 31
to 34 on Plate vu.
Finally, in Gomphonella olivacea the stipes, or footstalk,
appears half dissolved ina kind of mucous matter, in ae
the wedge-shaped frustules are embedded.
Such “of the Algz as have been laid on paper may be
put away as soon as they are thoroughly dried, without
any further process but that of attaching a descriptive
ticket to each, of which more will be said hereafter.
Those, however, which have been laid on glass, must be
placed for preservation in a paper envelope. The shape of
this envelope is of sufficient importance to warrant a figure
and description, for upon it depends the future safe-keeping
of the slide. The latter, in fact, must lie so firmly in its ©
covering, that the tender plants may not be rubbed off in —
OF THE STIPITATE DIATOMACES. eS)
the unavoidable removals from the herbarium, or from any
accident to the papers in which they are contained. The
safety of the Diatomacez is best se
secured by making the envelope Fig. 43.
of the form annexed, fig. 43. The
slide with its deposit is laid on
the square, 0, face upwards. The
upper square, a, is carefully folded
over it, and the double square
thus formed is again folded over
the lowest part, c. The two wings,
d, e, being successively bent over pee
the whole, prevent the glass from
falling out at the sides. 2
Should the plants be of a pecu-
liarly delicate nature (as is gene- |
rally the case where they have
been subjected to the action of an acid), it is a good plan to
gum a strip of cardboard on each side of the central mass,
a, b, fig. 44. Upon these a loose piece of glass may be laid
whenever the specimens are put away, which may be taken
Fig. 44.
off when the latter are required for examination. J am not
sure that this arrangement of the covering glass had not
better be the general rule with beginners, instead of the
exception, because it ensures the safe keeping of the en-
closed Algee.
ee D 2
OO OF THE STIPITATE DIATOMACE.
If the contents of the slide are not likely to be disturbed,
after having been once deposited, or if the valves will not
readily attach themselves to the slide, it is better to cover
them at once and permanently with thin glass, drawing a
ring of Brunswick Black round the edge of the latter, to
exclude the air.
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4 5
OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIATOMACEZ. BY
CHAPTER V.
OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIATOMACEE.
BEFORE CONCLUDING my remarks on the Diatomacee I wish
to call the attention of the reader to the principal charac-
teristics by which they are distinguished from other mem- -
bers of the vegetable kingdom. ‘These are their form and
the curious markings of their silicious coats; and with
these, varying as they do in the most extraordinary
manner, the botanist should make himself thoroughty
acquainted.
With regard to the form of the plant, he must not be
content with a single view of the individual, however
favourable it may seem. Whichever side is turned towards
him, when the specimen is first placed under the lens, his
first object should be to roll and turn it on the slide, in
such a manner as to expose the other side also to view.
This is a difficult business with many of the species (those,
for instance, of Fragilaria) which are propagated in long
‘ribbon-like filaments, and which, from the flatness of their
outline, lie close against the glass. He must be prepared,
indeed, to give up a good deal of time, and to exercise no
little patience, before he accomplishes his object; but
‘practice and experience are sure to bring success in the
end.
As the language in which authors describe the two
aspects under which every Diatomaceous Alga ought to be
viewed is often obscure, the reader may get a good notion
for himself by the inspection of an ideal figure like that
which is here annexed, fig. 45. It represents a column or
cylinder, divided into several parts, and, by naming the
38 OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIATOMACEZ.
long cylindrical surface, a, 6, the ‘front view,’ * and the —
base, c, b, the ‘side view,’ t we see that the two aspects —
: bear the same relation, as do the long and short axes of the _
: cylinder, to each other. |
| Now, if we suppose the cylinder to be divided into
| several very thin sections, a d, d ¢€, e b, &c., in lines per- |
pendicular to its longer axis, it is clear that, so long as the
Fig. 45.
a
i rows of sections remain attached to each other, the cylin-
drical surface, a, b, appears to the eye of the observer the
largest, and is in fact the ‘front.’ But the whole aspect of the
object is changed as soon as the segments are separated
and placed apart, as f, g. Then the base exposes the ©
larger surface, h, and is really the ‘ front’ to the observer.
However, to avoid confusion, and to have fixed ideas in
reference to these parts, the base (or part through which the
‘knife passed in our imaginary section) is held to be the
‘side,’ while the name of ‘front’ is appropriated to the
part which is cut through, notwithstanding that the so-
called ‘ side’ may be more conspicuous and more frequently
exposed to view. As the Diatomaceze propagate them-
selves by self-division, thereby forming longer or shorter
rows of frustules, the diagram given above affords a fair
representation of the manner in which the frustules are
attached by their ‘sides,’ as the collector may easily satisfy
SS > eae
* This is the ‘primary’ side of Kiitzing and the ‘secondary’ of
Rabenhorst.
{ This is the ‘primary’ side of Rabenhorst, and the ‘secondary’
of Kiutzing; so widely do authors differ in their nomenclature.
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(empty frond).
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20. Cosmarium margaritiferum
21. Cosmarium margaritiferum
22
M2
OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIATOMACEA, 41
himself, especially in the early spring, when the process of
multiplication is being rapidly carried on. Melosira va-
rians, Odontidium, Fragilaria, and numerous other kinds,
are invariably produced in this manner, and are to be found
almost everywhere.
It is more difficult to represent the relation which these
two aspects bear to eachother in species with unequally
developed sides, as Cymbella, or in forms similar to those
of Biddulphia and Triceratium, Plate x. It may help to
guide the young botanist if he keeps in mind, that the
‘sides’ are the silicious membranes
which, from their enclosing the contents 7
of the plant, are more appropriately
named ‘valves,’ while the ‘front’ is the
frame or hoop, as it is generally termed,
which binds the flinty surfaces together.
It is on the valves (that is to say, under
a ‘side view’) that we more generally find those wonderful
sculpturings which serve the purpose, in a great measure,
of distinguishing the species. Perhaps the above remarks
will be made clearer by an examination of the annexed
fig. 48, in which a, 6 represent the two opposite surfaces
(valves or sides) of a Navicula, and ¢ is the frame (hoop
or front) which holds them together.
_In most cases the Diatomacez offer a valve or side view
to the observer, the front or hoop being completely out of
sight, or only visible as a narrow line or suture encom-
passing the valve. He is therefore compelled, in order to
get a full view of the hoop, to change the position of the
frustule by turning it round, which is best done while
the plant is immersed in water. If it has been already
dried, it should first be allowed to remain a short time in
alcohol to get rid of the air, which is almost sure to collect,
especially in the larger specimens, and mar their beauty.
This being effected, let the plants be placed on a stage
plate, a drop of water added, and the whole covered with a
Fig. 48.
SSW Zi
DSSS
Bs
24 ce
42 OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIATOMACEA.
glass.* The next step is to give an almost imperceptible
inclination to the covering glass by gently pressing one of
the edges with a fine mounted needle. This causes a tiny |
stream to flow under the glass, by which means the plants
are put in motion, and begin to roll over. Meanwhile the
object under examination must not be allowed to escape
from the operator’s view (a mishap which will inevitably
occur if the covering glass be too roughly handled), as it —
is often most difficult to catch sight of it again. Another
reason for exercising great care in the use of the needle is,
that in very flat species (such as Himantidium) the hoop ~
is So narrow as to form a mere suture. Consequently the
frustule, as it turns over, assumes an erect position for a
single second only, immediately resuming its former posi-
tion as the stream of water flows back; so that, unless
extreme care be used, the observer will scarcely ever
succeed in getting a front view. |
It happens occasionally that the plants themselves present
both valve and hoop to view, or that they rest against
some foreign body in such a way as to show them, without
any special manipulation; but these must be looked upon
as happy accidents.
If it is desired to make a drawing of these delicate
‘organisms, and I would strongly recommend the collector
to do so, this may be accomplished by means of the camera
lucida, or Sémmering’s mirror or steel disk. For a de-
scription of these instruments, and the method of using
them, I must refer the reader to works more peculiarly ae
voted to the microscope.T
The markings on the silicious valves of the eae .
* The thicker this covering glass is (in reason), the more conre-
nient is it for the operator; because very thin glasses are difficult to
manage, and the water is apt to overflow their edges, and dim the
surface. Of course the positive thickness of the olass must be
decided by the powers of the objective in use at the time. |
+ Micrographic Dictionary, Introduction, p. xix. ; or Beale’s ‘How
to Work with the Microscope,’ p. 20.
OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIATOMACEZ. 43
are not only very beautiful objects in themselves, but also
of great importance in the determination of species. They
are dependent on the presence of certain ridges, called coste,
which are connected with an inner membrane, and also of
numerous points, more or less fine, which dot the exterior
‘membrane. ‘These points, though sometimes scattered
‘about without order, are more usually seen to be in regular
series. Under a low power, the rows of points appear as
jines éxtending across or along the surface of the valve.
They are then called strie,* and, in determining species, it
is usual to speak of them under that name, although with
a very high power most, if not all, of the strie are resol-
vable into dots or points. The differences arising from the
fineness, approximation, and position of these strize con-
stitute the characteristics employed in fixing species. The
costa is always visible, even when the valve is immersed in
water; but to bring out the strie and points clearly is a
much more difficult matter. Before all things the contents
of the frustule must be entirely removed, or the latter will
not become transparent. Next to that it must be thoroughly
dried ; for, if the hollows on the surface of the valve con-
tain any moisture, the passage of the light is interfered with,
and the markings rendered indistinct, if not invisible.
Lastly, the resolution of the strie requires not only a
really good microscope, but also extremely careful and de-
licate manipulation, especially as regards the illumination
of the object.
In order to dry the frustules quickly and with safety, and
to free them from endochrome and other soft substances, they
‘may be exposed for a few seconds to a red heat, which will
entirely destroy all organic matter, will dry up any re-
maining moisture, and leave the silicious valves bright and
transparent. The heating is accomplished by placing a
* Tn fig. 48, the costa or vitta, or median line, is the central line
marked a, d. The striz are the lines radiating from the centre to
the hoop on each side of the costa. The central spot is named the
‘nodule. 3
44 OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIATOMACE.
quantity of the Diatomacez on a thin sheet of platinum, and
holding it over the flame of a spirit lamp. As soon as the —
foreign matter 1s consumed, the frustules.are to be removed
from the platinum, and spread out on the stage plate for —
examination.
It is sometimes more convenient, if the individual plants
are very minute and diffused through water, to employ scales
of mica in lieu of platinum. But care must be taken in the
selection ofthe mica, as not every piece that comes to hand
is suitable for the purpose. A piece must be chosen, which -
separates easily into flakes, 1s clean and pellucid, and does
not grow dim when exposed to extreme heat. Moreover, it
must not be too thick, otherwise the scales are apt to fly apart
during the process of incineration ; nor too thin, because, in
that case, it becomes dull and opaque under the influence
of the heat. Experience alone. can guide the operator in
choosing the right thickness.
When the frustules have been laid in a drop of water on
a scale of this description, the latter is to be held, by the
aid of a forceps, at some little distance above the flame, so
that the moisture may evaporate without boiling. Strict
attention must be paid to this point; for, should the water
_ be allowed to boil, the frustules are thrown on their edges
by the action of the air, as it is set free, and long dark
heaps are formed on the surface of the mica, like Lilliputian
moraines. So soon as the moisture is entirely dissipated,
the plate may be lowered into the flame, and there held.
At first the preparation assumes a black colour in conse-
quence of the organic matter becoming carbonised: in the
next stage it turns red, and finally white; a token that all
the foreign bodies have been got — of, and the empty
valves alone remain.
The period during which the fr arate should be expen
to this great heat 1s a matter of considerable moment, and .
must be carefully watched. Too short a time is insufficient
to destroy the organic substances, and the valves come out
dark and impervious to light. If the heating continues too
CF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIATOMACEZ. 45
long, the markings lose their sharpness to a great extent,
owing to a kind of glazing operation, which follows on the
melting of the alkalies contained in the water. On this
aecount distilled water should be employed, so as to avoid
the presence of calcareous salts as far as possible.
After this preparation, the frustules may be placed under
the microscope, where a most astonishing sight awaits the
eye. So wonderfully minute, however, are the markings
brought out by the incineration of the vegetable matter,
that, except in a few rare instances, they escape detection
altorether when the transmitted light is direct; that is to
say, when the rays falling upon the object are ‘paral lel to
the axis of the instrument. In most kinds of Diatomaceze
the light must be directed obliquely to the lines of striz,
before their minute structure becomes visible even with
the highest powers. Oblique light, it may be observed, is
obtained by thrusting the mirror to one side of the axis
of the microscope. ‘The diaphragm should be removed, to
allow free passage to the rays, when the latter will fall, so
to speak, upon the edges of the lines, and render them
visible. If this proceeding is skilfully managed, the whole
system of lines, of which some species possess several,
running in different directions, is brought under the eye of
the observer.
It is well here to remind the student, that, in order to
sharpen his experience and to accustom himself to the
detection of these minute points, he should provide himself
with what are commonly termed ‘ test objects,’ of which the
Diatomaceous family offer some excellent examples. For
the lower powers, those magnifying from 200 to 220 times
linear,* Pleurosigma attenuatum forms a good test; for
_* ‘When one dimension only of an object is taken into account,
viz. the breadth or diameter—and this is the ordinary manner in
which the magnifying power is taken—objects are then said to be
magnified so many diameters, or so many times linear. But objects
are reaily as much magnified in the other dimension, or in their
entire surface; so that the true expression of their amplification
46 OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIATOMACEZ.
the higher powers, Pleurosigma angulatum is a fair object.
In the former of these two, with direct ight, longitudinal
striz are seen; but, when the rays are thrown on it obliquely,
a second series of lines appears at right angles to the longer
axis of the valve. A threefold system of striation is dis-
covered in Pleurosigma angulatum by careful adjustment
of the light, viz. a set of lines perpendicular to the vitta,
and two other sets of lines running diagonally across the
valve in opposite directions.
The student will find on several of the plates examples
of ‘striation.’ I would refer him especially to Plates 11., v.
(25,226); vaie(38), KI. (49):
I need scarcely add that, in such delicate operations,
where the slightest displacement of the focus changes the
whole aspect of the picture, a steady hand and a sharp eye
are indispensable.
As the number and direction of the strie are variable
in the different species, though singularly uniform in in-
dividuals of the same species, they are most important —
elements in grouping these plants. For this purpose the
lines must be counted, an operation requiring no little
clearness of vision; indeed, it is well to give the eye a
thorough rest for some seconds before beginning. As a
' rule, striations showing forty rows or less in 1:1000 inch,
are managed without difficulty where the illumination is
rightly attended to, and the defining power of the objective
is good.* The case, however, is different with the finer
markings, and about these there seems to be the greatest
would be given by multiplying that in one direction by that in the
other, or by itself; 7.e. squaring the linear magnifying power.
This is called the Superficial measurement. Thus supposing a mi-
croscope to magnify 40 diameters, 40 x 40 =1600 would express the
magnifying power in superficial measure. (Micrographical Dict.
_ 448.)
* Of the two species of Pleurosigma mentioned above, P. attenua-
tum has 30 longitudinal and 40 transverse strie; P. angulatum, 52
diagonal striz in 1°1000.
PLATE Vi.
28. Amphitetras antediiuviana.
27, Isthmia enervis.
i a TC
OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIATOMACES. 49
confusion among authors, who give the most contradictory
estimates of the numbers contained in 1:1000 inch.
I think it is more than probable that, when the highest
powers are being used, secondary representations, or images,
of the strize appear before the eye, owing to a possible dis-
tortion of the rays of light, and that these images deceive
the observer, and induce him to note down a larger number
than really exists.
The coarser lines may be measured by means of an
ordinary stage micrometer; but, for the finer structures, an
eyepiece micrometer must also be employed. In either
case, the operator must not be content with a single obser-
on of the strie, but must reckon them several times, so
as to be able to draw an average, and get as near the truth
as possible.
As however the frustules, minute though they are, have
a certain thickness sufficient to interfere with their tran-
sparency, a special expedient must be resorted to to obviate
this inconvenience; otherwise the valvular markings can
never be seen so clearly as is needful in the operations just
spoken of. This may be managed by loosening the hold
which the hoop, or outside frame, has on the two opposite
valves, thereby setting them free, and enabling the observer
to view each one as a separate object.
To effect this, let the frustules be boiled in nitric acid,
to which chlorate of potassium is to be added in small quan-
tities. After the boiling has continued for about a minute,
they must be well washed in soft water, in order to get rid
of the acid. If this be carefully done, the intercellular
substance which binds the valves together is dissolved, and
the latter fall apart.
| For the various methods of mounting the Derinace a in
balsam and fluids the reader is referred to works specially
devoted to the microscope. There is the less need to intro-
duce the subj ect here, as it has been already exhausted in
Mr. T. Davies’ admirable manual, ‘The Preparation and
Mounting of Microscopic Objects.’ Hardwicke.—Eb. ]
E
50 OF THE DESMIDIACEZ AND SIMILAR MINUTE ALG&.
CHAPTER VI.
OF THE DESMIDIACEZ AND SIMILAR MINUTE ALG&.
WE NATURALLY pass from the lowly Diatomacez to their as
lowly relations, the Desmidiacez, since there is so much that —
is in common between them in regard to their being and -
their life history, not to mention that the methods of pre-
paration for the herbarium are in many respects identical. _
Speaking generally, the Desmids inhabit the same lo-
calities with the Diatomacew, with the single exception
that they are an exclusively freshwater family ; not a single
species is to be found in the séa. They are to be looked
for in bogs, ditches, and ponds, lying in bleak, exposed
situations, rarely in shady woods; some, as Closterium,
among the filaments of the Oscillatorie and Conferve ;
others, such as Palmaglea macrococca, on damp moss, or
the surface of wet rocks and cliffs. Boggy heaths, however,
are the spots where they mostly congregate, especially where
' Sphagnum abounds. Swampy places and patches of water
scattered over the bog, or shallow drains cut through it, all
afford a rich supply of Desmidiacee. They also love ditches
and holes in which, though the water itself is pure, the soil
is of a clayey nature; there they often vegetate in such |
abundance as to cover the bottom with a dense green film. |
The autumin is the best time of year for collecting these
plants, and the outfit necessary is much the same as in the
case of the Diatomacee. |
If the Desmids are in any quantity among the stems of |
the Sphagnum, the latter will have a slimy, jelly-like feel —
when grasped. Should the collector, on taking up a tuft of
the moss, have reason to suspect their presence, he should
let the principal part of the water drain away, though with-
OF THE DESMIDIACEZ AND SIMILAR MINUTE ALGH. 51
out pressing the Sphagnum with his hand, and then wrap
the tuft in a piece of oiled paper or oilskin, or better perhaps
india-rubber sheeting.
On reaching home the Desmidiacee must be waded out
of the Sphagnum into a glass, where they will speedily
settle on the sides and bottom, and then the water may be
slowly and carefully decanted. If the Desmids obtained
by this simple process are free from mud and sand, nothing
remains but to place them, with a camel’s hair pencil, on a
slip of glass, as was recommended to be done with the
Diatomacee.
_ When they occur as a green stratum on the bottom of a
pool or ditch, they may be taken up with a spoon and placed
in a wide-mouthed bottle, while the floating specimens can
be caught with the ‘tea sieve,’ described at p. 5. On
turning the contents of the phial into a white dinner plate,
the Desmids will, in a short time, collect on the surface and
sides, and then may be gathered up with a hair pencil, and
laid on a glass slide in a pure condition. A second
gathering may be made by pouring off the water and
earthy deposit, when numbers of them will be found still
clinging to the plate.
They may also be separated from mud and sand by
Okeden’s method, mentioned at p. 20; and the collector
has the additional advantage, in this instance, of having
them sorted into larger and smaller specimens.
In short, most of the arrangements in use for cleansing
the Diatomacez are equally applicable to the plants before
us, provided neither heat nor acids be brought into play ;
for the Desmids, having a membranous envelope entirely
destitute of silica, cannot withstand the action of fire, or
the corrosive operation of an acid, like the flinty coated
Diatoms.
The greater number of the Desmidiacee are free, as may
be seen from the examples in Plate x1. figs. 50 to 53.
In other cases we find several individuals grouped
ale in the form of a star or disk, see Plate x11,
E 2
52 OF THE DESMIDIACEZ AND SIMILAR MINUTE ALG,
In some instances, the individual is constricted in such a
manner, as to have the appearance of two valves united
together centrally: of these, fig. 58, Plate x11., isan example.
The reader will observe the same peculiarity of structure
in the figures ranging from 17 to 22, already given in Plates
Iv. v. Other species, again, are arranged i in long filaments ;
or ribbon-like colonies, fig. 59, Plate x11.
These filamentous Desmids generally yield very clean
preparations.
It will be seen that Hyalotheca is enveloped in a thick
coating of mucous matter: this is by no means a common ~
form of construction, though we find instances here -and
there, of which Spirotenia “condensata, Plate xu1., fig 60, is
an example.
The decayed remains of Sphagnum in peat bogs are
often rich with the empty frustules, well adapted for ex-
amination, though, from their dirty brown colour, and from
being mingled with the surrounding vegetable matter, they
are not fit specimens for the herbarium. Having lost the
bright green of the living Desmid, they are difficult to dis-
tinguish with the naked eye; in fact, they are mere empty
cases; but none the less welcome to the collector on that
_account, as they often give him opportunities of studying
the cell membrane, which he cannot get with specimens
better adapted for preservation. And here let me recom-
mend him to be always provided with plenty of phials on
his excursions, that each gathering may be kept apart;
otherwise he entails upon himself a vast amount of trouble,
when he comes to separate the species for preparation.
Many of the Desmidiacee will readily propagate when
kept in a room in a sufficient quantity of bog-water, thus
enabling one to get an abundant supply of clean specimens.
The plate, or saucer, in which they are placed, should be
covered with a sheet of glass to keep out the dust, and ta
prevent the water from evaporating too rapidly. How ever,
should the water get too low from this or any other cause,
the supply must be made up with rain or soft water, on no
aa
OF THE DESMIDIACEZ AND SIMILAR MINUTE ALGE. 53
account with that from a spring, as its ‘hard’ property is
sure to kill the plants. Care must be taken also not to ex-
pose the vessel to too much heat; in fact, it had better be
set in the shady part of a window, where it is screened from
the direct rays of the sun.
The student must not expect too much from this method
of multiplying the Desmids. It does well for a while;
but there is no doubt that, in the course of time, the
plants degenerate, and cease to be fair representatives of
the species.
[ The figures (61 to 70) on Plate x11. will give the young
student an idea of the manner in which the Desmids
propagate themselves. They are examples of the common
constricted species, Cosmarium botrytis.
In figs. 61 to 64 we see how the two portions of the
frustule gradually separate themselves, new cells forming
in the interior, which ultimately become perfect frustules.
This mode of propagation is known as ‘cell division.’ By
another method, called ‘ conjugation ’ (of which more will
be said hereafter), two frustules, which chance to lie near
each other, form a temporary union, and mingle their
contents together, figs. 66 to 69. The mass takes an
irregular form at first, but gradually assumes the shape
given in fig. 70, viz. a globe covered with forked processes
(a, 6). This globe, or sporangium, as it is named, gives
_ birth to new plants —Ep. ]
Where the observer is content to study the external
form only, the plan of simply drying his specimens on a slip
of glass is sufficient ; because, on re-moistening them, the
plants resume their former appearance. If, on the other
hand, he wishes to examine the peculiar arrangement of the
Chlorophyll), and the other contents of the cell, after the
object has been laid by, he must preserve them in some
fluid which will not alter their natural form and structure.
Much time also is saved by his having such preparations
ready to hand for comparison and observation. Moreover,
many of the smaller Conferve (such as Zygnema and
D4 OF THE DESMIDIACEZ AND SIMILAR MINUTE ALGA.
Spirogyra), whose characters depend entirely on the arrange-
ment of the cell contents, are destroyed in the act of drying,
their structure is utterly lost, and no soaking in water will
ever restore them. It happens too, sometimes, that we have
only a poor supply of some rare species, which gradually
disappears under too frequent examinations, and its pos-
sessor would gladly preserve the remainder once and for all.
Influenced by these considerations, physiologists have
‘applied themselves, from time to time, to the discovery of
some method by which these minute and delicate organisms
may oe kept unchanged for a lengthened period; but it
must be confessed, with less success than their industry has —
merited.
The great want which has marred all their efforts has
been a fitting medium; or, in other words, a fluid of such
a nature that the plant, when.immersed in it, shall not
become distorted, or indeed receive any appreciable change
for a long lapse of years, provided the cement enclosing it
retains its air-tight properties. The want of success, it
must be allowed, has not arisen from the positive evapora-
tion of the liquids employed (glycerine, chloride of cal-
cium, &c. retain their density for a very long time), but
from the method of employing them. Following a natural
law, the frustule, immediately upon being enclosed in its -
cell, begins to part with the water contained within itself.
And what is the consequence? ‘The surrounding medium
cannot take the place of the water, the primordial utricle*
contracts, the contents of the cell collapse, and the plant is
left as much changed and disfigured as though it had been
originally dried.
The botanical. world is, therefore, greatly indebted to
Herr Hantzsch, of Dresden, for his researches in this direc-
tion, which have resulted in discovering an arrangement
* The primordial utricle (primordial Schlauch of the Germans), is
the name given by Mohl to the delicate membrane which lines the ~
inner cell wall, and which encloses the protoplasm, or viscid fluid,
with granules intermixed, which forms the contents of the cell.—Epb.
PLATE VII.
29. Licmophora flabellata. 00. Fan of Licmophora.
OF THE DESMIDIACEZ AND SIMILAR MINUTE ALGE. 57
which completely supersedes the various unsatisfactory
plans hitherto adopted.
His method differs from all others in this, that he ad-
-vocates a gradual, not a sudden, application of the preser-
vative fluid, so that the action of endosmose may be in
some measure retarded, the adjustment of the difference of
density within and without the vegetable cell carried on
more slowly, and the consequent preservation of its
delicate structure ensured. For this purpose he recom-
mends the following composition:—3 parts of alcohol
(as pure as possible), 2 parts of distilled water, and 1 part
of glycerine. The specific gravity of this mixture being
nearly the same as that of water, it does not tend to con-
tract the primordial utricle. Now, if the water and the
alcohol be allowed to evaporate slowly, the mixture will
of course become proportionally denser, but quite gradually,
and therefore without any destructive influence on the
object. During this operation, the water is withdrawn from
the frustule, and the glycerine, which is not volatile, takes
its place, without causing any distortion whatever in the
plant.
To make a preparation, the Algez should be laid on an
ordinary slide, on which a ring* of the requisite size has
been previously drawn with “asphalt, the latter being
allowed to dry quite hard before being used. To make
assurance doubly sure, a drop of distilled water may be
laid on the frustule, and then a drop of Hantzsch’s fluia.
Should the latter, on examining the specimen, appear to be
acting too rapidly, water must be added to thin it. With
regard to this part of the operation it 1s impossible to lay
down specific rules, because the Algx, though all very
* These rings (Gf round) may be easily and quickly made, and
the cement afterwards applied by means of a Shadbolt’s turn-table.
Square spaces may be enclosed of equal size on any number of slides
by drawing a square of the required size on a card, placing the slide
over it, and painting it with cement.—Ep.
ST,
58 OF THE DESMIDIACEZ AND SIMILAR MINUTE ALGZ&.
sensitive to endosmose and exosmose, are so in different
degrees.
The slide must now be laid aside for wallet enieeck
with a bell glass, wine glass, or something of the kind, to —
keep off the dust, while the volatile portion of the mixture 4
is evaporating. On its being ascertained that the glycerine ~
alone remains, another drop of the liquid is to be applied,
and a second evaporation submitted to; and so, again and
again, until there is enough of the pure glycerine present
to fill the greater part, though not the whole, of the ring.
The time has now arrived for covermg the object with —
thin glass. Let a piece of suitable size be selected—the |
thinner the better; if it be too thick, the chance of ren-
dering the cell air- tight is lessened ; besides, a thick cover-
ing glass precludes the use of the highest powers of the
microscope. Care must be taken to clean it thoroughly,
just before laying it on, by washing in alcohol or dilute
liquor potasse, and drying with a soft cloth and leather.
Nor must it again be touched with the fingers, otherwise,
at every point of contact, a mark is left, to which the ce-
ment adheres with difficulty. :
The operator now seizes the thin glass cover with pincers,
lays a narrow strip of asphalt cement on one of its edges,
‘for about one-third of its circumference, and lays it, ce-
ment downwards, on the object. The glycerine forthwith
spreads out, and occupies the enclosed space. A gentle
pressure with the end of the pincers tends to fix the cover
in its place, and to force out all superfluous liquid, which
must be absorbed to the last atom by olotting paper, or a
soft cotton cloth. The best way (though of course nothing
but long practice can ensure it) is to apply, in the first in-
stance, only so much glycerine as will fill the shallow cell
without overflowing.
The slide must now be put away without being touched
for twenty-four hours, at the end of which time the strip of
cement will have dried, and will hold the glass cover in its
place. The work may, therefore, be proceeded with. The
OF THE DESMIDIACEZ AND SIMILAR MINUTE ALGAE. 59
first great need now is to see that not a trace of glycerine
remains outside the ring enclosing the object. Should there
beany, it must be removed thoroughly before any further
steps are taken. If satisfied that the glass is quite clean, a
line of asphalt must be drawn with a soft hair pencil
round the whole edge of the cover, so as to include it and
its place of contact with the slide. It must be done slowly,
and the slide watched, to see that no bubbles of air, or any
foreign bodies, are enclosed within the circle. This layer
of cement having dried, a second, third, and even fourth
may be added, until the preparation may be reasonably-
supposed to be air-tight. This may be most readily tested
by holding the slide between the eye and the light, and
seeing whether any part covered by the cement is trans-
parent, especially the corners, if the covering glass is
square. Any semi-transparent spot, or line, must be re-
painted with cement. The cement, it may be added,
should be very thin when in use. It is then laid on much
more easily, and tends to make the preparation more truly
air-tight. A thick cement dries badly, and is apt to crack
and chip off, especially during changes of temperature.
The preparation may now be considered complete. The
name and other particulars will of course be added, and it
may, if desired, be covered with ornamental paper. One
most necessary point must not be forgotten, that is, under
all circumstances, to lay the slide in a horizontal position.
If set upright, the contents flow to one side, get heaped
together, and eventually the fluid is almost sure, by its
weight, to force its way through the cement, and cause a
fatal leakage.
[ Since the above was in type, I have had the opportunity
of examining slides of Desmidiacezx, prepared in Dresden
after Herr Hantzsch’s method. Nothing can exceed the
beauty of these preparations; the form of the plant and
the colouring of the endochrome having undergone no
pone whatever.—Ep. |
_ As to the characters most worthy of observation, nearly
CQO OF THE DESMIDIACEEZ AND SIMILAR MINUTE ALG.
the same remarks as were made on the Diatomacee will ©
apply to the Desmids. In this case, also, both a front and —
side view should be obtained, in order to get a satisfactory —
knowledge of their form. Their markings differ essentially
from those of the Diatomacez; in the latter, they are
almost invariably depressions; whereas, in the present
order, they consist of elevations, warty and spinous pro-
cesses. They may be seen best in examples mounted dry, —
especially in such species as appear smooth and plane,
when immersed in a fluid. The chances are, that on drying —
these, some markings will become visible, as also in the
case of their silicious relatives. Oblique illumination will
often bring out fine points, which are not to be seen by direct —
light.
If, as not unfrequently happens, one hasa single gathering ~
only, and that a poor one, of some rare Desmid, it is better
not to wet the specimens, as they lie on the slip of glass,
but simply to breathe on them, and then cover them with |
thin glass. ‘The plants will imbibe sufficient moisture to —
swell out, or at least assume as much of their original form —
as 1s necessary for examination. On removing the cover,
they will again dry up, and may be replaced in the herba-
rium. In this way none of the precious material is lost, as
would be the case if it was constantly soaked in water.
The object, it is well to remember, must not be placed
under the microscope while uncovered, otherwise the
moisture rises by evaporation, and quickly dims the
lenses.
The student is recommended not to neglect making draw-
ings of the most prominent characters observed by him.
He will find them most useful afterwards for the permanent
preservation of some of the nicer shadings of the markings
on the outer membrane, and for comparison with the
figures given in works devoted to the subject. It need
scarcely be added that, in choosing specimens from which.
to make his drawings, he should take care to select as per-
fect examples of the species as he can find. There is no
OF THE DESMIDIACEZ AND SIMILAR MINUTE ALG&. 61
family in the whole range of the plant world which pre-
sents such a boundless variety of forms, and consequently
none in which mistakes and confusion may more easily
arise from neglect of this precaution.
- There are certain minute Algz (of which Aphanizomenon
is an example), members of ‘the Confervoid order, which
float on the surface of the water, forming a delicate mucous
film. These may be most conveniently secured by scooping
them up with the tin ladle described at p. 4, and pouring
them into a linen net. As the water passes away, the
Alge are left behind, and as soon as a sufficient quantity —
is obtained, they may be scraped off into a bottle, to be
conveyed homie.
The specimens of Aphanizomenon should be mounted
as speedily as possible (it is best done on the spot), because
the faggot-like bundles of filaments quickly separate and
fall asunder. If it is desired to retain the true habit of
the plant, it ought to be caught at once on paper, and
allowed to dry without delay. By exposing the dried
specimens for some days to the light and air, the yellowish
colour which they possessed during life passes into a
brillant green tint.
| Though scarcely to be pened among ‘collectors’
plants,’ I cannot omit mention of the Volvocinee among the
minute Algz placed, for convenience sake, in this chapter.
Their singular motions—for most of them move freely
through the water with the aid of cilia—their peculiar
forms, and wonderful modes of propagation, render them
objects of great interest to the microscopist. The figures
ia Plate x1v. represent two well-established genera of this
group of plants.—Hb. |
62 . OF THE FILAMENTOUS ALGA.
CHAPTER VIL.
OF THE FILAMENTOUS ALGZ.
ALTHOUGH there are many more filamentous Alege than —
those indicated below, yet for the purposes of the collector
we prefer to group together only the families of Confer-
vacee, Zygnemacee, and (Kdogoniacee. All these, with
few exceptions, inhabit the same localities ; in many respects
are very similar to each other; and are prepared for the
herbarium in the same way. To these may be added '
also the genera Batrachospermum, Ulothrix (a portion only), —
Vaucheria, Hydrodictyon, Calothrix, Tolypothrix, and Hy-
drurus. |
_ Almost all the members of this group are partial ta —
standing water, swamps, bog- -holes, and lilliputian bays, in ~
streams and ponds. The species of Zygnema are found
in clear cold springs, which they sometimes fill with their —
glossy green tufts. On the other hand, Cladophora, Ulo-
thrix, and Vaucheria take up their abode in rivulets and _
watercourses, where they attach themselves to stones and —
other fixed objects, and thus safely anchored, let their
long wavy filaments follow each motion of the stream.
For specimens of Zygogonium, Hormidium, Schizogonium,
Chroolepus, and some of the Vaucherie, the collector
must search, not the water, but the land-damp stones and
muddy ground, so that in their mode of life they are
exceptions to the great bulk of the filamentous Alge:
as are also the genera Chantransia, Microthamnium, Gon-
grosira, Chlorotylium, Coleochete, and Chetophora, which,
on account of their habit of forming close matted strata,
must be excluded from our ‘filamentous group,’ and be
treated of elsewhere.
PuaTE VITT,
50 iii JOD .
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90009099 00g
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ot Mastogloia Danseii. 34. Berkeleya fragilis.
32. Dickieia ulvoides. 38. Cocconeis major.
33. Dickieia pinnata. 39. Cocconeis nitida.
Wrafaiicse pice (UD boat
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*
OF THE FILAMENTOUS ALGE. 695
_ Those species which inhabit stagnant water throw out
numerous filaments, which becoming more or less en-
tangled and interwoven, cling together in cottony tufts.
The generality of these, when quite young (Spirogyra,
for instance) form a thick layer at the bottom of the water,
or at any rate float at some depth below the surface. At
a later season, however, when the plant is preparing for
fructification, or when, in consequence of its active vege-
tative powers, a large amount of oxygen is generated, then
the plant rises to the top of the water, and covers a wide
space with its outspread filaments.
To collect these species, the only instrument necessary
is the toothed ladle, attached to.a walking-stick. By means
of this any quantity of the weed may be fished out, by
simply moving the stick from right to left, the filaments
catching in the teeth of the ladle and being retained there.
When the Alga hes near the bank, it can, of course,
be gathered with the hand. If, on the contrary, its
masses float a long distance off, too far to be reached by
the stick, another plan must be resorted to. This simply
consists in removing the wooden handle and then tying
the ladie to a piece of string of sufficient length. ‘The
lidle may now be thrown among the weeds, and on being
drawn in some of them are almost sure to be clinging to
it. The plan may not be successful at first, but I have
invariably found that perseverance will bring SUCCESS.
Even at long distances and in deep waters I have rarely
been disappointed of the coveted treasures.
Let the water drain off before the specimen is put away
ia oilskin, and the draining may be aided by a gentle
pressure of the hand; but the collector must be careful
not to squeeze it too hard, for if he does he will lose what
Diatomaceze may be entangled in it; and, besides, the Alga
itself soon dies a corrupts \ when robbed of its natural
element.
A pleasing contrast to these entangled masses are the
eu feathery plumes which distinguish the species
F
66 OF THE FILAMENTOUS ALGZ.
inhabiting quickly-flowing streams. In most cases (es- :
pecially with the species of Cladophora) the plant must —
be gathered as near the point of attachment as possible—
the point, that is, corresponding to the root in a flowering —
plant; for, since the determination of the species depends
in great measure on the position of the main stem, its A
degree of ramification, &c., it is by no means a matter of —
indifference whether the whole plant or a mere fragment
be secured. This precaution is not so necessary with the —
Ulothricacez, as they consist of unbranched filaments. On ~
that very account they should be carefully collected with ~
the hand, not with the ladle, and then laid lengthways on —
a strip of paper so as not to disturb the filaments, which
adhere but loosely together, and are easily separated and
carried away by the draining off of the water.
If the tufts (as is often the case with the Vaucherie) are
dirty and discoloured, the mud and sand must of course
be washed off before the specimens are prepared for the
herbarium. They had better, however, be carried home
first, and thoroughly examined for Diatomacee. It will
be time enough then to cleanse away impurities, taking
pains during the operation to avoid entangling the fila-
ments, and to preserve the natural habit of the plant.
All the filamentous Alge may be laid out for ultimate
preservation on stout writing paper. The size of the
paper may be proportioned to the length of the object to—
be laid on it. In practice, however, I have found the most
convenient form to be as follows: Let a half sheet of
writing paper be cut longitudinally into three strips, and
let each of these be again divided across the centre. A
sheet of paper will then give twelve portions, each of
which is of such a size as to lie comfortably on the palm of
the hand. The plants having been well cleaned from
fallen leaves, twigs, decayed matter, &c., and divided into
several distinct portions, are allowed to spread themselves.
out on the surface of water in a large dish. One of the
portions is now taken out and made to float in another
OF THE FILAMENTOUS ALG. 67
vessel—a hand-basin is perhaps the best thing: at any
rate, the vessel must be of such a depth as to admit of the
whole hand being immersed, back downwards, under the
plant. Give a final touch to the specimen either with
a needle or with the fingers, to induce it to spread its
filaments in every direction equally, and to get rid of knots
and lumps. Then draw the piece of paper carefully under
the specimen, so that the latter floats immediately over
the centre. Spread the left hand under the paper, and
the whole can be lifted slowly. and cautiously out of the
water. It may be retained for a few seconds in this
position to let some of the moisture drip off, and then
laid just as it is on a packet of five or six sheets of blotting
paper.* In this way the whole of the specimens at hand
may be gradually disposed of. ‘The next step is to place
them under the press. For this purpose the little heaps
of blotting paper, each with its accompanying specimen,
are to be piled one above the other to any convenient
height, a sheet of stearine paper having been laid on each
specimen before it receives its load of drying paper. The
layers then follow each other in this fashion: 1. A packet
of blotting paper; 2. A specimen on white paper; 3. A
sheet of stearine paper; 4. A packet of blotting paper; and
so on, the uppermost layer always consisting of blotting
paper. ‘The whole pile is next to be laid between two
smooth boards of well-seasoned wood. [If to each of the
narrow ends there is attached a broad strip of the same
wood, but with the grain running in the opposite direction
to that on the board itself, it tends greatly to keep it from
warping, which the alternations of heat and moisture are
apt to induce. Much has been said of late years of the
advantage of using, not solid boards, but frames made of
parallel strips of wood, one inch apart, held together by
_ * The blotting paper should be white, free from knots and rough-
nesses, and as absorbent as possible.
F 2
68 OF THE FILAMENTOUS ALG.
cross bars. I mention the plan, but have had no experience ;
of it.—Eb. | 4
The plants are then to be subjected to the pressure of |
three or four bricks. J consider bricks to be preferable to |
stones or iron weights, on account of the handiness of their —
form and the ease with which the pressure may be regu- —
lated. For cleanliness sake they should be wrapped in ©
paper or linen; it is advisable also to sling them by cross 4
pieces of string with a loop in the centre.
Many botanists prefer an ordinary linen press to any
of these things, but such an apparatus is not always to be.
found when wanted. |
[| Others again givethe preference to a form of press, such ~
as is represented at fig. 82, Plate xv. a
As the reader will observe, cross-beams of wood enclose —
the boards used for drying, and are held together by four
upright iron rods. ‘The requisite degree of pressure is
given by tightening or loosening the screws, which are
placed at the top of the rods.—Eb. | |
After about twenty-four hours the preparations may be —
examined, and in case they are not dry, must have the
blotting paper changed, and be again placed under pressure.
A week will frequently elapse before the plants are fit to
be put away in the herbarium. It is the nature of almost
all Alge, when they are drying, to cling closely to the paper.
on which they he, and the use of the stearine paper. is to
prevent this from taking place during the time the plants
are being pressed. In my opinion, it is far better for the —
purpose than oiled paper, which was much in vogue at one
time, as the latter is apt to leave spots and marks on the
white paper to which the specimens are attached. Now,
stearine does not sully the objects with which it comes in
contact; and as the material itself is cheap and easily pre-
pared, it is much to be preferred to paper impregnated
with either oil or wax.
To get it ready for use, let fragments of a stearine candle
be rasped into shreds and strewn equally over a sheet of
OF THE. FILAMENTOUS ALG. 69
white blotting or printing paper. Cover this with a second
sheet, which is to be also strewn with stearme chips; and
so on, until five or six alternate layers of stearine and paper
have been deposited. Next, let a hot iron be passed over
the whoie; the stearine melts, and, forcing its way among
the fibres, renders the paper partially water-tight. No
attempt must be made to separate the sheets until the
stearine is cold and hard, otherwise they will cling together
and be spoilt. |
‘Where it is requisite to prepare large quantities of the
paper at one operation, the heap, instead of being ironed
by hand, may be placed ona tin plate in the oven, or imme-
diately in front of the fire.
After being used for some time, the stearine paper
(especially if the Algze with which it comes in contact are
wet and succulent) becomes more or less opaque, and the
plants are apt to cling to it. When this is seen to be the
case, all that is necessary is to pass a hot iron over it, and
the sheet is restored to its former condition.*
In preparing this class of Alge for the herbarium, no
special attention need be paid to peculiarities in the growth
of such as are found in thick heavy masses. On the other
hand, the habit of those which grow in long flowing tresses
must be carefully observed and retained. These last
represent, to a certain extent, the higher plants, from the
root to the apex, and must be treated accordingly. Care
must be taken, as I mentioned just now, to get a specimen
direct from its point of attachment to the stones or other
object on which it had passed its existence, and to carry
it home without bending or entangling its filaments. If
this precaution has been attended to, the tiny branches, on
* The Rey. D. Landsborough, in his ‘Popular History of British
Seaweeds,’ recommends a fold of muslin to be laid over the specimen.
He adds, however, ‘In shifting the specimens the second time, the
muslin coverings may be removed. When permitted to remain till
the plants are quite dry, there ig danger of their leaving chequered
impressions on the specimens.’— Ep.
pe OF THE FILAMENTOUS ALGA.
being placed in a vessel of water, will spread themselves —
out; and in this they may be assisted by passing a needle ~
several times through their entire length from base to tip.
Let the paper be oes very slowly through the water on E
the left hand, while the reot end of the plant is held firmly —
with the right. If the paper be slightly shaken, the fila~ —
ments will ‘expand themselves still more fully, and will be
prevented from rolling into a thick cord-like tuft along the
middle of the paper, as so often happens when the hand 1 As
raised too suddenly from the water.
Auerswald recommends a thin metal plate in lieu of the 4
hand for lifting the plants from the basin. As regards the —
smaller specimens, my own experience is not in favour of
this plan, because one can regulate the draining off of the 7
water so much more easily with the fingers than with any
mechanical appliance. With the larger Algz, on the con-
trary, I have found it an admirable method, as the flatness
of the plate prevents the paper from falling into folds and ~
wrinkles. If a metal plate is not at hand, the cover of a
cigar-box or any thin flat piece of wood makes an ex-
cellent substitute.
The fronds of Draparnaldia and Stigeoclonium (it is well
to bear in mind) are too delicate to allow of their being
' subjected to the press. Their filaments, after being removed -
from the water, may be still further arranged by the aid of —
a needle and hair pencil, and then the specimen should be
put on one side to dry.
Some species of Cladophora, which grow to a great
length, cannot be laid on paper of a manageable size. Itis ©
best in this case to give the plant a serpentine motion as it
is being lifted from the water. It can thus be laid without
difficulty along the edge of the sheet in an undulating
manner, then covered with the stearine paper, and pressed
as usual. In this way, at least one preparation may be —
made, which comes within the compass of a sheet of paper,
and yet represents fairly the natural habit of the plant.
The Zygnemacee, as previously mentioned, cannot be
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he (nev re — a lL Pre er Seep fe esters Se eee nnsintetirentrPnteesntceSankm ener ts nate Asmat A ms reece ee ath AIA A TR TERE OOO OP
40, Schizonema Grevillel. 41. Micromega helminthosum.
42, Colletonema neglectum. _
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i
re
OF THE FILAMENTOUS ALG. 73
treated like the rest of the filamentous Algz, because their
peculiar cell contents fall together and are lost during the
process of drying, nor can they be restored by moistening
them. These elegant Algz, therefore, must be preserved by
Hantzsch’s method. If, however, the student wishes to
have some specimens in a dried condition, they must be
treated in the way recommended for the most delicate of
this class of Algw. There is a circumstance, however, to
which I would call attention, because it is often looked upon
as the commencement of a failure. It is, that these plants,
during the process of drying, invariably lose the rich green
which distinguishes them in life, and become of a brown or
black colour, nor does the green ever return. It isa
curious fact, moreover, that the portion of paper on which
they have lain assumes a yellow tint on being soaked in
water.
With regard to searching for the filamentous Alge, a
few suggestions remain to be offered.
The different Vaucherie, Zygnemacee, and Cidogoniacee
can be determined only when in fruit; it is useless to gather
them at other times. The ripening of the spores is usually
accompanied with the development of an oily matter,
having a brown or reddish tint, which frequently gives a
| very pretty appearance to the plants. The red colouring
so often seen in Spheeroplea arises from this cause, the ripe
spores filling the cells in immense quantities.
The Zygnemacee at some periods of the year are found
in what is termed a state of ‘ conjugation’— that is to |
say, two filaments lying parallel to each other throw out
processes by which they become united together. The cell
contents of one filament are then discharged into the other
filament, and eventualiy become spores. Examples of this
singular mode of propagation are given in Plates x11. (figs.
66 to 69), xv. (figs. 83 to 85). To find filaments of this
description search must be made beneath the floating
masses. They may be distinguished as well by their light
a colour as by the fact of their having a slighter cohesion
v4 OF THE FILAMENTOUS ALG.
than is the case with the greener and more compact portions”
of the tuft. Specimens of the conjugating filaments should
always be obtained, if possible, as the characters of several | |
of the genera are based upon this curious phenomenon. I
may mention among others Mougectia, Mesocarpus, Pleuro- |
carpus, Craterospermum, Staurospermum, Rhynconema, and —
Spirogyra. In all. these the sterile filaments are of little”
service in affording generic characters, whereas (except
in the one mentioned last) the presence of conjugating
examples marks the genera at once, even after they are |
dried.
Another remarkable phenomenon, the so-called ‘ Swarm-—
ing Spores,’* common to all the filamentous Algew, is most
easily observed in the species of Ulothrix. The escape of
the Zoospores from the parent cell generally takes place in |
the early part of the day, and betrays itself even to the
naked eye by a green film which forms on the water's”
edge when the Algez are kept in a glass vessel. It may be
observed, too, in the Cidogoniacee, especially in Gidogo-—
nium fonticola, in which the swarming spores may be seen ~
at almost any period of the year. The cilia with which ©
these spores are furnished defy detection on account of the
almost incredible swiftness of their movements; but they
may be seen easily enough if a drop of solution of iodineT —
be allowed to work its way by capillary attraction under
the covering glass. As the solution mixes with the water,
it paralyses and finally kills every object of an organic —
nature with which it comes in contact. While this is —
taking place, the observer must keep his eye fixed upon the ~
dying spores, applying a rather oblique—at any rate not —
too bright—illumination, and then he will see the glistening
threads as they swing to and fro.
Many of the Cladophore, Conferve, and (Edogonia, :
* It takes its name from a fancied similarity of the movements of —
the Zoospores in the parent cells to the swarming of bees.—Eb. 3
{ Either iodine dissolved in alcohol, or an aqueous solution of
iodide of potassium.
OF THE. FILAMENTOUS ALGZ. 7)
exhibit a peculiarity in the contraction of their cell walls
when they are drying; that is to say, the latter do not
return to their former state when soaked in pure water ;
but if a little muriatic acid or caustic potash be added to it,
the cells immediately swell out to their original form.
Should the filaments be encrusted with crystals of lime,
they may generally be got rid of by means of dilute
muriatic acid.
There is one genus, Psichochorium, which has the
remarkable property of depositing lime in the joints of its
filaments. Special care must be taken to get rid of this
when the specimens are being prepared, as, in case of their
being left behind, the very parts become obscured and
useless on which the generic characters depend.
76 OF THE OSCILLATORLE.
CHAPTER VIII.
OF THE OSCILLATORIA.
Or THE members of this family, the Lyngbye and the
species of Leptothrix which float on the surface of the
water may all be prepared in precisely the same way as.
was recommended for the Conferve in the previous chap-
ter. Those like Phormidium, which form filmy masses,
will be treated of presently. But the genus Oscillatoria
itself requires a peculiar mode of preparation. The ©
individuals embraced in this group dwell by preference on
mud at the bottom of shallow ponds and ditches; though —
frequently, on a sudden rise of the water, they break away —
from the soil and float, appearing lke a cloudy film
radiating from a centre. All have a disagreeable odour,
which clings to them long after they have been deposited
in the herbarium. They vary much in colour; the
common tint is an eruginous green, darker or lighter in
. different species. Others are steel-blue or even brown—as,
for instance, Oscillatoria Frohlichii in many of its habitats.
During the process of drying, they change colour, owing to
the influence of the oxygen in the atmosphere, their tints
eradually becoming brighter and more intense. ‘This is
well seen in the last-named species, which is usually of a
deep brown during life, but which after death, and while
drying, assumes first a blackish-green tint, and then a steel
colour. .
The family takes its name from a property peculiar to
some of them, but not common to all, of spontaneously
oscillating or waving gently backwards and forwards, like .
a very slow-moving pendulum. ‘To whatever cause this
mysterious movement may be due, the fact itself is of
OF THE OSCILLATORIZA, i
essential service to the collector, who is enabled by it to
secure perfectly pure specimens for preservation. As
stated above, the members of this family delight to dwell
on the mud, nor can they be got out without a plentiful
supply of the latter. But this is of little consequence.
Mud and plants may be thrown together into a vial, and
on being brought home may be poured out into a deep dish
with a sufficient quantity of soft water, and then left
undisturbed near a window. The active little organisms
immediately set themselves in motion, and creep out from
among the earthy particles by which they are encompassed,
forming by degrees a pure thin layer on the surface of the
water, whence they may be taken up with a spoon, in
larger or smaller quantities, at the will of the operator.
Next, for the best method of preparing them for the
herbarium. ‘This also is made to depend on the movements
of these singular plants. First, let a sheet of stout paper—
drawing paper is the best—be provided, and on it describe,
with pencil and ruler, about eight squares of equal size.
Fix the paper firmly on a wooden board with needles or
artists’ pins, and lay in the centre of each square a small
quantity of soft water.* Let the water spread over a
circular space the size of half a crown, and then add a few
drops carefully so as to raise the centre as high as possible.
By this means the final evaporation of the water is retarded
to the utmost. Having thus prepared the paper, the next
step is to deposit in each square a quantity of the Alge,
taking care to choose portions least contaminated by mud—
a piece about the size of a bean is sufficiently large.
Separate the filaments by a gentle touch of the finger, and
let the whole be left in a spot well exposed to the light.
Before very long (the time depends a good deal on the
season of the year, the freshness of the plants, the amount
* The use of ‘soft’ water is insisted on, because the vitality of the
Oscillatorie is quickly destroyed in hard spring water, and the success
of these experiments depends entirely on their vegetative principle
being strong and active.
78 OF THE OSCILLATORIE.
of light, &c.), the operator will observe, even without a —
lens, a dark filmy mass radiating from the common centre —
of each piece of water, and spreading equally over the ©
surface. Gradually the edges are reached, and then the ©
filaments bend themselves round, and follow the line of the ©
circumference. To make really good preparations, the —
greatest pains must be taken not to jolt or shake the paper —
until the water is entirely dried up, and the Alge lie flat —
on the spot prepared for them. As soon as this has taken —
place, the sheet should be removed from the board, and_
divided into the several parts marked off by the pencil. —
Each of the examples is then ready to be deposited in the —
herbarium. |
The reason why it is advisable to prepare several ~
specimens on a single sheet, and to fix the latter to a board —
during the operation, is, that. the Oscillatorie are of an —
exceedingly fragile nature, the filaments easily falling to —
pieces, and the fragments jerking themselves off the paper, |
if the latter be crumpled and then suddenly bent straight —
again, aS is sure to happen when it is laid in the her- ~
barium. Now, small pieces of paper do get so crumpled, —
while they are drying, in consequence of being acted on
_ unequally by the water: whereas large sheets accommodate 3
themselves more readily to the contraction and expansion ~
caused by evaporation; and consequently the individual
sections are smoother and less wrinkled when the whole is
cut up. A single experiment will demonstrate this.
There are certain genera, some of which belong to the
Oscillatorian family, the members of which (instead of
spreading themselves out like those we have just been
speaking of) group themselves into close flocculent masses.
Such are Phormidium, Microcoleus, some species. of
Symploca, and not a few of the Scytonemacee; among the
Ulotriche, Hormidium and Schizogonium; and of the ©
Zygnemacez, Zygogonium. In all these forms the filaments _—
have a tendency to develop themselves towards the —
interior, and their growth is exceedingly complicated in ~
PLATE X.,
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OF THE OSCILLATORIA. 81.
consequence, so that they form compact webs or films, and
ean be gathered up in closely combined masses. They are
found upon damp earth, wet rocks, palings, and tree stems.
Their treatment is of the simplest kind. The collector
has only to peel the film off the earth or stone, and lay it
between the leaves of an old book in order that it may not
get wrinkled or bent. If too dry, the specimens had better
be moistened before being laid in the book, to prevent their
breaking. On reaching home, they may be pressed between
sheets of blotting paper, and when quite dry, and without
any tendency to curl up, may be laid on a sheet of paper
with the lower side gummed down, and so put away in
the herbarium.
82 GELATINOUS, CRUSTACEOUS, AND STONE-LIKE ALG&.
CHAPTER IX.
OF THE GELATINOUS, CRUSTACEOUS, AND STONE-LIKE ALG.
WE FIND among the Alge a considerable group in which.
the external membrane possesses the peculiar property of —
surrounding itself with a gelatinous substance, varying in —
its consistency in the different species: and in this mucous ©
matter the inner cell (or Gonidium of Kiitzing) les em- |
bedded. As the cells continue to multiply, colonies are
raised (larger or smaller according to the amount of division
in the original ceil), forming masses which are generally
amorphous, though sometimes of a definite outline, and ©
then usually spherical. In this way arise the soft gelati- —
nous layers of a portion of the Rivulariacee and Cheto-
phoracee, a kind of slimy matter holding together the indi-
vidual filaments.
Such species may be looked for in marshy stagnant
pieces of water, on damp earth and the surface of wet
rocks, where they form a smooth jelly-like coating. The
species found in water usually commence their existence
on stones or attached to water-plants, from which they
eventually separate themselves and then float on the
surface. When this is the case, they are to be collected by
means of the ‘tea-sieve,’ and from thence transferred to
a wide-mouthed bottle; while those that are adherent
must be taken up together with the object on which they
rest. If growing on rocks, they may be scraped off. No
special preparation is needed. The gelatinous substance
may be divided into any convenient number of portions,’
and dried upon paper. When thoroughly damped at a
future period, the masses will swell out to very nearly
GELATINOUS, CRUSTACEOUS, AND STONE-LIKE ALGZ. 83
their former consistency, even after they have been laid by
for a considerable time.
Those species of Nostoc which are of a coarse dense
consistency, becoming corrugated when dry, may be
covered with stearine paper and placed under a lght
pressure.
Many of the Alge again are furnished with crustaceous
or foliaceous fronds, firmly fixed to some underlying sub-
stance. Of this description are most of the Scytonemacez,
the genera Hydrococcus, Schizosiphon, Chroolepus, Proto-
derma, Chlorotylium, Coleochete, Gongrosira, Hilden-
brandtia, Melobesia, and several others. Some of these (as
the Scytonemacee and Chroolepus) form compact felt-like
layers on wet shady rocks and walls, or on the bark of
trees. Others (as Hildenbrandtia) are found encrusting
stones and pebbles, spreading irregularly over the surface,
and have a wrinkled leathery appearance. Finally, Hydro-
coccus, Chlorotylium, and some others, form tiny sponge-
lke excrescences, which at length unite into a mass of rough
uneven knobs. Some of the smaller kinds (Coleochet>,
Melobesia, &c.) are parasitic on the larger Alge, and such
water-plants as Sedges, Mosses, and Potamogeton, where
they often flourish in the greatest abundance, though
frequently overlooked, as many of them—the species of
Coleocheete, for instance— are too minute to be easily detected
by the naked eye.
_ As it is always desirable to secure specimens that give
a clear conception of their mode of growth, the plants
should not be rubbed or scraped off, but gathered with
the object on which they are growing. Where the species
are at all abundant, small stones are sure to be found
clothed with the membranous crust peculiar to these Alge;
these may be taken and put away just as they are. In the
case of such as occur upon trees (the Chroolepi, for
instance), they may be obtained without injury by cutting
off a portion of the bark. They are more difficult to get
at when growing on the face of a rock or large block of
G2
——
—=
nl nee i eth tn ow get eS Rie
them in his pocket or bag, to ‘prevent the specimens from |
84 GELATINOUS, CRUSTACEOUS, AND STONE-LIKE ALG&.
stone; here a stout hammer and two good steel chisels are |
requisite—one of the latter being broad and flat, the other —
pointed. ‘The former serves to break off a piece of rock —
of the required size, when the plant grows on an angle, or
at least where there is a good bearing for the instrument; —
when, on the other hand, the surface is smooth, and —
offers no point of resistance, the narrow-pointed chisel
comes into play to punch out a notch, on which one side
of the broad chisel may rest, while a smart blow of the
hammer is given. Of course, the thinner the stony bed of —
the Alga is, the better, as then it may be deposited among
the leaves of the herbarium; whereas if it be too thick it
must be kept in a separate drawer or cabinet. Let me
here warn the young botanist to fold the sections of rock ©
or bark each in its own piece of paper, before placing —
being rolled and rubbed together: unless this precaution —
be taken, the adherent Alga is certain to be much injured,
if not entirely destroyed. If the stones, on being brought ~
home, are found to be sufficiently thin and flat, they may —
be gummed on stiff strong paper; and so with the pieces —
of bark. Should they be too large and rough, they may ~
be put away on the shelf or in the drawer of a cabinet, —
such as is used for mineralogical collections. F
Vegetable parasites like Coleochete may be dried and ~
put away in paper bags; or, if it 1s thought worth while to —
take so much trouble, may be stripped from their bed, and ©
either dried upon glass or mounted in Hantzsch’s fluid.
Some of the foregoing species are encrusted with lime. —
These must be immersed in dilute muriatic acid, in ~
order to get rid of the lime, before they can be properly ~
examined. The operator must recollect not to lay on the ©
cover until the bubbles of carbonic acid have ceased to ~
rise ; otherwise they will collect under the glass, and the ‘
experiment will come to nothing. 4
With regard to the species of Chroolepus, it is as well to ©
mention that its filaments lose their characteristic yellow —
GELATINOUS, CRUSTACEOUS, AND STONE-LIKE ALGE. 89
or red tint during the process of drying, and assume a grey
appearance. An odour lke that of violets is common to
all the species, and is particularly observable when large
quantities are brought together. However, colour and
smell must not be taken as characters of any great value:
the true distinguishing marks lie in the form of the cells,
and the ramification of the rigid filaments.
~The last of the three forms which I have grouped
together in this chapter embraces the stone-like Alge.
This peculiar mode of growth may be seen in certain
species which have the property of separating carbonate of
lime from the surrounding water, and depositing it among
their filaments. This peculiarity imparts a hard stiff
appearance to the latter, so that to the uninitiated they
appear to be made of stone. In shape these Alge are
usually semiglobose, and adhere tightly to stones, piles,
breakwaters, and similar submerged objects. Where they
ean be taken off by hand, it is better to adopt that plan ;
but if fixed too closely for the fingers to be of any use,
recourse must be had to the hammer and chisel. The
specimens may be put away in a paper case; or, if thin
enough, fastened on a sheet of stout paper with eum
arabic.
Before the specimens can be examined under the micro-
scope, the carbonate of lime must be dissolved, as of course
its presence renders them opaque, even when very thin
sections are made. This can, however, be easily effected by
leaving the Aloe for a ecient time in dilute muriatic
acid. Indeed, common vinegar, though not so rapid in its
action, is just as efficacious. Bubbles of carbonic acid
begin to burst through the surface of the liquid, and so
long as this ebullition continues it is certain that lime is
still present. ‘he gas having thoroughly escaped, the
preparation will be found in a flaccid condition, and sufh-
ciently soft to allow of very thin sections being cut from it
by means of a sharp razor. These should be forthwith
laid in a watch-glass and once more submitted to the acid,
A ot ee
ee en eae
86 GENATINOUS, CRUSTACEOUS, AND STONE-LIKE ALG&.
in order to remove the last trace of lime. After waiting a |
short time, the sections may be removed with a soft brush |
into a saucer, and the acid washed out of them. This last |
circumstance should be carefully attended to, as the gases |
released from the acid are apt to attack the lenses and do |
them serious injury. The object is now ready for exami- —
nation under the microscope, for which purpose it has |
simply to be laid on a slide under a thin covering glass. ©
A gentle pressure given to the latter will cause the fila- |
ments to recede from one anvther, and ensure e the trans- - |
parency of the preparation.
PLATE XI.
50
49, Pleurosigma formosum. 51. Penium navicula.
50. Penium digitus. 52. Docidium clavatum.
53. Docidium clavatum, end of frond.
+
se ae tite we then
en 2 oben ere a sc ANAS at a | REA
pei ike et rs
OF THE MARINE ALGA. 89
CHAPTER X.
OF THE MARINE ALG&.
THE BEAUTY of colouring and delicacy of form exhibited
by the generality of the Alge inhabiting the ocean have
always made them great favourites with botanists; and
even those persons for whom botany has no charms may
he seen eagerly searching for these lovely plants among
the debris scattered along the seashore.
Of course, where the student has the opportunity of
gathering them for himself, it is far better to study their
habits and watch their changes of growth in their native
haunts, than to trust to dried specimens: moreover, he
will be saved much time and patience, both of which are
largely called for in the task of disentangling a complicated
network of Algz which have lain long between the sheets
of an herbarium. Nevertheless, there are many who are
either altogether debarred from visiting the seaside, or can
do so at long intervals only; but even these need not
despair of making acquaintance with the marine flora.
Besides, it often happens that the collector is prevented by
want of time from at once preparing a large number of
specimens for the herbarium. It is well then to know
that Alge which have been roughly dried for mere pre-
servation will, upon being carefully remoistened, regain so
much of their natural beauty as to please even a critical
eye. Indeed, under certain circumstances, this prelimi-
nary drying has positive advantages. For instance, there
are certain species which have the unpleasant peculiarity,
when the fresh specimens are being dried, of discharging a
portion of their cell contents, thereby spotting and staining
the paper on which they lie. Such are the genus Aglao-
t
*
{
‘.
.
90 OF THE MARINE ALG&,
phyllum, several of the Callithamnia, Polysiphonie, &e.,
all of which ought to be placed a second time under the >
press before really good preparations can be hoped for.
Other species (as those of Wrangelia) are completely spoiled
by being immersed in fresh water * while in a living state, —
as it turns them to the colour of ink.
These untoward events may be met by giving the plants
a preliminary drying on some stout paper, just as they are
taken from the sea. To prevent the paper from wrinkling,
it is advisable to load the corners with weights; or, better
still, to press the objects as soon as they are tolerably dry
- between sheets of blotting paper. ‘The fact of a few pieces
of the drying material clinging here and there to the Alge
is of no consequence, as they may be easily removed after-
wards by applying a little water with a soft hair pencil. __
The possibility of rear ranging Alge, at a future period,
which have been already dried, is (as I observed just now)
of the last importance to botanists who can rarely visit the
coast, as it gives them an opportunity which they could —
not possibly have otherwise of becoming acquainted with
these lovely denizens of the sea. For while mere prepara-.
tions, however beautifully got up, can give but a very
imperfect picture of the plant itself, these same examples,
when once more acted on by water, represent very fairly
its original habit, and afford the student abundant material
for investigation.
With no group of Algw is the caution more needed than
with this, to be most careful in preserving the natural habit
of the plant, To be led away by the mere love of the -
beautiful, or what the operator is pleased to consider the
beautiful, is fatal to the prosecution of science. In the case
* I take this opportunity of observing that, sooner or later, all
Marine Algze must be immersed in fresh water before the final drying.
Ifthis precaution is neglected, the salt contained in their tissues will
absorb such an amount of moisture from the atmosphere as will
keep the plants in a continual state of dampness and mouldiness.—
Ep.
OF THE MARINE ALG, 91
before us it leads him to sacrifice the true relation of the
different parts to the prettiness and neatness of the prepa-
ration, to force branches into unnatural positions because
they appear to him to look better so, and generally to
distort the whole plant. All this may possibly make a
pretty object for the herbarium, but it alters its whole
character and destroys its value in the eyes of the real
- botanist.
We will imagine the reader to have received a packet of
dried Alge from a friend at the seaside. ‘The first thing
to be done with each of the specimens is to immerse it in
clean soft water, and let it remain there until it has become
sufficiently flexible to allow of its being lifted without
injury from the paper to which it was fixed. ‘The move-
ment may be aided by inserting a blunt knitting-needle
between the paper and the plant, so as to raise it gradually
from its bed. Let this be done very slowly and carefully,
as too much haste is almost certain to tear the specimen
and entangle the filaments. As soon as the plant floats
freely in the water, it must be rubbed and kneaded between
the fingers (roughly or lightly, for a longer or a shorter
period, according to the degree of coarseness and general
consistency of the specimen) until the different parts have
ceased to adhere together. When this is effected, the
needle is again brought into use (the plant still remaining
in the water), and is slowly drawn, beginning at the root
end, through first the upper, then the middle, and lastly the
lower stratum of stems and branches. In this way knots
and entanglements are got rid of; and it enables the opera-
tor to ascertain whether he is dealing with a single plant or
a whole colony—a circumstance of some importance, as the
crowding together of numerous plants makes it very diffi-
cult to recognise the true character of the species.
_ As soon as order is introduced among the tangled plants,
the whole mass should be divided into portions, each of
such a size as is likely to make a good preparation. And
here let me caution the student to choose for preservation
92 OF THE MARINE ALG.
only whole or perfect specimens ; by which I mean such as —
are provided with the disk by which they were fixed when |
in life, or at any rate with as much of it as possible, in ~
order to exhibit the plant’s natural habit. Fragments torn —
off the main stem look very pretty, and do well enough to
adorn a lady’s album, but, as a rule, are valueless to the
botanist. In many cases it is absolutely necessary to have ~
the entire plant before one’s eyes to determine with cer- —
tainty its place in the system of nature. I will bring ™
forward a single example. The genera Callithamnion and —
Phlebothamnion are separated on the ground of the former
being ‘ corticate ’—that is to say, furnished with a cortical or ~
external integument, which 1s wanting in the latter. Now,
there are instances (as I have myself repeatedly ex-
perienced) where this outer stratum is developed for a
short space only above the point of attachment, the whole
of the upper portion of the stem being naked. If, then, the
student (instead of gathering the whole plant) is contented
with specimens taken from above the portion invested with
cortex, how is it possible for him to determine to which
of the two genera his example belongs, since he has
deprived himself of the only characteristic mark by which
they are distinguished? Much the same may be said of
' the different species of Polysiphonia.
When, again, the collector comes across Algz flourishing
in large tangled groups, he must take care while separating
them to secure a sufficiency of material for future obser-
vation. It is a sound axiom in domestic economy that
frugality applied in the wrong place does but aggravate
difficulties. And it is as true here as in the more serious
matters of life. Many a chance of determining the true
position and natural habit of a plant has been lost from the
collector having neglected to gather sufficient material on —
the spot and at the tight time. A single stem of a Cera-
mium may perhaps exhibit the generic and specific charac- .
ters sufficiently well; but, however beautifully laid out, it
can never set before the eye of the observer the great massy
OF THE MARINE ALG. 93
tassels and soft flowing tresses which distinguish most of
the Ceramiacez. So far, then, the study of esthetics has a
claim upon the botanist; only let him beware of allowing
it too far, by giving that a first claim on his attention which
shou'ld in fact be a mere means to an end. Besides, a
needy hungry-looking set of specimens always detracts from
the good appearance of an herbarium: it repels rather
than invites the attention; whereas a rich series of well-
prepared examples awakens in the observer's mind an
agreeable feeling of the beauty and perfection of the works
of nature: it may be, even deeper and more lasting sensa-
tions—wonder, praise, and thankfulness to the great Creator.
Having * now divided the group of plants into fitting
portions, each tuft is to be laid separately on the edge of a
plate, not in the water, but just on the side, so that it may
imbibe a sufficiency of moisture during the ensuing opera-
tions without being actually immersed. Next, let a piece
of stout white writing or drawing paper, of a size corre-
sponding to the object under preparation, be pushed under
the water slowly and carefully, so as to prevent air-bubbles
from pressing on the lower surface, as they are very apt in
the subsequent treatment to cause an unequal expansion in
the paper, thereby raising folds and wrinkles. The paper
being ready to receive the Alga, the latter may be drawn
gently over it, with the root end towards the operator, the
stem and branches being kept from entanglement by means
of a smooth blunt needle (a broken ragged end to the
needle will do more harm than good, by tearing the delicate
filaments), due regard being had to their natural position
and the angle at which they ramified from each other
during life. As soon as the larger branches are laid in the
right direction, attention can be given tothe minor branches,
or pinnules, the position of which is in a great measure
regulated by the way in which the paper is drawn out of
_ * From this point the suggestions offered refer alike to freshly-
gathered Aloe and to those which have been long dried.
=
94 OF THE MARINE ALGZ&,
the water across the edge of the plate. If this be done
deiiberately and without undue precipitation, the tiniest —
even of the branchlets and filaments will fall one after the {
other into their proper place. 7
Excellent as this plan isin its results, there is no doubt —
that it calls for a large amount of patience and foresight, —
and takes a good deal of time to carry out properly. Indeed,
so much of its ultimate success depends upon the perfect —
quietude of the materials under operation, that not un-
frequently an unlucky jerk of the arm or an ill-timed blow”
on the table will send the water streaming in the wrong —
direction, and mar the whole proceeding. I will therefore
give another method, which, although its results are not
more pleasing to the eye, 1s certaily much more easily »
carried out, and therefore less trying to the young student’s
peace of mind.
According to this plan, the paper, with the specimen on
it, is drawn out of the plate and laid on a small tin dish,
the bottom of which has been previously overlaid with 4
piece of paper of about the size of the object to be operated
on. Two of these tin dishes should be provided, of dif-
ferent sizes—the cost is a mere trifle—one measuring —
. about fourteen inches by nine inches, and the other and
smaller nine inches by five inches—each having the edges
turned up say half an inch, so as to retain the water.
The only other requisite is a small glass syringe, such as is
used for medicinal purposes, and which may be purchased
for a few pence at almost any glass or chemist’s shop.
With this last instrument pour a gentle stream of water
over the Alga as it lies in the dish, and continue to do so
until the smaller filaments and pinnules begin to float—the
stem and main branches, from their superior weight, still
resting on the paper. It isan easy task now to insert a
needle among the floating ramifications, and not merely —
reduce them to order, but bring them as nearly as possible ©
into the same position they were wont to have when in
their natural localities. The most delicate branchlets of
54, Staurastrum dejectum (a, end ; 6,
5D). aa gracile ? =
56. 3 spongiosum (a, side
oT. - alternans
33
58. Euastrum didelta.
side view).
39
; b, end view).
33
jam ges “sean
ae ea ee
tevin
OF THE MARINE ALGA. 97
the Bryopsis species, of the Polysiphonie and Callithamnia,
nay, even the curious apices so characteristic of the genus
Ceramium, all yield to this mode of treatment, especially if
it. be aided by a hair pencil loaded with water and drawn
slowly among the .finer portions of the plant, should any
of them still continue to cling together. This operation
having been satisfactorily performed, the next thing is to
withdraw the water. Here the syringe again comes into
play, but this time as a suction pump. It is only necessary
to place its open end between the larger branches, and by
very slow movements of the piston the whole of the fluid
will be drawn up through the barrel, and can be discharged
into the plate. The eye will determine when the water has
been sufficiently abstracted, but the ear is a still better
guide. As soon asa bubbling sound is heard in the body
of the instrument, it is a certain indication that air is taking
the place of the water, and that the latter is exhausted.
To empty the dish entirely 1t must be gently tilted on the
side which holds the root end of the plant, so that the
water shall flow towards the opposite side, where it may be
drawn off with the syringe. ‘The water having been thus
got rid of, the operator will probably find it necessary to
give a final touch with a hair pencil to some of the branch-
lets or filaments that have been displaced, especially if
examples of the more delicate kinds be under treatment;
the whole may then be lifted out of the dish and laid upon
blotting paper, to undergo a sort of preliminary drying.
Although this process takes some time in describing, it
‘is in point of fact of the simplest kind, and allows of each
preparation being got ready in a very short space of time,
because the operator works upon a firm, even basis; both
his hands are free, and there is no large quantity of water
to be displaced by a chance blow or shake, all which
advantages are wanting in the ordinary method of pre-
paring specimens in a plate or basin.
The preparation must not be left too long exposed to
the action of the atmosphere, or it will be spoiled. The
: H
+ oe Re eRe nd
98 ! OF THE MARINE ALG:
very fact of the Alga and the paper on which it lies
differing widely in their powers of absorption and evapora- |
tion is alone sufficient to cause the former to separate from |
its support during the process of drying. To meet this —
difficulty it must be submitted to a press, and left there —
until all the moisture is withdrawn. As was mentioned |
under the head of the Filamentous Alge, there is nothing —
so good for the purpose as smooth white absorptive blotting ©
paper. Let the preparation, already partially dried, be —
laid on half-a-dozen sheets, and let a piece of stearine paper |
be placed over it, adapted as nearly as can be to the size of —
the object. Next to the stearine comes another layer of
blotting paper, then a specimen, and so on, until a pile is —
formed of a manageable size, according to the discretion of ~
the operator. The whole is then to be placed between ~
smooth boards and weighted with three or four bricks, as
previously described at p. 68. Nothing more is to be done |
for some six or seven hours, when the damp blotting paper
should be removed and a fresh supply inserted between the —
boards. The oftener, in fact,a change is made in the
absorptive material, the better; as it tends to preserve
both the eolouring of the specimen and the clean ni |
appearance of the paper on which it lies.
When changing the drying paper, the best plan is to
turn the whole pile upside down, so as to get at the lowest
examples first—the stearine paper, of course, now lying
below the plants. Carefully remove the first layer of damp
sheets, taking care not to lift with them the piece of white
paper attached to the specimen. Lay the latter on a fresh —
stratum of blotting paper, and so proceed with each speci-
men, loading the whole, as before, with bricks. After the
lapse of some hours the process must be repeated; in a-
word, the operator will find that his preparations are not
merely neater, but also more true to nature, the oftener he
gives himself the slight trouble required in replacing the
drying material. In proportion as the moisture 1s got rid
of, the latter must be reduced in quantity, until a single
OF THE MARINE ALGA. ° 99
sheet only is left between each specimen. In this state
the pile should be left for several days, until the plants lie
flat and all danger of their curling up is past.
It frequently happens that the gelatinous Algee, such as
Mesogloia, are found adhering by their upper surface to the
stearine paper; but there is not the least necessity to try
and separate them, as a beginner might be tempted to do:
any such attempt would only end in the destruction of the
specimen, or at any rate in the spoiling .of its appearance.
He has but to ‘ leave well alone,’ to let the Alga remain as
it is until it is perfectly dry, and the stearine paper will
then spring off spontaneously, or in any case may be easily
separated without the least injury being done to the prepa-
ration. Even if small fragments of the paper should adhere
to the Alga when it is taken off, it is easy enough to re-
move them by simply touching them with a moistened hair
pencil, waiting a short time until the fragments are satu-
rated, and then scraping them gently with the sharp edge
of a penknife. The portions that have been wetted
quickly dry up, and the preparation has as neat an appear-
ance as before.
A few species, especially those belonging to the genera
Schizonema and Hctocarpus, must not be placed under a
press at all. ‘The fronds are too tender and too soft to bear
the weight of the superincumbent bricks. At the same
time, the reader will have gathered from the previous
remarks that drying in the open air has a tendency to
cruimple the paper on which the Alga hes. But this diffi-
culty is to be got over by a little perseverance. As soon as
the plants are thoroughly dried, let the paper be dipped into
a basin of clean water, remaining there for a few seconds—in
fact, only until it is wetted through and bends with facility.
Take it out quickly, and having placed it between some
sheets of blotting paper (with the usual stearine cover on
the object), draw the hand backwards and forwards over the
pile until the previously wetted paper has discharged all its
moisture. In this way it will recover its sued appearance
e H 2
100 . OF THE MARINE ALGA.
without the object itself giving out baiifhicieht mucous mation :
to allow of its adhering to the stearine cover. |
Up to this point we have had before our eyes only those |
forms of Alge which divaricate into almost infinite ramifi- —
cations. I have treated so largely of them, partly because of
their overwhelming number, partly on account of the diffi-
culty involved in preparing them for the herbarium.
There are, however, numerous other forms, consisting i
mainly of broad flat membranes, thicker or thinner aco
cording to the individual species. These are to be simply i
spread out on white paper and laid under the press, any ~
folds and wrinkles having been first smoothed down by —
means of a soft hair peneil. There are certain exceedingly |
delicate species (among them may be named the Delessérie, —
several species of Callithamnion, and some of the finer —
Polysiphoniz) which do not require any pressure at all.
Laid upon white paper they dry up in a very short time, ©
adhering closely to the surface, and looking, in fact,
more like a painting or work of art than an object of
nature. Others, of considerable thickness, should be treated
after the fashion recommended in chap. vii. for some of the
|
4
_ fresh-water species. They will adhere readily to the paper,
and give no trouble in that respect. At the same time, the —
student must notice whether the under-surface of the frond
exhibits any sort of characteristic clothing. This is the
case, for instance, with individuals belonging to the genus
Peyssonelia, in which the lower part of the frond is thickly
coated with jointed. hairs. Where anything of this kind 1s
seen to exist, the specimen had better be deposited in a
paper bag of suitable size, instead of being fixed down, so
that on being taken out either side of the frond may be
examined.
The large Laminarie call for the same kind of treatment |
in its general principles, though varying somewhat to meet’
the exigencies of the case. These giants of marine vege-
tation are far too large—they often extend to a distance of
eleven or twelve feet—to allow of their being dried and
OF THE MARINE ALG. -101
pressed in the ordinary manner; while at the same time
the specimens lose a great deal of their interest and at-
tractiveness if their fair proportions are too closely shorn.
It is necessary, then, to select a middling-sized example for -
preservation ; but even a middling-sized example will need
a press far beyond the usual limits. Fortunately, the student
has no need to dread a failure, so far as his materials are
concerned. He has only to cover the floor of a room pretty
thickly with sheets of blotting paper—the covered space
measuring about six feet by three—and then to lay over
this the Laminaria, which must be so far dried beforehand
as to have lost the slimy feeling which it usually commu-
nicates in the growing state. More sheets of blotting. paper
being spread over the Alew, the whole is to be covered with
a smooth board of corresponding size (or in default of one
so large, with several smaller boards), upon which a sufh-
cient quantity of bricks should rest. If, after all the pains
taken, the specimen is found to be too long for any reasonably
sized press, the lower end of the frond may be turned over,
not immediately upon the body of the plant, but at an
oblique angle—blotting paper being laid inside the joint, so
as to keep the parts from actually touching each other,
where it is impossible to prevent them from coming together.
The papers should be frequently changed, as the thick
leathery substance of the frond makes the process of drying
somewhat dilatory. However, the business of changing the
layers of paper is rendered less tedious, in spite of the
bulky nature of the object, on account of the firm though
fiexible character of the frond, which allows of its being
moved about at will without any fear of damage Of
course, a plant containing so large an amount of fluids in its
cells requires not only a frequent change of the blotting
paper, but also a more than usual amount of time—a
fortnight or three weeks will not be found too long—to
ensure its being thoroughly dried, and to get rid of all its
folds and wrinkles. These last, however, I regret to say,
are my apt to return ata later period, as it is ; impossible
' because in their wet state they are very apt to get torn |
102 OF THE MARINE ALG&.
to lay such monstrous specimens between sheets of writing — A
paper, or to put them away in the herbarium cabinet. The ~
consequence is, that they are more or less exposed to the |
action of the air, which is almost sure after a while to i
impart to them a consider able amount of moisture. ; ;
In examining this class of Algee it is necessary (if his —
investigations are to be of any ~value) that the student —
should make himself acquainted with their anatomical |
structure. In-numerous cases this is by no means difficult, © :
on account of their transparent nature, which allows of” 4
their whole inner structure and delicate cellular tissue —
being examined at leisure under the microscope. In those |
species, however, which are furnished with a thick leathery 7
frond and stem, it is requisite to cut fine sections, otherwise ~
their opacity effectually prevents any view of the form and ‘9
arrangement of the cells. [With regard to this part of the ©
subject I must refer the reader to works in which the ©
methods ef preparing objects for the microscope are de- —
scribed at length: as, for instance, ‘ Davies’ Preparation and |
Mounting of Microscopic Ob bjects,’ where the whole matter —
is thoroughly discussed.—Ep.]} I will only observe here, that ~
the examples to be operated on had better be quite dry, |
instead of being accurately cut, the cells coming apart and |
hanging together in disorder. The section must be placed |
in water or spirits of wine, and left for a while to absorb the ~
fluid ; it is then fit for examination on a slide. . ,
The lme-producing Alge (by which I mean Corallina, —
Jania, Acetabularia, Liagora, Melobesia, and similar genera) —
must not be submitted to the knife until the incrustation —
has been entirely dissolved by means of an acid. 4
It is often very difficult to detect the true structure of the 3
cell walls in the strictly gelatinous Alge, as also in many of ~
the Enteromorpha and some other families. The best plan —
in such cases is to add a drop of a solution of chloride of —
zine and iodine to the fluid in which the section is im- —
mersed on the slide. By this expedient a conspicuous blue —
PLATE XIII.
59. Hyalotheca dissiliens. 60. Spirotenia condensata.
61 to 70. Cosmarium botrytis.
—F Bs
OF THE MARINE ALGZ. 105
‘tint is communicated to the cells, giving them a clear sharp
outline.
Contrary to the plan previously adopted in this little
‘work, we have not yet touched upon the subject of the
collection of the marine Alge. The fact is, the individuals
belonging to this huge family are so exceedingly numerous,
and occur in such an infinite variety of localities, that it 1s
impossible to do more than offer some general suggestions.
The best rule to observe is, to search every habitat dili-
gently, and to take careful note of all that meets the eye;
not, ina word, to pass by the smaller and humbler species
in favour of their. gaudier and more prominent relatives.
This is by no means a rare fault with the botanical tyro.
‘He allows his imagination to be impressed by some mag-
nificent representative of the larger Algz, forgetting that
the lowly object, which he crushes under foot without
remorse, should have at least as much interest in his eyes.
And the consequence often is, that he has to lament the
loss of a specimen which would have greatly aided him in
his studies, and afforded him much genuine pleasure—a loss
which is sometimes irremediable.
“Marine vegetation depends largely on. the character of
the coast line. Sandy shores are the least promising ; mud
flats are not satisfactory hunting grounds: it is on a bold
precipitous coast that the collector may look for the largest
returns. This is especially the case where the receding
tide is caught in rocky hollows and basins, for here the
loveliest of the seaweeds are sure to be found, spreading
abroad their delicate filaments, while the coarse, leathery
kinds cluster about the rough blocks that overhang the
erystal pools.
Even in spots where old Ocean shows himself in his
roughest mood, and breakers roar and burst against tlie
iron-bound cliffs, even there these tender plants are to be
seen tossed about by the wild waves, or clinging closely to
os rock, as if in defiance of their utmost efforts to dislodge
ener,
ar Tae Rapes
106 OF THE MARINE ALG.
They are to be found too at all depths. A few, princi-_
pally Fuci, seem to revel in the scorching rays of the sun,
appearing to be quite satisfied with an occasional sprinkling”
of salt water. Some flourish best about high-water-mark 5
others where the tide reaches its lowest point; while large
numbers, and those too of the brightest colours, delight to_
grow in depths to which, it must be supposed, the rays of”
the sun never penetrate. These latter, of course, are not |
very easily to be got at; and the coll ector must, as a rule,
trust to the action of storms and hurricanes to supply the |
coveted specimens. Nevertheless, if he is blessed with the
‘gs triplex’ so requisite for all ‘who go down to the sea |
in ships,’ he will do well, when the opportunity occurs, to —
accompany a fishing crew on one of their trawling expers
ditions. He will be rewarded by finding among the refuse —
of their nets many an interesting plant, which would other- 3
wise remain beyond his reach.
The character of the marine vegetation also depends |
greatly on geographical considerations ; indeed, far more so
than does the freshwater Flora. With regard to the Euro-
pean coasts, those washed by the Mediterranean, the
Adriatic, and other southern seas, abound particularly in the —
genera included under the great ‘Red’ group, known as
the Floridez ; while the ‘ Olive’ genera, the Melanosporez —
of systematists, preponderate on the northern shores. As —
we approach the equator we find the Algw assuming a size ~
and brilliancy of colouring far surpassing anything we are ~
accustomed to see in the temperate zone.
[ The figures on Plates xvi. and xvii. will assist the young ~
Algologist in recognising members of the great ‘dark-spored’ —
group, the commonest on our shores, and generally the first —
to strike the eye of the beginner.—Hp. | ’
OF THE CHARACE, 107
CHAPTER XI.
OF THE CHARACEA.
THE INDIVIDUALS grouped under the term Characewe have
found a great difficulty in establishing a place in nature.
They have been a kind of vegetable outcasts, ‘ casuals,’
without any special ward assigned to them! The truth is,
that while their organs of reproduction are those of a
Cryptogam, their external form so nearly resembles that of
many of the higher orders, that the earlier botanists may
well be excused for having given them a habitation among
the latter. The great Linneus ranged them in his class
and order, Monecia Monandria, removing them, strange to-
say, from a place which he had formerly given them, and
which was much nearer to the truth, among the Crypto-
eamia, not far from the Lichens. Jussieu, De Candolle, and
Robert Brown retained them among the Phanerogamia ;
Agardh and Wallroth referred them to the Alge. Only
recent authors, Hooker, Lindley, &c., have allowed their
claim to a separate order, and have fixed their identity as
members of the Cryptogamic family. But even now the
unfortunate Characee are far from finding permanent rest,
being bandied about from one neighbourhood to another,
from Alge to Fungi, and from Fungi to Lichens and Equi-
setacee. Without pretending to lay any claim to sys-
tematic accuracy in this little work, I believe that we are
adopting a right course in placing our troublesome protéges »
between the Alge and Fungi; their tubular stems recalling
the former, while the spore-like. bodies contained in the
nucule seem to mark their affinity with the latter. Like
many of the Alge, too, a large number of Charas are gifted
with the power of encrusting their stems and_ branches
108 | OF THE CHARACES.
qi
with carbonate of lime; an unfortunate property for the
collector, as it renders them so brittle, that he has some
difficulty in securing plants in a perfect condition.
All the Characez prefer, for their habitats, ponds and.
ditches with a muddy bottom, and in which the water is
clear, although stagnant: they are rarely found in swiftly”
flowing streams and rivers. As a rule, they prefer shallow
pieces of water, though many species flourish at consider-_
ane depths in the larger lakes. Some, perhaps a fourth of |
the European varieties, delight in brackish water; afew in |
the sea itself. Their geographical range 1S wide, being -
found in greater or less abundance in every quarter of the 3
globe, although most common in the more temperate |
climes. 3 ;
On account of the extreme brittleness which characterises
these plants, it is extremely difficult to handle them without ©
breaking off portions. A first consideration, then, with the ~
collector is to avoid entangling the individuals as they are ~
brought out of the water, as his subsequent efforts to —
separate them from each other will cause him infinite —
trouble and vexation. 3
There is no difficulty in collecting them, when they —
chance to grow near the bank. The collector must dip his —
hand into the water, and seizing a tuft of the plants as near —
to the root as possible, grasp them firmly and draw them
up to the surface in such a way that they shall not bend
over on themselves, and get their branches twisted and —
jumbled together. Before attempting to get rid of the
mud, quantities of which are sure to be clinging about the
root, the upper clean part should be enveloped in paper :
this will prevent it from getting dirtied, and will keep the
stem and branches from entangling. Then hold the roots
in the water, kneading them softly with the hand, but not
drawing the fingers through them. ‘The purified masses
may then be laid lengthways between folds of damp paper
and carried home: a portfolio is the best and safest mode of ©
transport. The greatest care must be taken not to allow
OF THE CHARACEE. 109
the specimens to dry up before they are properly laid out,
as their brittleness is increased a thousandfold when they
have lost their fluids. Hence the necessity of sprinkling
them with water on reaching home, if they are to be left
for any time before being got ready for the herbarium ;
but the best plan is to set about preparing them at once.
Where the species grow in very deep water or beyond
the reach of the arm, it is requisite to employ the double
rake, which has been already described at p. 5. If the
collector has a boat at his command, it is better, as of
course he has so much larger an expanse of water on
which to make his experiments; otherwise he must
confine his efforts to the comparatively small area, em-
braced by the distance to which his line will reach from
the bank. In any case the rake must be allowed to reach
the bottom, and then dragged slowly along (if in a boat,
the miovement of the latter as it floats without the use of
oar or paddle, will give sufficient impulse to the rake)
until a check is felt, upon which it must be drawn up and
the booty secured. It is rare that this little instrument,
if made according to the instructions previously given, fails
in the services required of it. Of course in fishing in such
deep waters, it is impossible to guess what they will yield,
and a good deal of worthless stuff will be dragged into the
boat. However bright and clear the waters may be, it
requires an experienced eye to detect what may be growing
at the bottom; and even that resource is cut off if the
slichtest wind ruffles the surface. But, generally speaking,
the collector will be able to judge pretty well of what he
may expect to find by paying attention to the fragments
east on the banks. In places where irrigation is carried on,
it is advisable, in the winter and spring when the fields are
flooded, to examine the masses of duckweed, sedges, Kc.
that are scattered about. The chances are, that he will
hit upon some minute fragments of Chara, indicating what
he may expect to find worth gathering later in the year.
Among the Characee themselves too he will frequently
110 OF THE CHARACEA.
come across small portions of other species, proving that—
the latter grow somewhere in the neighbourhood and may
be got at by diligent search. Not unfrequently several —
species grow together ina single colony ; or again numerous ©
kinds may flourish in distant parts of the same piece of ©
water, requiring close observation on the part of the |
intelligent botanist, who will not be content with securing —
a solitary specimen, but will take a careful survey of the
banks step by step. He will bear in mind, too, that in this”
order several species bear a close resemblance to each
other, while they are wet; whereas, on being dried, which —
speedily takes place on being exposed to the air, the specific
differences are easily seen, as they depend mainly on the «
manner in which the tubular stem is formed. |
The first step to be taken in preparing the Characez for —
the herbarium is to lay the larger masses on a table, divide ©
them into smaller portions, and then extract the individual ~
plants. JI recommend this being done on a table and not. —
in water, because the plants we are dealing with have a -
strong tendency to intertwine their branches, especially if
te is any movement; and this is almost ee aia ie in
the fluid on which they rest. |
The separate specimens may now be dropped into a
basin of water, those only having been selected which are
furnished with root, stem, and branches; for, as in the case
of the Phanerogamia, those examples only should be pre-
served which give a true picture of the whole plant. No
mere fragment, however pretty to look at, 1s, under ordinary
circumstances, worth the attention of the botanist.
Now let a piece of stout paper of the proper size be —
inserted under the Chara, and let the latter be drawn over —
it root foremost. The only further care necessary is to-
draw the paper slowly out of the water, and with a blunt :
needle re-arrange any branches which may have been dis- ©
placed. Leave the paper undisturbed for a short time to —
let the water drain off, then lay it on some sheets of blot- —
ting«paper, and cover it with ctearine paper. This may be ~
PLATE XTV,
Zz
SSA
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SS:
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— ww SS.
ip Zag N\\\\
CG yf yy IES. y
pf
Zz.
OQ
Prk
oy /
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mW
ys
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Q— OF}
\
x 1g
AI. AC
71. Volvox globator. _ 72 to 81, Pandorina morum,
OF THE CHARACEA. £135
_ repeated until a convenient pile is formed, which should be
forthwith submitted to the press. After the lapse of a few
hours the damp blictting paper must be removed, and
replaced by dry material, special care being taken not to
disturb the stearine covering, as the Characez are very apt
te cling to it: but this is of no consequence, as they will
easily separate as soon as the specimen is perfectly dry.
_ If, on finally removing them from the press, the plants do
-not adhere completely to the paper on which they le, a
little gum-arabic may be placed under the stem and prin-
cipal branches.
_ The extreme fragility of the Characeze must never be
lost sight of during their preparation, and the drier they
become, the more strongly marked is this tendency to break
up into fragments. This tendency remains even after they
are placed in the herbarium: the only remedy I can sug-
gest is to insert a very thin layer of common wadding be-
tween every half-dozen sheets of the prepared specimens.
The wadding, however, must be previously moistened with
benzine or corrosive sublimate, or sprinkled with camphor ;
otherwise it is but inviting the attacks of Anobia and
Dermestes, and similar destructive insects.
The Characee being of a comparatively large size, a low
power only of the microscope is needed for determining
their characteristics; indeed an ordinary lens is generally
sufficient. The stratum of carbonate of lime, which
invests the majority of these plants, must of course be got
rid of by means of an acid, before any observations can be
made on their inner structure.
The species of Nitella, as being entirely free from this
incrustation of lime, afford the best opportunity to the
student of watching the wonderful phenomenon known,
in technical language, as ‘cyclosis,’ or ‘rotation of the
protoplasm,’ but commonly called ‘ circulation of the sap:’
this, however, it is not. Under a power of not less than
200, green globules are seen to circle round and round
each of the cells. But these globules are not the sap,
I
114 OF THE CHARACEA.
but granules of chlorophyll (the substance Wick gives —
the green colour to plants), and they are being forced |
along by a current of mucilaginous matter, termed proto-
plasm. What the purpose of this never-ceasing rotation — :
may be has not yet been discovered.
In the Characez, also, may be observed the movements
of the spiral filaments or spermatozoids, which swim
actively in water, on being pressed out of the globule or :
antheridium. 4
-OF THE FUNGI. 115
CHAPTER XII.
OF THE FUNGI.
AS THE ALG# require water in larger or smaller quantities
for their support, so the Fungi demand for their perfect
development the decaying remains of other organisms.
Wherever rottenness and corruption are present, there are
we sure to meet with a rich Fungal vegetation. Let a
plant for instance be sickly, it is seized upon immediately
by a host of parasites belonging to this class; their cotton-
like mycelium penetrating its cellular tissuie, disorganising
its structure, and extracting nourishment from its infected
juices. Wet wood, fallen “leaves, animal excretions, all
afford a nidus for ‘these scavengers of nature, who only
spring from the earth itself when the latter is rich in
huraus, or, in other words, in decayed vegetable matter.
For a like reason they are to be found in abundance on
damp tree stems and in mines and cellars, where fragments
of rotten wood supply the conditions necessary to their
existence. It must not however be imagined, that, because
they are found in deep mines or in cellars, into which the
rays of the sun never find their way, Fungi are less
dependent for their perfect development on the action
of light and air, than the more highly organised members
of the vegetable kingdom. ‘The fact is, that they exist
in these localities only in a certain condition, as byssoid
products or mycelium; they never come to perfection.
It isa matter of grave doubt to this day, what is the perfect
form of the well-known Rhacodium cellare.
_ There is in truth scarcely a single object in the whole
realm of nature which is not liable to the attacks of these
minute enemies. The timber of our houses, as many a
3 3 12
ee Faw So ee
116 OF THE FUNGI.
landlord knows to his cost, crumbles into dust under the
influence of ‘dry rot’ (Merulius lacrymans). Our bread,
our cheese, our ink, and an infinite number of similar
household matters—only let the conditions be favourable
—are quickly overrun with the delicate Fungi, which, in
common language, are grouped under the name of ‘mould’
(Mucoracee and Botrytacee). A stroll in the garden, or
a walk through a field, shows us how readily our flowers
and cereals succumb to the insidious growth of ‘smut’
and ‘brand’ (Uredinacee). Nor are the members of the
animal kingdom one whit more exempt from the assaults”
of the common enemy; while Empusina fixes itself on the
common house-fly, and Torrubia on a caterpillar,* Muscar-"
dine is the nameof a so-called disease which destroysmyriads -
of silkworms in sunny Italy, and which is in fact nothing
but the mycelium of a Fungus (Botrytis bassiana), growing |
within their bodies and consuming their vital powers. ,
The most favourable situations, however, for the de-—
velopment of the Fungi are undoubtedly those where -
a moderate degree of dampness is united with an equable
and not too high temperature. Hence forests and woods
are certain to provide the collector with abundant material, —
since they are rich in the elements most needed for the ©
production of Fungal life; viz. organic substances in a state
of decay, shelter from cold biting winds, shade, and
moisture. For like reasons, old thick hedges, not too
much exposed to the sun, often abound in crimson Pezize,
orange Tremelle, and the curious nest-like Nidularie.
Warm rains also in the autumn are favourable to the
growth of this class, so that it is not an unusual thing to
see astonishing quantities of mushrooms in the fruiterers’
shops, or to come across gigantic puff-balls and boleti in
the woods, at that time of year, when they have been
quite scarce during the hot summer months. Not that
the germs depend for their growth on any particular
* On Plates xvur. xrx. (96, 97) are given several examples of
this singular parasite.
OF THE. FUNGI. r17
Season ; at no period, other circumstances being favourable,
need the collector fear to return home from his excursions
empty-handed.
His outfit is comprised in a few words:
1. A bag, or rather knapsack, the back and front of
which are kept apart by two or three pieces of stout mill-
board—these same pieces dividing the interior into separate
divisions. ‘The use of this knapsack is for the large thick
specimens—the Agarics (Plate xxiv.), Helvellids (Plate
XIx. 98), and Lycoperdacee (Plates xix. 99, xx.), also
pieces of wood on which minute Fungi have fixed them-
selves. |
2. An old book, in which to carry leaves and other thin
parts of. plants; the habitats of Puccini, Lecyther, &c.
An india-rubber ring will keep the whole together.
3. A supply of chip and pill boxes, and small wide-
mouthed bottles. These are all useful for the transport
of the more delicate Fungi. |
4. Paper for wrapping up the objects.
5. A strong sharp knife.
Armed with these, and taking care to keep a good look-
out among trees and bushes, hedges and palings, the
collector may fairly expect to reap the reward of his zeal
in a well-filled knapsack. So strangely, indeed, do the
Fungi vary in form and size, that his eyes must be at the
same time both telescope and microscope. They must not
only be able to embrace, from a distance, the outline of the
ereat Bovista, but they must peer among dead leaves and
decayed fragments of wood, and be able to detect the
faint traces which betray the presence of an Aregma or a
Triphragmium (Plate xxi. 102,103). Every tree stem
must be diligently searched, and careful glances thrown
on the herbaceous plants around him: every broken limb
and rotting bough lying in his path should be lifted up
and examined above and below; for it is on these, that
Spheria (Plate xx1. 104), and Asterosporium (Plate xxi.
105), and a host of other curious forms delight to grow.
Sey nee Le ee
“ ¥ = 7 - }
118 OF THE FUNGI.
True, the very minute Fungi are not to be detected by ;
the naked eye, or at least very rarely; and it may seem —
- superfluous to bid the young botanist search for what he —
cannot perceive. But in truth, though he cannot perhaps —
see them, he can see where they are; he can see spots and ~
lines and fissures and excrescences; he can see distortions —
and discolourations, all of which announce plainly that the ©
little miner has established himself, and is hard at work —
carrying out the mission entrusted to him by Providence. —
Of course judgment and discrimination are necessary here, —
as In every other department of science. Not every black —
spot on a cereal is an Ustilago, nor is every knob or —
distortion an Hysterium, or a Polycystis. Experience is,
no doubt, of the greatest possible use; and, more than that,
it must be bought; there is assuredly no ‘royal road’ to
a knowledge of the Fungi. Nevertheless the student will —
do well, if it hes in his power, to seek the advice and ©
counsel of an older mycologist;.so that, on his first few
botanical trips, he may have some kind of notion regarding
the characteristics of the minute Fungi. If he is not so ©
fortunate as to have a friend, who can lend him a helping —
hand, he must needs work the matter out for himself, —
and trust to his own tact and common sense to discover
these tiny organisms where the eye of the uninitiated
would see only a dirty spot, and at the same time to
separate the worthless from the valuable.* By taking
trouble at first to inspect the leaves in a living condition,
he will soon get to notice those in which the Chlorophyll
is beginning to fail, and which have in consequence a
sickly appearance; an almost sure sign that the germs of
* I take this opportunity of commending to the notice of the
mycological student, Mr. M. C. Cooke’s admirable manuals, ‘ A Plain
and Easy Account of British Fungi,’ and ‘ An Introduction to the
Study of Microscopic Fungi.’ (Hardwicke.) The research displayed
is only equalled by the clearness with which the results of the —
author’s investigations are placed before the reader. To the beginner,
especially, they will prove invaluable aids.—Ep. .
PLATE XV. *
Minas
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82. Press for drying Botanical Specimens. 83-85. Zygnemacee conjugating.
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F
OF THE FUNGI. y21
Eme destructive Fungus are developing themselves. All
such leaves he will gather and place in his book for
future examination; although, perhaps, there is nothing
_ beyond this visible a the eye, to show what mischief is
at work. By way of illustration, I will refer to the
disease which so frequently seizes on the leaf of the potato
_ during the summer. Its first attacks escape the vigilance
of even the most experienced eye. Soon, however, a
chemical change begins to take place in the Chlorophyll:
the hitherto green leaf assumes a yellowish-brown tint,
and is finally enveloped in a layer of white cobweb- like
_ threads ; all of which is due to the presence of a mould,
- known to botanists as the ‘ Peronospora devastatrix’ S
De Bary. Another minute Fungus may be observed in
the form of a pale spot, which gradually envelops the
leaf on which it is seated with a delicate web; and a very
close inspection will detect tiny black dots scattered among
the meshes. These are the conceptacles, or capsules, en-
closing the spores; and the whole mass is the well-known
‘mildew,’ belonging to a genus Erysiphe, the members
of which work sad destruction among roses, hops, peas,
and numerous other plants.
Wherever, in a word, the eye of the collector detects
an tinnatural colour in a leaf, or a diseased appearance in
a stem, it is worth his ae to examine the sickly part,
‘as the chances are greatly in favour of the evil being due
to the baneful action of some Fungus. Thus the pedicel
of the thistle, the leaf of the hawthorn, the ripening stem
of the wheat plant, &c., are frequently swollen and dis-
coloured by Aicidia and Puccinie (Plate xxi. 106), which
+have worked their way into the cellular tissue, and are
rapidly destroying it.
But it is not the stems and leaves alone that are subject
to the attacks of these active assailants. It is rare to stroll
through a field of standing corn late in the summer,
without finding traces of that torrible pest, the ‘smut,
7 (Ustilago segetum), a dust-like agglomeration of minute
122. OF THE FUNGI:
black spores, which in certain seasons propagate themselves
in countless myriads, always taking up their abode in the
ears. No less injurious is another microscopic Fungus,
generally known as ‘ bunt’ (Tilletia caries), which grows —
within the grain itself, filling it with its dark mass of
spores. On pressing the grain the spores become visible
to the eye as a sooty and foetid dust.
Of the cases in which Fungi are noxious to animal life,
the commonest and most easily observed is that of the
Empusina musce, Cohn., to which so many house-flies tall
victims. It is by no means a rare thing, especially during ~
the autumn, to find flies with outstretched legs apparently |
glued to the window-panes, and surrounded by a white —
filmy cloud extending to a distance of one inch or two
inches on each side of the body. This filmy cloud is a
Fungus, which, generated within the body of the animal
during life, has now forced its way out between the rings ©
of the abdomen, and is spreading its filaments in every
direction. [Recent investigations have brought to light
the almost incredible fact, that this HEmpusina, when
immersed in water, alters its whole character and develops
oe a plant, which was Icng looked upon as a Confervoid
Alga (Achlya prolifera, Nees), (Plate xxui.); a plant only —
too ) well known to keepers of gold fish, whose sides it clothes
with numberless tufts of long colourless filaments, gradually
wasting their powers and destroying their vitality. Nor
does the wonder cease here: there is reason to believe,
though the fact is not yet well established, that Achlya
is but another form of Botrytis bassiana, the ‘ Muscardine,’
to which I have already alluded as consuming the intestines
of silkworms.—KEp._
All the larger Fungi must be thoroughly dried before they
can be put away with safety in the herbarium. Withregard
to the species which flourish on such compact material as
branches, palings, &c., the simplest plan is to cut off so ©
much of the wood as is convenient, and leave the preparation
in the open air until the moisture has completely evaporated.
OF THE FUNGI. boat
Fresh leaves and stems infested by microscopic forms of
Fungi may be dried in the same way as the fronds of ferns
or leaves of the Phanerogamia, of which more will be said
hereafter. The only precaution necessary is, that the pres-
sure be not too heavy, and that the blotting paper be con-
stantly changed. As these Fungi arise, in the first instance.
from below the cuticle in which they excavate (so to speak)
little hollows, and then spread themselves around in yellow
or black pulverulent masses, too severe a pressure may
force them back into the cavities, or at least squeeze them
against the plane surface of the leaf, and thereby destroy
their natural habit and appearance. ‘The reason why it is
advisable to make frequent changes of the drying material
is, that various forms of mould are developed wherever
there is moisture present. This is of little consequence
where large plants are being prepared, but may give rise to
Serious errors when the objects are of a microscopic nature.
The most difficult kinds to manage are the fleshy pileate
Fungi, those, I mean, included under the order Agaricacee,
or Hymenomycetes, of systematic authors. Numerous ex-
periments have been made from time to time with a view
to strike out some plan of retaining their natural form and
features after death. But onearrangement after another has
had to be abandoned, and mycologists have been compelled to
fall back upon the earliest and withal the simplest method,
that of drying them. ven this simple method, however,
is not possible with the larger individuals, not only on ac-
count of their size, but because the substance of which they
are composed is so sensitive to the influence of moisture, that
it is hopeless to think of preserving them by any ordinary
treatment. Under the most favourable circumstances they
are shrivelled and shrurk out of all shape when taken from
the press. So the student must be content with having por-
tions only of the original plant at his command; but these
may be prepared in such a way as to be full of instruction,
if he will follow out the suggestions Iam about to offer.
_ [But first of the parts which go to ferm an ordinary.
SOL OF THE FUNGI.
Agaric (Plate xxiv.). On taking up one of these plants ~
(or rather one of their fructifying organs, for the plant —
itself is concealed under the soil in the form of Mycelium) ~
we see a convex expansion called the pileus or cap, sup- —
ported by the stipes or stem, which itself rises out of the —
enclosed the entire organism, but through which the pileus —
and stipes have forced their way, leaving only a fragmentary ~
cup behind. The pileus, in fact, isa thick leathery roof, ~
concealing and at the same time affording protection to the
hymenium or reproductive organs; and, on turning the —
pileus over, we see that the hymenium is divided into —
numerous plates, the lamelle or gills, radiating from the
centre to the external border. . Further investigations under ~
the microscope reveal the fact, that these lamelle are recep-
tacles containing the sporules, the germs of the future
Agarics. Perhaps it will simplify the matter to some of
my readers if I add, that the pileus with its accompanying
hymenium forms the edible portion of the common mush- ~
room, the stipes usually going to form that useful sauce, —
‘catsup.’ What are termed ‘button mushrooms’ are the —
young plants still imprisoned within the volva, or which
have but just burst through its membranous coat.—Ep.]
In the first place, longitudinal sections must be made, |
traversing. the whole organism, from the top of the pileus |
to the base of the stipes. To effect this, the operator takes |
a very sharp knife, or better still a razor, and with a firm —
hand makes a bold cut from above downwards right ~
through the plant. This he repeats three or four times, so —
as to obtain successively several lamin, each about two —
lines thick, presenting a kind of diagram of the different
parts. These should be at once placed under the press. —
The quicker the operation of drying is performed, the finer
will be the appearance of the preparation, and the better |
will the natural colouring be retained. This may be for- |
warded by frequently changing the paper, and by warming |
it before laying it on the object. |
OF THE FUNGI. 125
Of the two halves remaining over and above the portions
cut away, the operator should separate the stem from the cap,
and scoop out a large proportion of the hymenium, so as
to leave the pileus entire with a certain amount of fleshy
matter adhering to it. It might be better, perhaps, to re-
move the whole of the internal substance; but, in that case,
the preparation would have a bad appearance, from being
too transparent after it was dried. The remains of the
stipes must be similarly treated; that is to say, a large
portion of its interior must be removed, and then the frag-
ments thus prepared are ready for the press. As soon as
the pieces are all perfectly dry, one of the stems must be
gummed or glued on white paper, and at its upper end one
of the halves of the pileus fixed in like manner, so as to get,
in fact, a more or less characteristic representation of the
original plant. Where there is an abundance of specimens,
the collector need not be so particular about preserving the
two halves that have been already cut through. It is better
indeed to dry the whole of a pileus, having first scooped out
the greater part of the hymenium previous to fastening it
on paper. When drying and gumming down the longi-
tudinal section, pains must be taken not to disturb the
arrangement of the lamelle and their relaticn to the stipes.
The foregoing applies particularly to the very large
fleshy Agarics. ‘Those of a medium size may be simply
divided through the centre of the cap and stem, and each
half pressed and dried. The preparation is not very
elegant, but gives satisfactory results from a scientific point
of view. The smaller species, such as the Marasmii,
Collybii, &c., require no special preparation beyond suspen-
ding them for some hours in a current of air (but not in
the sun) until they have lost a portion of their contained
fluids, and feel flabby and loose to the touch. They may
then be submitted to the press as usual.
I should perhaps have mentioned before, when speaking
of the very fleshy kinds, that all Fungi of a soft nature, like
Mushrooms and Toadstools, should be hung up in the air
pileate group, are very difficult of determination. If,
126 OF THE. FUNGI.
for at least twelve hours before being operated on. The
work itself is rendered much easier, and there is less chance |
of the delicate parts being mangled. 3
Small coriaceous. Fungi (the Polypori, Thelephore, &e.)
must not be weighted too severely. ‘There are some kinds
of Fungi, which are as hard as wood; from such thin |
sections may be taken in various directions, and put away |
at once. Several species belonging to the genera Peziza,
Hirneola, &c., are of a totally different consistency, being ™
strictly gelatinous. These will partially recover their |
original form and appearance on being moistened, longy
after they have been deposited in the herbarium.
Asa final process, subsequent to the pressure and dry-
ing, every portion of the Fungi—of the leathery and fleshy
kinds, I mean—must be impregnated with corrosive subli- |
mate, to save them from the attacks of insects. But with
regard to this I will speak more freely when treating of the
herbarium, and the best method of preserving its contents —
uninjured. | :
However well prepared, dried Fungi, especially the
therefore, from want of time or leisure, the student is |
unable to submit his freshly gathered examples to a rigid |
examination, he should at least assist his memory by |
making a not2 of such characteristics as come under his—
eye before the plants are dried. The main points to observe
are these: the colour of the stem and of the upper surface _
of the pileus; consistency of the fleshy substance, whether
hard and brittle, tough and gelatinous, soft and spongy, &c.3_
the odour emeead of garlic, of violet, of putrid flesh, &c.; |
the presence or absence of a milky fluid when fragmenta) |
are broken off; and, lastly, the changes of colour, which ©
take place when the plant is freshly cut. For a more)
scientific diagnosis it is necessary to ascertain, what relation |
the reproductive parts hold to the general structure of the |
organism ; whether, for instance, the spores are imbedded in |
lamelle (as with the Agarics), are borne in tubes on the lower
7
88. Fucus nodosus. a. Spores, 89. Fucus canaliculatus. a Spores.
Bey
2 eas
OF THE FUNGI. 129
part of the disc (as in the Polypori), or whether they cover
the top and sides of a club-shaped receptacle (as in Clavaria,
&c.). The spores themselves should also be secured as
useful aids. This may be done by laying the fructifying
organs on a piece of white paper, and leaving it undisturbed
for about twenty-four hours. On lifting it at the end of
that time the paper will be seen to be sprinkled with a
brown (occasionally white) dust, which is in fact a multi-
tude of ripe spores: these may be wrapped in paper, or
shaken into a corked tube for future examination.
_I strongly advise the young mycologist to make drawings
of the Fungi, or at least of the principal forms, which come
under his notice. Even if he is not a practised draughts-
man, he can by perseverance soon acquire skill enough t
copy their outline, and lay on the proper colouring: how-
ever roughly done, he will probably find his sketch of
considerable use in the comparison of individuals and the
determination of species. ‘The systematic examination of
' these plants cannot be carried on without the aid of the
microscope, on account of the extreme minuteness of their
organs. In some instances an ordinary needle attached to
a wooden handle is sufficient to expose their inner structure: -
generally speaking, however, the cellular tissue and organs
of fructification cannot be properly seen unless a delicate
section is made with a razor. With such as rest upon a
stout, firm base, like the branch of a tree, there is no diffi-
culty ; a little practice will enable the student to make a
clean cut from end to end. The same may be said with
respect to the Agarics and other soft, fleshy kinds: in these
a section may be easily made through the pileus, so as to
include the hymenium. On the other hand, species which
are parasitic on the leaves of Phanerogamia must be
treated in a different way. The leaf itself, not giving
sufficient support to the cutting instrument, must be laid
__ between two pieces of cork—a common wine cork divided
longitudinally answers perfectly well; then, by cutting
K :
130 OF THE FUNGI.
clean through cork and leaf, sections of the required thin- —
ness may be obtained without difficulty. To keep the |
two pieces of cork from shifting during the operation, they —
may be thrust through a metal ring of suitable size,or a |
piece of stout paper may be gummed round them; a still |
simpler plan is to tie them together with strong thread or |
thin string. The section can be placed at once on a slide
with a fine hair pencil.
In a large number of cases the fruit must es examined —
in a dry state, in order to ascertain the true connection of
the spores with their receptacles, as water causes them to —
separate. Of this description is the whole order of Botry- —
tacez or Bo SU eo order which embraces most of =
the common ‘ moulds,’ growing upon organic substances,
both dead and lving; the Peronospora of the potato, to
which I lately alluded; the parasites which infest the
onion, pea, rose, and clover, and numerous other pests of
the farm and garden. In all these (which to the naked
eye appear as patches of a white woolly substance) the
fruit, or acrospores, as they are called in technical lan-
guage, are situated on the tips of certain upright threads,
sometimes solitary, but more generally branched, so as to
have the appearance of miniature forest trees, only that
there are no leaves, and that each branchlet supports at its
apex a single round or oval acrospore. In some cases the
branchlet itself is moniliform, or made up of rows of ee
tiny reproductive organs, adhering end to end.
From some unknown cause, the ‘pedicels’ no svoner
_come in contact with water, than they ‘lose their heads;’
the fruit drops off, and the observer misses the chance of
ascertaining the way in which pedicel and acrospore were
united. If then a fluid is applied at all, a single drop
must be laid on the slide after the specimen has been placed
ready for examination. Let the water touch the covering
glass, and it will creep under by capillary attraction and
saturate the object.
: OF THE FUNGI. 131
The following re-agents may be used with advantage in
the. examination of the spores —sugar, sulphuric acid,
iodine, and caustic potash, in solution. [ As to the method
of employing re-agents, I must refer the student to the
works of Dr. L. Beale and others, bearing more directly
upon the subject than this little work pretends to do.—ED. |
K 2
Ae
132 OF THE LICHENS.
CHAPTER 21
OF THE LICHENS.
JUDGING FROM external appearances and from their natural
habits, no two groups of plants would seem to be more
distinctly separated than the Fungi and the Lichens. Their
boundaries, one would suppose, are as sharply defined as -
any embraced under the great family of Cryptogamia.
Nevertheless, modern authors are gradually drawing to
the opinion that, sooner or later, the Lichens must be
reduced to mere forms of the Fungal class. The point on
which the ‘ Separatists’ have mainly relied is the presence, —
in the thallus, of globular gonidia, containing a green
matter in the cells, which gonidia are supposed to be
wanting in the Fungi; but it is certain that some of the
Lichens (Abrothallus for example) are destitute of green
gonidial cells. And it is by no means certain that some
analogous structure is not to be found in many of the
Alege. Agardh considers Lichens more nearly allied to
Fungals than to Algals: he remarks, that ‘if Spherias, or
Pezizas, had a thallus, they would be Lichens; and that the
same part is all that determines such genera as Calycium,
Verrucaria, or Opegrapha to be Lichens and not Fungi.’
(Lindley, ‘Vegetable Kingdom,’ 47.)
However, “eaving these matters to be discussed by
physiologists, we will assume for our purposes, that the
distinction ordinarily laid down in regard to the two
classes is correct, viz. that ‘while the Fungi have their
vegetative structure immersed in the medium in which
they grow, the Lichens are entirely aérial encrusting plants.
A practical matter of great importance to the collector,
though of no value in the eyes of the systematist, is the
OF THE LICHENS. 433
admitted fact, that no Lichen is ever submersed, and that
they are never developed in mines, caverns, or places
deprived of light. In this respect they form a striking
contrast to both Algez and Fungi; the former, as we know,
depending for their very existence on the presence of water,
while the latter love moisture, and the absence of direct
sunlight.
Lichens, however, prefer the driest and most exposed
localities. Within certain limits they bear, with equal
indifference, the scorching heat of the midday sun and the
icy breath of the north “wind. Even when so dried and
withered as to crumble in the hand, they will wake to new
life when again moistened and placed 3 in such conditions as
allow of the development of their cells. This extraordinary
persistency, the power of retaining life under circumstances
which would be fatal to any other organised being, causes
the Lichens to be veritable pioneers in the vegetable king-
dom. ‘Taking possession of the bare face of a cliff, where
not even a moss could find footing, they seize the passing
dew or raindrop, introduce it into the shallow fissures of
the rock on which they are clustered, and thus gradually
prepare a foothold for the higher plants, Nor is their
usefulness limited to their living state; their very death is
made subservient to the great purposes of nature, by filling
the cavity on which they grew with the humus formed out
of their own corruption; doubtless a trifling amount, but.
sufficient to support the tiny moss which succeeds them,
and which in its turn lives and dies only to supply
nutriment for some more highly organised plant. Perhaps
the most remarkable evidence of the powers of vitality
belonging to this class is shown in the fact, that no sooner
do the streams of lava begin to cool after a volcanic
eruption, than a Lichen (known as Stereocaulon Vesu-
vianum) spreads its hard solid thallus over the glowing
surface.
Most of the Lichens prefer to grow on either stone or
wood; very few flourish on the naked soil; a small propor-
;
|
i
|
f
134 OF THE LICHENS.
tion are parasitic, either on other Lichens (as Abrothallus),
or on the leaves of box and similar evergreens (as Strigula)
The collector may hope to get his best gatherings from
stone and brick walls, trunks of trees, palings, and posts, all
of which are often clothed with an immense variety of these —
plants, especially where they have a northern aspect.
Many of the species are exceedingly minute and of so dark
a colour, as not to be easily distinguished at a short distance-
from the bark on which they rest. In fact, tree stems and |
palings must be as diligently searched for Lichens, as the
leaves and stalks of herbaceous plants for microscopic Fungi.
The same outfit is requisite here as was recommended in .
the last chapter, with the addition of a couple of chisels
(pointed and broad) and a hammer for detaching the
species which grow on the surface of rocks.
Those kinds which are more or less free (that is to say, |
in which the thallus is not wholly fixed down to the
object on which it grows) may be simply taken off by hand,
and, if not too dry, placed between the leaves of a book. It
is best to gather them when they are damp; consequently,
the fittest time for searching for them is after rain, or in the
early morning before the dew has passed away. Botanists,
however, cannot always time their excursions so nicely as
to meet these circumstances exactly. When this is the
case, and the specimens on being gathered feel dry and
brittle, they must be dipped in water, and suffered to
imbibe so much of the fluid as to render them limp and
flexible. After this, allowing the surface moisture to
evaporate, they may be. safely carried in the book, or
wrapped in paper, in the pocket.
I may aswellobserve here, that most of the Lichens, which
are of a light grey tint hen dry, become much darker,
and frequently quite green, when moistened. I mention
this that the beginner may not be disappointed, and |
attribute to his unskilful pr eparation what is in fact a |
natural change of colour.
On being brought home the specimens must be looked |
Oe
$0. Torrubia entomorrhiza.
91. Section, &c.
2. Torrubia militaris.
PrATH XV THT.
we
5 ALO
Ww
Gust
nh Ay
bbl
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pie Hee? 3. J
7 AO
SPS NOE he I
+ eB: wv
93. Torrubia gunnii.
94. Torrubia sphingum.
95. Torrubia sphingum. Isaroid condition.
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i
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OF THE LICHENS. 137
over, and, when uecessary, again damped and _ softened.
‘They should then be spread out between sheets of blotting-
paper, so as to exhibit as near as can be their original
character, and left to dry under a light pressure. On
the whole, the Lichens cause less trouble in their pre-
paration than any other group of plants, except perhaps the
Mosses. ,
In the case of certain small species (as, for instance,
Beeomyces roseus) which grow on the earth, the better
plan when collecting them is to carry away with the plant
a thin layer of the soil itself. This is easily effected by
means of a knife. In the same way all such as flourish on
wood, tree stems, palings, &c., should, on being taken off,
retain a very thin section of their support. The difficulty
of gathering those which are firmly fixed to the face of a
rock, overgrowing it like a thin crust, is far greater, as the
stone itself must be chipped off with chisel and hammer.
Of course the difficulty is increased where the operator has
to deal with the smooth surface of a compact rock; as, on
the other hand, it is considerably Jessened when the material
is of a calcareous, slaty, or schistose character. Each piece,
on being broken off, must be wrapped separately in paper,
to prevent them from rubbing against one another, thereby
spoiling the incumbent Lichen, or at least destroying its
fruit.
I take this opportunity of cautioning the botanical novice
against preserving only such small specimens of the chipped-
off rock as will he between the sheets of his herbarium ;
an error he is liable to fall into for the sake of uniformity -
and for convenience of arrangement. He forgets that, as
tame goes on and his collection increases, it must of
necessity be divided into numerous smaller portions, and be
put away in drawers or boxes. He had, therefore, much
better at once secure good instructive examples, even
though he is obliged to keep them in separate repositories,
than have to do his work over again at a future period.
I need scarcely perhaps add that, with Lichens, as with
®
= Soh anger Rane
d
138 OF THE LICHENS.
a
any other form of plant, those are the most instructive
examples in which the organs of fructification are well
displayed. As regards the Lichens, indeed, the presence of |
the fruit is indispensable. 4
Investigation into their minute structure is accomplished,
as in the case of the Fungi, by means of thin sections, cut
through both frond and receptacle.
OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. 139
CHAPTER XIV.
OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES.
Tue Mosses occupy a less exclusive position than the pre-
ceeding classes of the Cryptogamia, inasmuch as in many
respects they approximate to the great family of pe the
Phanerogamia. [Not that there is any likeness to a ‘ flower ’
in their organs of fructification; so far there is still a wide
gulf between the highest of the ‘ Muscal alliance’ and the «
lowest of the sexual plants: nevertheless, when we come
to examine their structure, we find that among Mosses a
great step in advance has been made in the scheme of
nature. For the first time now we have to deal with a
true root, a true stem, and true leaves; though it must be
owned, that in a few instances it isa work of some difficulty
to detect these organs. Thus Buxbaumia aphylla has re-
ceived its specific name from the apparent absence of leaves,
and the species of Sphagnum retain their roots only in the
young state. For the first time, too, we meet with traces
of that special characteristic of the more highly organised
plants—a vascular system.—EDp. |
With regard to the localities in which the Mosses
delight to dwell, we find them to be truly cosmopolitan.
The particular species are by no means indifferent to the
situation they may occupy; but, taking them asa whole, the
members of this order exist wherever shade and moisture
are afforded ; the actual species varying according to the
nature of the soil, and the material on which they grow.
Streams and morasses have their peculiar species. Fonti-
-nalis, Sphagnum, &c., are strictly aquatic; and from these
we may trace them, step by step, to the sloping sides of a
‘ditch, the weather- ‘beaten roof of a thatched cottage, the
140 OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES.
refts in a wall, the hard surface of a rock, and finally to
spots (such as the resort of the charcoal- burner) where
the soil, though sheltered by trees, has been withered and
scorched by the action of fire.
Mosses, observes Lindley, ‘ are found in all parts of the
world where the atmosphere is humid, but they are far
more common in temperate climes than in the tropics.
They are among the first vegetables that clothe the soil
| with verdure in newly formed countries, and they are the
last that disappear when the atmosphere ceases to be
capable of nourishing vegetation. The first green crust
. upon the cinders of ccenee consisted of minute Mosses ; :
| they form more than a quarter of the whole Flora of
Melviile Island; and the black and lifeless soil of New
} South Shediac: is covered with specks of Moss struggling
| for existence.’
Their favourite localities, however, are those which are
rich in decaying vegetable matter, and but little exposed
. to the sun’s heat; so that it is to the wood and forest, the
| deep ravine and hie narrow valley, that the collector mua
|
look for his principal gatherings. The shady side of bold
ridges must be carefully searched; also damp hedgerows
and wet rocky places, especially with a northern aspect,
for in these many of the delicate Jungermanniz love to
osrow. A few, comparatively rare, forms (the Splachna)
choose the dung of animals as their habitat, principally in
Alpine and Subalpine districts. ‘ One of these, Splachnum
angustatum, which is commonly met with upon dung, we
once saw growing vigorously upon the foot of an old
stocking near the summit of Ingleborough, Yorkshire.. The
same species was found by a friend of ours covering the
half-decayed hat of a traveller who had perished on the
mountain of St. Bernard in Switzerland; and the same, iff
we mistake not, was discovered by Captain Parry in
Melville Island, vegetating in the bleached skull of a musk
ox. * The Sphagna, as stated above, are truly aqualay
* Muscologi: 4a Britannica.
OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. TAT
choosing by preference the swamp and morass, great tracts
of which they cover with their spongy tuits. They may
be easily distinguished, even at a long distance, by their
singular pale yellow hue, so different to the bright rich
green which generally marks the Moss tribe. The denizens,
however, of the water are far inferior in number to tres
which draw their nourishment from the atmosphere,
thriving on the surface of rocks, damp walls, and stems of
trees. Thus the Orthotricha are almost entirely confined
to the latter habitat, the exceptions occurring on rocks,
z.. on the faked soil. The collector, therefor e, must
take a rigid survey of the trees, as well as of the ground
which they overshadow, taking particular care to examine
the hollows formed by the junction of the branches with
the stem; also the base of the tree where the latter passes
into the root and buries itself in the soil; for it is in places
of this description that the rain and dew settle, and
consequently Mosses are encouraged to develop themselves.
Uprooted trees, on which time and the weather are beginning
to make an impression, are also favourite localities for
nearly all the members of the Muscal alliance. Let them
be closely investigated, for, other conditions being aus-
picious, more examples will often be gathered here than
hours of research will disclose in many less-favoured spots.
__ A strong knife, a waterproof bag or small tin vasculum,
a few small bottles, and a supply of paper, are all that is
necessary, by way of outfit, for a ‘ramble among the Mosses.’
If possible, only such specimens as are in full fructifi-
cation should be gathered; for, as a practical matter, mere
tufts of leaves without signs of fruit, or with immature
fruit, are really of very little value. So important is this,
that, should the collector find himself in a neighbourhood
where the Mosses do not yet display their fruit, he had far
better leave them for a while, than gather them at once,
however tempting the opportunity, or lovely the specimens.
Let him mark the place carefully, and revisit it in a month
or two, and in all probability he will be amply rewarded
id ee ee
142 OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES.
for his self-denial. Of course there are cases in which he
has but little chance of seeing the spot a second time; there
is no help for him then but to secure the prize while he
can. ‘There are a few cases too in which the plants rarely, |
if ever, develop their organs of fructification. Here again |
he must ‘take things as he finds them; ’ it would be of no
use to wait, and he must be satisfied with sterile examples. |
[ The reproductive organs of Mosses consist of so- -called
antheridia and pistillidia, or archegones. ‘The former
are minute globular or oval bodies, supported on a short
pedicel, and, when ripe, discharging a granular matter, |
which has been likened to pollen, They are usually
associated with a number of jomted cellular filaments
or paraphyses, the ‘fila succulenta’ of Hedwig. These
antheridia are considered to be the representatives of the’
stamens, or male organs of the flowering plants. The
pistillidia, on the other hand, minute flask-shaped bodies,
swollen at the base, are ioctees upon, as their name implies,
as corresponding to the pistils, or female organs of thé
Phancrogamia. By degrees they are developed into the
long stemmed capsule, or theca, so conspicuous in most
Mosses by their bright chestnut colour. :
Now it is requisite, if possible, that the student should
provide himself with examples of each of these organs, not
only because of the interest attached to them, but from the
increasing tendency of muscologists to base their systems of
classification on these minute structures.—ED. | 3
It frequently happens, however, that Mosses are ical
cious; that is to say, the two kinds of reproductive organs
are situated on separate plants, the mature female of course
being the most conspicuous. ‘This is exactly analogous to
what occurs among the true sexual plants; but then their
parts, as a rule, are evident enough, whereas among the™
Mosses and their allies the same parts, at any rate at first,
are strictly microscopic. All we can recommend to the
student is, to make diligent search. If the antheridia are
not to be found i in the ‘ pistillidiferous’ specimens, he should
PEATE XX,
~~ 7 NSS
5S
Ox
bs Y ye
ee
—e
96. Torrubia sphingum, fertile stipe. 98. Morchella esculenta.
97. Torrubia stylophora, ; 99, Lycoperdon gemmatum.,
Ce le ee all
OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. 145
examine the neighbourhood (especially where it varies a
little in elevation or dampness) for male plants. ‘ Practice
makes perfect,’ and though frequent disappointments may
occur, success will follow, in a greater or less degree, as he
applies himself more vigorously to his work.
In gathering the Hepatic it is indispensable to secure
the organs of fructification: these are of simpler structure
and lower organisation than in the Mosses, consisting of
capsules either imbedded in the thick cellular frond (the
Riccie), or elevated on footstalks (Marchantia, Junger-
mannia, &c.\, but in either case unprovided with the
calyptra and ‘operculum, the hoods which distinguish and
protect the spore cases of the true Mosses. When then the
latter plants are placed in the bag or vasculum, precautions
must be taken against losing the hoods, as they are of
great service in the elucidation of genera, and unhappily
they are very apt to drop off— [I always myself ‘bottle’ a
few small specimens, the enclosed moisture preventing the
separation of the calyptra from the theca. ‘The leaves too
are kept fresh and the plants generally are saved from
rubbing and consequent mutilation. This refers more
particularly to the Jungermannie, the extreme delicacy of
whose fruit, and stem, and leaves demand most tender
treatment, ‘The ‘ bottling’ also ensures a specimen being
ready for examination immediately on returning home;
though this is by no means essential, as all the Moss tribe
speedily recover their plumpness and general appearance,
on being immersed in water, after they have been long
dried.— Ep. |
They are very easily prepared for the herbarium, all
that is necessary being to separate them into convenient
portions, pick out all foreign bodies (such as fragments of
leaves, &c.), place them between blotting-paper, and sub-
mit them to the press. The weights employed must be
of the lightest, as otherwise the natural appearance of the
plants are distorted. The true Mosses are usually divided
Into two chief sections—the Acrocarpi, or those in which
L
146 OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES.
the fruit is situated at the summit of a stem, and the
Pleurocarpi, which bear the fruit on the sides. In one
word, in the first, the theca or capsule is terminal; in the
second itis lateral. This difference of structure necessitates |
a difference of treatment in preparation. Bunches of the
lateral fruited species may be separated by the hand without
taking the trouble to isolate individual plants: it is better,
in fact, to leave them massed together, as showing their
character of growth more accurately. With the terminal
fruited species, on the contrary, the natural habit of the
plants is seen better if they are separated, though they
need not be entirely so. For this purpose, two or three
clean cuts may be made with a knife through the tuft, ’
from above downwards, thereby making thin sections held
together slightly at the bottom, either by the adherent
earth, or by their own interwoven roots.
Some of the very delicate kinds, such as Brachyodus or
Seligeria, and many of the Jungermanniz should be collected
torcther with the bark or stone to which they have at-
tached themselves. :
The Hepatice need great care in their preparation ; not
the least difficulty is the getting rid of the soil from their
roots without injuring the leaves or breaking the stem.
The best method of accomplishing this‘ is to lay the plants,
just as they are brought home, in a cup of clean water,
then, by a gentle movement of the fluid backwards and
forwards, the earth will gradually separate itself and settle
at the bottom. ‘The water should be constantly renewed,
until no signs of discoloration appear. Next let the plant
be carefully lifted out of the cup and laid on soft paper to
allow of the water draining off. Here, again, great care is
needed, because some of the important parts are easily
broken off and lost from their extreme minuteness, if any
roughness or over-haste is used; such are the so-called
gemme, the calyx or vaginule, and the antheridia, on
their short pellucid footstalks. |
An ordinary lens is sufficient for the examination of the
stems and branchlets of the Mosses ; but the construction of
OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. 147
the leaf (especially in the Hepatice) can only be properly
seen with a microscope whose powers are not less than 200
diameters. For this purpose a leaf must be separated, by
means of a pair of forceps, quite close to the stem, or the
stem itself may be divided above and below the point of
attachment, and the whole section submitted to the micro-
scope. ‘This last is perhaps the better arrangement, be-
cause it often happens that the base of the leaf is furnished
with peculiar cells, which are of service in discriminating
species. A drop of water should be added to the leaf, when
it is laid on the slide, as this renders the delicate network
of cells more pervious to light.
I have found the following plan bring out the form of
the cells of the Jungermannie, and indeed of many of the
Mosses, very clearly. First, let the leaflet be warmed to’
ebullition in a solution of caustic potash, rinse it in soft
water, and then add a drop of a solution of chloride of zinc
and iodine. By this means the cell walls, after a while
(though sometimes not for hours), assume a blue tint, and on
being slightly pressed under the covering glass, the layers
of cellular tissue exhibit themselves to great perfection.
_ The arrangements, however, of the leaf cells may be best
seen in vertical sections, made by means of a divided cork
in the way recommended at p.129. In many cases tre
necessity for preparing these thin sections is not called for,
while in others (as Fissidens, Polytrichum, Sphagnum, &c.)
the true construction of the leaf cannot be made out without
them.*
* The following observations on the leaves of the Jungermanniz
are of value :—‘ The leaves are remarkably varied in their form and
arrangement, and usually afford excellent guides in the discrimina-
tion of one species from another. A glance at the figures which
follow will show their great variation in this particular... . . In
all cases the leaves are without footstalks, and in each British species
alternate ; that is, they are not arranged in pairs at the same level on
the stem, but one is always a little above or below its nearest neigh-
bour in its attachment. In some cases they are ranged in two rows
i 2
148 OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES. :
The amphigastria are a kind of modified leaves in the
Hepatice, answering in some respects to the stipules of
more perfect plants. Growing, as they do, on the lower
surface of the stem, and being very minute, considerable
trouble is involved in searching for them, as numerous
stems have to be examined; neither are they always pre-
sent over the whole extent of the stem. The most likely
parts are healthy young shoots, especially those that sup-
port the reproductive organs. The eye, too, should be
directed to the sides of the under-surface, rather than
along the central axis. For the purpose of examination the
amphigastriee may be shaved off with a thin and very
sharp penknife, or the stem itself may be divided, as
directed for the true leaves. The latter method has the
advantage of securing the stipule from injury, and of giving
a good insight into its mode of attachment.
on opposite sides of the stem. In other and fewer instances they are
attached to, or grow from, all sides of the stem. It is of rare occur-
rence to find the leaves notched at the margin, but this sometimes
takes place.
The cells, of which the leaves: are composed, are roundish, or
hexagonal, from pressure, and very variable in size. This also is a
great assistance in the determination of species. . . . The cells
of the ladder scale Moss (Alicularia scalaris), for instance, contain
peculiar nucleate bodies of from two to four granules ina /ine in
@)@)
each of the cells (fig. 2); those of the three-toothed scale Moss (Pla-
giochila tridenticulata) fig. 8, and of the curled-leaved scale Moss
(Jungermannia curvifolia), fig. 4, will illustrate some of the forms of
leaf cells.’ (‘ British Hepaticee ; an Easy Guide to the Study of, by
M. C. Cooke—a work which may be consulted with advantage by the
student. It is crowded with figures, and its exceedingly Tow price
places it within every one’s reach.)—Ep. |
OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES: 149
The vaginule. which answers to a certain extent to the
calyx of the Phanerogamia, at first encloses the spore-case ;
the latter, however, soon bursts through its cellular en-
velope, and is elevated on a delicate threadlike stem. The
vaginule should be examined in its early state, previous to
its losing its contents, first from the exterior ; and, when its
outward form is familiar to the observer, he should divide
it under water into two halves longitudinally, in one of
which he will see the organs of fructification in a greater
or less degree of development. Ordinarily this division of
the vaginule may be easily effected by means of a forceps
in cach hand ; occasionally it is of so fleshy a nature as to
allow of being cut with a knife.
For studying the anatomical structure of the fruit of the
Mosses a capsule must be taken with the fruit not yet ripe.
Thin sections, vertical and horizontal, may be made with
great ease. A pecuhar organ is found in the capsules of
nearly all the Hepatice, called the elater. It is a single or
double filament, spirally twisted, and enveloped ina slender
tube: both tube and elater form interesting objects for the
microscope. Of what service the elaters may be in the
economy of the plant is not yet accurately ascertained ;
their probable office is to disperse the spores by their elas-
tic movement as soon as the latter are ripe.
A still more mysterious organ found in the antheridia of
most of the Mosses is the spermatozoid, or antherozoid,
or spermatic filament; for by all these names it is known
among botanists. It is a minute thread, of which the
functions are not yet known. On being placed in water
these spermatozoids exhibit active spontaneous motion, as
may be seen by squeezing the contents of a ripe antheridium
into a drop of water on a slide, covering it with thin glass,
and then submitting it to a microscope with a power of
from 300 to 600 diameters. If the movements are too
quick for observation, they may be retarded by allowing a
drop of iodide solution to make its w ay under the covering
glass,
150 OF THE MOSSES AND THEIR ALLIES.
For the determination of species the capsule and its |
enclosed spores must be quite ripe, and must still retain —
its operculum (or lid), and calyptra (or veil). A few q
species (as Phascum) are destitute of an operculum ; and |
in some (as Sphagnum) the calyptra disappears long before |
the capsule reaches maturity. In all cases however, —
where they are present, both lid and veil drop off as soon
as the spores are ready for dispersion ; an office which is |
oreatly assisted by a third organ, which crowns the capsule,’ |
and is known as the fringe or peristome. |
This last, which is sometimes single and at others double,
is of the utmost importance in the discrimination of genera ;_
so much so that, in systematic works, the characters of the ©
subsections are founded on its absence or presence ; and >
the Aploperistomi (plants with a single fringe), the Diplo- ;
peristomi (those with a double fringe), and the Gymno- |
stomi (or such as are destitute of a fringe), form acknow- |
ledged divisions in the Muscal family. —
The peristome, moreover, from its peculiar construction —
and delicate colouring, makes a lovely object for the micro-—
scope. A specimen is easily prepared: lay the capsule on-
the thumb-nail of the left hand and cut it across the shorter
axis with a sharp knife, rather towards the summit. The
upper portion, which now represents a short tube, is next
to be cut half through vertically. The fringe may then be_
spread out on a slide and covered with a thin glass to pre-
yent it from again curling up. | ;
The leaves may be preserved for future observation by
laying them between two pieces of thin glass, united at the
edges by asphalte. When wanted for use the specimen 1s
dipped into water, which entering between the glasses
moistens the leaf, and restores it temporarily to its original
appearance. All the more important organs may be
treated in the same way. By this arrangement much time
is saved, when it is desired to examine any particular
species, of which perhaps there may be but few examples
in the herbarium, and the specimens themselves, preserved
PLATE XX,
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sd
OF- THE MOSSES AND: .THEIR ALLIES. 1538
between the sheets of paper, are saved from the wear and
tear to which they would be subjected if constantly brought
out for investigation. —
lam of opinion, that if the specimens were mounted in
silicate of potash (or waterglass, as it is sometimes called),
much future time and trouble would be saved, as the leaf
would probably retain its fair appearance without being
immersed in water every time it was wanted. But my
own experience is not sufficient to justify me in recom-
mending it to others. [I have frequently employed silicate
‘of potash as a preservative medium for the leaves of
Mosses and other objects. In some instances it has suc-
ceeded thoroughly, the leaflets retaining their fresh appear-
ance, and remaining unaltered. But it appears to be un-
certain in its action, ‘vacuoles’ and bubbles often appear-
ing in its midst in the most unaccountable manner. For
pleasantness in using, rapidity in drying, &c., it surpasses
any medium with which I am acquainted.—Ep. |
a a atc nei Soret,
154 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS.
CHAPTER XV.
OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS.
I Have thought it as well to unite these two classes, not
only on account of the external resemblance which they
bear to each other (as compared with the preceding
families), but because, speaking generally, the same methods
of preparation are applicable to both. As a rule, Ferns,
especially the commoner sorts, are far better known to the
botanical student, than any of the Cryptogamic orders, not
excepting the Alga. Their bright green colouring and the
eraceful outline of their fronds invite the attention of the
passer-by ; and many a beginner glories in a collection of
dried Ferns, who has never troubled himself about their
specific or even generic differences. These depend almost
exclusively upon the fructification, the absence or presence
of an indusium, the form of the spore-case and its ring, and
the shape of the sorus or collected spore-cases. It would be
beside the object of this Handy-book to enter into this
subject, nevertheless the accompanying plates (xxv. and
XXVI.) will assist the student in discriminating some of the
eenera more commonly met with; the glossy Hartstonegue
(xxv. 110), and scaly Ceterach (111), the glorious flower-
ing Fern (xxvi..112), and its humble relative the Adders-
tongue (113). 3
For a more intimate knowledge of thestructural differences
in this interesting family I must refer the reader to John
Smith’s ‘ Ferns, British and F oreign, and to the works of
Newman, Moore, and other well-known Pteridologists.
If it were necessary to warn the student to secure perfect
examples of the more lowly organised plants—the Alge,
Fungi, Lichens, and Mosses—still more needful is it to
OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 155
repeat the warning here. Among the Phanerogamia, with
very rare exceptions, flower and fruit, leaves, stem and
root, are fully developed; and (excluding the first-named)
they are equally perfect in the Ferns. Consequently every
one of these organs ought to find a place in the herbarium.
There is no positive reason why the stem, or the root,
should be neglected any more than the flower, or the leaf.
And yet this is just the point in respect to which beginners
make the most woful mistakes. They are satisfied with
a moiety, when they should have the whole. An her-
baceous plant, for instance, is plucked off at some distance
above the junction of the stem with the root, and carried
triumphantly home as a specimen of that particular
species. What is the result ? Suppose it isan Orchis which
the tyro has in hand. He searches through one or the
other of the standard botanical works, and, under the head
of Orchis, he finds that the specific differences depend in
a greater or less degree on the form of the root: thus,
while one important subdivision has ‘tubers undivided,’
another is provided with ‘palmate tubers.’ Hence he is
reduced to guess at the name of his fragment, or at best
to do his work of collecting over again—not always a
convenient task.
The fact is, there are peculiarities in every part of a
plant, from the root to the inflorescence, which cannot be
neglected with impunity. What a large ‘number of species
depend for their due identification upon the presence of
the radical or root leaves, and which cannot be satisfac-
torily determined, unless these are under the observer's eye!
The very names ‘of some are based upon the fact of the
root-leaves having a totally different form to the series
which clothe its upper parts. It is well known that the
stem-leaves of the common hare-bell are narrow and linear.
Whence then its technical name, Campanula rotundifolia?
It was given to it by the great Linneus, who saw it in the
early summer forcing its way through the chinks of some
stone steps in the university of Upsal. At that season the
156 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS
crown of the root is encircled by round or cordate leave
which quickly decay and vanish; hence the origin of its
specific title.
Here then is a case in on. illustrating the need of gather-
ing examples of all the leaves, radical and cauline alike.
. There are certain families also, like the Roses and
Brambles, in which the leaves vary much in form according
to the part of the plant on which they grow. Specimens of
these variations must be gathered, if the student hopes to
have at all a satisfactory collection.
Where the plants are either monecious or ae it
stands to reason that both the sexes must be secured,
whether found on separate individuals, or on different
parts of the same plant.
The fructification plays a most important part among
both generic and specific characteristics. What, for instance,
is the value of a flower, taken alone, among the Crucifere
and Umbellifere? Almost nzl! It is to the fruit that we
have to look to bring order out of chaos, and settle the
limits of genera. In a modified degree the same may be
said of other families.
As many species flower dina a large part of the
year, there is seldom any difficulty in securing with the
flower the half-developed fruit, which should be noted
down and again visited at a later period, when the seed-
vessel is mature. The Crucifere, except in their earliest
stage, are tolerably certain to supply the collector with both
flowers and fruit—the latter ina more or less advanced con-
dition—the ripest at the base of the stem, and so passing
through every stage up to the barely opened corolla.
Another group of plants, which has to be carefully
watched, are those trees and shrubs in which the flowers ©
are produced on naked branches, the leaves not appearing
until some time after the flowers themselves have withered
away. Of course, in such instances, flower and leaf must —
be gathered on different occasions. Only let the collector
be careful to take the latter from the same specimen, from
OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 15s
which he has already gathered the flower. The same
fores ght must be extended to the fruit. The latter, indeed,
is not indispensable, though certainly desirable; for the
reader may easily picture to himself what confusion and
errors may possibly arise, where there is no certainty of
the examples, which, lie together in the herbarium, having
been the produce of the same plant.
The above remarks refer with tenfold force to the
Willows, which seem to have a peculiar facility for hybri-
dising ; and, therefore, the greatest care should be taken
to isolate every specimen, and if possible to have it in one’s
power to identify the very tree from which each was taken.
The Ferns are no exception to the rule, which demands
that the plant should be seen in its integrity when dried.
The crown and root must always, if possible, be secured as
well as the frond; and of the latter, those which have no
fruit on them must not on that account be passed by, as
the two kinds often exhibit wide differences in form, and
mark the character of the plant. More than one species of
the remarkable genus, Equisetum, is furnished with both
sterile and fertile fronds; both of which must of course be
gathered and laid side by side in the herbarium. In the
case of the common Equisetum arvense, the succulent,
fawn-coloured, fruit-bearing stem rises upright from the
soil weeks before the harsh green procumbent frond
spreads itself over the ground. In others again the fertile
shaft is entirely unbranched, while the sterile stems are
enriched by frequent whorls of elegant pendant branches.
The two sorts of frond may be easily recognised; while
the barren stem tapers gradually to a point, the fertile is
furnished with a stout clavate head, which is in fact the
receptacle, and contains the spores in a number of separate
sporangia. ‘These spores are themselves very interesting
objects: each is furnished with four filamentous processes,
known as elaters, though very unlike the elaters which are
mingled with the spores in the capsules of the Hepatice.
hey are extremely sensitive to the influence of moisture,
138 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS,
and, if breathed upon while under the microscope, will be
seen to curl and uncurl themselves, enfolding the spore or
causing it to dart on one side.
The collector is well prepared for a botanical expedition
when he has furnished himself with a common gardener’s
trowel, a strong knife (if provided with a saw so much the
better), and a tin vasculum, the latter larger or smaller
according to the probable duration of his cp, the time of
year, the plants likely to be met with, &c.*
If, on returning home, the flowers have closed their
petals, as frequently happens, it is only necessary to set
the roots in a basin of water, until the corollas have again
opened, when the roots may be roughly dried, and the
preservation of the plant proceeded with. Should they be
wet from dew or rain, when gathered, they must be laid
by until every trace of moisture has disappeared ; other-
* A very useful instrument was brought under my notice; many
years ago, by that eminent botanist, Philip Barker Webb. The ac
companying figure exhibits its general form. The total length is
15 inches, “of which the handle occupies rather more
than one-third. The blade (which i is triangular in shape me 114,
each side of the triangle measuring seven-eighths of an
inch where it joins the handle) is “brought to an obtuse
point. About midway between the two extremities, or,
more correctly speaking, some 44 inches below the.
handle, it begins to make a gentle curve, the lower end
being about one inch out of the true line. One of the
angles forms the back of the curve. For convenience of
carriage it should be fitted into a stout leather case.
This instrum rent, which was Mr. Webb’s invariable com-
panion in his numerous Alpine excursions, is of great
value for forcing plants from between the fissures of
rocks, massive tree roots, &c.; in a word, from places
where the broad surface of a trowel cannot be inserted,
or would probably be broken, if it could be got in at all.
It is also useful for extracting tap roots without mjury from chalk
or any other hard dry soil.
If made of good material, it will last a lifetime. My own has seen
a good deal of rough service, but is practically in as good conditie
as when it was made twenty years ago.—Eb. |
PEATE, XL
ad ai
PTT Amis emer rrmere tre Pree Pe tle
ipa be rn eeestnas asc
ig.
nium ulmari
‘ty
ai.
103. Triphrag
104. Spheeria herbaruam.
102. Aregma buibosum.
Meee
* Paria st
taeeeee
OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 1Gl
wise mould and mildew will speedily develop themselves,
or at any rate the corollas will lose their bright tints, and
the leaves become spotted and black.
' As most of our readers must be aware, all these plants are
prepared for the herbarium, by being laid between sheets
of paper and placed under pressure. The choice of paper
for this purpose is by no means a matter of indifference, as
the beauty of the specimens and their ultimate preserva-
tion depend in a great measure on the speedy and thorough
extraction of the fluids contained in their tissues.* Blotting
paper is an excellent material; but the quantity required
when the gatherings are on a large scale prevents it from
being ordinarily employed. On the whole, common print-
ing paper may be recommended with safety ; and the cheap-
| ness and abundance of newspapers in the present day makes
it easily attainable in large quantities.
Proof, however, should be made of its powers of absorp-
tion before being used; for some of the newspapers are
prepared in such a manner as to prevent them from im-
bibing water freely. __
One special point to be kept in view is, not to be sparing
of the drying material, but to have so much at hand that
frequent changes may be made. ‘This is of the last im-
portance, as a false economy is ruinous here.
In order to dry the sheets when they are removed from
the press, they must be spread out in such a manner as to
expose the largest possible suriace to the air. But as this
occupies more space than most botanists can spare, the
following plan will be found of service: it is quite as
numberless papers lying in disorder about the floor of a
* An excellent paper in appearance (I have not yet had the oppor-
tunity of trying it), is manufactured expressly for botanical pur-
poses by E. Newman, Devonshire Street, Bishopsgate, N.E.; and
#$ also sold by Mr. J. Smith, 42, Rathbone Place, Oxford St reet.
=1D.
| M
effectual, and the eye is not offended with the sight of
——
162 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS.
room. Four or five sheets having been laid on one another, |
a thread is passed through them on the folded side, some |
two inches from the border; and then the two ends of the
thread are tied together so as to leave a loop sufficiently
large to admit of a longish rod or stick being passed through ©
it. In this way packet after packet of damp paper is
loosely fastened on the stick, and the latter is suspended
horizontally in any convenient place, where there is a
current of air—between the rafters of an out-house—across
two chairs near a large fire—or, weather permitting, in the,
open air, where it will catch the rays of the sun. A few
rods fitted up after this plan will allow of an immense
number of sheets being dried at the same time. From the’
loose papers having both their sides acted on by the
draught, they give up their moisture more quickly than if
laid on the ground, and are not liable to be blown about by.
ousts of wind. ‘The business of sewing the paper together
is considerably lightened, if the end of a ball of thread is:
drawn, by means of a packing needle, through a great
number of sheets at once, the thread being afterwards
divided in lengths sufficient to bind up the packets as
previously described. This saves the time, which would
otherwise be wasted if the thread were cut into the required
lengths before being passed through the packets.
As soon as the plants are freed from the moisture on
’ their surface, and the paper has been distributed into con-
venient parcels of five or six sheets, the process of drying
may be proceeded with by niaking alternate layers of
packets and specimens until a height of some two feet has
been reached. Next let the whole pile be placed between
two smooth boards of the same size as the paper, and
weighted with bricks, as previously recommended. Great
attention must be paid to the degree of pressure laid on ;
if it be too severe the specimens will be squeezed out of all
shape, whereas, if too light, the leaves, petals, and other
tender parts will be shrivelled and wrinkled. It isa point
on which experience and common sense must be brought to
OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 163
bear, and they will be found safer guides than volumes of
advice and description.
In arranging the specimen on the drying paper, the
appearance it had when living is the first thing to be
thought of; indeed, the main object in submitting it to a
press at all, is that it may retain its form permanently.
Before all things, therefore, care must be taken not to do
violence to the plant, or force any of its members into
positions which they could not possibly have held in their
living state; otherwise an ill-shapen, distorted object,
which can never be restored to anything like its original
form, will be the inevitable result. For the same reason
no leaf or twig must be removed for the mere sake of pro-
ducing symmetry, or to indulge a false taste. The one
erand point to be kept in view—I cannot impress it too
strongly on the young student—to which everything else
must be made to yield, is the preservation of the natural
habit of the plant. If that is lost sight of, his herbarium
may form a pretty object in the eyes of superficial observers,
_ but it can never be a collection of plants by which science
will be promoted, or a knowledge of botany advanced.
Of course there are times—and that not rarely—when it
is actually necessary to curtail certain portions of a plant,
in order that it may be prepared satisfactorily. Leaves,
for instance, are constantly in the way, and must be
removed to prevent them from concealing flower or fruit,
or from being squeezed irregularly against the stem.
Whenever, then, amputation is unavoidable, let it be
performed in such a manner that there may be no mistake
about it—that, in a word, anyone may see at a glance
that leaves, twigs, &c. really have been removed. ‘To this
end let the leaf, supposing a leaf to interfere with the due
disposition of a flower, be cut off, not quite down at its
junction with the stem, but a short distance up, so as to
leave a good portion of the petiole adherent to the plant ;
and so of a twig, or a flower-head, or any other part, that
must inevitably be sacrificed. But amputation had much
| mM 2
SS i a SE te tle ae ee
er a
164 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS.
better not take place at all, if it be possible to do with-
out it.
Should the specimen be too large to be contained within
the compass of a sheet of paper, the stem must be cut
half ee at a convenient spot, and bent over, but at a
certain angle, so that as little as possible of the upper layer ~
shall press on the lower. Where the specimen is so long,
that it is impossible to bend it so as to prevent its project=
ing beyond the paper, there is no help for it but to divide
it into short lengths, care being taken to mark each part,
so that their true connection may be seen at once. “This
can be easily managed by simply varying the shape of the
cut : let the two corresponding sections be rounded, notched, —
truncated, &c., and no mistake can arise. But I repeat, let
all amputation be avoided as long as possible.
As far as circumstances will permit, the different mem- —
bers of the specimen, I mean the leaves, stem, flowers, —
and so on, must not be permitted to lie directly on each
other; for, if they do, they are almost certain to cling te-
gether and to become discoloured. Where it is impossible ~
to avoid this, pieces of paper must be interposed; any
kind of paper will suffice for the leaves, stalks, and less
delicate parts, but for the petals only tissue, or thin note
paper, should be used: indeed, the employment of the latter —
during the whole course of preparation, in addition to the re-
gular drying material, tends greatly to preserve their colour.
Care must be taken, when arranging the order of the
specimens one over the other, not to lay a thick woody
plant next in succession to a thin slender specimen, as the
latter will bear the impress of its stouter neighbour much
to its detriment. Should it be found impossible to escape
such an arrangement, the only remedy is to lay, not a single
packet of paper as usual, but several packets bet:veen the
two specimens—to heap them up, in fact, until the hand,
when passed roughly over, fails to detect the protuberant :
stem beneath. |
The young botanist, in the course of his inves stigations, —
~
GE. THE “EERNS AND- FLOWERING “PLANTS: 160
will meet with numerous plants, belonging principally to
the family Crassulacee, such as Sedums and Sempervivums,
which are so succulent and so tenacious of life, that they
continue to grow after they have been laid between the
sheets of drying paper. These require a special treatment
of their own in order to destroy their vitality before any
attempt is made to preserve them for the herbarium. ‘To
this end they are to be placed between two or three sheets
of paper, the inflorescence alone projecting beyond it, and
a hot iron is then passed cver them. ‘Two special pre-
cautions must be taken during the operation; one, that
the flowers are not singed—the other, that the papers are
changed more than once, as the plants being always of a
succulent nature, a large amount of water is discharged by
the heat.
There are some plants the ‘surface of which is coated
with a glutinous matter, which causes them to cling to the
paper, especially when under pressure: indeed, some of the
foreian Semperviva combine both these unpleasant con-
tingencies, extraordinary vitality and extreme viscidity. To
obviate the latter, the best plan is to sprinkle the specimen
with the spores of Lycopodium clavatum—to be procured at
most chemists under the name of ‘ Lycopodium.’ The spores
ean be shaken off as soon as the plants are thoroughly dry.
Delicate water plants are often difficult to deal with, as
their long trailing leaves and stems are apt to get hopelessly
interwoven at the moment they are taken out of their
native element, and it is an almost impossible task to
separate them after they are dried. Such plants must be
treated in the same way as was recommended in the case
of the filamentous Alge, viz. passing under them, while
still in water, the paper, on which they are to he.
There are certain terrestrial plants, aiso of a fragile
perishable nature, which must be laid at once between
pieces of blotting-paper and not again disturbed until the
whole process of preparation is concluded.
_ The packets of paper,. between which the specimens are
166 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS.
first laid, absorb their moisture so rapidly as to require —
frequent renewing. The oftener this can be done during —
the first few days the better: indeed, the student should ©
bear in mind, that whatever trouble he gives himself in —
this respect will be amply rewarded by the beauty and —
durability of his specimens; whereas a neglect of this
precaution will as surely meet with its penalty in their —
discoloration and ultimate destruction by mildew and the —
ravages of insects. 4
The changing of the paper may be accomplished in the —
following manner :—Let the bundle of plants be laid on a —
table, and, on the operator’s left hand, a pile of fresh dry |
packets. Now let the topmost layer be lifted off the plants, ”
a blunt needle being brought into play where any part of
the latter is found to adhere. On the specimen thus ex-
posed, let a packet of dry paper be laid; then let both
it and the packet on which the plant lies be slowly raised —
up, the same precautions being taken with regard to any |
adherent parts of the next underlying plant. The two —
packets, with the intermediate specimen, being now turned |
over, the dry one will of course be the lowest. The damp |
paper must next be taken off and replaced by afresh packet. |
Proceeding in this manner a large pile may gradually be |
renewed by simply laying a dry packet on each plant suc- |
cessively, and turning it over on to the one which preceded —
it; and thus the whole work may be accomplished without —
injury or disturbance to the tenderest or most delicate speci- |
men. Last of all, the pile is covered with a final’ packet,
and again submitted to the press. I need scarcely add that, |
where the stoutness of a plant calls for it, several packets of |
paper should be interposed, as was directed to be done in |
the first instance. .
During the first week the plants must be shifted daily, |
the succulent ones even oftener. After that, if they appear |
to be going on well, the changes may be made less frequently ; |
at the same time the oper ator must be very careful not to—
remove the weights too quickly, or the consequences will be
most disastrous.
PLATE XXII.
te mp et perio epee tegammeapre egw eyed
A I A A CR = nt
105. Asterosporium Hoffmanni.
@. natural size; b. magnified; c. d. uredo form.
106. Puccinia graminis.
=
5 ied
i ya Hist) mie iret arom al
rn
~
“—
OF..THE FERNS AND _FLOWERING PLANTS, 1692
There is one point on which it is very difficult to give
advice—I mean the ascertaining, with anything like ac-
curacy, the degree of dryness to which the specimens have
attained. Here each one must be left very much to hig
own sagacity, because, after the superficial moisture has been
absorbed, and the plant has become more or less stiffened,
the mere passing the hand over it will seldom betray the
presence of damp. The best plan with which J am ac-
quainted, is to lay the specimen against the cheek; if it
imparts a sensation of coldness, it may be inferred that
there is still a good deal of damp to be got rid of. At any
rave, 1t is always better to ‘err on the safe side’ by leaving
the pile of plants longer under the press than their actual
- condition may seem to warrant or to eall for.
T will lay before the reader another method of preparation,
which is recommended by many experienced botanists. It
consists in laying each specimen between a sheet of very
thin blotting-paper before placing it on the regular drying-
paper. The specimen is to be arranged in the usual
-Imanner on the open sheet, the upper half of which is then
carefully folded over, and a packet of drying-paper laid on,
proceeding in the same way with each specimen. When it
is requisite to change the packets, the damp one is re-
moved, and the thin envelope to the plant is simply lifted up
(without opening it, or in any way disturbing its contents)
and laid upon a fresh packet of drying material.
It is true that many good botanists are opposed to this
plan: they think that the moisture retained in the thin
sheet at each renewal is likely to cause permanent injury,
and that it is scarcely counterbalanced by the facility
which it gives of lifting the specimen without disturbance.
But in point of fact the blotting-paper retains a mere trifle
of moisture, which it quickly imparts to the new packet,
and, with ordinary care, very beautiful results may be
obtained. J am acquainted with a person who prepares
thousands of examples yearly for a society of naturalists ;
nothing can exceed the beauty or the durability of his pre-
170 OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS.
parations, and yet every one of them is dried in the manner
I have just been describing. The truth is, that every mode
of preparation depends greatly upon the foresight, the
patience, and the handiness of the operator; and impatient,
unskilful workers will make a failure with even the best of
means at their command.
An arrangement advocated by Auerswald has much to
recommend it. I cannot speak of it from my own experience,
but I feel bound to mention it for the benefit of those who
make long botanical excursions, and collect large quantities
of plants, as it is likely to save them both time and labour.
In the ordinary method of drying, where the sheets are
placed between two boards, the upper and lower sides not ’
being exposed to a current of air, the moisture can escape
only through the open edges of the paper. The conse-
quence is, that a large quantity of paper is wanted, and
a good deal of time is consumed in the preparation. —
Auerswald’s object is to economise both these important —
requisites—time and material; and he accomplishes it in
this manner :—Instead of two solid boards he provides
himself with a couple of iron frames of a size to suit the
paper; they should be light and thin, but at the same time
strong enough to allow of being strapped tightly together
without bending: wire netting is stretched across them, and —
on each of their longer sides two loops are fastened for the
leather straps to pass through. In the middle of one of
the shorter sides a ring is attached for the convenience of
carrying the parcel, or in order to suspend it in the open
air and sunshine.
Now, as the moisture contained in the plants can readily
escape on every side, it stands to reason that the work is
done much more quickly, and the traveller is saved both
the time consumed in shifting his plants, and also the heavy
load, which he must otherwise carry about with him.
Doubtless many succulent plants will not come out so well —
under these circumstances as they would with the con- |
i= OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 171
yeniences and appliances brought to bear on them in the
botanist’s own residence; but, on the other hand, it must ~
be remembered that they would suffer greatly, perhaps as
much, from being transported for a week or ten days in a
vasculum, before they were pressed.
Two sets of frames with a proper supply of paper will be ©
found sufficient; and, as soon as the plants are partially
dried, which, with most of them, takes place within twenty-
four hours, they may be transferred from the first to the
second set. When the preparation is complete, they may
be laid one upon the other for the convenience of carriage,
without fear of any permanent injury being done to them.
To return to the more usual methods of preparation.
Specimens collected on different occasions ought not, if
possible, to be placed under pressure in the same pile;
because the last and freshest are sure to impart some of their
moisture to the others, which are already more or less dried,
and are very likely to spoil them in consequence. If the
piling them together is unavoidable, then they must be
separated by thin boards, so as to prevent the damp from
the plants more recently obtained being communicated to
those which have already perhaps been shifted two or three
times. For a like reason very succulent plants should not
be put up with those of a less sappy nature; besides, the
former require to be more frequently shifted than their
drier neighbours; and to place them together would cause
unnecessary disturbance to the latter.
_ [Through the kindness of a friend, I have lately been
made acquainted with a process of drying, which, if we may
judge from the very beautiful results obtained, leaves no-
thing to be desired. It consists in placing the specimen,
soon after it is gathered, in a tall narrow vessel, and then
pouring over it very gently a sufficient quantity of clean |
dry sand, to cover itentirely. In this state it is left undis-
turbed (unless, as sometimes happens, the drying material
has to be renewed) until the moisture emanating from the
= —————— Tr ee”)hlUrhee SL le
Lie OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING. PLANTS.
plant is absorbed by the sand. It is then removed with
ereat care, and flattened in the usual manner, between
sheets of paper. By this plan the petals retain their colour
in a way that [ have never seen equalled.—Ep. | |
With regard to the physiological and anatomical inves-_
tigation of the flowering plants, the limits of this little
volume will not allow of my. entering into it, nor would it »
lie within my province to do so. 4
[ At the same time I offer no apology for concluding this
chapter with the following useful suggestions from the late~
Dr. Lindley’s excellent ‘ Descriptive Botany.’ k
‘The student should select for examination as perfect a_
specimen as he can obtain, and should carefully study every ©
part... . In doing this he. must on no account guess,
but be certain that he sees correctly, what is before him. —
This is not difficult in the case of roots, stems, leaves, and |
their parts; but the flower, from its general smallness and ~
somewhat complicated structure, demands a little skill in
dissection, which is only to be cained by experience. 4
* After its external structure has been determined, it is
necessary to open the flower. Mere looking down into its
tube or interior leads to nothing but error. ‘The student —
should hold it in his left hand, and split it longitudinally by ~
a rapid cut from below upwards. 'This lays bare the whole ©
of the interior, shows the number and position of their”
parts, and their insertion, which is very important. If he —
attempts to divide a flower by cutting it from above down- ~
wards, he only crushes and disfioures his specimen. In the
case of the ovary it is usually necessary to ascer tain its
placentation, which, if it 1s not seen in the first longitudinal ©
section, can be best determined by making a transver se
section. . . . In examining seeds of any kind, where dis- |
section 1s required, cut into them perpendicularly, beginning —
at the hilum, and passing the knife through the axis: m_
this way the embryo and its relation to other parts usually ~
becomes distinctly visible. Failing this, the observer must
OF THE FERNS AND FLOWERING PLANTS. Tis
have recourse to crushing or careful skinning and unrolling.
- . - When parts are shrivelled or dried up, as is always
the case in herbaria, they must be relaxed by immersion
in boiling water.
‘ In all cases where dried flowers are to be dissected, the
air should be driven out by boiling for a short time, before
any attempt is made to separate their parts.’—Ep. |
174 OF THE HERBARIUM.
CHAPTER XVI.
OF THE HERBARIUM.
THE OBJECT which the collector has in view (or at least
should have in view) is, not the mere gathering together of
a great number of different plants, but the acquisition of
material, wherewith he hopes to enlarge the bounds of his
own knowledge, and, so far as lies in his power, to advance
the interests of science. For this purpose he arranges his
examples in a certain definite order, grouping them together
m the manner that seems most consonant to the system of
nature; in one word, he forms an Herbarium.
Simple as this process may appear to the novice, it will
not I trust, be superfluous to offer a few words on the
subject, pointing out certain fixed principles, which should
euide the student in the arrangement of an herbarium
intended to be scientifically useful: to these shall be added
some suggestions to aid him in its preservation. For the
best arranged and most admirably got-up collection is
certain to fall before the assaults of its numerous enemies,
if not properly looked after.
As my readers are by this time well aware, the first step
towards the preservation of a dried specimen is to place it
between a sheet of paper; and this applies to plants of
every known order with the exception of a few, which are
either too large (like the Laminarie), or which cling too
tenaciously (as many Lichens do) to a stone or some other |
rough object, to be removed. .
Provided that the specimens are laid upon clean whitel
paper, the choice of the wrapper may be left very much to.
the fancy of the student; it should. not be very thick,”
otherwise the fascicles will take up too much room; and_
PLAPE XOX:
nee
EP 2S-e==:
fo
Fee
ier eee
EEE
zee
se areos vase:
107, Achlya prolifera.
OF THE HERBARIUM. EEG
it should be uniform in size and appearance. The kind
that I have always used isa stout light brown material,
much employed in packing; it measures seventeen inches
by twelve; the white paper on which the specimens lie,
measures fifteen inches by nine. ‘This is quite the largest
size. would recommend; anything wider or longer than
this becomes cumbersome and difficult to manipulate; in
fact, a size snialler would probably be quite as efficient.
In any case, whatever form or size is adopted, let not the
student, from any motives of economy, employ too cheap a
wrapper: above all, let him avoid the thin gray and blue
sorts, so much used on the Continent, and frequently
imported into England with foreign herbaria. (In Germany
it is known as ‘Fliesspapier.’) ‘The innumerable hollows
arising from the inequalities of surface in cheap papers
‘Invite colonies of insects to take up their abode; while,
from their rough uneven nature, it is impossible to eject the
“Voracious crew’ from their head-quarters, when once they
have established themselves. Another objection to a too
flimsy wrapper is its great flexibility, and the consequent
injury likely to accrue to the enclosed specimen, every time
it is handled.
We will now suppose the plants to be laid, each species
by itself, on their half sheets of white paper, and these
again slipped within the fold of their wrappers, the opening
of the wrapper looking to the left hand. If the examples
‘of any given species are numerous, representing varieties,
abnormal forms, or growths from different localities, they
must be laid on separate white sheets, but enclosed in a
single wrapper. In all cases, however, the wrapper must be
confined to one species, or section of a species, if, as is often
the case, the latter is subdivided. This last suggestion
must be carefully attended to; otherwise the arrangement
of the herbarium will be constantly interfered with; besides,
there is a great danger of the tickets being transposed from
one species to another, whenever the wrapper is opened for
the purpose of examining its contents, which might cause
178 OF THE HERBARIUM.
indescribable confusion.
Dried specimens of the Phanerogamia and Ferns may be
laid on their separate papers at once without any further
manipulation, with the exception of the smaller and more
fragile species, which should be previously fastened on to a ~
piece of paper by means of adhesive slips, passed across the ©
stem, &c. Mosses and Hepatice may be fixed to the paper —
by touching a portion of the tuft here and there with gum, |
not by smearing the whole under-surface, as beginners are
apt to do.* Some, at least, of the Mosses should be pre-
served in paper bags, as the fragile organs of fructification, —
the calyptra and operculum particularly, are very apt to be q
rubbed off and lost, from their unavoidable collision with —
the surface of the wrapper, whenever it is moved. As —
regards the Lichens, which are generally attached to some —
rough surface, such as a piece of rock or wood, the student
* I must confess myself altogether opposed to fixing the specimens —
at all, except in rare instances, where in fact it is unavoidable, as
with most of the Algz. Of course something must be done to secure ~
the safety of the smaller plants, or they will be constantly shaken —
out of their places, broken, and lost. I prefer to fold in pieces of ~
paper the very minute examples—as, for instance, many of the —
Hymenophylaceous Ferns, or the tiny Myosurus minimus—gumming —
the lower surface of the packet to the half sheet of white paper. In |
this way three or four may be placed on a single half-sheet, without |
any danger of their rubbing against each other. The author himself ©
supplies us with an argument in favour of this mode of proceeding |
in the very next sentence to that which has given rise to this note. — a
Less minute specimens—such as the delicate masses of the aquatie ~
Ranunculacee—may be kept in their place by passing a tolerably |
broad band of paper, not too tightly, across the whole—the band ~
being adhesive at the two extremities only. The specimen can then |
be slipped in and out of its guard with the greatest ease, when re-
quired for examination. My reason for recommending this plan is, |
that the smaller the plant and the more minute its structure, the ©
more need is there to have it in one’s power to examine it by trans- |
mitted, as well as by reflected, light; and how is the former to be |
accomplished, if the specimen is permanently glued to an opaque |
object >—Ep. a
OF THE HERBARIUM. 179
must, first of all, deside whether the preparation is suf-
ficiently thin and flat to be laid between the sheets of the
herbarium, or whether it must be kept in a separate
cabinet, like a specimen of mineralogy.
A large number, those which have a crustaceous thallus,
and others which are not attached to their support by their
whole circumference, may be disposed of in the first
mentioned way; care being taken that the stone or wood
be made as thin as is compatible with the safe keeping of
the epiphyte: to prevent any undue pressure between
neighbours, they should be placed by the side of, not
exactly over, each other. Certain, however, of the gymno-
carpous section (like Calycium and Coniocybe), which are
characterised by stalked apothecia, would be spoiled, if
their safety was not better cared for. These should be
deposited in chip or pasteboard boxes with covers, or they
may be fastened on cardboard, with strips of wood, gummed
on each side, of sufficient thickness to keep the specimen
from being rubbed: a piece of cardboard laid on the
wooden strips will still further ensure its integrity ; it may
then be laid between the pages of a wrapper, as usual.*
_ In very large collections coarse solid objects, such as
stones, which have been encrusted by Lichens, should be
put away in drawers and boxes, apart from the herbarium.
At the same time, as their absence necessarily causes a
gap in the systematic arrangement of the specimens, it is
well to deposit in the place, which should have been
occupied by the Lichen, an empty sheet of the wrapping
paper with a label, which bears on its face the name of
the missing species, and the number, with which it is
ticketed in the drawer.
The same mode of proceeding may be adopted with
* All adhesive materials, as gum, &c., should be first poisoned by
an infusion of corrosive sublimate; or a small quantity of some
essential oil should be mixed with them. This prevents the growth
of Fungi, and the attacks of insects.— Eb. ;
| N 2
180 OF THE HERBARIUM.
those Fungi and Algz which cannot be preserved in the ,
herbarium, on account of their size and roughness. Mi-
croscopic Fungi, on the other hand, growing on leaves, —
twigs, &c., should be fastened down by adhesive slips,
[but in such a way as to allow of their being taken out
and replaced, Ep., | all superfluous wood having first been
removed, so as to render the specimen as thin and flat as
possible. Sections of the pileus, hymenium, &c., may
be similarly treated, and put away in the herbarium.
Finally, as regards the Alge, the original conditions of =
their preparation, as the reader will remember, necessitated
the application of paper, before they were removed from ,
the water; to this support they generally cling with the
greatest tenacity, scarcely rising above the surface—indeed
very often having all the appearance of a delicate painting.
The precautions requisite for the preservation of the —
Diatoms and Desmids have been already fully described,
in the chapters devoted to those subjects.
Every plant should have a label attached to it, on which
is inscribed its name and certain other notices, which
_ should not be omitted.
These are—
1. The name of the family, genus, species, and variety,
in the Latin language. The Latin tongue (interlarded
with Greek) has been fixed upon, by common consent, as
the medium of communication in the scientific world, or, —
at least, over the wide domains occupied by the kingdoms
of botany and zoology. By this means uniformity of q
nomenclature and accuracy of description are to a large
extent obtained: more so, at any rate, than when the titles
are given in either of the living languages; for these are
of merely local value, are without meaning to foreigners, ~
and often incomprehensible beyond the narrow limits of a —
district.
2. The name of the author, that is, of the person who
first gave the species the denomination, by which it has
since been recognised. It is written in an abbreviated —
" ‘je 7
eur. ae he & 2
OF THE HERBARIUM. 181
form immediately after the second name of the plant:
thus, ‘Sonchus arvensis, Zinn.’ (fer Linneus), ‘ Lastrea
eristata, Pr.’ (Presl), ‘Synedra acicularis, W. Sm.’
(William Smith).
This addition of the author’s name should never be
omitted, because the same plant is often published under
different names; and, as often, widely different plants are
described under the same name. We have an instance in
one of the examples given above: ‘Synedra acicularis,
W. Sm.,’ 1s a diatomaceous species found in brackish
water, to which the name of Synedra levis has been given
by Kiitzing, while, to make confusion worse confounded,
this last author’s Synedra acicularis is a fresh water
species, which Smith calls ‘ Nitzschia acicularis;’ so that
it 1s not only not identical with the first-named Synedra
acicularis, but actually is a separate genus! Ifthen, in
such a case as this, the student simply gave the name of
the plant without that of the author, no one would know
which Synedra acicularis was intended, that of Smith or
of Kiitzing. Examples of this kind might be multiplied
indefinitely.
To the name of the author should also be added, it
possible, the title of the work in which the species was
first described, with a reference to the volume, page, &e. ;
the whole to be enclosed in brackets. All the longer
words to be abbreviated.
3. A list of the synonyms, or, at least, the more recent
ones; that is to say, the names which have been given to
the specimen by authors of repute, in addition to the one
by which it is generally known and accepted. These
it is usual to place between brackets, immediately under
the established name, together with the work in which the
synonym was first made known to the world.*
_.* So huge has the catalogue of synonyms become, that in many
instances it would be simply impossible to recount them without
overstepping the limits of any ordinary label! The common Cysto-
=, ew Ne ee pn ge ee a ag OOS OT a Ae,
4]
f
i
:
:
a namie ~ peremcnemmmetiiiinn
= eee
182 OF THE HERBARIUM.
4, The locality where the plant was growing when it >
was gathered; in other words, the name of the mountain, ©
marsh, town, village, &c., on or near which it flourished.
Any information of this nature is of the greatest benefit to
later botanists, especially in the case ofrare kinds. [ Great
Britain is so restricted in extent, and so well hunted over —
by botanists, that it is sometimes actually necessary, if
a new acquisition to our Flora is to retain its place, to
conceal its locality from the eyes of those, who are bota-~_
nists in name, but exterminators in fact. These, however, —
are exceptions; and on the Continent, with its vastly larger —
surface, and greater distances to travel over, it is of —
benefit instead of injury, to disclose the whereabouts of ©
any given species.—Ep.] Thus Orthotrichum rogeri, Br.,
has been gathered on the Jura Alps, but has never been
rediscovered, because the description ‘Jura Alps’ was
too vague and indefinite to be of any service to future col- —
lectors.
To the geographical or topographical position should be ~
added a word or two, descriptive of the soil on which the —
individuals flourished, whether dry, swampy, woody, &c. _
It is frequently also of service to indicate the geological ©
formation underlying the locality; the mfluence of the
subsoil on the development and general character of the
plant being often very striking. |
5. he date on which the specimen was gathered. This,
too, is of importance, as marking the season of flowering,
fruiting, &e.- |
6. The name of the collector, and, if the example has
passed through another hand, ‘that of the person, from
pA i 2 * ee es
pteris fragilis, Bernh., enjoys at least twenty-seven different aliases. Of ©
the still more common Pteris aquilina, Zinn., Sir William Hooker—_
having first enumerated seventeen or eighteen names—writes (Spee.
Fil. 11. 197): ‘Other synonyms might be added, if it were worth en-—
cumbering our pages with them. . . . Mr. Moore has twenty
synonyms under the European Pt. aquilina, without taking into
account Pt. esculenta, caudata, &c. of authors!’—Ep. :
ee,
Sen a cen i Ry ces
199
il} i)
Ni | | 3 |
STL) Hi Hitt a ea \5
“ \ tt AN “ ; \
108. Marasmius oreades.
Prat © bY.
is
a een 4 th eet ae sae aN Hk
109. Marasmius oreades, section of.
fe Poeenelt amma AON teh chee NRRL NACA steht ne tn hh a eae he en eh TTT TEL AARP tet ss emeenrereinh heen teeth ss
OF THE HERBARIUM. 185
whom it was received. These particulars are guarantees
of the genuineness of the specimen ; they also impart to it
considerable authority, where the collector and communi-
cator are known in the botanical world as accurate observers
and safe guides. Itis usual to write these in Latin and
to abbreviate them thus: ‘ Leg.’ (for legit, ‘ collected,’)
and ‘ Com.’ (for communicavit, ‘ communicated’); or ‘Ex
Herb.’ (for ex herbario, ‘from so and so’s herbarium’).
Below is an example of a label, illustrating the various
points to which I have called the reader’s attention.
Diatomaces.
Nitzschia acicularis, W. Sm.
(Synops. Brit. Diatom. vol. 1. p. 43, tab. xv. 123.)
(Synedra acicularis, K7z. Bacill. p. 63, tab. iv., f. 3.
Ceratoneis acicularis, Pritch. Infus. p. 783.)
B. closterioides, Grun. tab. xii. f. 19.
Near Brinn in Moravia, in a ditch of clean, but stagnant, water.
| Formation, Syenite.
Leg. J. N. July 15, 1863.
Com. (or ex Herb.) A. B.
Any observations, which the collector has the opportunity
of noting down in regard to the life history of the indi-
- vidual plant, add greatly to the value of his collection; but
I need scarcely add, that they must be perfectly trust-
worthy, and formed on his own experience.
There is no recognised form of label to recommend to
the student; as long as he takes care that it is not too small,
and that it is unencumbered with finical ornamentation, he
can choose the size and the form that he fancies 10st for
himself. If he wishes his herbarium to have a particularly
neat appearance, he can have slips of paper cut, and printed
at a small cost, something in this form :—
SS RT ra ee
ve eee
SS
enn Fe ES
186 OF THE HERBARIUM.
Herbarium (with his own name added).
Fam., &e. :
Loe.
Form.
igen Date.
Com. (or ex. Herb.)
The labels had better be laid under the specimen, when ~
the latter is not fastened down, as then they are not so —
easily lost at the opening of the wrapper; at the same time
the name should be left exposed, so as to avoid disturbing —
the plant, each time the name is required. Where the —
specimen is fixed down or kept in a paper bag, the label —
may be attached by means of gum arabic. q
To the young student it may appear the simplest plan to ~
write the name, &c., at once on the paper on which the ©
specimen lies, without the intervention of a label. But
experience has proved that the latter plan is the most ~
advantageous. In the first place, there is frequently no ~
room on the half-sheet, a good-sized plant with its leaves —
and twigs occupying nearly the whole of its surface. Again, —
the plant may be wrongly named, for the beginner must natu- ~
rally expect to make numerous mistakes in nomenclature. —
Now (supposing the name to be written on the paper —
itself), as soon as he discovers his error, either corrections ©
must be made, giving the specimen an unsightly appearance, —
or else a new half-sheet must be introduced, an unnecessary ~
waste; whereas, in the case of the label, he has only to—
remove the old one and substitute a new one in its place. _
It is customary, when a specimen is received from another ~
OF THE HERBARIUM. 187
botanist, to retain the original label, 7.e. the one sent with
it; 1f, however, the name employed by the giver differs
from that in the system after which the student arranges
his own herbarium, then let him add a second label with
the necessary information. »
It frequently happens with some of the Alge, that the
species gathered are irretrievably mingled together, so that
it is hopeless attempting to separate them: this is more
particularly the case with the Desmidiacez and Diatomacee.
If the collector has sufficient material, he should proceed to
make as many preparations as there are species in the
gathering, introduce them into their proper places, and
ticket them accordingly. For instance, we will suppose,
that there have been taken at one gathering specimens of
Gomphonema, Pinnularia, Meridion, Synedra, Fragilaria,
and Closterium. Should he not be able to separate them
satisfactorily, let him make six different preparations, each
containing examples of the several genera. Next let him
inscribe one label with the Gomphonema species, another
_ with the Pinnularia, &c., and arrange them in his herbarium
as though the species denoted by the ticket were the only
one present in that preparation.
When, however, the gathering is too small in quantity
to allow of dividing it in this manner, he must make a
single preparation, but place labels, corresponding to the
number of species in the preparation, in their respective
wrappers. Thus, taking the last-named illustration, the
preparation will occupy the wrapper apportioned (we will
say) to Gomphonema; the others, Pinnularia, Synedra,
&c., will be represented in their wrappers by tickets, labelled
with their names, and referring the reader to the Gom-
phonema preparation.
I strongly recommend the student not to be satisfied with
solitary examples of plants from a single habitat. The
delicate shadings and variations, due to differences of
situation, soil, and climate, cannot be rightly appreciated,
until the observer has before him an abundant supply of
ye ee ae
Se ee ee ee
OO eee,
188 OF THE HERBARIUM.
material from different localities, embracing widely- -sepa-
rated areas.
The more numerous the localities represented in an her-
barium are, the more valuable is it in the eyes of the man
of science. or the same reason he should bring together, |
in the case of the Phanerogamia, not only flowers, but ripe
fruit, both with and without the capsule, or, if the plants are
dicecious, examples of both the sexes; in the case of the
Cryptogamia, sterile as well as fertile forms from numerous ©
localities, since, in many cases (as for instance among the ©
Mosses) pecularities of situation, hindering or promoting —
the fertility of a plant, influence its habit and character in |
- no slight degree. In a word, in each order of plants, the
collector should endeavour to.obtain the successive stages —
of development, if he intends to study them thoroughly, and
to give a scientific value to his collection.
That he may study the specimens with ease, his herba-_
rium should be so arranged, that he may be able to lay his |
hand at any noment, and without loss of time, on the ex- |
ample he wishes for; and also be able to take it out and —
replace 1t without 1 injury to the collection. 4
For this, I recommend the following plan. The wrappers |
being laid on a table with their openings looking to the ©
left, the whole of the species belonging to a single genus —
(or a section of them, if the genus is very large) is to be ~
lifted off the pile, and enclosed in a separate wrapper, the —
opening of which looks to the right. This arrangement ~
tends greatly to convenience in handling the specimens, as ~
the operator can remove each genus, (or, it may be, portion ~
of a genus,) with the greatest ease, and, when properly
labelled, any desired genus can be got at without disturbing —
the other packets. .
The genera included under an order should next be —
isolated. Asa rule, this involves a pile of specimens much ~
too bulky to be comprehended within the limits of a single ~
wrapper. ‘The better plan, therefore, is to lay the pile be- ~
tween two sheets of stout pasteboard of corresponding size, ~
OF THE HERBARIUM. 189
(just as they were before laid between two boards during
the process of drying), and either tie them round with
thick string, or buckle them together with a strap of a
woven material. The beginner is often tempted to lay out
his money on nicely got-up portfolios, in which to enclose
the orders; but, if he will take my advice, he will save his
money, and be content with the pasteboard covers, though
their appearance is certainly less elegant. My own expe-
rience is decidedly in favour of the latter, because, first of
all, much time is consumed in the tying and untying of
the numerous ribbons, with which a portfolio is furnished ;
and, secondly, because the pressure of a tight string or
strap (especially the latter, on account of its breadth) is
much more equal. Besides, the ribbons are apt to break
off with constant use, and they cannot be replaced without
giving an untidy appearance to the portfolio ; whereas a
string, or strap, can be renewed at will.
_ Should the roots (as sometimes happens) interfere, from
their thickness, with the proper disposition of the packets,
raising them up at one end, and forcing the whole pile out
of the level, it is easy to turn a certain number of the
packets round, thus doing away with the unevenness of
the bundle, and giving it the desired flat surface. Next
for the best system of labelling. First gum a ticket just
above the lower border (and equidistant from the two
corners) of the pasteboard cover, with the name of the
order upon it. Then, on the lower left-hand corner of the
‘Genus’ wrapper, let a ticket be gummed, bearing the name
of the genus ; similarly, on the lower right-hand corner of
the ‘ Species’ wrapper, gum a ticket, bearing the name of
the species, preceded by the initial of the genus: thus ‘R.
Kohleri’ marks the species‘ Kohleri,’ of the genus‘ Rubus.’
If the names are written in bold legible characters, they
cannot fail to catch the eye of the observer immediately on
his turning over the wrappers.
- But how is the student to grope his way through the
mass of paper, accumulated in his herbarium, in order to
190 OF THE HERBARIUM.
lay his hand on any wished-for specimen? This is easily —
effected by the simple process of numbering the tickets ©
outside the wrappers, one set of numbers for the genera, —
and another for the species in each genus, the orders ©
being distinguished by Roman figures. Whatever sys- —
tematic work the student has taken as his euide in the
arrangement of his herbarium may be made the ground-
work of hisnumbering. Should the work in question not —
be numbered, the student will have no difficulty in going ©
himself through the volume, first marking the genera ©
from beginning to end with consecutive numbers, and then ~
the species, in these confining the consecutive numbers to |
a single genus. All that is requisite now is to look ~
into the index of the book for the genus to which the —
desired specimen belongs, and to ascertain its number. —
Then, by keeping his eye on the external labels of the ©
herbarium, the student can find the specimen without —
being compelled to open any but the right packet, and ~
also with the least expenditure of time. A specimen can —
be replaced in the same simple manner. Of course the ~
descriptive tickets accompanying the examples are also |
numbered ; and the search is much facilitated, if a list of —
the genera contained in each order, or at least a list of |
their reference numbers, is slipped under the string or
strap enclosing the fisiclne ‘A
| When the herbarium has crown to a large size, so that) 2
individual packets are less frequently consulted, it is wel sf
to wrap the separate fascicles in paper, or, better still, in J
linen, bringing the ends well round, so as to overlap the’
centre, and tying them together by two strings fastened to
the opposite corners of the covering material. Each string
is carried right round the bundle, and looped in again, —
where its other end is attached to the linen cover. If |
paper is employed, the pasteboard covers must be placed —
over and under it, to keep it in place. In either case the]
list of enclosed genera may be slipped under the outside §
ee: g
MeL an
<< Vhy/ Yee
FSS NS
oF WAL
LANG:
A he Sieyes
ZZ
4d
Wi
.
ft CAR
Ip Yh
azn ‘
= 5
Zs
Ek
pia
IRATE OOCV
110. Scolopendrium vulgare, portion of mature frond.
111. Ceterach officinarum; a. portion of frond enlarged.
>
OF THE HERBARIUM. 193
Although by this arrangement the difficulty of getting at
the specimens is undoubtedly increased, still the advantages
are great, where (as I observed before) the fascicles are not
in constant requisition; it saves the specimens from dust, it
keeps the wrappers in good order, and it helps to ward off
the ravages of insects. __ : |
I referred just now to the need of selecting some system-
atic work as a guide in the arrangement of the herbarium.
This is easily done as regards the flowering plants and the
higher Cryptogamia; there are works enough published to
satisfy the taste of every collector, whatever his views may
be, whether Linnean, Jussizan, Candollean or Lindleyan.
But this, I regret to say, is far from being the case with the
lower Cryptogamia, the Lichens, Fungi, and Alge. | Inde-
pendently of the fact, that the systems hitherto arrived at
are far from perfect, there is the additional circumstance, that
' Science in its onward strides is ever bringing new species to
light, or compelling the re-arrangement of those with which
we are already acquainted. Consequently, we must either
find room in our catalogue for species of whose existence
we had no conception a short time before ; or, on the other
hand, we must be prepared, in consequence of a deeper
insight having been gained into their structure and habits,
to separate species, hitherto closely combined, and not un-
frequently to place them in distinct genera.
_To meet these difficulties a certain elasticity must be
allowed to the catalogue, so as to permit of the names of
species being introduced or removed without disturbing its
general arrangement. For this purpose quarter-sheets of
foolscap paper are prepared; one, two, or three for each genus,
according to its size. The generic name, with its reference
number, being placed at the head of the paper, the species
are added in due order beneath, a considerable Space being
left between each name to admit of others being introduced.
In this way new species can be inserted in their proper
places, without having recourse to endless interpolations,
which disfizure the page and confuse the render,
0
194 OF THE HERBARIUM.
Should the genus be so extensive, as to necessitate the
division of the species into sections, it may be labelled and
catalogued after the following fashion. We will suppose
that the Diatomaceous genus Nitzschia is the 138th in the
system adopted by the student, and that he Panestes the
species named onvie |
138. Nitzschia, Hass. f
a. Frustules arcuate.
1. N. amphioxys, W. Sm.
6. Frustules constricted in the centre.
1. N. plana, W. Sm.
2. N. constricta, Pritch.
3. N. parvula, W. Sm.
4, N. latestriata, Bréd.
c. Frustules sigmoid.
1. N. sigmoidea, W. Sm.
2. N. eurvula, W. Sm.
d. Frustules straight, linear, or lanceolate.
1. N. tenuis, W. Sm.
2. N. communis, Pad,
3. N. hyalina, Greg.
It will be observed, that the sections are marked bya |
letter of the alphabet, and that each commences with number |
‘one.’ Care must be taken to leave sufficient space between
each section to allow of the insertion of fresh names. !
The herbarium is best preserved on the shelves of a |
closet provided with well-fitting doors to exclude the dust, |
and kept in a room in which a fire can be lit during the
winter, and in exceptionably damp weather. |
It is of no use, however, to take pains in preparing |
specimens, labelling them correctly, and providing them
with shelves and drawers, unless the greatest care be taken
for their preservation afterwards. 4
If the plants are liable to injury from damp or rough
usage, still more so are they from not being touched at all. |
Neglect is worse than careless handling, or indeed than any |
OF THE HERBARIUM. 195
other of the numerous ills to which a ‘ Hortus Siccus’ is
exposed ; because it is mainly due to neglect, to leaving
the specimens to take care of themselves, that insects are
encouraged in their depredations. The student may have
an intense affection for his botanical treasures; he may
handle them tenderly, when extracting some much-prized
example; he may see that the room is duly warmed to pre-
vent the admission of damp with its accompanying swarm
of minute Fungi; but all his labour and love will be thrown
away, if he be not constantly on the watch, turning over
the sheets, and examining his favourites individually,
scrutinising their condition, and looking with an almost
microscopic eye for the first traces of the enemy. ‘Prin-
cipls obsta’ should be the motto inscribed over the portals
of his cabinet. He must strive to prevent the fiend from
entering his paradise at all; for if once he and his progeny
gain a footing there, it will cost him many a weary hour’s
hard work to eradicate them.
_As a means to this end, no plant, whether dried by:
himself, or cominunicated from some other source, should
be introduced into the herbarium without first undergoing
a strict investigation. Indeed, if a number o1 specimens
are received in bad condition, it is always as well to
‘sulphur’ them, according to the plan given below, to
prevent the possible infection of the whole cabinet. <A
world of future trouble and vexation will be saved, by
taking care, in the first instance, that no ova or larve are
concealed among the leaves or in the flower-heads.
Another necessary precaution is to ‘poison’ the speci-
mens before laying them by. Frequent experiments have
been made in this direction, with the view of discovering
some means of warding off the attacks of the insect world,
or at least of rendering them harmless. Not one of the
numerous methods, however, can be pronounced absolutely
certain In its operation. Many of the lower forms of
plants, the Alge, the Lichens, and the Mosses are, compara-
tively speaking, exempt from their ravages; but they seem
02 3
196 OF THE HERBARIUM.
to revel in the destruction of the Ferns, the flowering
plants, and the Fungi, especially the two last named.
Strange to say, certain orders of the Phanerogamia are
more liable than others to the visits of these ‘ pests of .the
herbarium.’ I may mention the Willows, the Umbellifere,
and the Composite plants, as among their favourite haunts.
The Composite especially are greedily attacked by Ano-
bium, Dermestes, &c., possibly because the large flower-
heads, with which many of the species are furnished,
afford them such admirable hiding-places. These, then,
must be thoroughly impregnated with some poisonous ©
substance, before they are finally deposited in the cabinet.
The best preservative medium with which I am ac-
quainted, is a solution of corrosive sublimate in alcohol.
To apply it, the specimen should be laid on a smooth
surface of glass or tin, and well painted with the mixture,
by means of a broad soft hair pencil. As the alcohol
evaporates, a deposit of sublimate is left behind. In the
case of very delicate plants or flowers, which are en-
dangered by the touch of even a soft hair pencil, it is
better to apply the solution through a glass syringe,
thoroughly sprinkling every part. The specimen may be
_ replaced in its wrapper as soon as it is dry, which takes —
place very speedily on account of the volatile properties of
the spirits of wine. This poisoning process, be it under- |
stood, is by no means permanent: it is of service for a time,
but only for a time, and must be renewed at stated intervals. —
My own experience leads me to suggest, that the herbarium —
should be carefully inspected twice a year, in the spring —
and autumn, and a coating of poison laid on to every plant, —
or, at any rate, on those which are most lable to the —
attacks of insects. 4
Camphor, oil of turpentine, and other strong-smelling —
substances, have been recommended from time to time, but
T confess I have but little faith in them as preservatives.
Indeed I have generally found, that they are far more 4
OF THE HERBARIUM. 197
disagreeable to the botanist in his study, than to the insects
in his herbarium !
Should it be found, that the larve, in spite of all pre-
cautions, have established themselves in any part of the
herbarium, the infected packets must be at once removed,
and submitted to the fumes of sulphur. For this purpose
let a box be provided—if made of iron or lined with tin,
so much the better—large enough to hold two or three of
the packets. An air-tight lid being requisite, let a shallow
groove or channel be run round the upper edge of the box.
to receive the lid when closed; the groove itself is to be
filled with water when the box is in use, thus rendering
it air-tight. It is necessary to retain the fumes of the
sulphur within the box, not only on account of their evil
odour, but because they are apt to produce unpleasant, and
even injurious, symptoms in the operator, if imbibed to
too great an extent. For the same reason, the work should
be carried on in an outhouse or in the open air, not in an
inhabited room. A movable framework of iron fits loosely
into the box, consisting of netting, or of a few cross bars
sufficiently strong to support the packets, and resting on
lees three or four inches high. :
Now let a shallow pan of burning sulphur be laid on
-_ the bottom of the box; the framework with its packets
‘placed over it; the lid shut down; and the whole left un-
disturbed for about forty-eight hours; and it will be found
that at the end of that time not a single insect survives.
I have had occasion to try this plan repeatedly, and never
knew it to fail. [Another method, of which I can speak |
with approval, consists in placing the packets in an oven,
and leaving them to bake for some hours. No form of
animal life—at least of animals destructive to plants—can
stand against the continued heat: it is especially useful in
very damp climates. Care must be taken that the oven is
not too hot, or the specimens will be rendered over-dry and
brittle —Ep.] The best seascn for making these experi-
198 - OF THE HERBARIUM.
ments is towards the end of summer, or even as late as
October. | |
[Havine now clothed in an English dress the results of —
Herr Nave’s large experience in collecting, preparing, and —
preserving plants, I leave this little work in the hands of
the reader, with the confident hope that he will pardon its —
defects for the sake of its object. That object will have -
been fully accomplished, if it be the means of awakening ©
in the Botanical Student a desire to become more closely ——
acquainted with the loveliest of all the Creator’s works, or —
in smoothing some of the difficulties, which must inevitably
surround the path of the tyro.—Eb. 7 |
‘Thy desire, which tends to know
The works of God, thereby to glorify
The great Workmaster, leads to no excess
That reaches blame, but rather merits praise,
The more it seems excess , :
For wonderful indeed are all His works,
Pleasant to know, and worthiest to be all
Had in remembrance always with delight,’
: | Miron.
PLATE XXVI.
0 panvacts OS sane)
See TTTTISOO
ee
ry opeea
112. Osmunda regalis.
a. fertile spike enlarged,
a. Pinnule of barren frond.
113. Ophioglossum vulgatum.
©
~ ee ee
€
ALG
A LGAB, abundance of, 1; best
season for collecting, 3;
implements for collecting, 4,
65 ; knowledge of, necessary to
the Botanist, 1 ; to preserve, 9,
66, 93
Algz, filamentous, 2, 62; crus-
taceous, 83; gelatinous, 82,
99; marine, 91, 125; parasi-
tical, 3, 83, 84; stone-like, 85
DENNING’S method of clean-
ing Diatoms, 26
Brand, 116
Bunt, 122
ASPARY’S rake, 5, 109
Catalogue of Herbarium, to
make, 189
, Cells, shallow, to make, 57 note
Characez, characteristics of, 107;
to collect, 108; to preserve,
110; where found, 108
Chlorate of potassium, to clean
Diatoms with, 49
Conjugation, in Desmids, 53 ; in
Zygnemacer, 73
DIA
Cooke’s British Fungi, 118 note ;
British Hepatice, 147 note.
Crassulacez, to destroy the vital-
ity of, 165
Cyclosis, phenomenon of, 113
AVIS'S Manual of Prepara-
tion, 49, 102
Desmidiaceze, best season for
collecting, 50; characteristics
of, 60; mode of propagation,
52 ; structure of, 51; to clean,
51; to preserve, 538; where
found, 50
Diagram representing a Diatom,
38
Diatomaces, characteristics of,
37; implements for collecting,
13 ; influenced by locality, 11 ;
in guano, 12; in stomachs of
fish, &c., 12; to be preserved
in crude and prepared form,
28; striation of, 43; toclean,
17, 20; to draw, 42 ; to mea-
sure striation of, 48; to pre-
pare, 25, 43; to preserve, 28,
34; to secure in a clean state,
19; where found, 11, 17, 33
202
DIA
filamentous,
Diatomaces, 13,
34 ;-tossil, 12,13 5 free, 14;
frondose, 14, 34; parasitic,
3; stipitate, 14, 30
Digger, useful form of,
note.
Dry rot, 116
Drying paper, 161
158
NVELOPE to hold Diatoms,
&e. 34
Equisetaceze, 157
ERNS and flowering plants,
154; implements for col-
lecting, 158 ; to examine, 172 ;
to prepare, 161
Front and side views of a Dia-
tom, 38
Fungi, best season for collecting,
116; characteristics of, 1238,
126; implements for collect-
ing, 117; to collect spores,
129; to draw, 129; to pre-
serve, 122; where found, 115
Fungi, brand, 116; bunt, 122;
dry rot, 116; mildew, 121;
mould, 116; muscardine, 116,
122; parasitical on flies, 116,
122; on gold fish, 122; on
insects, 116; on plants, 117;
on the silkworm, 122; smut,
1065720
ERSTENBERGER’S method
of cleaning and propagating
Diatoms, 25
Gum arabic, to be poisoned before
using, 179 note ; to fix Diatoms
with, 29
ANTZSCH’S
fiuid, 54
preservative
INDEX.
Osc
Herbarium, its object, 174; to
form, 174; to number and
catalogue, 189;
190, 194
CINERATION, 43
ABEL, form of, 185, 186
Labelling of specimens,
180
Laminariz, to preserve, 100
Lichens, characteristics of, 132 ;
to collect, 134;
134; where found, 133
Lime in Algz, &e., to be got rid
of, 75, 84, 102, 113
ILDEW, 121
Mosses and their allies,
characteristics of, 139, 142,
150; fructification of, 142,
145; implements for collect-
ing, 141; to prepare, 145; to
preserve, 150; where found, —
139
Mould, 116
Munro’s method of cleaning Dia-
toms, 25
-Muriatic acid, to clean Diatoms —
with, 18
Muscardine of the silkworm, 116, \
122
ITRIC acid, to clean Diatoms
with, 18, 49
KEDEN’S method of cleaning Z
Diatoms, 25
Oscillatoriz, characteristics of,
76; colours of, 76; meaning —
of the name, 76; to prepare,
77; toseparate Diatoms from,
17; where found, 76
to preserve,
to prepare, —
d
INDEX.
PAP 3
APER, to prepare for Algae,
66; to dry, 161
Plants, to ticket for the Her-
barium, 180
Pleurosigma, as a test object,
45
Potato disease, 121
Press for drying plants, 68
Primordial utricle, 54
Protoplasm, 54; rotation of,
113
(\UETSCHHARN, or spring
tap, 22
E-AGENTS, 131.
Reinicke’s method of clean-
ing Diatoms, 25
ECTIONS, to make, of Alge,
85, 102; of Fungi, 129; of
Lichens, 138; of Mosses, 147
Shadbolt’s turn-table, 16 note
Silicate of potash, or waterglass,
153
203
ZYG
Smith’s Ferns, British and For-
elon, 154
Smut, 116, 121
Soft water, 52
Sommering’s mirror, 42
Spermatozoids in Characez, 114 ;
in Mosses, 149.
Spores of Fungi, to collect, 129
Spring tap, or Quetschhahn, 22
Stearine paper, 68
Striation of Diatoms, 43
Sulphuring box, 197
Swarming spores, 74
Te objects, 45
yo erALe 61
YGNEMACES, spiral ar-
rangement of chlorophyll
in, 2 note, to preserve, 53,
72
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and Splice. Price 2s, 6d.
“It would be impossible to say too much in praise of the clear descriptions the
Author has given of complicated knots and fastenings, or of the admirable diagrams
that explain, even more clearly than words, how all these intricate and curious ties
and knots are managed.’—Land and Water.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE RAY SOCIETY.
British Entomostracous Crustacea.
A Monograph, with 36 plates (most of them coloured), of all the species of the
By Dr. Batrp, F.L.S. 8vo. pp. 364, £1 1s,
British Angiocarpous Lichens.
A Monograph of the. With 30 coloured plates. By the Rev. W. A. LEIGHTON,
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Cirripedia.
A Monograph of the family. By C. Darwin, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. 8vo. Vol. T.
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British Fresh-water Polyzoa. |
A Monograph of the. By Professor ALLMAN, F.R.S. With 11 plates (10 coloured’.
Imp. 4to. pp. 119, £1 11s. 6d.
Recent Foraminifera of Great Britain.
A Monograph of the. By Professor WILLIAM30N. With 7 plates. Imp. 4to.
pp. 100, £1 11s. 6d,
Oceanic Hydrozoa.
Ur Professor Huxtey, F.R.S. With 12 plates. Imp. 4to. pp. 141,
is. 6d.
Burmeister on the Organization of Trilobites.
With 6 plates; translated from the German, and edited by Professors BELL and
E. ForBEs. Imp. 4to, pp. 136, 15s.
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With 13 coloured plates, drawings of all the species. By Professor E. Forpxs,
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Meyen’s Geography of Plants.
eed from the German by Miss Margaret JoHNSTON. 8vo. pp. 422.
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USEFUL WORKS—(continued).
The British Spiders,
A History of the Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland. By JoHNn BLACKWALL,
F.L.S. Two Parts, coloured by hand. Folio, £3 18s. 6d.
Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera.
By W. B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., &c.; assisted by W. K. PARKER,
Esq., and T. RUPERT JONES, Bsq., F.G.S. in 1 vol. — 4to. pp. 319, with 22
plates, £1 11s. 6d.
On the Germination, Development, and Fructification of
the Higher Cryptogamia, and on the oe
tion of the Conifers.
Ry Dr. WILHELM HoFMEISTER. Translated by FREDERICK CuRREY, M.A.,
F.R.S., See. L.S. In 1 vol. 8vo. cloth, pp. 506, with 65 plates, £1 5s. 6d.
British Nudibranchiate Mollusca.
A Mouograph of the (with coloured drawings of every species), By Messrs.
ALDER and HANCOCK.
Part... 1. Imp. 4to, £1.10. Part V. Imp. 4to. £1 10 0
33 TI. 39 33 1 10 0 3) ke 33 39 1 0
fala || et Seaiirtaeee Wh or 1 0
« W4L eee
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The Reptiles of British India.
By ALBERT C. L. G. GUNTHER, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., &c. Imp. 4to. pp.
413, ee 26 plates, containing many "figures, beautifully drawn by G. H. Ford.
Price £2 S.
A Monograph of the British Spongiade.
By J. 8. BOWERBANK, LL.D., Ph.D., F.Z.S., &c. Vol. I. 8vo. pp. 290, with 37
plates, price £110s. -Vol. IL. 8vo. pp. 388, price 21s. |
British Hemiptera-Heteroptera.
By J. W. Dovanas and Joun Scott. Vol. I. illustrated with 21 octavo large |
plates, containing numerous figures. 8vo. cloth, price 30s. |
Miscellaneous Botanical Works.
By RoBERT Brown, F.R. S., edited by J. J. BENNETT, Esq., F.R.S. Vol. I. 8vo.
cloth, price 16s.
The Greenland Whale.
Being a Translation of the Trealise published in the Danish Language, entitled
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REINHARDT. By Dr. REINHARDT. Imp, 4to, pp. 312, 6 plates, price 24s.
On Pterylography.
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London: ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192 Piccadilly, W.
Price 2s. 6d., Illustrated by the best Artists.
THE POPULAR SCIENCE REVIEW:
A Quarterly Miscellany of Entertaining and Instructive Articles
on Scientific Subjects. Edited by Henry Lawson, M.D., Co-
Lecturer on Physiology and Histology, St. Mary’s Hospital
Medical School, and one of the Lecturers on Natural Science
under the ‘ Science and Art Department’ of the Committee of
Council on Education., —
This periodical does not partake of the character of the abstruse ‘ Quarterlies’ or
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for the amusement of those who desire to employ Science asa mere pastime. Its con-
tents are addressed to those numerous readers who, without making any pretensions
to rank among the learned, desire to become acquainted with the truths of Science ;
a pursuit which they are frequently deterred from following, by the abstruse language
in vogue amongst scientific men, or from the nature of their ordinary avocations being
too laborious and engrossing to allow of close study during leisure hours.
Each number contains systematic, instructive articles (illustrated when needful)
on subjects connected with some of the following Sciences, viz. :—
ASTRONOMY GEOGRAPHY ' MINERALOGY
BOTANY GEOLOGY PHYSICS
CHEMISTRY METALLURGY ZOOLOGY
ETHNOLOGY MICROSCOPY &e. &e., and
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On Plants: their Habitats, time of Flowering, Soils where likely to be found,
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On the various Plants and Animals capable of being kept and bred in Aquaria
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On the Uses and Application of the Microscope, and on Mounting Objects; Dis-
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In fact, on any subject which those who have a sincere love of God’s works
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: London : ROBERT HARDWICKH, 192 Piccadilly, W.
THE GREAT NATIONAL WORK ON OUR BRITISH PLANTS.
Publishing in Monthly Parts at 5s.
SOWERBY’S ENGLISH BOTANY:
Containing a Description and Life-Size Drawing of every British Plant. |
Kdited and brought up to the present standard of scientific knowledge, —
by T. Boswe.Lu SyME, F.L.S., &c. With Popular Descriptions of the
Uses, History, and Traditions of each Plant, by Mrs. LANKEsTER, Author
of § Wild Flowers worth Notice,’ ‘The British Ferns,’ &c. ‘The Figures
by J. E. SowERByY, JAMES SOWERBY, F.L.S., J. DEC. SOWERBY, F.L.S.,
and J. W. SALTER, A.L.S. :
The Distinctive Characteristics of this edition are,— : |
1. A life-size drawing of every British plant, arranged according to the
Natural System of De Candolle.
2. Where necessary, the plates are accompanied by illustrations of the
structure of the various organs of the plant, especially of those structures
discovered within the last few years by the use of the microscope.
3. All the illustrations are full coloured, instead of half-coloured, and the —
utmost care is taken to adhere as closely as pessible to nature.
* Under the editorship of T. Boswell Syme, F.L.S., assisted by Mrs. Lankester, whose
work on ‘ Wild Flowers worth Notice’ is so well appreciated by the public, we have the
best guarantee that ‘Sowerby’s English Botany,’ when finished, will be exhaustive of
the subject, and worthy of the branch of science it illustrates....In turning over the
charmingly executed hand-coloured plates of British plants which encumber these ‘
volumes with riches, the reader cannot help being struck with the beauty of many of
the humblest flowering weeds-we tread on with careless step, Our fields, woods, and
hillsides, are paved with riches we.all too much neglect ..We cannot dwell upon
many of the individuals grouped in the splendid bouquet of flowers presented in these
pages, and it will be sufficient to state that the work is pledged to contain a figure of
every wild flower indigenous to these isles."—THE ‘TIMES, Nov. 3, 1860.
‘Will be the most complete Flora of Great Britain ever brought out. This great —
work will find a place wherever botanical science is cultivated, and the study of our
native plants, with all their fascinating associations, held dear.—ATHEN ZUM. ©
‘ Nothing can exceed the beauty and accuracy of the coloured figures. They are drawn
life-size—an advantage which every young amateur will recognise who has vainly
puzzled over drawings in which a celandine is as big as a poppy—they are enriched with
delicate delineations of print, petal, anther, and any organ whichhappens to be remark-
able in its form—and not a few plates are altogether new....A clear, bold, distinctive
type enables the reader to take in at a glance the arrangement and divisions of every
“ page. And Mrs. Lankester has added to the technical description by the editor an ex-
tremely interesting popularsketch, which follows insmaller type. The English, French,
and German popular names are given, and, wherever that delicate and difficult step is at
all practicable, their derivationalso. Medical properties, superstitions, and fancies, and
poetic tributes and illusions follow. In short, there is nothing more left to be desired,’
GUARDIAN,
‘ Should the succeeding parts be as good, the work, when complete, will be without
a rival in excellence.’—O BSERVER. brass
‘ Without question, this is the standard work on Botany, and indispensable to every
botanist.. .The plates are most accurate and beautiful, and the entire work cannot
be too strongly recommended to all who are interested in Botany.’—ILLUSTRATED
Lonpown NEWS.
As all the Parts are kept in print, Subscribers may commence
at any time without buying the back numbers all at once. -Pro-
spectuses and Specimens may be had gratis upon application to
the Publisher.
London: ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192 Piccadilly, W.
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