1
**
THE HANDY NATURAL HISTORY
Plate I.
2.Orang-Outan
3. Gorilla
4. Chimpanzee
THE HANDY
NATURAL HISTORY
By
ERNEST PROTHEROE, F.Z.S.
\\
With 318 Illustrations
136 being in full color
BOSTON
RICHARD G. BADGER
83) e (gorftam
IQIO
BIOLOGY
LIBRARY
G
All rights reserved
$
Preface
THE study of Natural History affords many solid
advantages and not a few pure dwlights, since it gives
to the heart of man simple and sweet enjoyment while
tending to develop some of the noblest sentiments of his
being. In the Animal Kingdom the order, the design,
the harmony observable in its laws, the marvels of
structure and mechanism and the economy observable
on every hand, are all proofs of the Divine wisdom
and superintendence.
The present work is primarily intended to encourage
an intelligent interest in the subject by that large class of
readers who have neither the time nor the taste for intricate
technical details ; and for this reason an animal is some-
times presented out of the order which a rigid scientific
classification would demand. Though it make no preten-
sions to be a scientific manual, it is hoped it will furnish
an interesting and accurate account of the Mammals of
the world. Apart from mere information, it will at least
lead to a 'kindly feeling for all that God has created, and
assist to a sympathetic understanding of the dumb creatures
who minister to our wants and necessities, our comforts,
our passions, and our pride.
Some of the older explorers and hunters, whose names
occur in the text, encountered various wild beasts in regions
from which civilisation has since driven them, and before
fire-arms had reached their present-day range and precision ;
but reference is also made to great modern Nimrods who
have recently hunted big game in every quarter of the
iii
255130
iv PREFACE
globe. For permission to use various extracts thanks
are tendered to Country Life, Ltd. (Big Game Shooting);
Messrs. Hurst & Blackett (Lake Ngami or Explorations and
Discoveries) ; Longmans, Green & Co. (Eight Years in Ceylon) ;
Macmillan & Co. (A Hunter's Wanderings in Africa, Nile
Tributaries of Abyssinia, and The Malay Archipelago) ; and
Mr. John Murray (Livingstone's Missionary Travels and
Researches). These extracts alone refer to C. J. Andersonn,
Sir Samuel Baker, H. A. Bryden, Major C. S. Cumberland,
E. D. Cuming, Livingstone, F. C. Selous, and A. R. Wallace.
Other well-known writers, e.g., Rev. ]. G. Wood and
F. T. Bullen, are quoted in various places, but in the
course of much general reading, however, the exact source
of a quotation may have escaped notice, and must per-
force be covered by a general expression of indebtedness.
Great care has been taken to avoid inaccuracies, though
it is almost impossible that none should have crept in
among the many thousands of facts that go to make up
the volume.
Contents
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE WORLD OF NATURE
PAGE
Nature, inorganic and organic — The Creation — Man's demands
upon the Animal World — A journey into the ways and byways
of the Animal World — The Vertebrate Animals — The Inver-
tebrate Animals — Mammalia — Aves — Reptilia — Batrachia —
Pisces — Table of the orders of the class Mammalia — Scientific
names of Animals— The threshold of our task — The riches and
treasures of God's love and goodness I
CHAPTER II
ORDER I.— PRIMATES
SUB-ORDER i.— BIMANA (MAN)
Man, the most perfect of all created beings — Man's attitude and
strength — Reasoning faculties atone for natural physical
deficiencies — The bony skeleton — Vertebral column — Muscles
— Brain and nerves — Circulation of the blood — Digestion —
Teeth — Respiration — The distribution of man — The Caucasian
or White family — The Negro family — The Mongolian family
— Varieties of the Yellow Race— Man the dominating force in
the world — Labour's magic wand — The curse mitigated . . 15
CHAPTER III
ORDER I.— PRIMATES (continued)
SUB-ORDER 2.— QUADRUMANA, OR THE MONKEY TRIBE
The Quadrumana, or four-handed animals — Man and the Monkey
from an anatomical point of view — Monkey Speech — The
vi CONTENTS
PAGE
Origin of Species — The Anthropoidea — The Catarrhine
Monkeys: Family Simiidae : Gorilla — Chimpanzee — Orang-
Outan — Gibbons — Siamang — Family Cercopithecidae : Genus
Cercopithecus : Green Monkey — Pig-tailed Macaque — Barbary
Ape — Wanderoo — Yellow Baboon — Chacma — Thoth — Mandrill
—Diana Monkey— White-nosed Monkey— Mangabey— Patas
or Red Monkey — Genus Semnopithecus : Hanuman Monkey —
Proboscis Monkey — Platyrrhine Monkeys: Spider Monkey —
Coaita — Red Howler — Capuchin Monkey — Saki — Hand-
drinker — Douroucouli — Marmoset — Lion Tamarin — Lemur-
oidea: Ruffled Lemur — Ring-tailed Lemur — Brown Mouse
Lemur — Slender Loris — Slow Loris — Galago — Tarsier—
Aye-aye — Dermoptera: Colugo 31
CHAPTER IV
ORDER II.— CHIROPTERA (BATS)
General description of the Chiroptera — Long-eared Bat —
— Pipistrelle Bat— Barbastelle Bat — Whiskered Bat — Horse-
shoe Bats — Mouse-coloured Bat — Fruit Bats — Kalong —
Vampire Bat — Bat guano 77
CHAPTER V
ORDER III.— INSECTIVORA (INSECT-EATERS)
General description of the Insectivora — Hedgehog — Mole —
Common Shrew — Pigmy Shrew — Water Shrew — Elephant
Shrew — Tanrec — Tana or Tree Shrew — Potamogale . . 89
CHAPTER VI
ORDER IV.— -CARNIVORA (FLESH-EATERS)
SUB-ORDER i.— CARNIVORA OF THE LAND
General description of the Carnivora — Family Felidae : Lion —
Tiger — Leopard — Ounce — Jaguar — Puma — Ocelot — Fishing
Cat — Serval — Wild Cat — Domestic Cat — Lynx — Caracal —
Cheetah — Hyasnas — Aard Wolf — Family Viverridae : Civet —
Ichneumon — Mongoose — Genet — Parodoxure — Binturong
Suricate — Family Canidse : Domestic Dog — Eskimo Dog
Pariah Dog— Red Dog of the Deccan— Cape Hunting Dog-
Dingo — Wolf— Coyote— Jackal — Common Fox — Arctic Fox —
CONTENTS vii
PAGE
Silver Fox — Fennec — Family Mustelidae : Weasel — Stoat or
Ermine — Polecat — Ferret — Mink — Marten — Sable — Glutton —
Badger — Cape Zorilla — Skunk — Teledu — Common Otter —
Sea Otter — Family Procyonidae : Raccoon — Coaiti — Kinkajou
— Cacomistle — Panda— Family Ursidae : Brown Bear — Grizzly
Bear — Syrian Bear — Polar Bear — Black Bear — Malayan Bear
— Spectacled Bear — Sloth Bear 103
CHAPTER VII
ORDER IV.— CARNIVORA (continued)
SUB-ORDER 2.— CARNIVORA OF THE SEA
General description of the Pinnipedia — Common Seal— Grey Seal
— Bladder-nose or Crested Seal — Greenland Seal — Sea
Leopard — Sea Elephant — Sea Lion — Sea Bear, or Northern
Fur Seal— Walrus 189
CHAPTER VIII
ORDER V.— RODENTIA (GNAWING ANIMALS)
SUB-ORDER i.— SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS
SUB-ORDER 2.— DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS
General description of the Rodentia — Table of Sub-orders —
Common Squirrel — Grey Squirrel — Taguan Flying Squirrel —
Polatouche — Assapan — Anomalure — Chipmunk — Marmot —
Woodchuck — Prairie Dog — Beaver — Mouse-like Rodents —
House Mouse — Field Mouse — Harvest Mouse — Dormouse —
Black Rat — Brown Rat — Field Vole — Water Vole — Musquash
— Hamster — Lemming — Jerboa — Cape Jumping Hare —
Porcupine — Chinchilla — Viscacha — Agouti — Guinea Pig —
Capybara— Hare— Wild Rabbit— Tame Rabbit— Pika . . 207
CHAPTER IX
ORDER VI.— UNGULATA (HOOFED ANIMALS)
SUB-ORDER i.— HYRACOIDEA
SUB-ORDER 2.— PROBOSCIDEA (PROBOSCIS BEARERS)
SUB-ORDER 3.— PERISSODACTYLA (ODD-TOED ANIMALS)
General description of the Ungulata — Sub-order i. Hyracoidea :
Syrian Hyrax — Sub-order 2. Proboscidea: Elephant — Sub-
viii CONTENTS
PAGE
order 3. Perissodactyla : General description of Rhinoceros
family — Indian Rhinoceros — Other Asiatic species — African
Rhinoceros — Tapirs — Family Equidse : Horse — Wild Ass —
Domestic Ass — Zebra — Quagga 249
CHAPTER X
ORDER VI.— UNGULATA (continued)
SUB-ORDER 4.— ARTIODACTYLA (EVEN-TOED ANIMALS)
GROUP I.—RUMINANTIA
Sub-order 4. Artiodactyla — Group I. Ruminantia : General
description of the Pecora, or true Ruminants — Hollow-
horned Ruminants : Family Bovidae : Domestic Ox — Zebu —
Wild Oxen — Gaur — Gayal — Banting — Yak — European Bison
— American Bison — Indian Buffalo — Cape Buffalo — Anoa
— Musk Ox — Sheep and Goats — Domestic Sheep — Mouflon
— Argali — Pamir Wild Sheep — Barbary Wild Sheep — Bighorn
— Common Goat — Angora Goat — Kashmir Goat — Ibex —
Markhor — Tahr — Various Wild Goats — Family Antilopidae:
General description — Chamois — Gazelle — Springbok— Gems-
bok — Oryx — Equine Antelope — Sable Antelope — Waterbuck —
Eland — Gnu — Nilgai — Prong-horned Antelope — Saiga
Antelope — Klipspringer — Kudu — Hartebeest — Blesbok —
Addax — Royal Antelope — Dik-Dik Antelope — Family Came-
lopardalidae : Giraffe — Okapi — Solid-horned Ruminants :
Family Cervidae : General description — Red Deer — Fallow
Deer — Roe Deer — Elk — Reindeer — Wapiti — Virginian Deer
— Mule Deer — Pampas Deer — Brockets— Pudu Deer— Axis
Deer — Sambar — Schomburgk's Deer — Eld's Deer — Muntjac
—Japanese Water Deer — Chinese Water Deer — Elaphure —
Musk Deer 289
CHAPTER XI
ORDER VI.— UNGULATA
SUB-ORDER 4.— ARTIODACTYLA (continued}
GROUP IL—TRAGULINA (CHEVROTAINS)
GROUP IIL—TYLOPADA (CAMELS)
GROUP IV.—SUINA (SWINE-LIKE ANIMALS}
Group II. Tragulina (the Chevrotalns) — Kanchil. Group III.
Tylopada: General description — Arabian Camel — Bactrian
Camel — Llama — Alpaca — Guanaco — Vicuna. Group IV.
Suina : Wild Boar — Domestic Swine — Babyrussa — Wart
Hog— Peccary — Hippopotamus 369
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER XII
ORDER VII.— SIRENIA (MANATEES)
PAGE
General description of the Sirenia — Manatee — Dugong . . . 395
CHAPTER XIII
ORDER VIIL— CETACEA (WHALES AND
DOLPHINS)
General description of the Cetacea — Greenland Whale — Southern
Right Whale — Common Rorqual — Humpback Whale —
Cachalot or Sperm Whale — Narwhal — Porpoise — Dolphin —
Killer Whale 401
CHAPTER XIV
ORDER IX.— EDENTATA (TOOTHLESS
ANIMALS)
General description of the Edentata — Three-toed Sloth — Two-
toed Sloth — Great Ant-eater — Aardvark — Pangolin —
Armadillo 419
CHAPTER XV
ORDER X.— MARSUPIALIA (POUCHED
ANIMALS)
General description of the Marsupialia — Great Grey Kangaroo —
Tree Kangaroo — Wallaby — Rat Kangaroo — Family Phalan-
gitidae: Spotted Cuscus — Flying Phalanger — Koala —
Wombat — Bandicoot — Family Dasyuridae : Tasmanian Devil
or Ursine Dasyure — Tasmanian Wolf or Thylacine — Phasco-
logales — Banded Ant-eater — Pouched Mole— Opossum . . 429
CHAPTER XVI
ORDER XL— MONOTREMATA
General description of the Monotremata— Echidna— Duckbill . 451
List of Illustrations
COLOURED PLATES
A Welcome Return ..... Frontispiece
PLATE FACING PAGE
I. i. White-handed Gibbon. 2. Orang-Outan. 3. Gorilla.
4. Chimpanzee . . . . . i
II. i. Red Howler. 2. BarbaryApe. 3. Baboon. 4. Siamang.
5. Mandrill . . . . . .16
III. i. Aye- Aye. 2. Green Monkey. 3. Capuchin Monkey.
4. Slender Loris. 5. Ruffled Lemur. 6. Hanuman
Monkey . . . . . . .55
IV. i. Vampire Bat. 2. Pipistrelle. 3. Long-eared Bat.
4. Mouse-coloured Bat. 5. Moje. 6. Tanrec. 7. Water
Shrew. 8. Elephant Shrew. 9. Hedgehog . . 88
V. i. Puma. 2. Tiger. 3. Lion . . . . .117
VI. i. Leopard. 2. Cheetah. 3. Lynx. 4. Jaguar . . 124
VII. i. Striped Hyaena. 2. Spotted Hyaena. 3. Wolf. 4. Jackal . 139
VIII. i. Civet. 2. Ichneumon. 3. Mongoose. 4. Common Fox.
5. Arctic Fox . . . . . 142
IX. i. Otter. 2. Sable. 3. Stoat. 4. Polecat. 5. Marten.
6. Weasel. 7. Ferret. 8. Mink . . .161
X. i. Kinkajou. 2. Skunk. 3. Coaiti. 4. Glutton. 5. Badger.
6. Raccoon . . . . . .176
XL i. Brown Bear. 2. Polar Bear . . . .187
XII. i. Sea Lion. 2. Sea Leopard. 3. Common Seal. 4. Sea
Bear. 5. Walrus ...... 202
XIII. i. Guinea Pig. 2. Chinchilla. 3. Porcupine. 4. Rabbit.
5. Capybara. 6. Hare. 7. Golden Agouti. 8. Syrian
Hyrax . . . . . . .211
XIV. i. Brown Rat. 2. Lemming. 3. Musquash. 4. Squirrel.
5. Tana. 6. Hamster. 7. Marmot. 8. Jerboa. 9. Beaver . 234
XV. i. Rhinoceros. 2. African Elephant .... 257
XVI. i. Wild Ass. 2. Horse 274
XVIL i. Quagga. 2. Domestic Ass. 3. Zebra. 4. Malayan Tapir . 287
Xll
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATE
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
XXXII.
Merino Sheep. 2. Domestic Swine.
4. Domestic Goat. 5. Cow and Calf
European Bison. 2. Yak. 3. Zebu .
Mouflon. 2. Chamois. 3. Argali
FACING PAGE
Sheep.
. 294
. 301
i. Ibex. 2. Equine Antelope. 3. Gazelle. 4. Waterbuck 327
• 330
• 339
. 346
i. Gnu. 2. Eland ......
Giraffe .....
i. Red Deer. 2. Muntjac. 3. Roe Deer
i. Musk Deer. 2. Kanchil. 3. Fallow Deer .
i. Elk. 2. Reindeer ...
i. Llama. 2. Bactrian Camel .
i. Wild Boar. 2. Babyrussa. 3. Hippopotamus
i. Cachalot. 2. Greenland Whale. 3. Humpbacked
Whale . . . . .
354
369
384
403
Narwhal.
Killer
414
i. Manatee. 2. Dugong.
Whale. 5. Dolphin ....
i. Armadillo. 2. Three-toed Sloth. 3. Pangolin.
4. Wombat. 5. Great Anteater . . . 419
i. Bandicoot. 2. Banded Anteater. 3. Marsupial Mole.
4. Opossum. 5. Flying Phalanger. 6. Kangaroo . 430
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
PLATES
Galago. 2. Young Orang-Outan ...
Pig-tailed Macaque. 2. Patas Monkey
Mangabey. 2. Wanderoo .
Spider Monkey. 2. Common Marmoset
Colugo. 2. Brown Mouse Lemur
Kalong. 2. Barbastelle Bat walking .
Heads of : i. Vampire Bat. 2. Greater Horseshoe Bat.
3. Long-Eared Bat. 4. Kalong (natural size)
Domestic Cat. 2. Wild Cat (Scotland)
Caracal. 2. Caracal Cub. 3. Ocelot .
Suricate. 2. Genet. 3. Serval .
Fox Terriers. 2. Pointer. 3. Greyhound
Eskimo Dog. 2. Poodle. 3. Newfoundland Dog
Cape Hunting Dog. 2. Dingo .
Prairie Wolf. 2. Aard Wolf ....
Fennec. 2. Albino Wolf ....
Grizzly Bear ......
Malayan Bear. 2. Sloth Bear ....
Seal Rookery and Sea Elephant ....
American Grey Squirrels .....
i. Flying Squirrels. 2. Water Vole
i. Polatouche. 2. Anomalure . . . .
I. Field Voles. 2. Prairie Dog ....
32
33
64
65
75
86
87
128
129
144
H5
148
149
156
157
182
183
196
208
209
215
224
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Xlll
PLATE
XXIII. . Harvest Mice. 2. House Mice
XXIV. . Dormice. 2. Black Rat. 3. Chipmunk
XXV. . Spiny Mouse. 2. Tree Porcupine. 3. Viscacha
XXVI. . American Tapir. 2. Indian Elephant
XXVII. . Foals. 2. Cart Horse ....
XXVIII. . American Bison. 2. English Wild Bull
XXIX. i. Barbary Wild Sheep. 2. Gayal
XXX. i. Musk Ox. 2. Angora Goats .
XXXI. i. Tahr. 2. Markhor ....
XXXII. i. Young Pronghorn. 2. Nilgai Antelope
XXXIII. i. Klipspringer. 2. Beatrix Antelope .
XXXIV. i. Dik-Dik Antelope. 2. Addax Antelope
XXXV. i. Giraffe. 2. Swamp Deer
XXXVI. Antlers of the Red Deer ....
XXXVII. Head of a Wapiti
XXXVIII. i. Sambar Deer. 2. Axis Deer .
XXXIX. i. Okapi. 2. Dromedary
XL. i. Vicuna. 2. Wart Hog
XLI. i. Collared Peccary. 2. Aard-vark . . . 391
XLII. i. The Cachalot's Fight for Power. 2. A Sperm
Whale Baby ...... 401
XLIII. i. Tree Kangaroo. 2. Red-necked Wallaby . . 436
XLIV. i. Spotted Cuscus. 2. Rat Kangaroo . . . 437
XLV. i. Spotted Dasyure. 2. Tasmanian Devil . . <\/\/\
XLVI. i. Koala and Cub. 2. Thylacine . . .445
XLVII. i. Echidna. 2. Crab-eating Opossum . . . 450
XLVIII. i. Head of the Echidna. 2. Duckbill . . .451
FACING PAGE
• 225
.238
239
272
273
304
305
320
321
332
336
337
342
343
358
359
374
382
ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
PAGE
Skeleton of Man, walking attitude . . . . .18
The Human Hand . . . . . . .19
A Vertebra . . . . . . . .20
The Heart of Man, showing valves . . . . .22
The Human Stomach . . . . . . -23
Diagram of the Circulation of the Blood . . . -25
Types of the Human Race . . . . . . 27
Skeleton of Gorilla, walking attitude . . . . .34
The Human Foot . . . . . . .35
Foot and Hand of a Monkey . . . . . . 36
A Catarrhine Monkey . . . . . . -39
Ankle and Foot Bones of Gorilla ; Ankle and Foot Bones of Man . 41
Skull of the Gorilla . . . . . . .42
Skull of the Chimpanzee . . . . . .45
Skeleton of the Orang-outan . . . . . .48
xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Skeleton of the Siamang . . . . $2
Skeleton of the Mandrill .... .60
Foot and Hand of the Mangabey . . . 61
A Platyrrhine Monkey .... .64
Hand of a Spider Monkey . . . . . .66
Skeleton of the Ruffled Lemur . . . .71
Sole of Foot of Garnett's Galago ... .73
Skull of the Aye-Aye . . . . • • -74
Foot and Hand of the Aye-Aye . . . • -75
Hind Foot of the Colugo .... .75
Bones of Hind Foot of the Colugo . . . . .76
Skeleton of the Mouse-coloured Bat . . . 80
Skeleton of the Hedgehog ... . . 92
Skeleton of the Mole ... ... 95
The Mole's Fortress . . . . . . . 96
Fore Limbs of the Common Mole ... .97
Sole of Hind Foot of Elephant Shrew . . 100
Lion's Claw — Sheathed and Unsheathed .... 106
The Mechanism of a Cat's Retractile Claw . . . .109
Skeleton of the Lion . . . . . . .in
Skull of the Lion . . . . . . .114
Teeth of the Domestic Cat ... 131
Skull of the Hyaena . . . . . . .135
Skeleton of the Civet ... . .141
Skull of the Domestic Dog . . . . . .145
Skull of the Wolf 152
Skeleton of the Weasel . . . . . . .161
Skull of the Polecat . . . . . . .164
Skeleton of the Badger . . . . . .170
Skull of the Otter . . . . . . .174
Skull of the Kinkajou . . . . . . .179
Skeleton of the Polar Bear 186
Skeleton of the Seal . . . . . . .192
Hind Flippers of the Seal . . 194
Skeleton of the Sea Lion (walking attitude) . . . .199
Vertical Section of the Skin of the Fur Seal .... 200
Skull and Dentition of the Walrus ..... 204
Head of a Rabbit ..... .210
Claws of the Squirrel . . . . . .211
Jaws of the Beaver . . . • . • .221
Tail of the Beaver . . . . . . .221
Skull of the Mouse ..... .223
Skull of the Rat . 227
Skeleton of the Jerboa . . . . . . .236
Jaws of the Hare . . . . . .243
Skeleton of the Rabbit . . . . . . .246
Skeleton of the Indian Elephant . . . . .253
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv
Skeleton of the Mammoth ...... 255
Molar Teeth of the Elephant . . . . . .256
Section of Skull of the Indian Elephant .... 260
Skeleton of the Rhinoceros . . . . ... 267
Fore and Hind Foot of the Tapir ... .272
Skeleton of the Horse . . . . . . .275
Hand and Foot of the Horse ...... 277
Foot of the Horse with Shoe . . . . . .278
Frog of the Horse's Hoof . . . . .278
Dentition of the Horse ....... 279
Stomach of a Ruminant ...... 292
Section of the Stomach of a Ruminant .... 293
Foot of the Cow ....... 295
Skeleton of the Cow . . . . . . .296
Horns of the Cape Buffalo ...... 306
Horns of the Anoa ....... 307
Bones of the Fore Foot of the Sheep . . . . .310
Foot of the Sheep ....... 310
Skeleton of the Sheep . . . . . . .311
Horns of the Pamir Sheep . . . . . .315
Foot of the Goat . . . . . . .316
Skeleton of the Common Goat ...... 317
Horns of the Springbok ...... 326
Horns of the Koodoo ....... 335
Skeleton of the Giraffe . ..... 338
Bones of the Fore Foot of the Roe Deer . . . .351
Under-view of Elk's Hoof ...... 353
Antlers of the Virginian Deer ...... 360
Antlers of Schomburgk's Deer ..... 364
Skull of the Musk Deer . . . . . .367
Foot of the Camel ....... 372
Bones of the Fore Foot of the Camel . . . . .373
Water Cells of the Stomach of the Camel .... 374
Foot of the Llama . . . . . . .379
Stomach of the Llama ....... 380
Teeth of the Wild Boar 384
Bones of the Foot of the Pig . . . . . . 386
Skull of the Wart Hog. . . . . . .390
Lower Jaw of the Hippopotamus . . 392
Skeleton of the Manatee . . . . . .398
Baleen or Whalebone .... . 405
Skeleton of the Spermaceti Whale ..... 412
Fore Foot of the Three-toed Sloth . . . . .421
Skeleton of the Sloth . . . . . . .423
Skull of the Cape Ant-eater ...... 426
Skeleton of the Armadillo ...... 427
Skeleton of the Kangaroo ...... 432
xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Hind Foot of the Great Kangaroo . . . -432
Teeth of the Great Kangaroo . . . . . . 434
Skeleton of the Wombat ...... 442
Teeth of the Dasyure ....... 444
Skeleton of the Crab-eating Opossum .... 448
Mouth and Nose-Snout of the Echidna . . . . 454
Fore Foot of the Duckbill . . . . . .455
Under-view of the Bill of the Duckbill .... 455
Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE WORLD
OF NATURE
Nature, inorganic and organic — The Creation —
Man's demands upon the Animal World — A
journey into the ways and byways of the
Animal World — The Vertebrate Animals —
The Invertebrate Animals — Mammalia — Aves
-Reptilia— Batrachia— Pisces— Table of the
orders of the class Mammalia — Scientific
names of Animals — The threshold of our task
—The riches and treasures of God's love and
goodness.
CHAPTER I
Introduction
A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE WORLD OF
NATURE
NATURAL history in its widest sense deals with the
entire universe, or everything which God created
in the beginning. More often, however, it is applied to
a description of the earth and its productions ; and not
infrequently it is restricted to the animal kingdom alone.
The study of inorganic nature opens up to us a vast
realm of bewildering interest. The blue ethereal sky from
which by day shine the life-giving sun, and by night
the silvery moon, or myriads of twinkling stars ! The great
globe revolving in illimitable space ! The restless, rolling
ocean, fed by mighty rivers that rise in stupendous moun-
tains capped by everlasting snow ! The sweltering heat
of the Tropics, the equable climate of the Temperate zones,
the icy breath of the Polar regions ! The morning dew,
the evening mist, the gentle rain, the feathery snow ! The
balmy zephyr, the swelling breeze, the howling hurricane !
The fiery volcano and the devastating earthquake ! The
procession of the seasons and the flight of time ! All
fill us with profound wonder, and provide us with endless
scope for reflection upon the might, majesty, and wisdom
of Him who orders and controls the mighty forces of nature.
Climate clothes the broad plains, the winding valleys,
the swelling uplands, the hill-tops, and even far up the
sides of the frowning mountains of the inorganic globe
with vegetation, according to the heat and moisture brought
to them by the changing seasons. The vegetable life in
4 INTRODUCTION
the winterless Torrid zone is most luxuriant ; giant trees
interlace their crowns, while underneath in the sombre
shade is a tangle of undergrowth, through which only
axe and billhook can make a path. Nutritious food, too,
is to be had for the mere gathering. In the Temperate
regions vegetation is less profuse, and summer changes
to winter, making it necessary for vegetable food to be
cultivated and stored for use when the soil refuses to afford
further supplies. In the Frigid zones, Nature's garb be-
comes increasingly scanty as we approach the Poles ; the
stunted trees give place to shrubs ; the verdant green of
the grass declines until mosses and lichens are the highest
forms of vegetable life ; and all beyond is nothing but ever-
lasting ice and snow.
Vegetation is organic ; it is alive. We can watch a plant
spring into life from a tiny seed ; we can see it put forth
its tender shoot ; and can study the later development
of stem and leaves and flower and fruit. There is nothing
in the whole realm of nature more mysterious than this
vital principle of life. But though plants have life they are
not sentient ; they possess no faculty of sensation and
perception ; they can neither see, speak, hear, taste, nor
feel — unless we except a few remarkable insect-eating plants.
They do not themselves possess the power of movement
beyond that which is embodied in the action of growth ;
they must perforce remain where they have taken root, even
though their situation prove unsuitable to their development
or become inimical to their very existence.
On the fifth day of the creation God said, ' Let the waters
bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life,
and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open firma-
ment of heaven.' And the next day ' God made the beast
of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind,
and everything that creepeth upon the earth after his
kind : and God saw that it was good.'
The earth thus became peopled with beings, organised
and living and sentient. On every side resounded the
voices of creatures as varied in size and form as they
were complex in nature. To every land region were given
the animals best fitted to make their homes there, according
MAN'S DOMINION OVER ANIMALS 5
to the surface and the climate. The air was peopled
with busy tribes to wander through its boundless space ;
the waters teemed with life ; and myriads of insects danced
in the sun. There was no spot or object, however insigni-
ficant, upon the surface of the earth that was not peopled
with tiny denizens to play their part in the great plan
of the Creator. Every leaf from a tree is a whole world,
and every drop of water a vast ocean to the mites that
inhabit them.
But the crowning work of creation was only accom^
plished in the production of man, the image of the Creator
Himself, the last and most excellent of God's mighty
works. Of all beings man is the most highly organised ;
he possesses the quality of sentience in the most marked
degree. To him was given dominion over the whole of
the animal world. ' Every moving thing that liveth shall
be meat for you ; even as the green herb have I given
you all things,' says the Word of God.
If animals were able to express themselves in speech,
they could assure us that man compels them to con-
tribute themselves not only to his larder, but to provide
material for numerous of his other wants and comforts,
to say nothing of ministering to his amusements and even
his pride. There is scarcely anything that possesses life
which man does not press into his service for food. So far
as the reader is concerned it would not be a difficult matter
to enumerate the animal flesh of which he partakes from
one year's end to another, but that is only because other
animal food does not come within his economic range ;
and thus the Englishman does not dine off the flesh of the
Polar bear for exactly the same reason that the Eskimo
abstains from roast beef. The British liking for beef is
a national characteristic, but the Hindu reverences the
cow and would not defile himself by eating its flesh ;
the Siamese abstain from taking the life of any animal,
but there is scarcely any creature that creeps or crawls
of which they will not partake, if only it has died a natural
death. The horse is par excellence our beast of burden,
but though at one time Christianity rejected horseflesh,
it is now the common food of some continental nations.
6 INTRODUCTION
The lion, tiger, jaguar, and even the evil-smelling skunk,
are eaten by man in the regions inhabited by these animals.
The dog does not approve of the rank and offensive flesh of
the hyaena ; but low type Arabs are less particular. We
esteem the dog, the friend of man, for what may aptly
be termed his personal qualities ; but John Chinaman
has encouraged the animal to adopt a vegetable diet the
better to fatten him up for use as domestic meat ; and
black cat on a Chinese menu is always an expensive
item.
That the flesh of all birds is more or less palatable is
more easily understood. In the South of Europe thrushes,
larks, and even redbreasts are sent to market in immense
quantities ; in Madeira ' fried canaries ' are a common
dish. For sentimental reasons we should object to dine on
these ' sweet birds that breathe the spirit of song, and
surround heaven's gate in melodious throng.' For other
reasons we should decline the flesh of a vulture that had
picked up its living around the Towers of Silence, outside
Bombay, where the Parsees expose their dead for food for
these most repulsive specimens of the feathered world. Of
all our animal foods we pay special attention to the freshness
of fish ; but the Gold Coast negro prefers his shark-flesh
when it is well advanced towards putrefaction. Even
reptiles and insects minister to man's appetite. They may
be hideous in shape and movement, loathsome and veno-
mous to touch, but man will not forgo his claims to utilise
them. Crocodiles and snakes, frogs and worms, and even
centipedes form the basis of meals in different regions.
These are but a few examples to show how man exercises
his dominion over the animal world in the satisfaction of
his omni-carnivorous appetite.
In addition to flesh and milk (butter and cheese), the
inferior creation supplies man with skins, fur, wool, hair,
bristles, horns, bone, ivory, oils, &c., out of which he
fashions innumerable articles to satisfy his desire for
warmth and rest and other aids to the comforts of life.
Birds yield eggs for food and feathers for warmth and
adornment. Fishes are chiefly valuable as a food product,
but they also yield oil ; and in the case of some of the larger
ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION 7
species, fish skin can be transformed into very serviceable
leather. The utility of any beast, bird, or fish is not always
obvious ; in one part of the world it may be of vital impor-
tance to mankind, in another its value may lie altogether
in a different direction. The harvest of the North Sea — the
cod, plaice, herring, &c. — is destined chiefly for the markets
of our great industrial centres ; but on the west coast of
Ireland, where the population is sparse, the farmer catches
fish, which he spreads upon his fields to rot and thus
nourish his land with cheap manure.
When a traveller is about to venture into a far-off and
unknown country, he first studies all the available maps and
charts constructed by those who have gone before him. We
are about to penetrate into a large portion of the animal
world on a voyage of inquiry into at least some of the phe-
nomena of animal life, and it behoves us to set about our
task upon some recognised method most likely to assist our
progress. We shall find that the great naturalists of past
ages devised a scheme of animal classification which, with
ever increasing knowledge, has developed into roads,
smoothed of almost all difficulties for the student who is
prepared to exert only ordinary care to keep on the right
path. Everywhere are erected finger-posts to direct us to
that knowledge of which we are in search — knowledge that
will instruct and amuse, that will cause us to take additional
interest in the animals that serve us — knowledge that will
fill us with admiration for the wisdom of God, and that
cannot but call for our tribute of adoration to Him who
'hath done all things well.'
It is calculated that over two million species of living
creatures exist in this world of ours. Between the elephant
and the whale, the giants of the animal creation, and the
cheese mite, only just discernible with the human eye, there
are myriads of creatures differing in size, form, and habit ;
and the mite is by no means the most minute of beings.
Yet, however large or however tiny it may be, the exist-
ence of each living creature is part of God's beneficent
plan ; great and small alike are set to run their course by
Him who seeth all and maketh all.
Often when we are meeting with no success in our
8 INTRODUCTION
search for some lost article we declare that our task is
like looking for a needle in a haystack. In dealing with
the multitudinous animal forms, if left entirely to our
own devices, we should speedily be in a state of absolute
bewilderment. The number alone would fill us with
doubts concerning our ability to count them ; and their
astounding variety would convince us of the impossibility
of sorting them out so as to obtain even an elementary
grasp of our subject. Fortunately, the pleasant paths
constructed for us by the naturalists are open to all. If
we keep a sharp look-out for the finger-posts and the
milestones we shall have a pleasant journey, and arrive
at our destination with a load of valuable information,
which it has been a pleasure to gather, and which it will
be a happiness to store up in our minds.
For a brief space we will survey the great globe upon
which we have our being. It consists of quite fifty
million square miles of land and nearly three times that
expanse of water. Yet by a knowledge of geography we
can fix the position of a tiny village, even though it be
in some almost inaccessible spot in the heart of a savage
country. The navigator, by the use of his charts and
the compass and sextant, can determine the position of
his vessel, when sailing the trackless ocean, with greater
ease than a Londoner can sometimes find his way in
the maze of streets in his own city.
In the world at large are two great divisions, the Eastern
and the Western Hemispheres. In one of these are four
continents, and in the other only one. Continents are
divided into countries, which are again divided into states
and provinces, and in the case of our own land into still
smaller portions called counties. Counties in their turn
are made up of parishes, villages, and towns.
Before setting out upon our journey into the ways
and byways of the animal world we must take a bird's-eye
view of it, the better to observe our bearings. If we
exercise a little care we shall be able to note its divisions
and subdivisions — the classes, orders, sub-orders, sections,
groups, and families — a knowledge of which will afford
us invaluable assistance on our way.
VERTEBRATES AND INVERTEBRATES 9
All animal life falls into two great divisions : the Verte-
brate and the Invertebrate.
The Vertebrate Animals (Animalia Vertebrata) form the
first sub-kingdom of the animal world. They are easily
distinguished by the possession of an internal skeleton,
or bony framework. Their body consists of a head, trunk,
and limbs. The head is composed of the skull, which
incloses and protects the brain ; and the face, in which
are the organs of taste, smell, sight, and hearing. The
head rests upon, or is attached to, the vertebral column,
which is built of a number of separate bony rings, movable
one upon another, and forming a canal for the spinal cord,
which is the great nerve centre of the body. A man has
twenty-six separate bones in his vertebral column, while a
python has no less than four hundred. The limbs, which
never exceed four, are in pairs. The blood of the verte-
brates is warm and red ; all, with the exception of fishes,
breathe air through lungs ; and all of them possess a heart.
The Invertebrate Animals include all beings of lower
organisation. They possess neither cranium nor brain,
no internal skeleton, and no spinal cord. With the
exception of the earthworm their blood is colourless and
cold. Not a single invertebrate uses the mouth in re-
spiration ; they breathe through holes or slits in the neck,
sides, and even the tail. The jaws move horizontally
instead of vertically. No vertebrate has more than four
true limbs, but invertebrates seldom possess so few. All
insects have six ; the spider, which is not an insect, has
eight ; crabs and lobsters have ten. Many insects are
fitted with wings in addition. Scientific men do not
always agree exactly how to classify some of the Inver-
tebrates, if only because they include the insects, which
in variety of structure and appearance, and still more so
in the numbers of their individuals, far surpass all the
larger branches of the animal world.
All animal life can be arranged in two great groups : the
warm-blooded and the cold-blooded. Man, the four-footed
beasts, and birds fall into the first group ; snakes, frogs,
fishes, &c., are contained in the second. It is customary,
however, to divide the Vertebrates as set out overleaf.
io INTRODUCTION
VERTEBRATE ANIMALS
The Vertebrate animals are usually arranged in five
classes : —
I. Mammalia (Latin mamma, a teat). Animals which
suckle their young, bringing them into the world alive.
Examples : Man, monkey, ox, elephant, and whale.
II. Aves (Latin, avis, a bird). Birds are oviparous ; they
are produced from eggs by the application of heat, usually
supplied by the body of the mother bird in close contact
with them. The covering of mammals varies very consider-
ably, but birds are always clothed with feathers, which are
a part of their special construction for flight. Examples :
Eagle, swan, ostrich, and lark.
III. Reptilia (Latin, repo, 'I creep'). Reptiles are cold-
blooded animals, protected by scales and not infrequently
by hard bony plates. They are mostly oviparous, but
developed from the eggs more or less casually by the heat
of the sun. They can endure long periods of abstinence,
and are so tenacious of life that many of them will survive
the severest bodily injuries. ' Reptile' is not an apt name,
for there are many members of the class that do not creep.
Examples : Crocodile, lizard, tortoise, and snake.
IV. Batrachia (Greek, batrochos, a frog), or Amphibia
(Greek, amphibios, having a double life). In this class
were once included the reptiles and certain fishes, and the
latter term is still popularly used to denote animals that can
exist for a considerable time on dry land or in water. They
are oviparous, hatched by the heat of the sun from eggs,
covered with a soft glutinous membrane, which the mother
has laid in the water. In the early period of their existence
they are fishlike in their structure, breathing by means of
gills and a two-chambered heart ; in the later stages of
their development they acquire lungs and a heart of three
chambers. A true amphibian possesses at once both lungs
and gills. Examples : Frog, toad, and newt.
V. Pisces (Latin, piscis, a fish). Fishes are oviparous.
Their bodies are covered with scales, which form an
important part of their special organisation for life in the
THE CLASS MAMMALIA u
water. They possess a branchial respiration in which their
gills, acting as lungs, are enabled to extract air from the
water instead of from the atmosphere.
For the present we are only concerned with the first of
the foregoing classes. In the Mammalia are all the animals
whose organisation is most developed, whose senses are the
most delicate, whose intelligence is the most perfect, and
which are most closely allied to mankind. They claim more
of our attention, not only because they include man himself,
but also the whole of the animal creation that is more
essential to his immediate welfare. Let us for a moment
try to imagine what our life would be if all the members of
the class Mammalia were rigidly excluded. Wool, hair, and
fur would form no part of our clothing ; our animal food
would be restricted to the flesh of birds and fishes ; we
should need a substitute for leather or give up wearing
boots and shoes ; we should dispense with all articles that
are made of bone ; and we should banish our friend the
dog and cease to make use of any beast of burden.
Having decided which is the particular realm of the
animal kingdom we desire to explore, we again consult our
charts to ascertain what are the furthermost limits within
which our exploration will be confined.
In dealing with the class Mammalia (and it is the same in
the other classes), we find that it contains groups of animals
in possession of some similarities in form and structure, and
conversely exhibiting common dissimilarities from other
groups. The mind almost involuntarily draws together to
form a section all those animals which have a mutual
resemblance to each other in some certain prominent
characteristics.
Each order consists of an associated group, the units in
which have certain essential points in common. Neverthe-
less, in each order there occur numerous distinct, perhaps
almost trifling, points of difference which enable us to
separate the members of the order into sub-orders, with a
further division into sections and groups, and finally into
families, each possessing their own distinctive character-
istics.
12 INTRODUCTION
TABLE OF THE ORDERS OF THE CLASS
MAMMALIA
I.— Primates (Latin, primus, first).
SUB-ORDER i.
Bimana (Latin, bis, twice ; manus, a hand), two-
handed animals. Example : Man.
SUB-ORDER 2.
Quadrumana (Latin, quatuor, four ; manus, a hand),
four-handed animals. Example : the Monkey.
II. — Chiroptera (Greek, cheir, a hand ; pteron, a wing),
hand-winged animals. Example : the Bat.
III. — Insect! vora( Latin, insecta, insects ; voro, 1 1 devour'),
insect-eaters. Examples : the Hedgehog and Mole.
IV. — Carnivora (Latin, caro, carnis, flesh), flesh-eaters.
Examples: Lion, Tiger, Fox, and Weasel.
V. — Rodentia (Latin, rodere, to gnaw), gnawing animals.
Examples: Rat, Rabbit, and Beaver.
VI. — TTngulata (Latin, ungula, nail, claw, or hoof), hoofed
animals.
SUB-ORDER i.
Hyracoidea (Greek, hyrax, shrew-mouse). Example :
Syrian Hyrax.
SUB-ORDER 2.
Proboscidea (Latin from the Greek proboskis, an
elephant's trunk ; literally a front-feeder), pro-
boscis-bearers. Example : Elephant.
SUB-ORDER 3.
Perissodactyla (Greek, perisos, superfluous ; daktulos,
finger or toe), odd-toed animals. Examples: Tapir,
Rhinoceros, Horse, Ass, and Zebra.
SUB-ORDER 4.
Artiodactyla (Greek, artios, equal ; daktulos, finger or
toe), equal-toed animals.
Group i.
Pecora (Latin, plural of pecus, cattle) or Ruminantia
(Latin, rumen, a paunch), ruminating or cud-
chewing animals. Examples: Ox, Sheep, Goat,
Antelope, Deer, and Giraffe.
FINGER-POSTS AND MILESTONES 13
Group 2.
Tragulina (Greek, tragos, goat), or Deerlets. Ex-
ample : Kanchil.
Group 3.
Tylopada (Greek, tylos, a knob or swelling, and pous,
podos, a foot), Ruminants with digits encased in
cutaneous pads. Example: Camel.
Group 4.
Suina (Latin, SMS, a pig), swine-like animals. Ex-
amples: Swine, Peccary, and Hippopotamus.
VII. — Sirenia (Latin, siren, a sea nymph), Sea-cows.
Examples: Manatee and Dugong.
VIII. — Getacea (Greek, ketos, a whale), animals of the
Whale kind. Examples: Whale and Dolphin.
IX. — Edentata (Latin, edentatus, toothless), toothless
animals. Examples: Sloth, Ant-eater and Arma-
dillo.
X. — Marsupialia (Latin, marsupium, a pouch), pouched
animals. Examples: Kangaroo and Opossum.
XI. — Monotremata (Greek, monos, single ; trema, a hole),
animals whose excretions are discharged by one
orifice, as in birds. Example : Duckbill.
It may appear strange that even a recently discovered
animal is promptly supplied with a Latin name. It must
be remembered that Latin and Greek are the two tongues
common to the scientific men of all civilised nations, and
whatever may be the common name of an animal in any
particular country, its scientific title remains unchanged.
In most cases, too, the name is a key to some characteristic
possessed by the animal.
Let us for a moment consider a typical instance of the
finger-posts and milestones referred to in an earlier page.
Take the Brown Bear for example. Its full postal address
in Nature is:
Sub-kingdom, Vertebrata. Class, Mammalia. Order,
Carnivora. Division, Plantigrada (Sole-of-the-foot walkers).
Family, Ursidce (Bears). Species, Ursus arctos.
The address of the White Bear only differs in the last
particular, viz., Ursus maritimus. Thus, just as we can fix
i4 INTRODUCTION
the residence of a person by naming the continent, country,
county, town, parish, and street, so we can definitely ascribe
any particular animal to its exact place in the world of
nature.
Although we propose to visit only what we may term
the aristocracy of the animal world, we find that it will
necessitate our travelling into every corner of the globe.
In our own country we leave the city and the mart and all
the pageantry of artificial life, and wend our way into the
green fields, follow the river's flowery banks, and enter the
shade of the tangled wood. We cross the oceans and
explore the continents ; we traverse vast fertile plains and
parched deserts ; we plunge into primeval forests ; and we
climb stupendous mountains. Wherever the human foot
and human perseverance can force a way we shall find the
animal world at home, to give us varying receptions accord-
ing to the nature with which the creatures are endowed.
Incidentally in our wanderings we shall learn much that
is perhaps outside the immediate scope of natural history,
for many animals touch at vital points the lives of the
people among whom they dwell. We shall, too, often
stray from the beaten tracks of civilisation, and enter into
immense solitudes where the explorer and the hunter have
only occasionally penetrated. Nevertheless, we shall never
be in doubt concerning our course — even there the finger-
posts and milestones of the naturalists will unfailingly direct
our steps.
If it were not for this assurance as we stand upon the
threshold of our task we should be weighed down by the
mere contemplation of the immensity and the variety of
the mighty creation amid which we live, and of which we,
ourselves, were the Creator's supreme effort. But every
step in our well-regulated inquiry will but increase our
wonder at the vista of extreme interest opened up to us ;
every new fact which we glean will prove but one more
testimony of God's power upon earth, and proof of the
riches and treasures of His love and goodness to all
mankind.
Chapter II
ORDER I.— PRIMATES
SUB-ORDER I.— BIMANA (MAN)
Man, the most perfect of all created beings
- Man's attitude and strength — Reasoning
faculties atone for natural physical deficiencies
-The bony skeleton — Vertebral column —
Muscles — Brain and nerves — Circulation of
the blood — Digestion — Teeth — Respiration—
The distribution of man — The Caucasian or
White family— The Negro family— The Mon-
golian family — Varieties of the Yellow Race
- Man the dominating force in the world
— Labour's magic wand — The curse mitigated.
Plate II.
5. Mandrill
CHAPTER II
Order I.— Primates
Sub-Order i.— BIMANA (MAN)
THIS sub-order consists of only one section, that
section of but one group, and that group of but
one family — MAN.
' And God said, Let us make man in our own image, after
our own likeness.' ' So God created man in His own
image, in the image of God created He him ; male and
female created He them.'
Of all the wonderful works of God man was the last
and the most excellent. In physical attributes alone he
is the most perfect of all created beings ; and still more
is this the case in the refined, the exalted plan and model
upon which he is constructed. In size he is dwarfed by
numerous animals ; in strength he is no match for some
that do not attain his proportions. He is short-sighted
compared to the eagle ; deaf compared to the hare ; and
almost without the sense of smell compared to the wild
dog or the vulture, who perceives the faintest scent borne
to it upon the breeze.
But in man the senses are so nicely balanced and
accurately adjusted as to enable him to obtain an intimate
acquaintance with the properties of the world around him,
in a manner that will contribute to his pleasure, and at the
same time ensure his elevation and happiness. The colours
of earth and sea and sky gladden his eye ; melody enchants
his ear ; the sweet odours of flowers delight his nostrils ;
the fruits of summer please his palate ; the glorious sun
3 I7
i8 MAN
and the spangled canopy of heaven entrance him — and
all lead him to the contemplation of the Deity, of whose
wondrous scheme he is himself the corner-stone.
In addition to all these physical powers he possesses
the gift of language, by which to denote his wants and
SKELETON OF MAN, WALKING ATTITUDE.
desires and to express the most abstract ideas of his
complex mind. Man alone is a reasoning animal ; man
alone possesses an immortal soul.
Man's very attitude is indicative of his physical superiority
and at once proclaims his dignity, and his separation from
all other creatures over whom he was given the dominion.
MAN'S SUPERIORITY 19
He sustains himself on his feet, thus giving free play to
his hands. The pelvis, the great bones at the bottom of
the trunk, rest securely in ball and socket joints upon the
stout pillars of the legs, giving enormous strength to the
frame when in a vertical position. A practised man can
carry upon his shoulders a weight of several hundred
pounds, whereas a horse can carry with comfort not
more than a hundred pounds ; and it is a good camel
that can carry a quarter of a ton for any considerable
distance. The strength of the horse lies in the direction
of its own axis, which is horizontal, and consequently it
can draw far more than it can carry. Upon rails one
animal has been known to draw a distance of several miles
a weight exceeding fifty tons, which would be absolutely
immovable against the united strength of several men.
The human hand is situated so as to render it easily avail-
able as an instrument of observation. Strong and powerful,
it is nevertheless exquisitely sus-
ceptible of the most delicate impres-
sions. Every finger, except the ring
finger, is capable of independent
movement, a power which is pos-
sessed by no other animal ; the
thumb is so elongated that it readily
meets the tips of one or all of the
fingers, and the fingers themselves,
and especially their extremities,
possess a discriminating sensibility
which is peculiar to man.
That he is naked, and that his THE HUMAN HAND.
physical construction affords him
no effective weapons of offence or defence, detract no
whit from his superiority over the brute creation, since
the very deficiency does but cause him to summon aid
from his internal resources, his fertile mind, his reasoning
faculties. He clothes himself ; he constructs dwellings
to protect himself from the weather and to defy the inroads
of ferocious animals ; his knowledge of the forces of nature
enables him to construct weapons that drive to a distance
or exterminate the intractable ; the more docile he subdues
20
MAN
and forces into his service. Thus art supplies to man what
nature has withheld, and with the rude materials to his
hand even the uncivilised hunter of the forest holds sway
over the animals that make their home in its leafy recesses.
A whole volume could be occupied in but a cursory
examination of the structure and composition of the human
body, and still more the mechanism of its vital organs.
For anything beyond the most brief description the reader
must look to works on anatomy and physiology rather than
a popular outline of Natural History.
But bones and flesh and blood and nerves and other
structures are common to all the mammals. What applies
to one is more or less applicable to all ; and the constant
references to the construction of animals, and especially
the points of difference between one species and another,
will enable us to proceed on our course with ever-growing,
definite knowledge of our subject.
It is the bony skeleton that determines the shape of man
or beast and provides a strong, firm and solid support for
the softer, fleshy parts. In the case of man there are more
than two hundred bones, each distinct in shape and size.
Many of them form hinge, ball and socket and pivot joints
to allow the human machine smooth and easy movement.
Vertebral Column. — We frequently speak of the back-
bone, which is misleading in that it is a string of many
bones, thirty-three in a child and
twenty-six in an adult.
Each bone is a vertebra ; the so-
called backbone is the vertebral
column. The seven smallest verte-
brae form the neck, which supports
the head ; the twelve succeeding
ones support the twelve pairs of
ribs. Five bones, increasingly large
and solid, form the vertebrae of the
loins ; the remaining nine bones
become welded together as the
child advances into adult life : five
of them form one piece, called the sacrum, and the four
final bones form a kind of rudimentary tail, called the coccyx.
A VERTEBRA.
S.C. Spinal cord.
MUSCLE, BRAIN, AND NERVES 21
Although every bone in the body serves some special pur-
pose, persons are frequently bereft of limbs by accident,
and even some of the bones of the head and trunk, because
disease demands their sacrifice. But if their loss incon-
venience life it does not destroy it, nor even of necessity
shorten it. The removal of the smallest bone of the
vertebral column, however, entails certain death, the
advance of which all the medical skill in the world is
powerless to check.
Muscles. — The bones of the body are clothed with
flesh. The red lean flesh is muscle. A mass of red flesh
really consists of bundles of tissues capable of moving
or sliding about. These movable bundles are the muscles,
terminating in tough, leather-like cords, called tendons,
which bind the muscle to the bone — an elastic binding
which allows at will the freest extension and contraction of
the bones thus jointed together. Wherever is required the
greatest power of movement, there are the largest and
strongest muscles. Compare the mass of flesh around the
thigh, the calf, and the arms with the thin covering of the
skull ; but the bones of the skull do not move and thus have
no need of muscle.
Brain and Nerves. — The skull is a hollow, bony box
containing the brain, which consists of a white delicate
material very different from the solid flesh of the muscles.
The cavity of the skull is not only filled up with this sub-
stance, but it extends in a narrow, rod-like mass right down
the tunnel or canal formed by the hollow ring of each
vertebral bone. Running out from the brain into the head
and from the spinal cord into the body are delicate white
threads that divide into innumerable branches and so spread
throughout the flesh. These are the nerves, the telegraph
wires of the body. It is the brain and nerves that enable
us to see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. Upon the brain
depend our will, intellect, and memory, our affections and
every emotion of which the human mind is capable. The
telegraphic nature of the nerves is easy of illustration. If
in the darkness one step upon some slippery substance, in
a flash the nerves communicate the presence of danger to
the brain ; and with equal celerity the brain calls upon the
22
MAN
muscles to flex the bones of the legs into a position best to
maintain or regain the equilibrium of the body.
Circulation of the Blood. — We have seen that practi-
cally every part of the body is crowded with nerves connected
with the brain ; it is equally crowded with blood-vessels
connected with the heart. Space will not allow a detailed
examination of the composition of blood, but it is easy
to recognise
its impor-
tance. Sup-
pose one
were to
bind an arm
very tightly
near the
shoulder,
the result
would
speedily be
discernible.
Below the
bandage the
flesh would
grow cold,
feeling
would be
blunted,
and move-
ment of the
arm would
become
heavy and
clumsy. If the ligament were sufficiently tight and sus-
tained long enough, the arm would become dead and
useless. Why ? Not because we have deprived the arm
of its blood, for its vessels might be full to bursting ;
but because we have interfered with its circulation. The
heart is a pump, which forces the life-giving fluid through
its greatest artery, the aorta, which branches out again
and again into ever smaller arteries, until the tubes are
DISSECTION OF LEFT SIDE OF HEART OF MAN,
SHOWING VALVES.
L.V. Left Ventricle; L.A. Left Auricle; m.v. Mitral Valve;
p.a. Pulmonary Artery ; s.v. Semilunar Valves of Pulmonary
Artery; ao. Aorta; s.v'. Semilunar Valves of Aorta.
BLOOD-MAKING
as fine as a hair, and in consequence are called capillaries.
The blood returns to the heart, not by the way it came,
but by wholly different vessels called veins. The blood
renews the tissues of the body, which even the simplest
acts of our daily life wear and destroy, which is the
reason we are tired after great exertion — and the weari-
ness lasts until we have rested and given the blood an
opportunity of repairing the damage.
Digestion. — The process of digestion is really blood-
making. Food is taken into the mouth, where it under-
goes not only the process of mastication, or chewing, but
something else of the utmost importance. The saliva,
which pours out from the membrane of the mouth,
converts the insoluble
starch contained in so
much of our food into
sugar, which is a soluble
substance, and is easily
absorbed and dissolved in
the blood. In the stomach
the food is ground and
churned up with a fluid
called the gastric juice.
Unlike the saliva, this fluid
will not act upon starches,
but it will dissolve lean meat
and the glutinous parts of
bread and other substances. Fats and the oily parts of
our food are unchanged even after their passage through
the mouth and stomach. It is not until the partly digested
mass reaches a long tube, called the intestine, that the
liver supplies another fluid, called the bile, to extract the
remaining nourishment. The stomach constantly gives up
to the blood-vessels all around the food which it has fully
dissolved ; and as the remainder passes along the intestinal
canal all that is of value is finally absorbed into the blood,
leaving the waste, the useless undigested material, to be
expelled from the body.
Teeth. — Intimately connected with the process of diges-
tion are the teeth, the arrangement of which is highly im-
THE HUMAN STOMACH.
Pylorus, the ' gateway ' into the
Duodenum, or first intestine.
24 MAN
portant, as they form a capital standard of comparison
among the mammalia generally. The skull incloses and
protects the brain ; but it also bears the jaws, without which
it would be impossible to swallow the food preparatory to
digestion. Each of the jaws is fitted with teeth, which are
so arranged that the surfaces of those in the upper jaw
correspond with those in the lower. The top or crown of
the tooth is capped with enamel, the hardest substance in
the body.
Teeth are of three kinds, viz., the incisors or cutting teeth,
canines or dog teeth, and premolars and molars or grinding
teeth. During life man has two sets of teeth ; the first,
called milk teeth, are twenty in number ; they fall out
during childhood, being replaced by the permanent teeth
to serve throughout the duration of life. The permanent
teeth are larger and stronger than the milk teeth and there
are thirty-two of them instead of twenty. An adult man
has two incisors, one canine, two premolars and three
molars on each side of the jaw, top and bottom.
Respiration. — Terrestrial creatures breathe air ; fishes,
too, breathe air, which is dissolved in the water. The
arterial blood pumped through the aorta is as pure in
quality as it is bright scarlet in colour. In its passage
through the body it parts with its life-giving qualities and
takes up the impurities given off by the worn-out tissues ;
and when it returns by way of the veins it is a dark purple
poisonous mixture, not only useless, but a positive danger
to the body. It is chiefly loaded with poisonous carbonic
acid gas, of which the venous blood must be cleansed
before it can again be put into circulation. The heart has
four chambers, each guarded by a valve. Pure blood passes
out of the left ventricle and venous blood returns into the
right auricle. By way of the pulmonary artery the right
ventricle sends the impure fluid to the lungs for purifi-
cation.
By means of the nostrils and the mouth we take in
fresh pure air, of which about 22 per cent, is oxygen,
which is absolutely necessary to sustain life. At the back
of the mouth and the nasal passages is the windpipe, or
trachea, which passes into the thorax, or chest, where it
PURIFYING THE BLOOD
RIGHT
divides into two pipes, each called a bronchus, and each
passing into a lung. In the lung the bronchus divides and
subdivides into the bronchial tubes, finally becoming very
tiny air cells. This accounts for the lungs being soft and
spongy and extremely elastic. Actual examination is far
better than any mere verbal description, and as what the
butcher calls sheep's lights are but the lungs of the animal,
one need not go
far for an actual
speci men. I n
passing it may be
pointed out that
the body of a
dead rabbit will
provide numerous
illustrations con-
cerning bones,
joints, muscle,
nerves, &c. The
incoming breath
fills the air cells
of the lungs with
oxygen, which the
venous blood ex-
changes for its
poisonous car-
bonic acid, which
is expelled from
the body in the
outgoing breath.
And then the
purified blood is
conveyed by the pulmonary veins into the left auricle of
the heart, ready to be sent again circling through the body.
Numerous organs of the body have not even been
mentioned, let alone described. This mere rapid survey
of but a few of its wonders must suffice to allow us to
dwell upon man's place in the general scheme of creation,
rather than to examine more closely into his structural and
functional excellences.
DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCULATION OF THE
BLOOD.
26 MAN
No profitable purpose connected with our immediate
task would be served by endeavouring to trace the exact
manner in which mankind, descended from a common
parent, has spread itself over every portion of the globe
and ramified into a thousand tongues and nations. The
very distribution of man is but one more convincing proof
of his superiority over the beasts of the field. The inferior
animals, notwithstanding, in many cases, marked powers
of locomotion, are constrained to occupy particular regions
owing to their physical structure, their covering, and the
limitations of their natural diet. Man is not restricted to
any particular environment, since he can clothe himself in
accordance with varying temperatures, and he can find
food of some kind wherever he may take up his abode.
Thus in mountain and valley, forest and desert, anywhere
between the burning regions of the Torrid zone, and the
ice-girt shores of the Polar seas, we find man modifying
his food according to the locality. Upon the heated
plains of India he thrives upon rice, the plantain, and
the palm ; on the frozen snows of Greenland he feasts
upon the raw flesh and blubber of the seal — and between
these points there are innumerable grades and distinctions
in habits, manners, and fo,od, in civilisation and moral
qualities.
Notwithstanding the number of tribes into which
humanity is divided, presenting distinct differences in
stature, tint and feature, the few great races of mankind
possess their own special and unmistakable characteristics.
The population of the entire globe is approximately
1,700,000,000 and consists of three main types, the Caucasian,
the Negro, and the Mongolian.
The Caucasian, Indo-European, or White family includes
nearly the whole of the people of Europe, Arabia, Persia,
Afghanistan, and Hindostan ; the Jews, wherever they are
found ; and some of the inhabitants of Northern Africa.
The chief characteristics are a white or fair skin, which is
naturally swarthy in the warmer regions, a large skull, an
expanded forehead, an oval face, and long wavy hair. That
the Hindoo should be classed with the Briton may appear
strange upon the face of it ; but though he varies in colour
GREAT RACES OF MANKIND
27
from almost pure white to jet black, in all other respects
he closely resembles the white man.
RED INDIAN.
NEGRO.
CAUCASIAN.
MONGOLIAN.
MALAY.
The White races, those of Western Europe in particular,
have wrought the most marked changes in the distribution
28 MAN
of man. There is no corner of the world that they do not
ransack for food and raw materials for their manufactures,
or in search of markets for their varied wares ; and north,
south, east, and west they have seized and peopled vast
regions to which originally the white man was a stranger.
Thus there are now 120,000,000 of English-speaking people,
two-thirds of whom are thousands of miles away from
"that little stone set in the silver sea" which is the real
home of the Briton.
The Negro family has its home in Central and South
Africa and some portions of Polynesia. A black skin,
narrow skull, low forehead, thick lips, and woolly hair are
distinctive features that never leave room for doubt con-
cerning the negro's identity. There are millions of him
in the West Indies and the United States, but he would
never have got there of his own initiative ; he was too
apathetic, too ignorant, to provide the means of traversing
thousands of miles of ocean. He was conveyed there by
the dominating, cosmopolitan white man, that he might
till the new lands which the Western nations of Europe
had seized to themselves in the New World.
The Mongolian family occupies North, Central, and
Eastern Asia. The chief characteristics are a skin of a
yellow tinge ; the skull oblong, with a receding forehead ;
cheek bones prominent and the nose short and broad ;
very closely-set narrow eyes ; and long, straight, black
hair. The Chinese, Japanese, and Tartars are the chief
members of the family ; but the Eskimos, Lapps, Finns,
the Magyars of Hungary, and the Turks are of the same
stock.
The Malays and many of the Polynesians and the Red
Indians are not separate types ; they are but varieties of
the Yellow race. They possess almost exactly the same
distinctive features, except that the Malay has a dark brown
tawny skin, while the Indian has a coppery complexion
that has earned for him the name of red man.
It is man who is the dominant force in the world, for
whom the Creator provided the wonders of earth and sea
and sky, at whose disposal was placed every good thing
which the wisdom of God conceived could minister to
LABOUR'S MAGIC WAND 29
his legitimate desires. In the very beginning man fell
from his high estate and the ground was cursed in punish-
ment ; but man's labour escaped the Divine wrath and
afforded him the means to render the curse less operative.
Since God looked upon the earth and declared that it
was good, its physical aspect has undergone enormous
changes by the slow and sometimes violent upheavals of
volcanic forces and the ceaseless wear and tear of the
elements. But these changes bulk small in comparison
with the transformation which man, and especially the
white man, has achieved by his labour. We have but to
contemplate our own land in illustration of the point.
It is less than two thousand years ago since Britain first
saw the light of civilisation, when Julius Caesar crossed
over from Gaul to add the island to the Roman dominions.
The land was covered with almost impenetrable forest,
where the ancient Briton built his wattled hut, or dug a
less pretentious retreat in the ground, in which to rest his
woad-stained skin-clad limbs when wearied from the chase.
And now ? Through the centuries ' clamorous Labour
has knocked with its hundred hands at the golden gate of
the morning ' ; and the call has been answered with ever-
growing energy. Labour has waved its magic wand over
the toiling hordes. Forthwith forests have been cleared
to give way to tracts smiling with golden harvests ; from
the depths of the earth have been wrested her precious
stores ; furnaces blaze, forges glow, anvils ring, and
machinery whirs and whirls. From the rude settlements
of the barbarian have sprung cities alive with the interests
of commerce, science, and art. On road and river, railway
and canal, are conveyed to our doors the necessaries and
the luxuries of life. From the busy quays vessels traffic
to and fro over the waste of waters, in search of materials
to shape and mould and weave to meet our own needs and
for barter in the markets of the world. ' Civilisation smiles ;
Liberty is glad; Humanity rejoices; Piety exults' — for
everywhere in the mighty camps of men, as in the tiniest
hamlets nestling under lonely hills, arise the temples of
Religion, wherein is worshipped the Father of all.
But though man's labour has mitigated the curse, only
30 MAN
the blood of Christ can wipe out the stain. To-day only
about a quarter of the human race even professedly bow
the knee to the Captain of our Salvation ; and not until
the Gospel is on every tongue, and still more in every heart,
will man rise to that high pinnacle above the brute creation
whereon in the very beginning God placed him.
Chapter III
ORDER I.— PRIMATES (continued)
SUB-ORDER 2.— QUADRUMANA, OR THE
MONKEY TRIBE
The Quadrumana or four-handed animals-
Man and the Monkey from an anatomical
point of view — Monkey Speech — The Origin
of Species— The Anthropoidea— The Catar-
rhine Monkeys : Family Simiidae : Gorilla
— Chimpanzee -- Orang-Outan — Gibbons -
Siamang — Family Cercopithecidse : Genus
Cercopithecus : Green Monkey — Pig-tailed
Macaque — Barbary Ape — Wanderoo — Yellow
Baboon — Chacma — Thoth— Mandrill — Diana
Monkey — White-nosed Monkey — Mangabey —
Patas or Red Monkey — Genus Semnopithe-
cus : Hanuman Monkey — Proboscis Monkey
— Platyrrhine Monkeys : Spider Monkey —
Coaita — Red Howler — Capuchin Monkey —
Saki — Hand-drinker — Dourocouli — Marmoset
— Lion Tamarin— Lemuroidea : Ruffled Lemur
— Ring-tailed Lemur — Brown Mouse Lemur
— Slender Loris — Slow Loris — Galago —
Tarsier — Aye-Aye — Dermoptera : Colugo.
I. GALAGO.
(See page 73)
(Photo W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
2. YOUNG ORANG-OUTAN.
(.See page 49)
PLATE II.
i. PIG-TAILED MACAQUE.
(See page 54)
2. PATAS MONKEY.
(See page 62)
(Photos W. S. Ber ridge, F.Z.S.
CHAPTER III
Order I. — Primates (continued]
Sub-Order 2.— QUADRUMANA, OR THE
MONKEY TRIBE
IT is not always an easy matter to allocate an animal
to its exact place in the classification of the Mammalia,
but there can be no c ifficulty in distinguishing any member
of the monkey tribt . If an examination of the great toe
of the hind foot sh >w that it is opposite to the other toes,
thus converting it into a hand, it is proof positive that the
animal is a monkey of some kind. With the exception of
a few species the fore limbs also possess an opposable
thumb. It is thi peculiarity that earns for the animals the
scientific name QUADRUMANA, i.e.t four-handed.
Because the monkey of all living creatures is the most
like man it is placed in the front rank of the animal creation.
A glance at Coloured Plate I. shows that the resemblance is
more apparent than real ; the highest of the monkey tribe
are but the most grotesque caricatures of humanity.
But if we examine the monkey from an anatomical point
of view we find that it very closely resembles man in many
important particulars. In a previous chapter we noted the
distinguishing characteristics of the human skeleton, with
which it is interesting to compare the frame of the gorilla
in a walking attitude. Very often such comparison is
misleading, since the ape is depicted in an upright
attitude, a position that it adopts only with difficulty.
Ignoring the tail, the animal possesses only a few more
bones than a man. The teeth, though usually the same in
4 33
34 THE MONKEY TRIBE
number as in mankind, are less regular. There is a marked
difference in the relative length of the limb bones, but
upon the whole the proportions of its parts are very much
the same as in the human being. Nevertheless, there are
anatomical differences so marked as to form an absolute
SKELETON OF GORILLA, WALKING ATTITUDE.
gulf between even the lowest and most degraded of the
human race and the highest of the manlike apes.
How dissimilar are the hands of man from his feet ! The
latter are to stand upon and not to take hold of objects
with. It is worthy of notice, however, that the human foot
under the pressure of necessity makes a very serviceable
MAN AND MONKEY COMPARED 35
hand. The foot of a baby is remarkably prehensile, and
would become increasingly so but for the wearing of shoes,
and the foot of the savage is always
more mobile than that of the civi-
lised man. In some cases where a
person has been born without, or by
accident deprived of, his arms, the
feet have been made use of with
wonderful ability. Instances are on
record where armless men have with
their feet wielded pencil or brush
with such skill as to carry off no
inconsiderable prizes in the world THE HUMAN FOOT.
of art.
The hind extremities of the monkey are indeed hands
that serve it well in its arboreal existence, but as feet
they only permit it to adopt an erect position with
awkwardness, if not discomfort. They are so formed that
the animal cannot stand squarely upon the soles ; the weight
is thrown upon the sides of the feet and the knees are
always partially bent.
The most manlike apes frequently walk short distances in
an upright posture, but their progression is always ungainly,
and necessitates the use of outstretched arms with which to
balance themselves. There is little doubt that the most
highly trained monkey in captivity adopts the biped method
of locomotion with certainly not more success than a dog.
Numerous mammals, notably the bear, frequently rear
themselves upon their hind feet in search of food or to take
a more extended view of their surroundings ; but if alarmed
they immediately drop on all fours in order to attain the
speed necessary to escape the threatened danger. In this
respect the monkey is no whit better than any of the less
pretentious quadrupeds.
The fore extremities lack the salient qualities of the
human hand quite as much as the hind ones fall short
of those of the human foot. There are several families of
monkeys in which the thumb is practically non-existent ;
but the freest and most opposable monkey thumb cannot
make the animal's hand anything but a mockery of its
36 THE MONKEY TRIBE
human prototype. Even if the most generous consideration
be extended to the monkey, it cannot be admitted that
it possesses a true hand — it is nothing better than a mis-
chievous, artful, thieving paw. The human hand is not
only a marvel of mechanism, but it possesses an intellectual
power, an individuality, in close association with the active
brain and the glorious soul of its human owner.
Old-time travellers brought home wonderful accounts
of 'men with long tails and covered with yellowish hair
navigating the
ocean in boats
and bartering par-
rots in exchange
for iron/ Such
stories nowadays
would not obtain
credence outside a
nursery.
It was an idea,
not always re-
stricted to savages,
that monkeys are
capable of speech,
but refrain from
its expression lest
they should be
compelled to
labour. Professor
FOOT AND HAND OF A MONKEY. Garner in recent
years has attempted
to learn the speech of monkeys. Inclosing himself in a
cage in the heart of an African forest, by means of the
phonograph he took careful records of the sounds emitted
by the animals around him. In common with almost all
animals, monkeys give vent to varying cries to express
pleasure, pain, and other emotions ; but the reduction of
monkey sounds into any orderly system of recognisable
speech must be written down as a complete failure.
Linnaeus imagined that it was possible to find a homo
troglodytes (literally ' a man dweller in the caves ') only a
THE DARWINIAN THEORY 37
little lower than himself and capable of progressive improve-
ment. Possibly this was an incipient notion of the theory
with which Charles Darwin, a famous naturalist, disturbed
the scientific world half a century ago. In a noted book,
The Origin of Species, he attempted to explain how all
existing species may have descended from one or at least
very few low forms of life. Heated controversies were
excited which have not yet been laid to rest, resulting in
considerable changes in classification in zoology and
biology.
Any discussion of the vexed question of evolution would
be out of place in the present work, but one or two
interesting points may be noted. It is not claimed, as is
often popularly supposed, that man is descended from the
monkey. A man would not say that he is descended
from his cousins, since both he and his cousins are the
descendants of their ancestors.
When, in teaching it to walk, a child is first held to the
ground, only the outer portions of its feet rest upon the
surface. The soles are rather opposed to each other ; in
fact, the child adopts the bough-grasping attitude. The
forehands of many monkeys are merely grasping hooks
in which the thumb, or the apology for it, is not called
into play. Young children show a habitual disuse of the
thumb, and whether employed or not the hand is usually
held in a grasping position. It is a remarkable fact that
an infant under an hour old will support its own weight
by its hands for at least thirty seconds, and a child of
three weeks old has supported itself for quite two and a
half minutes.
Civilised beings may not be flattered at the suggestion
that they originally sprang from the same stock as the
monkey, but there are types of the human family who, in
their personal characteristics, apart from their physical
structure, are but little removed from the four-handed beast.
In any case it is impossible to establish any regular ascend-
ing series from the lower monkeys to man, the highest
animal type. The Orang appears to come very close to
man in that it possesses even a beard, but its chin is less
like man than is the Siamang's. The Orang's backbone in
38 THE MONKEY TRIBE
its lower region is formed closely after the human pattern,
but its teeth are less human than are those of the tarsier of
Celebes, while its nose and brain are less perfect than those
of the gibbons.
Monkeys are too numerous in species for anything
approaching complete enumeration. In the accompanying
plates are figured representatives of many of the principal
families, and our remarks will be largely confined to those
thus presented to the eye. The reader will be better
enabled to discriminate between man, made in the likeness
of his Maker, a moral agent and a reasoning soul, and
the most highly developed ape, whose intelligence ranks
below that of the faithful dog. We shall give not a mere
description of the various members of the monkey tribe, but
also remark upon their instincts, their varied dispositions
and different degrees of intelligence, together with some
consideration of their economic value to mankind.
This plan will be adopted throughout our review of the
Mammalia, so as to bring vividly before the eye and the
mind that there is nothing more wonderful in all the world
than an organised body possessed of life, motion, sensation,
and thought. We shall find that the divine Artist with
unerring precision has endowed each animal with just the
qualities best fitted to its needs. It is not only the heavens
that ' declare the glory of God/ not only the firmament that
'sheweth His handy work.' Throughout the phenomena of
animal life from man downwards to the meanest reptile or
insect that creeps upon the earth, God's infinite wisdom is
unfailingly displayed.
SECTION L—ANTHROPOIDEA.
In this section are all the animals which resemble man
(Greek, anthropos, man). Strictly the term monkey, as used
by the specialists, includes only one group of the great
Simian family ; but the popular use includes apes, baboons,
and lemurs, notwithstanding the fact that the last named, as
well as the marmosets, are provided with claws instead of
flat nails.
THE ANTHROPOID APES
In Group I., the CATARRHINI, are all the apes and monkeys
of the Old World. The group possesses certain charac-
teristics that cannot
be mistaken. In
a few cases the
thumb of the fore
limbs is absent, but
whenever it is pre-
sent it is opposable;
the nostrils are
placed close to each
other, and the tail,
if the animal possess
one, is never prehen-
sile.
FAMILY
A CATARRHIXE MONKEY.
The family
Simiidae(Latin,s/w/a,
' an ape,' from Greek
simos, l flat - nosed,
snub - nosed '), or
Anthropoid apes,
more closely resemble man than any other branches of
the Quadrumana. In the family are only the gorilla, the
chimpanzee, the orang-outan and the gibbons. All four are
arboreal in habit, and consequently the old name troglodytes
(cave-dwellers) was never really applicable to them.
GORILLA (Gorilla savagei).
Coloured Plate I. Fig. 3.
The Gorilla, the largest and strongest of the Anthropoid
apes, has its home only in the hottest parts of West Africa,
particularly in the damp, shady forests between the Congo
and the Niger. In all probability the whole area of its
habitat does not exceed a thousand square miles. The
40 THE MONKEY TRIBE
animal was so named by Hanno, a Carthaginian
explorer, who visited tropical West Africa about 350 B.C.
Upon his return home he brought with him three stuffed
specimens. It is, however, extremely doubtful whether the
explorer penetrated sufficiently far southwards to come in
contact with the Gorilla ; it is far more likely that his
captures were only large baboons.
The animal was not really known to Europeans until
1847, when Professor Richard Owen procured a skull from
Dr. Savage, an American missionary on the Gabun river.
In 1852 large numbers of the apes migrated to the coast,
probably owing to some unusual, and never repeated,
failure in their food supply, and several were killed and
despatched to Europe and America. The next year, at
the Royal Institution, Professor Owen rather startled his
audience by the information he afforded concerning the
manners and personal peculiarities of the Gorilla, which
promptly caused the animal to be placed in a new genus,
based chiefly upon the marked difference in the sizes of the
male and female, the protruding canine teeth, and the
prominent cranial ridges above the eyes.
In 1861 Du Chaillu, the French traveller, described the
Gorilla in fuller detail ; and though at the time his account
was considered to be largely romance, later knowledge has
in the main only proved his correctness. The male not
infrequently exceeds six feet in height, and averages five
and a half feet, which is beyond the mean height of man ;
the female is smaller.
A full grown Gorilla is a formidable creature. A glance
at the skeleton will show the capabilities of special muscular
power in the limbs and jaws. The shoulders are extra-
ordinarily massive, to which is joined the bullet head by
scarcely a vestige of neck. The great brawny arms extend
nearly to the knee when the animal is upright ; the hands
are very broad ; the fingers are short and thick, and are
united by webs almost to the first joint. The middle finger
is often quite six inches in circumference. The foot v/ith
its great toe, set out at an angle of about 60 degrees, is not
unlike a giant hand of immense power and grasp. It is
turned in but little, and is better fitted for walking on the
THE GORILLA
ground than is the case with the majority of quadrumanous
animals.
The skin is an intense black and covered for the most
part with short, coarse, dark grey hair, which is whitish at
the tips. That on the face and head is reddish-brown in
colour, and there is a distinct beard, or rather a ruff, under
the chin. In old age all Gorillas are grizzled. The skin of
the face is black even to the lips and is hideously wrinkled.
The ears are comparatively small. The eyes, grey and
deeply sunken, sparkle malignantly below an overhanging
ANKLE AND FOOT BONES
OF GORILLA.
ANKLE AND FOOT BONES
OF MAN.
bony frontal ridge that gives to the features a fixed scowling
expression. The mouth is wide, and the slight lips, drawn
up, reveal the powerful jaws, from which the huge canine
tusk-like teeth project, to give to the general appearance a
final touch of ferocity. The canine teeth are separated
from the incisors in the upper jaw by a space.
Notwithstanding their great size, Gorillas spend most of
their time in trees, about which they spring and leap with
unexpected agility. On the ground they usually walk on all
fours, always doubling up the fingers of the hands and
THE MONKEY TRIBE
resting their weight upon the knuckles. They wander about
in family parties, which generally consist of the two parents
and their offspring of varying ages. They do not move about
at night. It is said that the female plaits the branches of
a tree-top into a platform, upon which are placed sticks
and leaves and moss, where the mother and her young
can sleep in comfort. The male sleeps at the foot of the
tree, ready to guard his family from the attacks of leopards,
which are the only animals the great ape really need
fear in his forest home.
The Gorilla is a fairly strict vegetarian, restricting itself
chiefly to tender palm shoots, paw-paws, bananas, various
plum-like fruits and nuts ; to crack hard shells a stone is
requisitioned. Upon occasion it does not disdain honey,
insects, and birds' eggs. Though some travellers assert that
it eats flesh, there is no proof that it ever kills other animals
in order to obtain it.
The great uncertainty that long existed concerning the
Gorilla was chiefly due to its shyness ; it is but rarely seen
even by the stealthy natives. When surprised it screams
with fright and attempts to make its escape. Should it be
wounded or hampered in
its flighf it instantly shows
fight. Balancing itself by
swinging its arms, the
barking voice changes
into a terrific roar from
the deep cavernous breast
as it waddles to meet the
foe face to face. It uses
its gigantic arms as
weapons of offence, and
one blow of the huge paw
will break the breast-bone
or crush the skull, or lay
bare the entrails of the
poor hunter. At close quarters it will adopt the tactics of
the bear, hugging its foe as it tears with its great teeth.
Should the hunter miss fire, it is said the animal will
rush in and snap the barrel in two between its powerful
SKULL OF THE GORILLA.
THE GORILLA 43
jaws, which probably may only be true of the cheap
weapons which are specially manufactured for supply to
the natives. It is a difficult matter to afford actual
evidence of men being killed by this gigantic ape ; but
the fact that with its powerful hands and teeth it is a
match for the leopard in open combat is quite sufficient
proof of its courage and fighting capabilities.
It is very certain that the Gorilla is held in wholesome
dread by the negro inhabitants. They tell fabulous tales
of it carrying away men and women into the forests ;
and that from the trees it will hang down to seize and
strangle passing travellers. When the Gorilla dies its
friends bury it under a heap of loose leaves ; and should
Gorillas kill a negro they will give him the same rude
burial.
Our knowledge of the animal is still limited ; a live
one was not brought to Europe until 1876. It is im-
possible to tame an adult, and the few young ones that
have been brought to various zoological collections have
always fallen victims to lung disease within eighteen
months.
Probably even additional familiarity with the habits of
the Gorilla will not cause him to rise greatly in our estima-
tion. Even the natives call him 'The Stupid Old Man/
He is particularly fond of sugar-canes, and occasionally
raids the plantations in the settled districts. He attempts
to take in his arms both cut and uncut canes, and when the
strongly rooted dainty defeats his purpose he is unable
to account for it, flies into a rage, and goes away empty-
handed. He lives in a rainy region, and though he practically
builds a house, he has not the wit to add a roof. If the
animal should happen upon a fire which the natives have
left he will enjoy the warmth of it as long as there is a
spark left, but he lacks the sense to feed the fire, though
boundless fuel surrounds him. Man-like the Gorilla may be
in some structural respects, but in intelligence he is the
veriest brute. From time immemorial the animals have
lived in communities something like men, but during
countless ages they have learnt nothing; they remain as
brutish as ever were their ancestors.
44 THE MONKEY TRIBE
CHIMPANZEE (Anthropopithecus troglodytes).
Coloured Plate I. Fig. 4.
This animal has been known to Europeans for hundreds
of years, probably through the medium of negroes and
wandering Arabs, who often capture the young apes to
keep as tame pets. One was brought to London as early
as the year 1740.
The Chimpanzee is found in Equatorial Africa, but,
unlike that of the gorilla, its range is very extensive, stretch-
ing from the Atlantic coast to the forest regions of the
Nile. Five feet is a good height for a full-grown male ; the
average is nearly a foot less ; and as with most other apes,
there is little difference in the stature of the male and
female. Besides being shorter, it lacks the breadth and
general massiveness of the gorilla. The legs are com-
paratively straight, but the calf is only very slightly
developed. Owing to less articulation of the hind
extremities the animal is able to place more of the foot
upon the ground than the gorilla. The ringers, like our
own, are free as far as the knuckles.
The skin of the Chimpanzee, a light muddy flesh colour,
is covered with coarse black hair, which is especially thick
on the back and shoulders, and there are very passable
whiskers on the sides of the cheeks. The skin of the face
is inclined to yellow, but it darkens with age.
The head is large in comparison with the body. It is
rounder than that of the gorilla ; the ridges above the eyes
are less marked ; the jaws, though they project very much,
are less massive ; the canine teeth are less prominent ; the
lips are more mobile ; and the nose is almost quite flat.
Altogether the expression is one of considerable mildness.
There still remain several features worthy of notice. The
ears are large, broad across the top, and project almost
at right angles from the face. The animal possesses
distinct stiff and bristly eyebrows, and the wrinkled lids are
fringed with black eyelashes. The hair on the forehead is
parted with an accuracy almost suggestive of the services of
a hairdresser. On the upper arm the hair takes a down-
THE CHIMPANZEE
45
ward direction, which is the reverse of that on the lower
arm, so that the tips of the hairs meet at the elbow. When
it rains the Chimpanzee, in common with other apes, places
its hands on its head, and the hairy arms thus form a kind
of pent roof to shelter the face, the water dripping off at the
elbows.
Though its home is in the forest the Chimpanzee is
largely a groundling. It travels in strong bodies, chiefly in
search of the soft fruits which form the main portion of
its food, though it varies its diet with honey, grubs, and
SKULL OF THE CHIMPANZEE.
(One-third natural size.)
birds. Any plantain, banana, or corn plantations in the
neighbourhood of a Chimpanzee colony will be sure to
suffer from well concerted raids. It is difficult to catch
them in their marauding excursions, for they are exceedingly
watchful animals, and at the first warning cry from those
on outpost duty they seek cover in the deep recesses of the
bush.
The Chimpanzee is largely nocturnal in habit. During
the night the forest resounds with the most hideous noises,
probably a means of keeping the band together in the dark-
46 THE MONKEY TRIBE
ness, while at the same time the outcries scare possible
enemies. It affects no particular sleeping place, except
when the female is nursing her young, at which times she
prepares a platform upon which to secure some measure of
comfort ; but these nurseries are seldom used more than
two or three nights in succession.
Ignoring the usually exaggerated stories of the natives,
there is no doubt of the formidable nature of the Chim-
panzee ; it tyrannises over the district which it inhabits. The
leopard and other members of the cat tribe prey largely on
monkeys, but the leopard often finds its master in an adult
ape. The lion kills the biggest Chimpanzee with ease, but
we learn on the authority of Livingstone that it will not
eat the body.
Captain Casati, the Italian traveller, relates many interest-
ing facts concerning the Chimpanzee in the little known
forests of the Aruwimi and Albert Nyanza regions. The
most expert hunters experience difficulty in capturing the
cautious animal. The Western Sandehs spread nets, and
under cover of darkness disturb the apes with loud cries
and the barking of dogs. The animals at once make a
precipitate retreat, only to fall into the nets, in which their
limbs become entangled. The hunters even then only
effect their purpose after the most strenuous and dangerous
struggles. The most successful traps of the Walegga tribe
take the form of big jars of intoxicating beer, which are
placed in the haunts of the Chimpanzees at night. With
the dawn the animals fight furiously among themselves for
possession of the jars, which the victors speedily empty.
The drunkards eventually fall into a deep sleep, when
the artful natives come out of hiding to tie the limbs of
their deluded prey. At Msua, on the shore of Albert
Nyanza, a body of troops was encamped in a dense wood.
During the night a drum was taken from under the nose of
a sentry, and the theft was assumed to be the work of a
daring native. During the next day, upon the top of a tall
tree an old Chimpanzee was discovered vigorously beating
the drum with a stick, in imitation of the action which
doubtless he had witnessed the day before. An attempt
was made to recover the instrument, but the ape avoided
THE CHIMPANZEE 47
gunshots and darts by leaping from branch to branch until
he finally escaped with his precious spoil.
Of all the greater apes, the Chimpanzee is the most
human in appearance and intelligence, and if properly
treated and trained it exhibits great docility. When young
it is teachable, affectionate, and playful to a remarkable
degree, but with age it becomes morose and increasingly
savage.
As it endures our climate better than the other Anthro-
poid apes, the Chimpanzee in captivity has given us fair
opportunities of observing some of its characteristic
habits. ' Tommy ' was a fine and nearly full-grown animal
who met his death in the great fire at the Crystal Palace in
1866. 'Jane,' an inmate of Sanger's Menagerie, was most
popular with the spectators, and her keeper declared that
she could do everything but talk. Greediness is usually a
marked feature of the monkey tribe, but Jane would return
a biscuit or a piece of cake if she were not hungry. A new
set of teeth caused her much inconvenience and pain, and
one tooth had to be removed to afford relief. The dental
operation was performed with a piece of stick, and after-
wards, whenever troubled with toothache, Jane would select
a stout straw, break it off to the required length, and then
present it to her keeper that he might again act as surgeon
dentist. She eventually succumbed to the north-east winds
and defective teething, the latter of which is always the
scourge of wild animals in captivity.
All monkeys have an instinctive dread of cold, and the
Chimpanzee easily learns to appreciate the utility of textile
coverings. It will wear clothing with the utmost gravity,
and takes a positive delight in a new garment, going to the
length of destroying an old one to prevent the possibility of
an exchange for the worse. So-called educated Chimpanzees
will wear the clothing of a man, even to collar and tie, will
sit at table to a varied meal, and will lie in bed between
blankets and sheets with as little restlessness as is exhibited
by the average child. These show animals, however, have
little claim to real intelligence. They only go through what
at best are their tricks while under the watchful eye of a
trainer. The cleverest ape would no more dream of using
48
THE MONKEY TRIBE
a knife and fork of its own initiative when feeding, than a
caged lion would of its own free will amuse an audience
by leaping through blazing hoops.
ORANG-OUTAN (Simla satyrus).
Coloured Plate I. Fig. 2.
The Orang-outan, literally Man of the Woods, inhabits
the lesser known parts of Borneo and Sumatra, where it is
called Mias by the natives. It attains a height of upwards
of four feet ; the arms are long and the legs short. A man's
SKELETON OF THE ORANG-OUTAN.
extended arms usually measure exactly the height of his
body when erect ; but in the Orang they are generally about
twice the measurement of its height ; and thus in walking
it is far more awkward than either the gorilla or the
chimpanzee.
THE ORANG-OUTAN 49
If the Mias is compelled to traverse an unwooded tract,
it places its knuckles upon the ground and swings its
body through the arms just as though they were crutches.
It rarely attempts to walk on its hind legs alone, unless there
are branches overhead to which it can cling for support.
Among the trees the animal is just as nimble as it is awk-
ward when on the ground. It can travel through the tree-
tops quite as quickly as a person can run beneath them. It
passes from branch to branch with great rapidity, and leaps
intervening spaces with remarkable ease considering its
size and weight. It enjoys a peculiar freedom of motion
owing to the construction of its hip joint. In man and
many animals the head of the thigh-bone is tied down to
the socket by a short and strong tendon (ligamentum teres),
which has to be cut before the cup and ball ends of the
bones can be separated. The tendon adds strength, and is
a security against easy dislocation. But in the Orang the
ligament is entirely wanting, and its hind limbs can be
turned in any direction with a flexibility and readiness that
easily makes it the acrobat of the ape family. This remark-
able suppleness of a large-bodied animal is exhibited in a
marked degree in Plate I. Fig. 2.
Most monkeys are gregarious and delight in making
deafening noises. The Orang does not even form little
bands as do the gorillas, but mopes about upon its platform
in marked contrast to the restlessness of the monkey tribe
in general. It does not leave its bed until the sun is well
up, and seldom returns to the same tree even two nights
running. Fruit, leaves, buds, and young shoots form its
food, and as it usually obtains sufficient water in the hollows
of leaves, the animal finds but little necessity to come down
to the ground.
Young monkeys of all kinds cling to their mothers even
when they are leaping from branch to branch. Mr. A. R.
Wallace, who with Rajah Brooke has afforded us our most
reliable knowledge of the Mias, once killed a female, which
was carrying a baby about a foot in length. When he went
to pick up the little creature it instinctively grasped his
beard and could not easily be made to loose its hold.
Eventually it transferred itself to a piece of suspended buffalo
5
50 THE MONKEY TRIBE
skin, which seemed to afford it almost complete happiness.
A French traveller relates something similar concerning a
little monkey which he removed from its dead mother in
Dutch Guiana. When it was forced to release its parent it
sprang upon a wig which was standing upon its block near
at hand ; and not until the end of three weeks did it
voluntarily allow the peruke to be worn by its owner.
A marked characteristic of the female Orang is its affec-
tion for its young, as exemplified in the following unpleasant
incident that occurred when a distinguished scientist was
endeavouring to procure a specimen.
In some trees, removed from the dense forest, a female
Orang, with a young one in her arms, was discovered, and
the pursuit commenced. In the ardour of the moment, and
excited by the hope of possessing an animal so rare, the
gentleman forgot everything but the prize before him, and
urged on his men by the promise of a reward should their
exertions be successful. The animal, encumbered with her
young one, made prodigious efforts to gain the dense and
intricate recesses of the wood, springing from tree to tree,
and endeavouring by every means to elude her pursuers.
Several shots were fired ; and at length one took fatal effect,
the ball penetrating the right side of the chest.
Feeling herself mortally wounded, and with the blood
gushing from her mouth, she from that moment took no
care of herself, but summoned up all her dying energies to
save her young one. She threw it onwards over the tops of
the trees and from one branch to another, taking the most
desperate leaps after it herself, and again facilitating its
progress, until, the intricacy of the forest being nearly
gained, her chances of success were sure. All this time the
blood was flowing ; but her efforts were unabated. It was
only when her young one was on the point of attaining to
a place of safety that she rested on one of the topmost
branches of a gigantic tree. True to her ruling passion,
even in death, she turned for a moment to gaze after her
young one — reeled, and pitched head foremost to the
ground.
The sight was so touching that it called forth the
sympathy of the whole party. The eagerness of the chase
THE GIBBONS 51
subsided; but so deep an impression did the maternal
tenderness and unexpected devotion of the poor Orang
make on the leader of the party, that he expressed the
utmost remorse and pity, declaring that he would not go
through the same scene again for all the world.
THE GIBBONS.
The generic name ' Hylobates ' is of Greek derivation ;
it signifies ' Tree-traveller/ and thus prepares us to expect
that we are to deal with very active members of the
monkey race. They are apes, or tailless monkeys, various
species of which are found in India, Burma, Siam, Malay
Peninsula, and the islands of Java, Borneo, and Sumatra.
They are very slender animals, rarely exceeding three feet in
length, and with arms that almost reach the ground when
the animals stand erect.
Three well-known species are the White-handed Gibbon
(Hylobates lar), Coloured Plate I. Fig. i, the Agile Gibbon
(Hylobates agilis), and the Siamang or Ungka Ape (Hylobates
syndactylus), Coloured Plate II. Fig. 4.
The Gibbons vary in colour — black, brown, grey, and
cream colour — and some of them have a white band above
or around the face. A mother does not necessarily have an
infant the same colour as herself. The feet and hands of
the White-handed Gibbon are always pale in colour. The
soles of the feet of all the species are applied more flatly
to the ground, but they cannot walk with ease or rapidity.
All of them are shy and entirely arboreal, appearing to pass
a life quite as aerial as many birds, omitting those feathered
creatures which are too heavy or otherwise restricted from
flying.
Owing to the construction of the feet and the length
of the arms, these apes are able to spring from branch
to branch in apparently the most reckless manner with a
rapidity that enables them to capture birds on the wing.
The Agile Gibbon flings itself from tree to tree a distance
of no less than forty feet. During its gymnastic exercises
it gives vent to loud cries, not altogether unmusical, but
nevertheless dismal and melancholy in tone. Very few
THE MONKEY TRIBE
specimens have ever found their way into captivity, for it
seldom frequents the ground to afford an opportunity for
its capture, and among the trees it is almost as difficult to
catch as a bird.
In Sumatra the name of Ungka is frequently used for
more than one variety of Gibbon. It properly belongs to
the Siamang, which possesses a
feature that is absent in its near
relations. ' Syndactylus ' signifies
'joined fingers/ and the Ungka
ape has the first and second toes
joined by a membrane as far as
the second joint. The animal
has a dark skin covered with
stiff hair, which is practically jet
black.
Grave of manner and mild of
temper, the Gibbons are easily
domesticated. An adult Siamang
on board a ship bound for
England greatly interested the
passengers. He was found to
be fond of animal food, especi-
ally fowls. Spirits and wine
he refused, but tea and coffee
he accepted with avidity. He
appeared to be still fonder of
ink, and he constantly drained
the inkstands and never omitted
to suck a pen-nib that came
within his reach. His temper
was not easily roused, and his
affectionate nature was con-
stantly evinced in his fondness for play, in which he
always preferred children to adults.
There were other monkeys aboard who refused to
acknowledge the Siamang as belonging to their kindred.
Probably they despised him on account of his lack of a
tail. He speedily taught them that a caudal appendage
may be a distinct disadvantage. He would seize one of
SKELETON OF THE SIAMANG.
TAILED MONKEYS 53
the disdainful creatures by the tail and then spring up into
the rigging, dragging the unfortunate after him, regardless
of its struggles. He would go through the performance
with a gravity that was most amusing to the onlookers.
The monkeys found it necessary to take united action
against their tailless persecutor, but he usually eluded them
with the greatest ease. He would seize a rope and swing
from his pursuers, or he would walk along a cord, keeping
his balance true with his arms like a tight-rope performer.
He could spring from one rope to another with easy
abandon, and even drop with unerring precision from a
cord aloft to seize another that dangled far below.
FAMILY CERCOPITHECID^.
All the remaining apes and monkeys of the Old World are
included in the family Cercopithecidce, i.e., Tailed Monkeys,
which is divided into two sub-families — the Cercopithecinae
and the Semnopithecina3. They are similar in construction
to the Anthropoid apes in many particulars ; but, with the
exception of one or two species, they are provided with
tails, which in the case of the Baboons are short, but in
most instances are very long. It has been before remarked
that the tail is never prehensile. Another great point in
which these monkeys differ from the Simiidas is that the
arms are shorter than the legs, which is the reverse in the
most man-like apes. Indeed, the members of the Quadru-
mana with which we now have to deal are distinctly of a
more quadrupedal nature, and in any case the long tail
largely dissipates the resemblance to the human form.
Space alone will prevent even the mention of many
monkeys, but the following present special points of inte-
rest, and are fairly representative of one of the most
popular sections of the animal world.
Most of the monkeys that are exhibited in this country
belong to the great genus Cercopithecus, and many of them
diifer in such slight particulars, often only in the shade of
the hair, as to be indistinguishable except to a practised
eye. Very well known species are the Green, the Vervet,
54 THE MONKEY TRIBE
and the Grivet ; and frequently the companion of the
organ-grinder will be found to be one of the three.
GREEN MONKEY (Cercopithecus sabceus).
Coloured Plate III. Fig. 2.
The Green Monkey, a native of Western Africa, is one
of the commonest of imported monkeys. It is a handsome
species, in colour a general olive-green, as its name denotes,
with black hands and face ; the hairy fringe at the sides of
the face is almost a golden yellow. The greenish tinge is
particularly noticeable when the sun shines on it. Under
the microscope a single hair is seen to be really yellow with
bluish black bands at intervals ; and thus the green is but
the optical blending of two separate colours ; and by means
of coloured liquids a child can easily demonstrate that blue
and yellow, when mixed, produce green.
PIG-TAILED MACAQUE (Macacus nemestrinus).
Plate II. Fig. i.
The Macaques are tolerably well known animals, various
species of which are plentiful in the lands which they
inhabit, and they lend themselves with considerable readi-
ness to domestication. Being hardy of constitution, they
are often seen in our own country, and share with the Green
Monkey and its kin the doubtful privilege of being exhibited
and taught to perform various tricks. Two of the best
known are the Rhesus or Bhunder Monkey (Macacus rhesus)
and the Bonnet Monkey (Macacus radiatus).
The Pig-tailed Macaque is trained by the natives of the
Far East not only to climb cocoanut trees, but also to select
with great care the ripest fruit and throw it to the ground
below, where it is collected and stored by the animal's
trainer and owner. The animal receives its name from the
fact that its tail is short and slender and bears more than
a little resemblance to that of a pig.
Plate m.
5. Ruffled Lemur
6. Hanuman Monkey
THE MACAQUES 55
BARBARY APE (Macacus inuus).
Coloured Plate II. Fig. 2.
The Macaques are chiefly found in India, China, Japan,
and the Malay Archipelago ; but the Barbary Ape, popularly
called the Magot, inhabits North-west Africa, and is
particularly interesting in that it is the only example of
the monkey tribe which is found in Europe, where it is
confined to the Rock of Gibraltar. How it came there
is not known with any certainty. Ages and ages ago
Gibraltar and North Africa were joined by a narrow neck
of land, just as England and France were connected where
is now the Strait of Dover ; and as the climate of the South
of Spain is practically that of Northern Africa, there would
be no cause for wonder in the Barbary Ape taking up its
quarters there. It is, however, far more likely that the
animal was introduced into Spain by the Moors when they
conquered the country in the eighth century ; or the present
Gibraltar apes may be descendants of tame ones that escaped
from captivity to renew their wild life.
The Magot is largely dog-like in appearance ; it measures
upwards of two feet in length, and is generally about the
size of a bull terrier. It has large cheek pouches which it
loses no opportunity of stuffing with food. Its coat is grey
with a yellowish tinge ; it is quite tailless. Some of the
Asiatic Macaques have a ruff of long hair round the neck,
but in the Magot it is comparatively short.
In North Africa the animal is quite common, and it does
much damage to crops in Algeria and Morocco. On the
Rock it often plays havoc in the gardens, and it would not
be tolerated but for the amusement it affords, though owing
to its shyness, its antics can only be well observed through
a good telescope. Sometimes it has been found necessary
to thin their numbers ; on the other hand, the European
specimens would at some periods have died out but for the
introduction of fresh blood from Africa. The animal is
gregarious, and sometimes considerable numbers of them
can be seen climbing the precipitous sides of the Rock, the
females carrying their young on their backs, as they search
for lizards and insects.
56 THE MONKEY TRIBE
Many amusing stories are told of these monkeys, of which
one must suffice. One night a sentry was suddenly roused
to a sense of imminent peril : the Rock was in danger of
being lost to the British Empire. Just before the dawn he
became aware of a strange figure from which came most
puzzling metallic sounds. Receiving no reply to his
stentorian challenge, the sentry fired at the dimly outlined
figure and dropped it in its tracks. The garrison sprang to
the call, the guard turned out, only to find a poor Magot in
its death-agony. The creature had broken into one of the
kitchens and had put its head into a cooking utensil, from
which it was unable to withdraw it. In its struggles to get
rid of its unwelcome headgear the ape happened upon the
sentry, to fill his mind with instant fear of some dark scheme
to rob us of one of our most cherished possessions.
WANDEROO (Macacus silenus).
Plate III. Fig. 2.
A remarkable species is the Wanderoo, which the Ceylon-
ese call Nil Bhunder, i.e., Black Monkey, on account of
the colour of its long fur. On the top of its head the hair
is particularly long, falling on either side of its face like
the full-dress wig of a judge. It also possesses a long grey
beard, so that it has quite a venerable aspect. Unlike the
other Macaques, it has a tuft of hair on the end of its tail,
much like that of a lion. The Wanderoo is furnished with
cheek pouches of considerable size ; and probably the
rapidity with which it feeds is due to the fact that it is
storing away a portion of its food for future use. The
animal stands quite thirty inches high, weighs as much as
80 Ibs., and is possessed of considerable muscular power.
YELLOW BABOON (Cynocephalus babuin).
Coloured Plate II. Fig. 3.
Of all the monkey tribe, none are more brutal, ferocious,
or disgusting than the Baboons, which are large African
apes, two or three feet in length, and about the same in
THE BABOON 57
height. The generic name Cynocephalus means Dog-headed,
and Baboons differ from all the rest of the monkey
family in the muzzle, which is elongated into a snout
pierced with nostrils at the end like a dog. In fact, the
face generally resembles that of the dog, and the likeness
is increased by the animal seldom walking, or even stand-
ing, other than on all fours. Their front and hind legs
being differently proportioned from those of the Simiidae,
they can run swiftly along the ground, and yet can climb
rocks and trees with an agility equal to that of almost
any quadrumanous beast. Some species possess tails of
considerable length ; in some it is the merest stump, with
an erect tuft of hair. The hair is long, and often on the
upper parts there is a kind of mane, which becomes grey
in the animal's later years.
Like most of the monkeys of the Old World, Baboons
have callosities on the buttocks, and they also possess the
cheek-pouches with which so many monkeys are provided.
A Baboon's pouches are of sufficient size to hold seven
or eight eggs without inconvenience, allowing it to eat
them at its leisure one at a time.
In the Baboon there is nothing of the gentleness of the
mias or gibbons, nothing of the amusing vivacity of
monkeys generally. The eyes are small, close set, deeply
sunk, and with a horribly sinister expression that gives
the animal a most repulsive appearance, in strict keeping
with the fierceness which is the distinguishing feature of its
character.
Various species attain a large size, and possess such
strength that they can rarely be taken alive except when
very young. They are quite dreaded by the inhabitants,
for the animals herd themselves together in great numbers
and work much mischief to plantations and crops. The
Baboons are the least arboreal of all the Quadrumana.
They live chiefly on roots and fruits ; those that inhabit
rocky regions feed largely upon insects, lizards, &c., easily
devouring scorpions, which they first cleverly deprive of
their stings.
The Chacma or Pig-faced Baboon (Cynocephalus porcarius)
of South Africa, when it runs short of its ordinary food,
58 THE MONKEY TRIBE
will raid the maize crops of the farmers with as much
organised method as a foraging party of soldiers would
obtain food supplies. Led by an old male, the whole
Baboon settlement moves at once, with the females and
the young ones in the middle, and the vanguard, rearguard,
and flankers under strict discipline. Scouts are thrown out
to prevent the party being surprised, and when the scene
of operations is reached, sentries are duly posted to keep
a sharp look-out on every side. The marauders eat their
fill and then retire with as much plunder as they can carry ;
and even if they are disturbed there is no disorder in their
retreat. The sentinels take no part in the actual foray, from
which it is evident that the rest of the band make due
provision for their needs.
Dogs are usually employed by farmers to hunt the apes,
who sometimes terrorise over a whole district. Individually
a dog is no match for a Baboon, who will seize its
enemy by the hind legs and whirl it round and round
until it is too giddy and stupefied to take further part in
the hunt. At close quarters the animal's teeth make it a
dangerous foe ; when pressed, it will retreat and cast stones
at its opponents.
In captivity the Baboon is equally cunning, mischievous,
and revengeful. Its keeper is never safe from its jealous,
vindictive temper. In one instance, a menagerie attendant
was playing with a neighbouring animal, when a Baboon in
a paroxysm of fury forced asunder the bars of its cage and
grasped the unfortunate man by the neck. Before the sinewy
hands could be removed the man was strangled to death.
Everything that has been said of Baboons in general,
or the Chacma in particular, is applicable to the Yellow
Baboon. Its coat is mainly yellowish in colour ; the face
and any bare parts are bluish black. Its tail is of greater
length than in most other species of the genus.
Baboons are also found in Arabia, Persia, and the
mountains of Abyssinia. It was probably the Thoth, or
Abyssinian Baboon, that was viewed by the ancient Egyp-
tians with a certain amount of reverence. There appears
to be no real proof that it was actually worshipped. It is
true that its figure is often found depicted in sculptures,
THE MANDRILL 59
and Baboon mummies show that its body was embalmed ;
but it does not follow that the animal was an object of
idolatrous worship, any more than is the lion of England,
the dragon of St. George, the eagle of France, and a host
of other animal forms that are used as national emblems.
On the West Coast of Africa a troop of Baboons one
night swooped down upon a station and carried off a
baby while the nurse was absent from her charge. It
is easy to imagine the mother's agony of mind while she
waited hour after hour for the return of the party of
men who had set out to rescue the child. They were un-
successful, and could do nothing further until daylight.
The father of the child was on a visit to a distant settle-
ment and was in ignorance of the incident. Providentially,
as he returned home, he encountered the Baboons, and in
the moonlight he saw that the biggest one carried a bundle
from which was emitted a little cry. The next moment
the officer spurred his horse to charge into the midst
of the apes, intending to ride down the one that carried
the bundle. When the big brute dropped it to escape
into the bush, the man dismounted, to find that he had
rescued his baby boy, fortunately no whit the worse for
the terrible experience.
It is claimed for the Baboon that it can be trained to
render useful service to man. It has been taught to draw
light vehicles ; colonists have utilised it to serve as a watch-
dog on lonely farms ; and on a South African railway a
lame employee taught a tame animal to set the signals. The
Baboon is certainly sufficiently strong to perform even
rather laborious tasks, but its uncertain temper will always
prove a bar to its useful employment.
MANDEILL (Cynocephalus mormon).
Coloured Plate II. Fig. 5.
The Mandrill, or Rib-nosed Baboon, is extraordinarily
hideous. It approaches a stature of three feet ; its bulk is
great and its strength tremendous. It is the largest, most
ferocious, and most powerful of the whole genus. Its
6o
THE MONKEY TRIBE
general colour is light olive-brown, silvery grey under-
neath, and the hair on the head not infrequently stands
almost on end to form a pointed tuft. The face is as
remarkable as anything that can be found in the whole
of the animal creation. The cheek bones of the male
are elevated on each side, with oblique ridges of a brilliant
blue. Between the blue masses is a wide stripe of scarlet
extending to the end of the snout. The callosities on the
hinder part are usually of a vivid scarlet hue, assisting to
make the Mandrill still more repulsive.
SKELETON OF THE MANDRILL.
Even if taken young it is not easily domesticated, though,
like most animals, it can be rendered comparatively docile
by kind but firm treatment. A Mandrill was for a long
time an object of interest at Exeter Change. He would
sit in a chair with great gravity while he smoked a pipe ;
it was doubtful whether he relished tobacco, but it was
very certain that he had a special fondness for gin.
But even in captivity the animal will suddenly exhibit
the most violent fury without any apparent reason, and
THE MANGABEYS
61
by various gestures and actions will evince the utmost
malignity. Any shrinking or sign of timidity on the part
of a spectator is sufficient to cause it to make a still more
violent demonstration, as if it were anxious to inspire
further fear. In a wild state, notwithstanding its strength
and ferocity, it is at heart a coward, and if opposed boldly
will promptly retreat, to wage the contest at a distance
with missiles. Terror, or an attempt at flight, on the part
of the animal it attacks brings about inevitable destruction
the moment the Mandrill perceives its advantage.
There are other equally interesting species of the genus
Cercopithecus. The Diana Monkey (Cercopithecus diand)
receives its name from the crescent-shaped patch of white
fur upon its forehead, which is very similar to the crescent
which ancient sculptors placed upon the forehead of the
goddess Diana. The monkey's black pointed beard, how-
ever, rather detracts from the resemblance to the august
pagan deity. The Diana is one of the most beautifully
coloured creatures in the monkey world, the back being
chestnut brown, the chest white, while the rest of the body
is of a golden hue with a reddish tinge.
The White-nosed Monkey (Cercopithecus petauristd) has
a white nose and a fringe of white hair surrounding its
face, which quite dis-
tinguishes it from any
other species. An-
other small group
known as Mangabeys
were originally named
in the belief that they
were natives of Mada-
gascar, whereas they
are restricted to
Western Africa. Their
distinguishing feature
is white eyelids, for FOOT AND HAND OF THE MANGABEY.
which reason they
are often called the White-Eyelid Monkeys, Plate III.
Fig. i. The White-collared Mangabey (Cercocebus collaris)
62 THE MONKEY TRIBE
possesses the white eyelids and also a frill or ruff of
long white hair. Active and amusing in captivity, the
Mangabeys are full of pranks, and at making faces they
have no equal. They walk on all fours, bending the tail
backwards until the tip quite overhangs the head.
PATAS OR BED MONKEY (Cercopithecus patas).
Plate II. Fig. 2.
The Patas, or Red Monkey, is common to West Africa,
especially in the Senegal region. It is a pretty animal with
yellowish-red fur, becoming lighter on the under parts ; on
the forehead is a black band with white crosses. It is
violent and malicious, and by no means a favourable
specimen of its race. That it is curious, mischievous,
and possessed of a determined spirit of retaliation, is
well shown in the account of a traveller who passed
through the forest wilds which the Red Monkey makes
its home.
When the explorer and his party passed along the river
in boats, the creatures descended from the tops of the trees
to the extremities of the branches the better to investigate
closer the novel spectacle. Not satisfied with this, they
commenced offensive operations and threw pieces of wood
and other missiles at the invaders. At first the travellers
were amused, but the flight of missiles developed into a
perfect bombardment that made progress well-nigh impos-
sible. When fired upon, the creatures uttered frightful
cries ; and although many fell, the survivors returned again
and again to the attack with the utmost perseverance and
resolution. At length the monkeys realised the inequality
of the contest and retired to allow the travellers to continue
their journey in peace.
The genus Semnopithecus is not nearly so numerous in
species as the Cercopithecus, nor are any of its represen-
tatives so well known in our country as are many of the
latter. If the Semnopithecus tribe only knew it, they might
congratulate themselves upon the fact that they are so little
SACRED MONKEYS 63
known in England ; for while monkeys in zoological
collections are well treated, there is every reason to believe
that the simian assistants of the barrel-organ grinder are
taught their tricks by fear rather than kindness.
HANUMAN MONKEY (Semnopithecus entellus).
Coloured Plate III. Fig. 6.
It must be remembered that the Israelites of old reared
up the golden calf of idol homage at the very time when
God was affording special evidences that they were His
chosen people. While there may be uncertainty whether
the Egyptians worshipped the baboon, there is no room
for doubt that for long ages the Hindus held in sacred
reverence various members of the brute creation. Even
under modern conditions of life, closer association with
Western peoples, and the spread of Christianity, the
worship of animals still remains, though with less revolting
features than was formerly the case.
The Hanuman Monkey is supposed by the Hindus to be
a visible incarnation of the god Vishnu, and consequently
the temples dedicated to the god are happy havens for this
particular species. They simply swarm about the cities
and villages where Vishnu is worshipped. The beautiful
carvings of the temples and even the holiest idol shrines
are denied by the jabbering creatures, who, not content
with the offerings of the faithful, rob orchards, pilfer from
fruit stalls, and even enter shops in search of delicacies.
No native would dream of taking active offensive measures
against the four-handed robbers. Efforts have been made to
get rid of this holy scourge by deporting large numbers of
the monkeys to certain fertile spots, specially purchased and
cultivated for them ; but the monkeys prefer town life, and
usually contrive to return to the temples. In a city in the
North-west Provinces two English officers were attacked
by several monkeys in one of the chief thoroughfares.
Purely in self-defence the white men wounded one of
the sacred animals, which immediately raised the anger
of the priests and pilgrims. A fanatical mob gathered,
64 THE MONKEY TRIBE
the Englishmen were seized, thrown into the river, and
drowned.
In build the Hanuman is slender, measuring about two
feet in length, with a tail quite as long as the body. Its fur
is greyish brown, with a line of a darker shade along the
back ; but as the animal increases in years black hairs
sprinkle its coat, darkening it in colour.
PROBOSCIS MONKEY (Nasalis larvatus).
The Proboscis Monkey, or Kahu, is a native of Borneo.
In size it is about equal to the Hanuman, but thanks to its
enormously lengthened nose it is by no means so presentable
an animal. But if the Kahu's countenance is almost preter-
naturally ugly, the same cannot be said of the beautiful
colouring of its coat. The body is principally a bright
chestnut red, deepening into a rich brown tint on the head
and between the shoulders, while the arms and legs are
several shades lighter. The sides of the face and the under
parts of the body are golden yellow. The tail is a yellowish
white. The animal is an agile creature, leaping fifteen feet
or more with ease as it travels through the trees in small
companies.
We now come to Group II., the PLATYRRHINI (Wide-
nosed Monkeys), the monkeys of the New World. Unlike
those of the Eastern hemisphere,
they have less projecting faces, the
nostrils are wide apart, and there
is an absence of cheek pouches and
callosities. The thumb, where it
exists, is not opposable and the tail
is long and in most cases prehen-
sile. Except in a very few instances
they are smaller than those of the
Old World, which have been
A PLATYRRHINE MONKEY, described at such length as to
render unnecessary any detailed
account of the American animals, except where they possess
some specially noticeable feature.
PLATE III.
i. MANGABEY.
(See page 61)
WANDEROO.
(See page 56)
(Photos W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
PLATE IV.
i. SPIDER MONKEY.
2. COMMON MARMOSET.
(See page 69)
(Photos W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
NEW WORLD MONKEYS 65
SPIDER MONKEYS.
The Spider Monkeys are grouped together in a genus
to which has been given the name Ateles, which betokens
the deprivation of joints : some of the animals possess no
thumb and in others it is very rudimentary. To their small
bodies is attached a diminutive head, long, slender limbs,
and a very long prehensile tail. There is no wonder that
a humorous writer likened the Spider Monkey to five black
ropes tied in a knot to represent the head and body, the
dangling rope-ends being the legs and tail.
A prehensile tail is in reality a fifth hand, and why Nature
should have denied the Old World monkeys such an advan-
tage is inexplicable. A prehensile appendage is nearly as
useful to a monkey as is a trunk to an elephant. If the
former discover some dainty, such as eggs or insects, in
a cranny too small to allow it to insert a paw, the end
of the tail is requisitioned to hook out the desired object.
Thick and strong where the tail is united to the body,
it rapidly decreases in circumference towards the end, where
it is very slender and devoid of hair on the under surface
to allow of a nicer application in grasping. Quite involun-
tarily it forms a hook-like curve, just as readily as the claws
of a bird contract when in the act of perching. It is next
to an impossibility for the monkey to fall, for it seldom
moves without twisting the tail round a branch. Even
when shot it will hang by its appendage until long after
death — in some cases until decomposition sets in.
On the ground the Spider Monkey cannot walk on its
hind feet, but it can run upon them for a few yards,
balancing itself by raising its long arms over its head, and
still more by bending the tail over its back in the shape of
the letter S.
A traveller relates an incident of which he was an eye-
witness. He was exploring a stream that flowed into the
Amazon, and had reached a point where the trees on the
banks nearly met overhead. It was not prudent to proceed
or return in the dark, and the boat was anchored in mid-
stream.
' The air was full of strange sounds, made by birds and
6
66 THE MONKEY TRIBE
insects, which kept me awake until just before the dawn,
when I fell asleep in my chair on the deck. Suddenly I
felt a rough blow on my face, and became wide awake.
I saw hanging from a tree, and swinging into the gloom,
something that looked like a huge black rope. The end of
it had struck me. In a moment back it came, swinging this
time behind the vessel.
' The rope gave forth a chattering noise ; it was alive.
A moment more, and it was clear to me that here was a
company of monkeys trying to cross the
stream. The sight was so novel, the plan
so daring, that at once I gave these queer
bridge-makers my closest attention.
' They were hanging from a tall palm-
tree that leaned out over the water ; there
was a line thirty feet long, and three or
four monkeys deep, holding on to each
other as if the fate of the monkey race
depended upon them.
* Little by little the breathing, clinging
pendulum kept gaining. Very soon it
swung out so far that the leader caught
a branch of a tree on the opposite bank,
when, lo ! there was a bridge in mid-air.
At once there rose from all the line a
chattering that must have been monkey
cheers.
' Without further ado the bridge was
opened to the monkey public, and out
of the palm-tree came a noisy crowd of
all ages. They ran across the bridge as best they could,
some on all fours, some upright, some with young mon-
keys on their backs, and all waving their tails and briskly
jabbering.
' The last one to cross was evidently a patriarch of the
colony, for he picked his way along so slowly and nervously
that I could not help laughing outright. Hearing so un-
usual a noise, the monkeys that were clinging to the palm
did not wait for him, but let go and swung over to the
other side. The old fellow narrowly escaped a ducking.
THE RED HOWLER 67
'No sooner had the bridge cleared the water than the
monkeys loosened their grip of one another. In less time
than it takes to tell the story, the bridge dropped to pieces,
and — what never happens to a common bridge — the pieces
betook themselves to the tops of the trees, and were soon
out of sight in the depths of the forest/
CO AIT A (A teles paniscus).
One of the best examples of the Spider Monkey is the
Coaita. It is one of the largest of the genus, mainly black
with a pink face. Mild and gentle, it is a great favourite
with the pet-loving natives of Surinam and Guiana. The
monkeys themselves have no cause to be thankful for this
fondness, for monkey-flesh is a popular dish. Monkeys are
not greatly esteemed as food in the Old World, although
they are eaten in some regions for lack of something better ;
but in many parts of South America, especially the valley of
the Amazon, they figure largely in the everyday fare of the
natives. Mr. Wallace found the meat to be not unlike
rabbit, but European travellers, when obliged to utilise the
monkey, will never consent to serve the head and hands at
their tables on account of their hideous resemblance to
those of a child. It is not at all improbable that savages
have sometimes been accused of cannibalism when they
were only indulging in their liking for the quadrumanous
beast. The species presented on the plate is the Variegated
Spider Monkey (Aides variegatus), Plate IV. Fig. i.
BED HOWLER (Mycetes seniculus).
Coloured Plate II. Fig. i.
A near relative of the Spider Monkey is the Howler,
different species of which vary in length from a foot and
a half to three feet, the larger ones being strong and ferocious
to a degree. They inhabit the north-eastern parts of South
America, and are the largest monkeys in the New World.
In nature and disposition they are allied to the baboons.
The Red Howler is clothed with red hair, lightening into
68 THE MONKEY TRIBE
yellow ; its face is black and naked, and that of the adult
male is surrounded by a profuse beard.
The generic Greek word Mycetes means 'to moan/ and
is applied to the animal on account of the peculiar con-
struction of the throat, which enables it to emit the most
extraordinary sounds. The hyoid bone forms a hollow
drum communicating with the larynx, and gives such pro-
digious power and resonance to the voice that the animal
can make hideous noises that can be heard miles away.
The Howlers live in troops, and swing their way through
the woods with great agility. It is chiefly at night that
they practise their vocal exercises. Waterton, the cele-
brated naturalist, thus describes the effect : ' Nothing can
sound more dreadful than its nocturnal howlings. While
lying in your hammock in those gloomy and unmeasurable
wilds you hear howling at intervals from eleven o'clock at
night until daybreak. You would suppose that half the
wild beasts of the forest were collecting for the work of
carnage. Now it is the tremendous roar of the jaguar as
he springs upon his prey ; now it changes to his deep-toned
growlings as he is pressed on all sides by superior force ;
and now you hear his last dying moan beneath a mortal
wound.'
CAPUCHIN MONKEY (Cebus capucinus).
Coloured Plate III. Fig. 3.
The Capuchin Monkey is one of many similar species
found in nearly all the forests of tropical America, from
which it differs only in being destitute of the raised crest
which is a conspicuous feature of many monkeys in the
same genus. It is usually about a foot in length, with fur
variable in tint, but more often than not it is a golden olive,
with a white border round the face. Lively and playful,
the Capuchin is a favourite with the natives and with the
European settlers. In common with many of the smaller
monkeys, it frequently sets up a friendship with other
animals in and about the house. It will become the firm
friend of a cat, and will often seat itself upon the back of a
pig and bestride its unwilling steed even when it is feeding
THE MARMOSET 69
in the savannahs a long distance from home. Italian organ-
grinders prefer this monkey almost to any other. Usually it
is quite harmless, but its temper is unreliable. Sometimes,
without provocation, it will spring upon a bystander and
inflict a nasty bite before the victim is aware of the animal's
purpose.
There yet remain various monkeys of more or less interest,
deserving of some extended notice did space permit. The
Saki, elegant in form, is clothed with long furry hair, which
doubtless serves a very useful purpose in saving it from the
stings of wild bees when the animal raids the nests in search
of honeycomb, which is its favourite food. One species
(Pithecia chiropotes) is called the Hand-drinker, because it
does not apply its lips to the liquid, but takes it up in the
hollow of its hand and thus conveys it to its mouth.
The Douroucouli (Nyctipithecus trivirgatus) is the owl of
the monkey race. It spends the hours of daylight in a
deep sleep, from which it cannot be roused even to avoid
capture. But at night it becomes filled with life and spirit,
and captures not only birds in the trees, but winged insects
as they flit by. Lastly, we come to two little animals with
which our inquiries into the Anthropoidea must come to
an end.
MABMOSET (Hdfale Jacchus).
Plate IV. Fig. 2.
One of the few monkeys that can with truthfulness be
termed pretty is the Marmoset. There are several species,
and all are beautiful, with the gentle, engaging manners
which have earned for them the generic name of Hdpale,
or sweet. Only seven or eight inches long, or about as big
as a full-grown rat, the thick, soft fur and the long, bushy
tail, a foot in length, give it the aspect of a considerably
larger animal. The colour of the coat is a peculiarly rich
brown, which appears quite ruddy when the hairs are blown
aside. The tail, which is not prehensile, is light grey, ringed
with black, and there is a prominent tuft of white hair on
either side of the head, standing out before the ears. The
70 THE LEMURS
Marmoset has claws instead of nails except on its great toe.
Its voice is a low, gentle whistle, quickly repeated when
alarmed, for which reason the French settlers call it Ouistiti.
The Marmoset is common in many parts of South
America. Its chief food consists of fruit, but it is very fond
of insects. A visitor to the Zoological Gardens will find
that the little animal will accept a biscuit or a nut, but it
will view him as a positive benefactor if he will catch a few
flies and pass them into the cage.
LION TAMARIN (Midas rosalia).
The Tamarins are called the Silky Marmosets. They
are very general in the forests of the Amazon. The Lion
Tamarin, in colour, is rather yellower than our common
squirrel. Its naked face set in the midst of a circular mane
gives the little creature a more than passing resemblance to
a tiny lion — hence leoninus is another specific name. In
common with the Marmosets, the Tamarins can be easily
tamed, and consequently are often kept as pets.
SECTION IL—LEMUROIDEA.
We now pass from the Monkeys, by a very natural transi-
tion, to a singular race at the extreme end of the quadru-
manous animals, which appears to connect the higher
anthropoids to the genuine quadrupeds. The appellation
of Lemur (Lat. lemure, a ghost) was given to them on
account of their nocturnal habits. They are restricted to
the island of Madagascar, which, though close to Africa,
well wooded, and with a favourable temperature, strangely
enough does not possess a single species of genuine monkey.
In disposition gentle, and in habit active, the Lemurs
display neither the vivacity, cunning, nor curiosity of the
monkey, to whom they are certainly inferior in intelligence.
In size they are generally equal to a large cat, and, indeed,
the name Madagascar cats is often applied to the whole
race. The muzzle is long and pointed ; the fur woolly ;
and the second fingers or toes have claws, instead of
being furnished with nails as are their other digits. The
THE RUFFLED LEMUR 71
eyes are enormously large to allow the animals to see their
food in the dark. The fingers are tipped with soft pads, by
which the animals are enabled to move among the branches
in absolute silence. The teeth possess some characteristics
of those of the insectivorous quadrupeds ; and when they
bite, the wound, from the length and cutting edge of the
canine teeth, is very serious. In the daytime one finds the
Lemurs in the Zoological Gardens usually curled up asleep
in their cages. In captivity their food is usually bread and
various fruits ; but in a wild state they add lizards and
small birds to their frugivorous diet. They take up their
food in their hands like monkeys, but without raising them-
selves up or sitting on their haunches.
RUFFLED LEMUR (Lemur varius}.
Coloured Plate III. Fig. 5.
Though it is the most striking and handsome of its race,
the Ruffled Lemur is fairly typical of the ten species found
SKELETON OF THE RUFFLED LEMUR.
in Madagascar. The Red Lemur (Lemur ruber), the Black-
faced (Lemur nigrifrons)t the Collared (Lemur collaris), and
72 LEMUR-LIKE ANIMALS
the Ring-tailed (Lemur catta), as their names imply, possess
notable features of difference in their general appearance.
The black and white in almost equal proportions of the
Ruffled variety are in sharp contrast ; and the large ruff
round the neck and the great bushy tail, not unlike a lady's
black fur boa, add greatly to the elegance and the tout
ensemble of the whole figure. When sleeping, all Lemurs
curl themselves into a ball and coil the tail round the body
to keep it warm. If several Ring-tailed ones inhabit the
same cage they sleep together, clinging closely to each
other, and wrapping their thinner tails impartially round
themselves or their friends until it is impossible to dis-
tinguish the owner of any particular appendage.
The last group of the Quadrumana are the Lemuroids, i.e.,
Lemur-like animals. At one time they were confounded
with the true Lemurs, but they inhabit different countries
and exhibit marked characteristics.
BROWN MOUSE LEMUR (Chirogaleus milii).
Plate V. Fig. 2.
The Mouse Lemurs are among the smallest of their tribe,
some, at least, of them being less in size than an ordinary
rat. Not a few of them are hibernators, becoming dormant
not in the coldest, but in the hottest period of the year. In
later pages will be found references to the hibernation of
various animals, most of which become extremely fat just
before they retire for a season ; but the Mouse Lemurs store
up fat only in the region of the base of the tail. The Brown
Mouse Lemur is only about two-thirds of a foot in length,
to which must be added the long tail. The greyish-brown
fur is remarkably fine and silky ; it is white on the throat
and underparts.
The Dwarf Mouse Lemur is only half the size of the fore-
going. The most marked feature of the little creature is its
beautifully brilliant eyes. In the top of a tall tree it con-
structs a nest which in size and appearance might easily
be taken for that of a rook.
THE LEMUROIDS 73
SLENDEE LORIS (Loris gracilis).
Coloured Plate III. Fig. 4.
The Slender Loris is a small animal only eight or nine
inches long, which gains its name on account of the delicate
slenderness of its limbs. It has no tail, and its arms and
legs are very long. It sleeps during the day, but at night it
is a terrible enemy to birds, upon which it feeds in addition
to fruit and insects. Its movements are the acme of stealthi-
ness ; there is nothing to indicate its presence save its big
round eyes gleaming like phosphorescent fire. Like a flash
it seizes its feathered prey and bites off its head before the
bird is aware of the presence of danger. Though during
daylight the animal lies rolled up in a ball upon a branch,
there is no likelihood of it falling ; for the muscles and
tendons of the legs automatically contract to grasp the
perch. The Slow Loris (Nycticebus tardigradus) is of similar
habits. It is known by many names, of which Kukang is a
common one ; but Anglo-Indians usually call it Bashful Billy.
There are also the Galagos, another singular tribe of
animals peculiar to Africa. They possess the main charac-
teristics of the Lemuroid group, with the addition of large
membranous naked ears, the powers of which are remark-
ably acute. Their manners are those of monkeys and
squirrels; they perch
among the foliage of
trees, where they pursue
their insect food, which
they capture with the
hand. Like squirrels,
they make nests in which SOLE OF FOOT OF GARXETT'S GALAGO.
they rear their young ones.
In zoological collections the Maholi Galago (Plate I.
Fig. i), with its delicate woolly fur, is always an interesting
captive. It feeds on bread, fruit, and milk, but meal worms
afford it special pleasure. So quickly will it snap them up
with its forepaws and convey them to its mouth that it
is difficult for the eye to follow the movements.
74 LEMUR-LIKE ANIMALS
The Tarsier (Tarsius spectrum), which is found in Borneo,
Sumatra, and Java, is a similar nocturnal animal, with arms
much shorter than the legs and a tail longer than the body.
Two of the toes, the second and third, of the hind foot
possess claws, but the fingers and other toes are furnished
with nails.
AYE- A YE (Chiromys Madagascariensis}.
Coloured Plate III. Fig. i.
The Aye-aye is an extraordinary animal, found only in
Madagascar. The generic name is derived from two Greek
words, one of which signifies a
hand and the other a mouse. The
Aye-aye is rather rare, even in
its native home. When in 1780
a celebrated traveller, Sonnerat,
discovered it, the natives who
accompanied him were evidently
unaware of its existence, for they
SKULL OF THE AYE-AYE. cried out in astonishment, ' Aye !
Aye !' The discoverer at once
adopted the exclamation as the name of this hitherto
practically unknown creature.
When brought to Europe the animal caused more than
passing interest because of the doubt how best to classify it.
It possesses enormous incisor teeth, a distinguishing feature
of the rodents, and, in fact, the Aye-aye bites deeply into
trunks and branches in search of grubs, which form a large
part of its food. The difficulty, however, does not end
there. The limbs are undoubtedly quadrumanous ; the
monkey-like foot has an opposable toe ; but the hand is
peculiar to the animal and quite unlike that of any other
known creature. The thumb is small and insignificant ;
the fingers are slight and of great length, with the middle
one almost like wire in its degree of attenuation. The
movement of this wiry middle finger is quite independent
of the others ; it can be used when the other fingers and
thumb remain closed. Its purpose is to pick out of the
PLATE V.
i. COLUGO. 2. BROWN MOUSE LEMUR.
(See page 72)
THE FLYING LEMUR
75
timber the grubs and insects which the incisor teeth have
disclosed. The animal
is about a yard in
length, including the
tail. In colour it is
nearly black, with the
cheeks, throat, and
underparts a light grey.
The brownish eyes are
very sensitive to light.
It builds a globular
nest of dry leaves at
some height from the
ground. The natives
view the animal with
superstitious dread, be-
lieving that any one
who touches it will die
within the year, and FOOT OF AYE-AYE.
this fact has not
rendered it easier to learn reliable particulars concerning
the Aye-aye's life and habits.
HAND OF AYE-AYE.
COLUGO (Galeopithecus volans).
Plate V. Fig. i.
The Colugo or Flying Lemur, the last member of
the Quadrumana, is
also a matter of dis-
pute among zoologists,
some of whom would
place it among the
Insectivora, while
others insist upon it
ff\ forming an entirely
separate order, the
Dermoptera, or skin-
winged animals.
HIND FOOT OF THE COLUGO. T^6 IS « ™? ^
(Four-fifths natural size.) only one family and
76
SKIN-WINGED ANIMALS
one genus of these creatures, of which the common Colugo
is best known. In construction it is very similar to the
Flying Squirrel and the so-called Flying Opossum of
Australia, in which the skin of the flanks is flattened and
extended to buoy up the animal in the air like a para-
chute. When full grown the Colugo is about the size of
a cat, and in colour it varies quite as much as does the
latter.
In some respects the Flying Lemur, or Cobego, as it
is also called, bears no little resemblance to the members
of the Chiroptera, the succeed-
ing order. The flying membrane
is not at all unlike that which
forms the wings of the bat ; and
the Colugo sleeps head down-
wards, suspended by its hind feet,
which is quite a general feature of
the Bats. In its powers of flight,
however, the Colugo falls short of
the bat, since it cannot attain a
higher elevation than that from
which it starts. In its progress
the creature's rate of descent is
about one foot in five, but it
possesses the power of directing
its flight to any given object.
Mr. Wallace says that he saw a
Colugo run up a tree to a height
of forty feet, from which it took a leap of seventy yards
to another trunk, the animal having clearly guided itself
to its goal.
BONES OF HIND FOOT OF
THE COLUGO.
Chapter IV
ORDER II.— CHIROPTERA (BATS)
General description of the Chiroptera — Long-
eared Bat— Pipistrelle Bat— Barbastelle Bat
— Whiskered Bat — Horseshoe Bats — Mouse-
coloured Bat — Fruit Bats — Kalong — Vampire
Bat— Bat guano.
CHAPTER IV
Order II. — Chiroptera (Bats)
THE title of the order with which we are about to deal
is composed of two Greek words, the former meaning
a hand and the latter a wing ; and the Chiroptera are there-
fore ' hand-winged ' animals. The early naturalists often
experienced difficulty in classifying various animals, but
none caused more controversy than these strange, weirdly-
formed creatures. Because they could fly some assigned
the Bats to a position among the birds, while others claimed
that they were quadrupeds ; but modern investigations have
proved them to be mammals, clearly separated from any
other group of animals.
' Flittermouse ' was a common old English synonym for
the Bat, and the Icelanders gave it the very expressive title
' Leather-flapper.' Most Bats are very mouse-like in appear-
ance.
Expressed in simple language, a Bat is a mammal pro-
vided with true wings, with which it is able not merely to
propel itself through the air for a longer or a shorter
distance, but to fly like a bird by beating the air with its
anterior members. At the end of the Anthropoidea was
described the Colugo, which in common with the Flying
Squirrel and the Flying Phalanger has the skin of the flanks
extended in a manner capable of sustaining the animals,
very much in the manner of a parachute, in an extended
leap through the air. But Bats possess the power of true
flight : they move through the air with ease, and in pursuit
of their insect-prey wheel and double and circle about
79
8o BATS
with a nimbleness that the human eye can only follow with
difficulty.
The accompanying illustration of the skeleton of a Bat,
together with the figures in Coloured Plate IV., showing
open and closed wings, will assist to make plain the detailed
description of the chief points of its structure.
Most of the Bats possess a full complement of teeth, the
four canines being large and sharp ; the incisors vary in
number, and still more in their proximity to each other.
Comparing the bones of a Bat's wing with the human hand
and arm, we are at once struck by their exaggerated length
for an animal that is often only one and a half inches long,
SKELETON OF THE MOUSE-COLOURED BAT.
and only in a few species exceeds in size a full-grown rat.
The most elongated bones are those of the hand, a feature
which is far more marked than in the case of the fingers.
The fingers cannot be closed for grasping, and except the
action of beating they are capable of movement only to
open the wing, or to fold it up against the side of the
body.
Being a flying mammal, the body must necessarily be
designed for lightness, and to this end the bones are not
filled with marrow, but with air. The ribs are flattened.
There is considerable solidity in the shoulder girdle, where
the greatest strength is required, and here are attached the
great muscles which operate the wings. The thorax is
FLYING MAMMALS 81
rather capacious, to allow room for the large heart and
lungs ; and the sternum, or breast-bone, is keeled like that
of a bird to supply more surface for the attachment of still
further wing muscles.
Upon this light and airy framework is stretched a flexible,
leathery, nearly hairless membrane, which is really a con-
tinuation of the skin of the mouse-like body. Enveloping
all the bones of the arms and hands, it extends to the hind
legs, and in some cases includes the tail, being further sup-
ported by attachment to the heels. It is by means of this
rudder-like tail, similar to that of a bird, that the Bat is able
to make its rapid evolutions.
There are two groups of Bats ; the insectivorous
includes all those of Europe and most of those of America,
as well as portions of Asia and Africa ; the frugivorous are
chiefly found in the South-east of Asia. The tail of the
animal differs according to the group. Fruit-eating Bats
have no need for the particularly rapid movements so
desirable in the chase of insects upon the wing, and conse-
quently they usually possess no tail membrane, which in
Bats generally is long or short or absent altogether, according
to the habits. Where the tail ends in a hard tip it bears
more than a slight analogy to the prehensile tail of a monkey,
and renders some assistance in terrestrial locomotion.
The short thumb is never inclosed in the wing membrane
and renders no aid in flight, but is furnished with a strong
curved claw, by means of which the Bat can suspend itself
head downwards when it wishes to rest.
The hind limbs terminate in perfectly formed feet, similar
to those of ordinary small quadrupeds, which with the thumbs
of the anterior limbs, and in some cases the hard-tipped tail,
are used in creeping and climbing. The Bat cannot walk
along the ground with facility, awkwardly jerking forward
first one side of the body and then the other ; but it can
run with considerable celerity. It is a common but quite
erroneous notion that Bats cannot easily rise from the
ground, but must throw themselves into the air from an
elevation. Most species can swim if necessity compel them,
but they have no liking for water.
Another common error is expressed in the simile ' as
7
82 BATS
blind as a Bat/ for all species possess very efficient eyes,
though they are small and almost hidden in the soft fur.
For the size of the animal the mouth is rather large, with a
full complement of sharp teeth. In all cases the ears are
large, but in some Bats they develop into an expansive
membrane that can be folded up very much in the same
manner as the wings. Not a few species have remarkable
membraneous appendages on the nose, sometimes quite
complex in construction, giving the Bat an extraordinary
appearance. It is supposed that the ear and nose organs are
of more utility than merely to catch sound and to smell, and
that they are intimately related to the animal's remarkable
sense of touch, which is carried to a degree of delicacy quite
unknown in other creatures. The ear and nose and wing
membranes are little less than a mass of blood-vessels and
the finest nerves, affording a sensitive surface that assists the
Bat to perceive the nearness of objects.
It is well known that the Bat can perform the most rapid
and baffling movements in the dark among buildings and
trees, even going to the length of wheeling and doubling
through the branches. Spallanzini, about the year 1775,
tested the extreme sensitiveness of the exposed membranes
and their ability to sense objects without utilising sight or
actual contact. He sealed up the Bats' eyes, temporarily
blinding them, and then set them free in a chamber in
which were suspended dangling strings and cloths per-
forated with holes large enough to permit a Bat to pass
through. In their flight they avoided all these obstacles,
passing through the holes, turning corners, and finding
crannies for concealment or escape. They gave abundant
proof that the eyes render quite unimportant assistance in
the creature's nocturnal evolutions. The closing of the ears
seemed to be felt more than the loss of sight, though it
never amounted to embarrassment. Altogether the experi-
ments practically proved that the Bat is possessed of powers
that almost, if not quite, amount to a sixth sense.
Bats are distributed over nearly all the world, being
completely absent only in the coldest regions. They are
most numerous and attain their greatest size in the Eastern
tropics. A few species live chiefly in pairs, but more
THE LONG-EARED BAT 83
often they are gregarious, living in enormous companies,
rivalled in point of numbers only by the great flocks of sea-
birds which resort to certain localities in the nesting season.
They generally spend the day in sleep, hanging head
downwards by the claws of their hind feet in caves, hollows
of trees, and, in fact, any dark recess ; in Temperate regions
they are especially fond of taking cover under roofs or in
the corners and crevices of deserted and ruined buildings.
Nocturnal in habit, they seldom emerge from their hiding-
places until at least twilight, although the rule is not without
exception. On the approach of cold weather the creatures
hibernate in some place likely to allow them to remain safe
from molestation. It is stated that some of the Canadian
Bats migrate southwards to avoid the long and severe
winters.
There are over a hundred and thirty known species of Bat ;
probably there are many more, but their main charac-
teristics are so similar that a description of a few of the best
known will serve for the whole. In the British Isles there
are more than a dozen species, all of which are among the
smallest of their kind, and all are insectivorous.
LONG-EARED BAT (Plecdtus auritus).
Coloured Plate IV. Fig. 3.
The Long-eared Bat, whose generic and specific names
signify folded ears and long-ears respectively, is an excellent
example, though not the commonest, of our British Bats.
It is found in Europe, North Africa, and in Central and
Western Asia. Even including the tail it is only about four
inches in length, with a wing spread of thirteen or fourteen
inches. It is the most pleasing of our native Bats
owing to the transparency and beauty of its ears, which in
proportion to the size of the head are exceptionally large
(Plate VII. Fig. 3). They are exceedingly mobile, moving
backwards and forwards as the animal listens intently to
any sound, or they gracefully fold up when their owner
wishes to sleep. The ears are peculiar in that they possess
a tragus, or inner lobe. It really looks as if the animal has
84 BATS
four ears, two large and two small, and when the Bat is
asleep and the ears are folded, only the tragus is visible,
giving the Bat an altogether different appearance to that
which is presented when it is awake. When on the wing
most insectivorous Bats give vent to short sharp squeaks,
and the voice of the Long-Eared Bat is particularly shrill
and high-pitched.
All British Bats feed wholly on flies and other winged
insects, gnats and midges in particular being consumed in
great quantities nightly. If a Long-eared Bat be kept in
captivity it will eat thirty or forty bluebottles in the course
of the day, and its appetite is so enormous that no matter
what number of flies are placed within its reach at night
they will all have disappeared by morning.
Living exclusively upon insects, with the approach of
winter the Bat finds its supplies of food almost, if not quite
entirely, cut off. When various insect-eating birds are faced
by the same problem, they solve it by migrating to warmer
climates where insects abound all the year round. But the
Channel debars the Bat travelling further southwards,
causing it to take advantage of a peculiar faculty called
hibernation. The Bat retires to some dark retreat where
quiet and some degree of warmth are attainable ; and there
it sinks into a condition that appears to be intermediate
between sleep and death, in which the circulation is exceed-
ingly languid, not more than one heart beat per second, and
there is a total cessation of respiration and digestion.
During a torpor that seldom lasts less than three months,
and in some cases nearly twice as long, the creature
would perish of starvation, but for a wise provision of
Nature which insures that just before it retires the Bat
becomes very fat, of which there is sufficient to make
good the loss of tissue that even the very slow circulation
necessarily entails.
British Bats in particular are useful as one of Nature's
checks, reducing the numbers of the insect world in the air
just as the Insectivora do upon the earth. Their odour is
always more or less disagreeable, and their flesh is of no
utility for food. Stoats and owls catch and feed upon the
creatures, but a dog will rarely take one up in its mouth.
VARIOUS BRITISH BATS 85
PIPISTEELLE BAT ( Vesperugo pipistrellus).
Coloured Plate IV. Fig. 2.
The Pipistrelle Bat is by far the commonest in the British
Isles, being more frequently in evidence, if only because it
hibernates for only three months of the year. It is also less
strictly nocturnal in its habits than some of its kind, for it
may sometimes be seen indulging in a few fly-catching
flights in the middle of the day during brilliant sunlight. It
is not a rarity, though unusual, for it to appear at mid-day
even in winter, urged probably by hunger to hunt for what
must assuredly prove a very scanty meal.
The Pipistrelle is perhaps more like a mouse than almost
any other species. In size it is about the equal of the tiny
quadruped, and its body is covered with fur similar in
texture and in colour, with the addition of a tinge of red.
Its ears almost exactly resemble those of a mouse.
Other British Bats are less known except in the localities
they frequent. The Barbastelle Bat (Synotus barbastellus),
Plate VI. Fig. 2, is very largely restricted to the South-
eastern counties. It differs prominently from some of the
tribe in the possession of tufts of black bristles — whiskers on
the cheeks of its black face. The Whiskered Bat (Vespertilio
mystacinus), met with in Hampshire and adjacent counties,
has its face thickly overgrown with fur. Reference has
been made to the membraneous expansion of the nose in
some species. The Greater Horseshoe Bat (Plate VII.
Fig. 2) and the Lesser Horseshoe Bat have a nose leaf in the
form of a horseshoe, but otherwise their appearance and
their general habits call for no further mention.
MOUSE-COLOURED BAT (Vespertilio murinus}.
Coloured Plate IV. Fig. 4.
The Mouse-Coloured Bat is two inches in length,
exclusive of the tail, and is the largest Bat in Central
Europe. It is a short-eared species, which are far more
86 BATS
numerous than the long-eared ones. The particular species
under notice is as rare in England as it is common on the
Continent, where it frequents buildings, but not trees, In
respect of hibernation it retires later and reappears earlier
than its long-eared relatives. Its habitat is not confined
to Europe, but includes North Africa and extends into
Central Asia as far as the Himalayas.
THE FRUIT BATS.
The genus Pteropus (winged-foot) includes the largest
of the Chiroptera, of which the chief are two well-known
species : the Collared Fruit Bat (Pteropus collaris) and the
Kalong (Pteropus edulis\ Plate VI. Fig. i. Throughout the
East they are often called Flying Foxes by the European
residents.
The Kalong of Java — and the name is popularly applied
indiscriminately to various species — in its maturity attains a
size equal to that of a rook. A long pointed muzzle gives
the head very much the appearance of a dog or a fox ;
and the resemblance is increased by the rather full eyes,
markedly cunning in expression (Plate VII. Fig. 4). The
animal possesses no tail, and the second finger is usually
provided with a claw. Its wings when spread are nearly
five feet from tip to tip ; and notwithstanding its size the
creature flaps through the air without the least audible noise.
It is a wise arrangement of the Creator that gives muffled
wings to all night-flying creatures, whether birds, moths,
or bats.
Fruit Bats form immense colonies that work much
damage to soft-fruit plantations, such as bananas, figs, &c.
The Kalong in captivity will eat apples, pears, mice,
blackbeetles, and bits of raw meat. In the jungle it adds
lizards and small birds to its fruit menu. But there is some
compensation to the planters in the fact that these frugi-
vorous Bats are themselves tolerably good to eat.
Unlike most other species, the Fruit Bats are not incom-
moded by light ; instead of seeking dark recesses they
suspend themselves from the tops of tall trees. When
sleeping they hang by one foot, tucking the other foot and
PLATE VI.
i. KALOXG. 2. BARBASTELLE BAT WALKING.
(See page 85)
PLATE VII.
HEADS OF: i. VAMPIRE BAT. 2. GREATER HORSESHOE BAT.
3. LONG-EARED BAT. 4. KALONG (Natural size).
THE VAMPIRE BAT 87
leg under the wing. The goose sleeps upon one leg lest
upon some frosty night it may get frozen hard and fast to
the ice. But why these great bats hang by one leg nobody
appears able to explain.
VAMPIRE BAT (Phyllostoma spectrum).
Coloured Plate IV. Fig. i.
The ancients in their highly imaginative mythology made
use of fabulous creatures, partaking of the nature of beast
and bird. The three Harpies, the daughters of Neptune
and Terra, each possessed the face of a woman, the body of
a vulture, and fingers armed with sharp claws. They emitted
an offensive smell and spoilt whatever they touched by
their filth ; and Virgil relates how these fearsome creatures
appeared to affright the guests from a great feast.
It is not at all improbable that the large fruit-eating Bats
gave rise to some of these objects of superstitious dread ;
for as they silently flit about they are indeed suggestive of
everything that is hideous, foul, and evil. There was also
an ancient belief in vampires, nocturnal demons that were
supposed to eat out the hearts and souls and suck the blood
of their victims. Although it could not possibly have been
known to the ancients, there is a blood-sucking bat in South
America. It belongs to the genus Phyllostoma (Leaf-
mouth) or Spectre Bats, and with a wing-spread of two and
a half feet is one of the largest of the family.
The Vampire Bat possesses a cloven leaf-shaped nose
membrane, but is without a tail. There appears to be little
doubt that in the main it is a fruit eater ; but it is equally
certain that there are closely allied genera that are in the habit
of sucking blood from the bodies of the larger mammals,
not excluding man, while the victim is asleep. The Vampire's
teeth (Plate VII. Fig. i) are in strict keeping with such
a propensity, consisting of two projecting incisors with
lancet-shaped canines, all terminating in sharp points, and
so placed as to make a triple puncture like the bite of a
leech. In some regions it is dangerous to sleep uncovered.
A traveller, speaking from experience, says the animal will
88 BATS
attack any person who is in a sound slumber, biting a piece
out of the great toe no larger than a pinhead. The wound
is not sufficiently painful to awaken the sleeper, and through
the tiny orifice the bat will continue to suck blood until it is
scarcely able to fly. Domestic animals in some parts of
South America are specially liable to attack, and for that
reason the rearing of calves in particular is a difficult matter.
Horses are often bitten on the withers, and if an animal
does not suffer much from loss of blood, the pressure of a
saddle upon the wound will cause troublesome inflamma-
tion. It must be admitted that there are few reliable
accounts of a Bat having been caught while in the act
of bloodsucking.
The Chiroptera render man good service in their constant
war upon the insect world, and a few species are utilised as
food ; but where Bats exist in very great numbers they
are sometimes a source of considerable wealth. Guano, the
decomposed or fossilised excrement of sea-birds, is found
largely on certain islands along the Pacific coast of South
America. Sometimes the beds are from fifty to sixty feet in
thickness, and as a fertiliser the material is of such com-
mercial value that Chili and Peru in 1881 went to war
concerning the possession of some of the guano islands.
The guano of Bats has been found in large quantities in
caverns in France, Italy, and the Pyrenees ; but probably
the largest guano caves are those of San Antonio in Texas.
By means of a shaft entrance to the cave the guano can be
dug out without disturbing the sleeping bats, the number of
which in the largest cave is enormous. When evening comes
it is a wonderful sight to see them issue forth from the
mouth of the cave in a dark stream like a moving cloud
for quite two hours, with a noise of whirring wings which
sounds like a gale of wind. The sight is wonderfully
interesting, but the stench from the creatures is almost
unbearable. The supply of guano is naturally not
inexhaustible. When the guano has been taken from a
cave it is closed for a period of four years, by which time
there is another deposit well worth removal.
Plate IV.
8. Elephant Shrew
9. Hedgehog
Chapter V
ORDER III.— INSECTIVORA (INSECT
EATERS)
General description of the Insectivora —
Hedgehog— Mole — Common Shrew — Pigmy
Shrew — Water Shrew — Elephant Shrew —
Tanrec— Tana or Tree Shrew— Potamogale.
CHAPTER V
Order HI. — Insectivora
(Insect-Eaters)
THE animals comprised in the Insectivora are, as the
name implies, insect-eaters. Their distinguishing
characteristic is the teeth, generally no less than forty-four
in number, and among which there are none with flattened
surfaces. Even the molars are dotted with conical points,
which are admirably adapted to crushing the hard outer
coverings of some of the insects upon which they feed.
Some members of the order, however, have departed largely
from the insect diet, in one case changing it largely for fish
and in another for worms ; while some of them are quite
omnivorous.
The Insectivores have short legs fitted with five toes
each, and in running they place the entire sole on the
ground. They are usually terrestrial, a few only are tree-
climbers. Most of them are nocturnal and largely lead a
subterranean life ; during the winter in cold countries they
enter into a more or less torpid state.
The Insectivora are divided into at least nine families,
three of which, the Hedgehog, Mole, and Shrews, are well
represented in our own country.
FAMILY ERINACEID^E
HEDGEHOG- (Erinaceus europ&us).
Coloured Plate IV. Fig. 9.
The Hedgehog is a native of most parts of Europe, the
temperate parts of Asia from the Urals to the Pacific,
91
92 INSECT-EATERS
and Asia Minor and Syria. In our own country it is
often called the Urchin, Furze-pig, and Hedge-pig. In
appearance it is very distinctive, having its body covered
with prickly spines instead of hair. The spines are really
set in ball-and-socket joints, causing them to be very
elastic, so that even a blow or a fall from a great height will
not drive them into the animal's own body.
The Hedgehog is about ten inches in length without its
tail of another inch. Its limbs are short, but it can run
swiftly. It has a long snout with a loose flap bordering
each of the nostrils, which are of good service when the
creature is
grubbing. The
face is covered
with strong,
^ coarse hair, out
of which peer
bright, clear
eyes of bluish
SKELETON OF THE HEDGEHOG. greV> ^n 1^S
very full com-
plement of teeth there are three pairs of incisors in the
upper jaw, the inner pair of which are long and tusk-like.
Considering its size, the jaws and teeth of the Hedgehog
are very powerful ; it can splinter the bone of a mutton
chop with comparative ease.
No part of the anatomy of the Hedgehog is more interest-
ing than the powerful muscle of the back, lying under
the skin, and scientifically termed the panniculus carnosus,
i.e., the ' fleshy rag.' This is the muscle which enables a
dog to shake itself dry when it leaves the water. The roots
of the bristles pass through the skin sufficiently far to
connect them with the muscle, and when it is contracted
the bristles are erected. The same muscle enables the
animal to roll itself into a ball when alarmed, and to
retain that position so firmly that it cannot be drawn
straight by force alone. With the tender under parts thus
protected, there is presented to its enemies what amounts
to a terrible coat of mail.
The Hedgehog is not limited to insect food. It preys on
THE HEDGEHOG 93
reptiles, small quadrupeds, and even feathered creatures
when it can catch them. Fallen nuts and soft fruits are
readily eaten ; while in captivity it will not refuse soaked
bread, cooked vegetables, and flesh, raw or roasted.
Though fond of eggs and milk, there is no truth in the
quite common belief that the Hedgehog helps itself to the
warm fluid direct from the teats of cows lying in the fields.
Equally fanciful is the statement that the animal climbs
trees, returning to the ground with its spoils impaled upon
the points of its spines. If in its nocturnal rambles it
should come across eggs in a ground nest, the Hedgehog
will make short work of them. Grasping an egg between
its forefeet, the animal makes a hole in the end of it just big
enough to permit the insertion of its tongue, and the
contents will be licked out without the slightest waste.
The manner in which the Hedgehog attacks a viper is as
interesting as it is effective. Creeping quietly up to the
reptile, it seizes it by the tail with its teeth, and in a flash rolls
itself up into a ball. Lashing itself into a fury, the viper
makes terrific darts at its enemy, who simply holds on to
the tail, allowing the reptile to cut its head almost to pieces
against the remorseless spikes. When at length the viper is
overcome, the victor passes it gradually through its jaws,
cracking the bones till it is quite limp, and then, com-
mencing at the tail, proceeds to devour it.
The Hedgehog has few natural enemies ; a dog, for
example, will think twice before testing the quality of the
spines after it has had one painful experience. The stoat
and the fox overcome it ; the latter, it is said, rolls the
prickly ball into water, which causes the Hedgehog to relax
its muscles to escape from drowning ; and that action is the
opportunity for which the artful fox is in readiness.
It is an interesting fact that the Hedgehog pairs for life.
A nest of dead leaves and moss is made in a thicket, the
leaves woven into a thatch to keep out the spring showers.
The young ones, usually three or four in number, are not
only born blind, as is the case with many animals, but their
ears are closed, which is very unusual. The quills are white
and flexible, leading one almost to doubt whether the little
creatures are not young birds.
94 INSECT-EATERS
No British mammal hibernates more thoroughly than the
Hedgehog ; and it provides not the slightest store upon
which to dine during any unexpected period of wakeful-
ness. That the creature is occasionally seen abroad in
the winter months is no argument against its hibernation.
Indeed, it is a fact that extreme cold frequently arouses
hibernating animals from their torpidity ; and, once roused
from any cause, it is quite likely that the hungry Hedgehog
will search about for food to make a scanty meal before
resuming its interrupted slumber.
If we forgive it a few pheasant and partridge eggs, the
Hedgehog may be regarded as a useful animal ; and it is
often utilised to clear houses of various noxious beetles.
The animal is but little used for food. Gipsies are said
to be rather fond of it, enveloping it in well-kneaded
clay and then thrusting it into the heart of a fire. When
the cooking is complete the skin and prickles come away
with the clay.
FAMILY TALPID^.
MOLE (Talpa europceus).
Coloured Plate IV. Fig. 5.
The common Mole is the best example of the family
Talpidae, all of which chiefly live underground. It is
general over all Central Europe and Asia, well known in
England and Scotland, but is totally absent from Ireland.
A consideration of its build will show how perfectly the
creature is adapted to its mode of life below the surface of
the ground. Seldom exceeding eight inches in length,
including the tail, the body is cylindrical in form. The
head is large ; the snout is slender, strong, and sinewy ; and
there is an absence of neck, which would be a weakness in
the animal, just as it would be in the case of a boring tool.
The fore legs, terminating in five long and strong claws,
are short ; while the feet are broad and spadelike, and,
considering their size, are extremely strong. They are
turned outwards, with back-turned claws, to enable the
THE MOLE
95
animal not only to dig, but to throw the soil behind it,
which it does with incredible speed. When it commences
to burrow, the Mole seems literally to sink into the ground.
The hinder limbs do not possess the strength of the fore-
feet, and are used only for progression.
In the Mole it is the canine teeth that are most promi-
nent, instead of the incisors, as in the hedgehog. It is a
very popular belief that it possesses no eyes. Examination
shows that this is a mistake ; but the eyes are exceedingly
small, and retracted beneath the fur, well out of danger
from particles of earth as it is flung up by the forepaws.
Though it has no external ears, which would be in the way,
SKELETON OF THE MOLE.
its internal ones are particularly acute, and its taste and
smell are similarly well developed.
The skin is extremely tough, upon which the short hairs
grow perpendicularly, forming a close-set, velvety fur,
absolutely smooth, whichever way it is stroked or brushed.
This peculiarity provides that in moving backwards or
forwards in the underground galleries the coat remains
perfectly clean and free from soil. Though usually black
in colour, there are exceptions ; sometimes the fur is
yellowish white or grey, and more rarely it is all white.
The home of the Mole is constructed with infinite care
and skill. The accompanying illustration shows a hillock
of earth, supported by partitions or pillars at regular dis-
tances. In this are two circular galleries, one above the
other, with five connecting passages. The central chamber
96
INSECT-EATERS
leads to the upper gallery by three passages, while there are
three times as many runs in different directions from the
lower one.
The hillock is beaten and pressed until it is hard enough
to withstand the penetration of water. Under the central
arch is a small mound which is pierced with sloping holes,
the entrances to hard and firm paths, twelve to fifteen paces
in length, which radiate from it like the spokes of a wheel
from the hub. Altogether it is a perfect maze, well calcu-
lated to defy pursuit even by the weasel.
Moles live in pairs, breeding in spring and sometimes in
THE MOLE'S FORTRESS (HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL SECTIONS).
autumn, the family of young numbering five or six. The
female makes a nest of dried leaves in the upper gallery,
or else constructs a fortress of her own. There are always
fierce fights among the males when they are selecting their
partners.
No animal works so hard for its daily food as the Mole.
Its whole existence is spent in constantly raising and
removing large quantities of earth by sheer force of muscle.
Its appetite is voracious ; it works like a horse, and eats
like an elephant in proportion to its size. In all its waking
moments it is digging and delving and scurrying after
THE MOLE 97
worms in all its galleries and tunnels. Its digestive powers
are remarkably rapid, and with heart and lungs and muscles
working at a furious rate, about twelve hours is the limit
that it can exist without food. The Mole lives chiefly upon
earthworms, which it dexterously skins, stripping off the
skin from end to end, and pressing out the contents of the
body. But the energetic digger does not limit itself to a
diet of worms ; it preys upon frogs, small quadrupeds, and
birds, first tearing open the body in its softer parts and
gorging itself with the blood. Unless there be plenty of
food available tue Mole does not hesitate at cannibalism,
the strong inevitably devouring their weaker brethren under
pressure of hunger.
The Mole is not popular with gardeners and farmers,
FORE LIMBS OF THE COMMON MOLE.
who view its nocturnal burrowings in cultivated land with
marked disfavour. It is annoying to find prized plants
uprooted or greensward rendered unsightly by the nume-
rous upheavals that mark the creature's tremendous energy.
Nevertheless the Mole lays down a system of subsoil
drainage without costing the farmer a penny. It is an
interesting historical fact that the Jacobites toasted the Mole
because William of Orange broke his collar-bone in a fall
over a mole-hill.
An acute observer says that he has traced a fresh tunnel
nearly a hundred yards in length that has been burrowed in
a single night. What this furious footwork really means will
be best understood by the calculation that if a man were
to do similar work in proportion to his size, then in one
8
98 INSECT-EATERS
night he would have to excavate a tunnel thirty-seven miles
long and of a size to allow him to crawl through it.
Thoughtless people are apt to pity the Mole for its dark
and apparently cheerless life ; but the reader, seeing what
infinite pains the Creator has taken to adapt every little
detail of its structure to its life, will be able to understand
that the Mole is as happy while burrowing in the dark
underground as is the skylark floating high up in the sun-
shine and pouring out its joy in exulting song.
There is a demand for the fur of the Mole, which is the
finest of any British animal. It is very impervious to wet,
and many thousands of skins are used every year for jackets,
waistcoats, purses, &c. One of the most durable of textiles,
a strong fustian that wears like leather, has received the
name 'moleskin.'
FAMILY SORICID^E.
SHREW (Sorex vulgar is).
The Shrews, of which there are three varieties in our
country, are commonly called Shrew-mice ; but though
in general appearance they resemble mice, their teeth in-
dubitably prove them to belong to the Insectivora.
The common Shrew is usually about two inches and
three-quarters in length, of which quite half is accounted
for- by the tail. The attenuated snout is the chief feature
of the head. The body and the tail are covered with fine
velvety fur, reddish mouse-colour above and grey beneath.
The creature is common nearly everywhere in the British
Isles, except Ireland. It abounds in dry fields, hedgerows,
and gardens. Grubbing with its long snout for worms and
insects, it makes long runs just under the surface of the
ground. Insects are preferred to anything else, but the little
creature will attack lizards and frogs and even very small
birds. In spring there are fierce fights among the males for
mates. The nest of leaves and dry grass is made in a hole
in a bank, in which from five to eight young ones are born
in July or August.
During the autumn large numbers of dead Shrews are
THE WATER SHREW 99
found along the hedgerows and in ditches, without any
evident cause of death. There is no apparent external
injury, and certainly they have not met their end by
weasels, hawks, or owls, or other of their natural enemies,
or they would have devoured them. It has been suggested
that with the autumn there comes a lack of food owing to
the decreasing insect life, and that is the best explanation
that can be given, and only surmise at that.
The Pigmy Shrew (Sorex minutus), an inch shorter than
the foregoing, is the smallest of our British mammals.
It was a common superstition in olden times that the
merest contact with a Shrew inflicted injury upon cattle.
In some villages a pollard ash-tree was selected to form the
' Shrew Ash.' A hole was bored in the trunk, a poor little
Shrew was inclosed in it alive, and then the hole was
plugged up. It was believed that the twigs and branches
of the tree possessed curative qualities when applied to
animals suffering from the touch of the Shrew.
WATER SHREW (Sorex fodiens).
Coloured Plate IV. Fig. 7.
Slightly larger than the common species, the Water Shrew
is chiefly blackish-brown in colour ; the feet and under-
surface of the tail are fringed with long white hairs. It
burrows into the banks of streams and is very aquatic in its
habits. It possesses valved ears, which automatically close
immediately the Shrew enters water.
It is interesting to watch the little creature dive into clear
water, at the bottom of which it is able to remain a long
time. On land the weasel preys upon it ; in the water the
voracious pike views it as a tasty morsel.
'Its swimming/ says Mr. Bell, ' is principally effected by
the alternate action of its hinder feet, which produces an
unequal or wriggling motion ; it makes its way, however,
with great velocity. With its belly flattened, the sides, as
it were, spread out, and the tail extended backwards as
a rudder, it forms a very beautiful and pleasing object,
moving on the calm surface of a quiet brook or diving,
ioo INSECT-EATERS
in an instant, after its food, its black velvety coat becoming
beautifully silvered with the innumerable bubbles of air that
cover it when submerged; and on rising again the fur is
observed to be perfectly dry, repelling the water as com-
pletely as the feathers of a water-fowl.'
FAMILY MACROSCELIDID^.
ELEPHANT SHREW (Macroscelides typicus}.
Coloured Plate IV. Fig. 8.
The Elephant Shrew is a curious mouse-like little
creature that takes its name from the elephan-
tine elongation of its nose. The whole length
of the animal is five inches. The generic
name means ' long-legged/ the hind legs being
longer than the fore limbs ; and the animal
moves in a succession of leaps in biped
fashion.
There are several species of the Jumping
Shrews, as they are often called. Nearly all of
SOLE OF them exist in South Africa, where they burrow
OF in the ground, flying to their retreats the instant
are disturbed. They are insect-eaters, pick-
size.) ing UP a living amid the scantY herbage that
grows in the rocky regions where they make
their homes.
FAMILY CENTETID^E.
TANBEC (Centetes ecaudatus).
Coloured Plate IV. Fig. 6.
The animals of this family are cousins to the hedgehog,
for their coat is softly haired, but mixed with bristles and
flexible spines, which are strongest about the neck. The
Tanrec is not only the best known of the family, but is the
largest of the Insectivores. It is fifteen or sixteen inches in
length ; it has no tail. Because of various technical re-
semblances it is certain that the Tanrec is, of all living
THE TANA 101
mammals, the most nearly related to the Marsupials of
Australia and America.
The animal is very prolific ; usually fifteen or sixteen
young ones at a birth, sometimes, indeed, as many as
twenty-one. Madagascar is the headquarters of the Tanrec,
but it is also now found in Mauritius and Reunion. For
six months in the year — June to December — it goes to sleep
in a hole which it has dug for the purpose. When it retires
it is very fat, which is just the time that the natives set out
to hunt for what they regard as a great delicacy. Opinions
differ concerning the flesh, for while some people compare
it to sucking-pig, others complain of its musky flavour.
Owing to its strictly nocturnal habits the Tanrec is not
an animal that easily lends itself to observation. Insects
and worms are the staple items in its diet, to which it adds
roots and fruits.
The Tendrac (Ericulus spinosus), another member of the
family, is often confounded with the last-named animal,
whereas it is a much smaller creature than our common
hedgehog, which it closely resembles in appearance.
FAMILY TUPAIID^E.
TANA (Tupaia tana).
Coloured Plate XIV. Fig. 5.
This animal, which at one time was confounded with the
Squirrels and the Lemurs, is purposely figured with the
Rodents to allow of easy comparison with the squirrel.
The generic name was derived by Sir Stamford Raffles, who
first discovered the creature, from the Malay name for
squirrel. There are more than a dozen species of the Tupaias
or Tree Shrews, which are widely distributed between India
and the Philippines. The family belongs to the group of
animals more commonly known as the Bangsrings. Though
the Tana is one of the larger species, its body is only eight
or nine inches in length and covered with rather long, soft,
glistening, reddish-brown hair. The tail is long and bushy,
and the hair is arranged very much in two rows, something
like the feathers of an arrow-shaft. The animal greatly
resembles the squirrel, not only in appearance, but also in
102 INSECT-EATERS
its sprightliness and activity. The whole of the family
chiefly inhabit trees, and they feed on fruits and insects.
The animal figured on the plate is the Bornean Tree
Shrew. In eating its food it will hold it in its fore paws
exactly like a squirrel. It obtains insects usually from trees,
but sometimes is seen on the ground searching for food,
very much in the same manner as the common Shrews.
The Madras Tree Shrew (Tupaia ellioti), which is abundant
in Peninsular India, at certain periods of the year is found
dead in considerable numbers, which recalls to mind the
strange fate that befalls the English Shrew referred to earlier
in the chapter.
FAMILY POTAMOGALID^E.
POTAMOGALE (Potamogale velox).
The Potamogale, or West African River Shrew, is supposed
to be nearly related to the Tanrecs, but has so few points
in common with other Insectivores, that it has to form a
distinct family in itself. It is about ten or eleven inches in
length from the tip of its broad and bristled muzzle to the
root of its tail, which is long and very compressed, except
where it almost imperceptibly joins the body. The lithe,
otter-like form, valved nostrils, and the fine soft fur with
an outer covering of long hairs, in themselves are sufficient
to suggest aquatic habits. The toes are not webbed, but
the tail appears likely to provide excellent motive power.
The Potamogale was discovered in West Africa by Du
Chaillu, who says : * It is found along the watercourses of
limpid and clear streams, where fish are abundant. It hides
under rocks along these streams, lying in wait for fish. It
swims through the water with a rapidity which astonished
me; before the fish has time to move it is caught. On
account of the rapidity of its movements, I have given it
the specific name of velox. The animal returns to land
with its prey almost as rapidly as it started from its place
of concealment/
Chapter VI
ORDER IV.— CARNIVORA (FLESH-
EATERS)
SUB-ORDER I.— CARNIVORA OF THE LAND
General description of the Carnivora — Family
Felidae : Lion — Tiger — Leopard — Ounce —
Jaguar — Puma — Ocelot — Fishing Cat — Serval
—Wild Cat — Domestic Cat — Lynx— Caracal
— Cheetah — Hysenas — Aard Wolf — Family
Viverridae : Civet — Ichneumon — Mongoose —
Genet — Parodoxure — Binturong — Suricate —
Family Canidae : Domestic Dog — Eskimo Dog
— Pariah Dog — Red Dog of the Deccan — Cape
Hunting Dog — Dingo — Wolf — Coyote — Jackal
—Common Fox — Arctic Fox — Silver Fox —
Fennec — Family Mustelidae : Weasel — Stoat
or Ermine — Polecat — Ferret — Mink — Marten
—Sable — Glutton — Badger — Cape Zorilla —
Skunk — Teledu — Common Otter — Sea Otter
— Family Procyonidae : Raccoon — Coaiti —
Kinkajou — Cacomistle — Panda — Family Ur-
sidae : Brown Bear — Grizzly Bear — Syrian
Bear — Polar Bear — Black Bear — Malayan Bear
— Spectacled Bear — Sloth Bear.
CHAPTER VI
Order IV. — Carnivora
(Flesh-Eaters)
IN this order are many well-known species of animals
which feed mainly, and in many cases exclusively, on
flesh. The order is divided into two sub-orders : —
1. Fissipedia (Lat.,fissus, to split ; pes, pedis, a foot), or
split-footed animals, which form the Carnivora of
the land.
2. Pinnipedia (Lat., pinna, a fin ; pes, pedis, a foot), or
fin-footed animals, in which the toes are bound
together by skin, thus forming fins or flippers.
These animals, together with those of another
separate order, form the Carnivora of the sea.
Sub-Order I.— CARNIVORA OF THE LAND.
The Carnivora of the land are the 'beasts of prey/ of
which some species or other are found all over the world
from the equator to the poles. Though the majority of
them are flesh-eaters, many of them will partake freely of
vegetable food from choice, and still more from necessity ;
but some of the Bears, for example, are almost wholly
vegetarians, just as some of the Lemurs, Insectivora,
Rodents, and Marsupials, are comparatively large flesh-
eaters.
The members of this sub-order, in the general neatness
of their build and especially in the construction of their
105
io6 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
teeth and claws, are particularly adapted for capturing and
destroying living animals, and for tearing and devouring
flesh.
Usually the teeth consist of twelve incisors with sharp
cutting edges ; behind these on each side, top and bottom,
is a strong, curved and pointed canine tooth. The premolars
are pointed and much compressed, and the true molars are
poorly developed, and in some cases absent altogether.
There are really no chewing teeth, for the jaws only work
vertically in shear-like fashion. The grip of the canine
teeth is terrible, and the animal's prey cannot escape
when once it is transfixed by what are little less than ivory
skewers.
The feet are fitted with four or five digits, terminating in
LION'S CLAW — SHEATHED AND UNSHEATHED.
(Natural size.)
strong claws, none of which are ever opposable. Some
animals, such as the lion, walk upon the toes, the under-
parts of which consist of soft, but tough, leathery pads,
which enable the creatures to approach their prey the more
stealthily and with an absence of noise. The bear, on the
other hand, plants the sole of its foot flat upon the ground,
with the consequence that there is less speed and springiness
in its gait. Animals which walk like the lion are called
Digitigrades (Lat., digitus, a finger), and those with the gait
of the bear are called Plantigrades (Lat., planta, the sole of
the foot ; gmdus, a step).
The Carnivora at first glance appear to be of no use alive
to man, and only for the sake of their skins when dead.
There is, however, no waste in nature, and but for these
agile, strong, and cunning destroyers, some of even the
THE CAT FAMILY 107
gentle creatures of the animal world would increase to such
an extent as to prove a positive scourge in the regions which
they inhabit. Except for one family, the Carnivores of the
land are terrestrial animals, but many of them are expert
swimmers, and equally agile climbers.
Most of the Carnivora have the sense of smell most
acutely developed ; their sight is keen, and their hearing
remarkably delicate ; all of which are in perfect accord
with their special construction to overcome the animals
upon which they live.
The Cat, Dog, and the Bear are the most typical of the
beasts of prey, and give their names to the three sections
into which the land Carnivores may be divided. In this
connection we have to bear in mind that such animals as
the Civets and Ichneumons are included with the Cats ;
the Wolf and Fox are allied to the Dog ; and the Bear
section comprises not only the true Bears, but also the
Raccoons and the whole of the Weasel tribe, Otters, &c.
FAMILY FELID^E (CATS).
The Cats are undoubtedly the best developed and the
most beautiful members of the whole order of the Carnivora.
As they are all constructed upon the same principles, our
domestic pussy, which is the only one of the forty species
entirely subjected to man, will well serve as a model by
means of which to point out their chief characteristics.
From the lion, which strikes down and carries off an ox,
down to the frolicsome kitten pouncing upon its first mouse,
all are flesh-eaters and destroyers of living animals. All of
them have rounded heads and a special development of
teeth and claws, together with muscles to control them.
There are three incisor or cutting teeth in the front of each
jaw, next to which are four powerful and sharply pointed
canines, which are popularly called fangs. There are no
true grinders, for even the ten premolars and the four molars
have more or less sharp cutting edges and conical points.
Consequently the Cats cannot masticate their food, but can
only eat by snatch and swallow.
Their hind feet have the full complement of toes, i.e.,
io8 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
five, while the fore feet appear to have only four toes. But
a short examination of a Cat's foot will detect a sharp and
curved claw about half way between the toes and the elbow.
This i dew-claw/ as it is popularly called, is in reality the
nail of the thumb, the joints of which are only developed
sufficiently to carry this claw, which is very useful when the
prey is trying to escape. The Cats, therefore, really possess
five toes on each foot.
The Cats, on account of their mode of life, must be
swift of foot and capable of leaping great distances in
order to capture their prey. The great length of the
projecting heel-bones adds to the leaping power, not
only affording attachment to enormously strong tendons,
but giving an additional leverage to the limb. The
bones of the fore limbs, too, are specially modified, the
ulna being of great length and strength, and projecting
far beyond the radius. There are practically no collar-
bones, the only indications of them being two tiny,
flattened, sabre-shaped bones, which even in the largest
felines are only an inch or two in length.
The reason for this structure is very evident. The
animal, when springing upon its prey, launches itself
through the air, and simultaneously strikes with its fore-
paws. If, therefore, the fore limbs were connected with
the skeleton by a couple of strong collar-bones, those
bones would be broken by the shock, as so often
happens to ourselves, and the animal would be disabled.
But, by their practical absence, the fore limbs are only
indirectly connected with the skeleton, and so the required
elasticity is obtained.
The nails, claws, or talons as they are indifferently
termed, are strong, sharply pointed, and boldly curved
so as to act like hooks. Now, however, comes a diffi-
culty. The efficiency of the claws depends upon their
sharpness, and if the animal were to walk upon them
they would soon be worn down and blunted. Moreover,
they would make a noise at each step, and so prevent
the creature from stealing silently upon its prey. There-
fore the under surface of the toes is furnished with a
large and elastic pad, which gives the noiseless tread,
THE CAT FAMILY 109
although it does not guard the tip of the claw from being
blunted.
This latter object, however, is obtained by a piece of
animal mechanism at once perfect and simple, which
in the accompanying illustration is very clearly shown.
In the lower figure may be seen two tendons, one
passing under the toe, and, when contracted, drawing
the claw downwards. The other, by its indiarubber-like
elasticity, draws the claw upwards as long as it is not
counteracted by the stronger tendon below. Therefore,
when the animal is at rest, or simply walking, the claw
is held off the ground ; but when the lion or any other
THE MECHANISM OF A CAT'S RETRACTILE CLAW.
(Twice natural size.)
of the Cat tribe stretches out its paw to strike an
enemy or its prey, the claw is drawn forwards from its
sheath between the pads and is ready for action. This
structure of the claws is termed ' retractile.'
A few more details of structure must be mentioned.
Both the dog and the Cat are fond of licking the hands
of those whom they love, and we all know by experi-
ence that the tongue of the dog is wet and smooth,
while that of the Cat is dry and rough. The reason is
that the tongue of the Cat has to perform an office
which is not needed by the dog. The jaws and
digestive organs of the latter are so constructed that the
animal can break bones, if they be not very large,
no FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
swallow the pieces, and digest them. In fact, a dog
requires occasional bones to keep it in good health ; but
the Cat can neither crack bones nor digest them. Yet,
when a Cat has torn the flesh from the bones there is
still much meat adhering to them which cannot be removed
by the teeth. Now the peculiar tongue comes into opera-
tion. Its upper surface is covered with a number of
sharply-pointed projections, all directed backwards, and
feeling like a soft rasp ; and with this apparatus is licked off
every particle of flesh adhering to the bones.
The pupil of the Cat's eye is highly dilatable, closing to a
narrow slit in broad light, but opening widely in the dark
to admit all available light, so that the animal can see well
in darkness. The long upper lip is fringed with stiff hairs
or whiskers, the bases of which spring from very delicate
nerves, enabling the domestic cat, for example, to gauge the
size of a hole even when in complete darkness.
The range of the Cat tribe is wide, although it does not
extend into the cold regions so far as the Dogs and the
Bears. Carnivorous and sanguinary to the last degree, it is
fortunate that Cats almost invariably hunt their prey alone ;
if they possessed the instinct of sociality, a troop of lions or
tigers hunting in concert would be an appalling scourge
that man could not withstand.
LION (Felts led).
Coloured Plate V. Fig. 3.
The Lion is a typical Cat save for one feature ; the pupil
of its eye does not narrow to a slit. It is the largest
of the Felidae, standing about three and a half feet
high, six feet in length, and with a tufted tail about a
yard long ; a female or Lioness is somewhat smaller,
but large Lions, weighing as much as 500 Ibs., occa-
sionally exceed these dimensions. The coat varies from
dull tawny to yellow or silvery grey, the ears and tuft at
the end of the tail and the mane of the male being more or
less black. The hair of the wild animal is shorter and closer
than that of one in captivity.
THE LION
in
The mane of the male gives ' the King of beasts ' a very
imposing appearance, but in a wild state few animals
possess the luxuriant adornment that is quite commonly
seen in menagerie-bred animals. On the other hand, the
free animal is far more alert and active, and is particularly
bigger and stronger in the hind quarters than the captive
specimen. There is, too, a marked difference in the eye.
That of the captive breed is brown, not unlike that of a
dog, but in the wild creature it is yellow, scintillating with
fire, and strikingly luminous even after death.
Though in different regions it may differ very consider-
ably in size and coloration, there is really only one species
SKELETON OF THE LION.
(About one-eighteenth natural size.)
of Lion, whether in Africa or Asia. It was formerly
thought that the black-maned and the yellow-maned
animals were distinct species ; but a Lioness in the same
litter will often have black and yellow-maned cubs.
The Lion is essentially an African animal, although its
range extends into parts of Asia, including Persia, India,
and some portions of China. The Indian Lion at least
is making rapid strides towards extinction. For a century
and a half the country has been occupied largely by British
troops and an ever-increasing number of Government
officials and white traders. The sport-loving Briton has
made relentless war upon the larger Carnivores, one cavalry
ii2 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
officer alone, early in the last century, bagging no fewer
than eighty Lions within three years.
In Africa the Lion still ranges from Algeria to the Orange
River. It largely ignores climatic conditions, frequenting
coastlands, the hot sultry valleys, desert regions, as well as
plateaus six thousand feet above the sea, where the winter
nights are cold and frosty. Moffat in British Bechuanaland
in one day saw nine troops of Lions, but naturally the animal
is now scarce in the South, owing to the spread of civili-
sation and the diminution and retreat of the vast herds of
antelopes. Nevertheless, within the last ten years a Lion
has been killed not more than twelve miles from Johannes-
burg.
In 1890, when Mashonaland was opened up by the British
South Africa Company, the Lions were remarkably daring
and offensive, and many narrow escapes were recorded by
the pioneers : —
'One of our fellows spent a very pleasant Christmas
evening. About two or three miles after he had left our
camp with the mails, two Lions attacked the horses. One
creature sprang upon the back of the horse he was riding ;
he was leading the other with the mails strapped on it in
sacks. He managed to swing himself out of the saddle
into a tree. The Lions left the horses and came and walked
about under the tree for seven hours, when one of our
wagons came up and the beasts were frightened away. The
horse he was riding went straight to the next post station,
dreadfully torn ; and the one with the mails was brought in
by natives three days afterwards.'
When the Uganda railway was under construction the
Lions at times created quite a panic. Two ferocious
animals stationed themselves on the Tsavo river, and in
quite a short time they killed twenty-eight Indian coolies
and a still larger number of native workmen. The work of
the section was brought to a standstill until the 'man-
eaters ' were destroyed. At another point on the line, when
a train was in a siding a Lion actually pulled a passenger
out of a sleeping compartment and devoured him.
Yet most travellers and hunters agree that the Lion is not
nearly so formidable an animal, at least in daytime, as is
THE LION 113
generally thought. It seldom meddles with man voluntarily ;
but when man intrudes himself into the Lion's domicile, it
is no wonder that the animal should attack him. Indeed,
the Amatonga tribe did their best to dissuade Baldwin from
killing the Lion, because they looked upon it as affording a
supply of food, killing more than it could eat, and leaving
the rest for them. If a man should come unexpectedly
upon a Lion, the animal will invariably slink off, unless it
should be taken very much by surprise, in which case it
would probably fly at the intruder in self-defence. Says
Gordon Gumming : —
'One day, while out elephant-hunting, accompanied by
two hundred and fifty men, I was astonished suddenly to
behold a majestic Lion, slowly and steadily advancing
towards us. Lashing his tail from side to side and growl-
ing angrily, he displayed a show of ivory that caused the
two hundred and fifty Bechuanas to take headlong flight.
In the confusion of the moment, eight of my dogs were
allowed to escape from their couples. These instantly faced
the Lion, who now became solicitous for the safety of
his little family, with which the Lioness was retreating in
the background. Turning about, he followed her with a
haughty and independent step, growling fiercely at the dogs
which trotted along at either side of him.'
Had she been without her mate, the Lioness would
probably have charged the enemy without consideration of
consequences ; but the male is never to be feared as much
as the female, especially when she has her young to guard.
When she is alone, she is more likely to attack than her
consort ; but even she will rather escape than fight.
Thanks to the many menageries up and down our
country, and the ease with which the Lion is bred in
captivity, there are few who have not heard the Lion's
roar. But a Lion's roar in a menagerie is one thing,
and a Lion's roar in the open country at night is
another. ' Frequently it is a low, deep moaning, repeated
five or six times, ending in faintly audible sighs. At others,
he startles the forest with solemn roars reiterated in quick
succession, each increasing in loudness to the third or
fourth, when his voice dies away in low, muffled sounds
9
FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
resembling thunder.' Gordon Gumming adds that 'the
grandeur of these nocturnal forest concerts is inconceivably
striking, and pleasing to the hunter's ear.' A trooper in
Mashonaland hearing the Lion's roar for the first time was
impressed differently : —
' I have often heard that a Lion's roar is very terrible. It
is ; and if you want thoroughly to appreciate it, you must
be lying in the open with two of them at it less than twenty
yards off, in the middle of the night. The noise is hard to
describe, but it is most like about fifty cows bellowing all at
once, and with a tremendous vibration in it, which goes
through and through you.'
That Lions can be dangerous neighbours, carrying off
much cattle and occa-
sionally killing human
beings, cannot be denied.
Their strength is enor-
mous, and a full-grown
Lion can pull down any
animal except the
elephant and the rhino-
ceros. In Mashonaland
a Lioness killed a hun-
dred pigs in a single
night. She had entered
a range of pens, and
after killing and eating
one animal found that she could not return owing to a
closing door ; the result was that she wandered from pen
to pen in her efforts to escape and put to death every
animal that she encountered. The appetite of a hungry
Lion is enormous. It gulps down huge quantities of meat,
often a good-sized antelope at a meal.
' Man-eaters,' as they are called, are almost invariably
the old and somewhat decrepit animals, too stiffened by
age to catch the active antelope or master the powerful
buffalo. Such Lions take to haunting the native villages in
hope of picking up a stray ox or a child or aged people,
unable to oppose them. There are, of course, exceptions to
the general rule. A ' man-eater ' that killed thirty-seven
SKULL OF THE LION.
(About one-sixth natural size.)
THE LION 115
people on the Majali river was found to be an animal in the
prime of life. But the very existence of man-eaters is dis-
creditable to the villagers, and is due either to their laziness
or their superstition. No one ever heard of a man-eating
Lion establishing itself near any town or village that was
inhabited by Europeans, an elderly Lion having long learnt
the lesson that the white man is an enemy whom it must
avoid if it value its safety. In Algeria the Lion is held in
absurd dread by the natives, whose cowardly behaviour
taught it to consider itself invincible. Consequently they
tamely submitted to the loss of hundreds of cattle annually,
considering them as a sort of tax which they were bound to
pay without demur. Since the French have occupied the
country the Lion has had no such immunity, and has
already retreated to the more inaccessible regions.
Closely connected with the Lion, and, in fact, all the
beasts of prey, is the very important question of cruelty.
Why should one set of animals be allowed to feed upon
another set, tearing in pieces their prey while still living ?
In the first place, we ought not to make ourselves the
standard by which to judge the economy of the animal
world. Man looks forward to the future, and fears death
in proportion to his mental cultivation. The pure savage
has no fear of death, simply because he does not possess
the power of realising the difference between life and
death. So the lower animals live in unconscious enjoy-
ment of life until the last moment. Again, we ought
not to assume that all animals possess equal capacity for
suffering pain. Even in human beings there is a great
diversity in this respect, and the lower the nervous
organisation, the less is the sense of pain.
In no case should man cause unnecessary suffering to the
lower creation over whom he is placed as a master, and not
a tyrant. It is necessary to exterminate beasts of prey, and
creatures of all kinds are needed for the food of man ; but
their death should be effected with the greatest possible
expedition and the minimum of pain. Our treatment of
the domestic animals in particular is often marked by a
thoughtless disregard for the feelings of those over whom
we have dominion. As far as we possibly can we ought to
n6 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
treat all animals as we would like to be treated ourselves,
and :
'Never to blend our pleasure or our pride
With sorrow of the meanest thing that feels.'
Dr. Livingstone has shown us, by his own experience,
that the very shock of being seized by a carnivorous animal
takes away the senses of pain and fear. ' 1 saw the lion
just in the act of springing upon me. Grunting horribly,
close to my ear, he shook me as a terrier does a rat.
The shock produced a stupor similar to that which seems
to be felt by a mouse after the first shake of the cat.
It caused a sort of dreaminess, in which there was no
sense of pain or feeling of terror, though I was quite
conscious of all that was happening. The shake anni-
hilated fear, and allowed no sense of horror at looking
round at the beast. This peculiar state is probably
produced in all animals killed by the carnivora, and, if
so, is a merciful provision by our benevolent Creator for
lessening the pains of death/
Although the Lion is less inclined for battle than for
flight, the task of killing one is fraught with the greatest
danger. Unless it be killed or entirely disabled at the first
shot, the Lion at once turns on its foes, and, like a
lightning flash, is among them, ' a cataract of claws,' as
a spectator happily remarked. It is a remarkable trait
in all the large carnivora, that if they receive a mortal
wound, and do not see whence it was dealt, they quietly
lie down and succumb. But, if they catch a glimpse of
their enemy, they gather all their remaining strength, and
compress into a few seconds the vengeance of a lifetime.
The Lion is mentioned in Scripture more frequently than
any other beast, except the domesticated animals. When
a Lion took a lamb from the flock, David 'caught him
by his beard, and smote him and slew him ' (i Sam. xvii.
34-36). There is also recorded the feat of Benaiah, who
' went down also and slew a Lion in the midst of a
pit in time of snow/ This was a particularly daring
deed, to descend into the pitfall and slay the captive single-
handed.
Plate V.
••;%
' ^ |
f\\ ^
3. Lion
^>
THE TIGER 117
Pitfalls, as means of capturing Lions, are mentioned in
Ezekiel and elsewhere. Spikes were driven into the pits
upon which to impale the falling animal. Nets were used
in another method ; and both pits and nets are still used by
the natives of India.
The Lion lingered in Palestine until about the time
of the Crusades ; it is still found in Mesopotamia, where
it used to afford sport to the Kings of Nineveh. It has
long been kept in confinement by various nations. The
Romans used it for public combats in the arena, and
to gratify a cruel taste in witnessing the destruction of
criminals. The Easterns kept the animal chiefly for
display, and because it was regarded as a symbol of
royalty.
The skin of the Lion is practically of no commercial
importance, and during any one year perhaps not more
than a hundred skins come into the market. The flesh
of the Cat tribe is but little used for food ; but Hottentots
and certain Arab tribes never hesitate to partake of it.
The idea that a person develops the characteristics of an
animal which he eats is very common among many
peoples ; and while Lion-flesh would be given especially to
boys in order to make them strong and courageous, the
flesh of pigs or tortoises would be avoided, lest the eater
should, in consequence, get small eyes.
TIGER (Felts tigris).
Coloured Plate V. Fig. 2.
Far more agile and rapid, the Tiger is more dangerous
than the lion. This animal is wholly confined to Asia,
and is to India what the lion is to Africa. In size it
is at least the equal, if not the superior, of the lion,
whose huge mane often gives it the appearance of being
bigger than it really is. Unfortunately, the Tiger still
survives in great numbers ; it swarms in the Sunderbunds,
the marshy cane-brakes of the delta of the Ganges, and
in the Malay Peninsula generally. Bigger Tigers still are
found in China and Siberia, where the coat of the animal
n8 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
is quite woolly, to enable it to endure the cold. Mr.
J. D. Cobbold shot one in Central Asia in a frozen
snow-covered swamp, where the hunter was almost in
danger of freezing to death.
The largest known Tiger skin came from north of the
Himalaya ; it measured thirteen and a half feet from the
nose to the tip of the tail. But practically our sole
reliable knowledge of the Tiger is limited to the scourge
of India, the largest known skin of which measured
eleven and a half feet.
The markings of the Tiger's fur are very beautiful, a
series of dark, transverse stripes being laid on a rich, ruddy
yellow ground ; there are black rings on the tail. The
skin of the Cat tribe is loose, but in the Tiger it is in
folds almost to bagginess. In their gambols or in their
conflicts among themselves, or with other animals, it is
practically impossible for the foe to get a firm grip of
them.
The countenance of the Tiger is a terrible study in blood
thirsty characteristics. The massive jaws, the fierce, snarling
lips disclosing the great yellow fangs, and the relentless,
glaring eyes make up a whole that thrills one uncomfort-
ably, even when it is viewed through the bars of a cage.
To meet the Tiger in its matchless strength in its native
haunts calls for courage in the highest degree. Even an
experienced hunter like Mr. E. D. Cuming says : ' Speaking
for myself, that green glare of a Tiger's eyes at close quarters
in uncertain moonlight has a distinctly unsettling effect on
the nerves : one can hold steadier when he is not looking.'
In most of its habits the Tiger so much resembles
the Lion that they need not be described. There is,
however, one point in which it exceeds the Lion. Man-
eating lions are comparatively rare, but man-eating Tigers
are fearfully common, and depopulate whole districts. A
single Tiger has been known to tyrannise over a district
of thirty or forty square miles, every village being deserted
by its inhabitants. It destroyed at least a hundred human
beings in one year. Its immunity was due to two causes ;
one being the natural apathy of the Oriental disposition,
and the other the superstitious Hindoo idea that the Tiger
THE TIGER 119
is a supernatural animal, with powers of doing harm even
after death.
Sometimes the man-eater happens to be an old female who
has a family. In this case, the cubs, being reared on human
flesh, are man-eaters from childhood, and it is necessary to
extirpate the whole family before human life is safe. Were
it not for the presence of the British, many a large district
in India would be depopulated. When a Tiger has been
killed, the superstition of the natives again asserts itself.
No sooner has the animal drawn its last breath than the
native beaters rush upon it and try to burn off its whiskers,
thinking that if this be done the animal will be deprived of
its power over them after death. The beauty and value of
a Tiger skin depend on the perfect condition of its whiskers,
and the hunters use every effort to preserve them intact.
But the natives ignore threats, persuasions, and bribes, and
often, even after the skin is packed, obtain access to it to
give effect to their superstitious desires. The paws and the
little collar-bones of the animal are also believed to be
powerful charms against evil.
In connection with the Tiger's liking for human flesh, it
is a remarkable fact that it will usually pick a black man out
of a mixed company, except perhaps in the Malay Penin-
sula, where it appears to regard a Chinaman as a rare
tit-bit. When Chinese convicts in chains were engaged at
work on the roads in the neighbourhood of Singapore, the
prisoners were constantly snatched up by the cruellest foe
that man has in the whole of the animal world.
The strength of the Tiger is gigantic, as may be inferred
from the average girth of the forearm, which is little less
than three feet, the girth of the neck being half a foot more.
The average length of a full-grown male Tiger is nine
and a half feet, and its weight is about 450 Ibs. An
old Tiger always becomes very cunning, and can conceal
itself so effectually that even the keen eye of the native
hunter is often at fault. The fact is that the dark stripes
on the Tiger's fur harmonise so well with the shadows of
the herbage in which the animal is lying, that it is almost
impossible to distinguish one from the other.
The lion, perhaps mistakenly, has been accounted the
120 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
type of heroic animal perfection ; but the Tiger has ever
been viewed as the emblem of bloodthirstiness, treachery,
and unbridled ferocity. The latter is extremely pertinacious,
and, unlike the lion, if its first attack is unsuccessful, it will
not slink back to its retreat, but will pursue its victim with
a speed and activity scarcely credible.
Of the Tiger's fierce and unprovoked onslaughts it would
be easy to afford instances by the hundred, but the following
will serve as an excellent example. A party of naval officers
landed near the mouth of the Hooghly to shoot deer, which
sport they followed for several hours. An eyewitness
writes : —
' About half-past three we sat down on the edge of the
jungle, and had just commenced our meal, when a black
servant informed us that there was a fine deer within six
yards of us. Captain Downing and I immediately jumped
up to take our guns ; mine was nearest, and I had just laid
hold of it, when I heard a roar like thunder, and saw an
immense Tiger spring on Mr. Munro, who was sitting down.
In a moment his head was in the beast's mouth, and he
rushed into the jungle with him with as much ease as I
could lift a kitten, tearing him through the thickest
bushes and trees, everything yielding to his monstrous
strength.'
Though the poor youth was still in the creature's mouth,
four shots were fired at the Tiger, which staggered as it
disappeared. ' A few minutes after, Mr. Munro came up to
us, all over blood, and fell. He lived twenty-four hours in
the utmost torture ; his head and skull were all torn and
broken to pieces, and he was also wounded by the animal's
claws all over his neck and shoulders. But it was better to
take him away, though irrecoverable, than leave him to be
mangled and devoured.'
The following furnishes an example of the muscular
powers of the Tiger. An Indian peasant found a buffalo
in a quagmire, in which it was so deeply embedded that all
efforts to get it out were unavailing. While the man went
to procure the assistance of his friends a Tiger appeared,
seized the buffalo, and dragged it out. When help arrived,
the immense Cat was carrying its prey towards the jungle,
THE TIGER 121
but perceiving the party of men, the Tiger dropped the dead
beast and made its escape. The buffalo was probably
nearly a thousand pounds in weight, or more than twice
that of the Tiger.
It is not only in the open that the Tiger is to be feared ; it
often enters houses at night in search of prey. An educated
Hindoo gentleman had a night encounter second to none
as a blood-curdling experience without a tragic ending.
While he was lying in bed, a huge Tiger entered the room
and peered at him with his glowing eyes through the gauze
mosquito curtains that surrounded the bed ; he was so close
that his fetid breath was in the man's face. The brute
probably viewed the netted bed as a trap and its occupant
as the ' bait,' and the man held his breath in the hope that
the creature's caution would master his desire for a meal.
But the pressure of the tiger's head caused a cord to snap,
and down came the curtains. The spell was broken ! In
the brief instant of respite allowed by the temporary surprise
of the animal, the man slipped between the wall and the bed
and crawled under it. The next moment the Tiger was
tearing the netting and the sheets to shreds, only to find his
prey had disappeared.
Speedily the animal located the man and made a wild
dash to reach him ; but the bed was too low to permit the
huge head to pass under it. By repeated efforts the cruel
head with its fiery eyeballs was forced under the beam,
whose sharp edge peeled the skin off the animal's forehead,
which by no means improved his temper ; but he could
make no further progress, and there man and beast lay
separated by only a few feet ; the one paralysed with terror,
and the other working his horrible jaws as though tearing
flesh to bits.
Perceiving that the animal was fixed as in a trap, the
man again withdrew to the bed, to throw his weight upon
it just above the head of the tiger, which was frantically
endeavouring in the narrow space, where its body was
wedged, to get sufficient leverage to lift up the heavy load.
Calculating his chances to a nicety, the man paid a flying
visit to the next room, where he procured a carving-knife,
the .only weapon available. He returned to the room, and
122 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
leaning over the shoulders of the Tiger, he drove the point
of the nine inches of steel into the animal's heart. There
was a terrific roar, the bed was hurled up and the man was
dashed against the wall to sink into unconsciousness, in
which he was found later by the side of the dead beast,
which he had despatched by that one desperate thrust.
The Tiger is not infrequently trapped, and still more often
it is attracted by the cries of a live bait, and is then shot
by the hunters, stationed on a platform in a neighbouring
tree. From the very nature of the Sunderbunds it is diffi-
cult to hunt the tiger in that region ; but in the Terai, the
jungle belt approaching the foot of the Himalaya, there is
more chance of success by beating the covert with elephants.
* There is something very solemn and impressive about a
tiger beat,' says Major C. S. Cumberland. ' There is a long
line of black backs, the elephants moving at a funeral pace.
Not a sound is heard but the swish of the grass as their
huge carcasses brush along. At intervals down the line the
sportsman stands up in his howdah. Every one is on the
tiptoe of expectation, including the elephants, who know
what they are there for/
Sometimes the Tiger launches itself out of cover and
springs on an elephant, clawing furiously at its hide, which,
tough as it is, receives frightful lacerations. If the elephant
can shake the beast off, it either kneels on it to crush it at
once or gives it a kick that sends it flying twenty paces off
with broken ribs. The elephant may even fall in the hope
of rolling on its enemy, in which case the persons in the
howdah are in considerable danger from friend and foe alike.
' Usually a well-directed shot catches the Tiger fair, and over
he goes. Or he may go on to lie up in a real thick place and
take a deal of finishing, sometimes fighting and charging to
the last, and sometimes dying like a cur, for Tigers, like
human beings, vary much in character/
Mr. Sainthill Eardley-Wilmot, late Inspector-General of
Woods and Forests to the Government of India, returned
to England in April, 1909. During his thirty-five years'
service he killed 130 Tigers, nearly all of which he en-
countered while he was on foot in the course of his daily
duty in the forests and jungles of India and Burma.
THE PANTHER 123
LEOPARD (Felis pardus).
Coloured Plate VI. Fig. i.
Next to the lion and tiger the Leopard, or Panther, is the
largest of the Cat family in the Old World ; it is more widely
distributed, being found wherever the two former animals
dwell, as well as in many regions where they are absent.
There is considerable variety in size and colour, but making
allowance for climatic differences, there is but little change
in the Leopards all the world over. Usually the animal is
from four to five feet in length, with a tail of about three
feet. The ground colour in some cases is nearly white and
in others jet black, but more commonly it is reddish or
yellowish, and marked all over from head to foot and to the
tip of the tail with black spots, each with a paler centre.
Black animals are only indistinctly spotted ; they are
usually found in the Malay Peninsula and neighbouring
islands.
The Leopard is more compact in build than the tiger and
has no vestige of a mane or tail tuft. Although a true Cat
and constructed on the same model as the lion and tiger, it
is very different in some of its habits. If a hunter be
chased by either of the larger animals, and can climb a
tree so far as to be out of reach of the animal's leap, he is
perfectly safe, neither of these creatures being able to climb
trees ; but the Leopard is quite at home in a tree, as even
the agile monkey can painfully testify.
In Africa the Leopard is found from Algeria to within a
few miles of Cape Town. In South Africa, where the Boers
always speak of the animal as the tijger, next to the flesh of
the Klipspringer, the favourite food of the spotted carnivore
is the baboon. The rocks, among which the baboons live,
also afford shelter to the crafty Leopard, and even the
vigorous monkey sentinels cannot always detect the foe in
time to give warning before one of their number is snatched
away. Sometimes two or three ' old men ' baboons will
jointly offer fight to their enemy and rend the Leopard in
pieces.
Small antelopes, bush pigs, rabbits, and birds, none come
i24 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
amiss to the Leopard. It plays havoc with farm stock —
calves, sheep, goats, and young colts. It generally seizes
its prey by the throat, holding on until it is strangled or its
spine is broken.
While civilisation has driven the lion further afield in
South Africa, it is different in the case of the Leopard. Its
numbers have been thinned, but it is difficult to exterminate
an animal that is so strictly nocturnal and which hides in
incredibly small places. It is still found even quite close to
some of the large towns, where there are lurking places and
where food is obtainable. Since the war it has increased in
numbers considerably, for all the Dutch farmers were en-
gaged in the military operations, and consequently there
was no one left on the farms to take the usual toll of the
spotted marauder.
Although seldom a man-eater, the Leopard, when it grows
old, becomes a confirmed cattle-eater, hanging about the
outskirts of villages, hiding itself in a most effectual manner,
and whipping off daily at least a goat, pig, poultry, or
especially a dog, which it almost prefers to a baboon. Some-
times it has recourse to a very cunning device. It takes up
its quarters close to a village, showing itself rather ostenta-
tiously, so as to put the inhabitants on their guard. Then
at night it goes off to another village at some distance and
helps itself at leisure, the inhabitants never suspecting its
presence.
On rare occasions, the Leopard does become a man-
eater, and is then even more dreaded than the tiger,
inasmuch as it can leap farther and can climb trees. Its
cunning, too, is greater than that of the tiger. One of these
animals, which for a long time baffled the hunters, used to
appear suddenly before a village and make an attack upon
it, thus drawing all the armed men and the dogs towards it.
The Leopard would then slink away into the bush, slip
round to the opposite side of the village, which was left
undefended, make a dash into it, snatch up a child, and
make its escape with its prey. It showed its cunning in
another way.
As a rule the large carnivora, when they have taken prey,
eat to repletion and then sleep until they are again hungry,
Plate VL
THE LEOPARD 125
when they return to the carcass and make another meal.
Knowing these habits, the hunters often kill the lion, tiger
and Leopard by lying in ambush near the body of the prey
and shooting the animal when it comes back to its feast.
But this Leopard never made more than one meal from a
victim, never appeared twice in the same place, and often
contented itself with drinking the blood of its prey, not
touching the body. It had also the habit of carrying the
bodies of children into trees and hiding them in the forks
of branches at some height from the ground. Of course, it
killed far more human beings than it would have done had
it made its meals after the usual carnivorous fashion.
On the whole the Leopard is more cowardly than the
lion or tiger. It is, however, particularly dangerous when
wounded, either coming straight for its foe to attack with
teeth and claws, or else it seeks cover to spring out suddenly.
In this latter respect it is certainly worse than the lion, and
what it lacks in size compared to the tiger is more than
atoned for in the greater length of its avenging leap.
An adventure with a Leopard at close quarters is generally
something to be remembered, as illustrated in the following
instance. Two Boers were returning from an antelope hunt
when they met a Leopard in a mountain ravine. Like most
of its tribe, the creature first tried to escape by climbing up
a precipice, but being slightly wounded by a shot, it turned
upon its pursuers with the utmost ferocity. It tore one
man from his horse, bringing him to the ground, biting his
shoulder and clawing his face and arms.
The second hunter fired in the hope of relieving his
friend ; the shot missed, and the infuriated animal turned
upon its new antagonist. In one bound the Leopard was
upon him, tearing his scalp over his forehead ; and in the
same moment man and beast, grappled together, fell over a
steep declivity. In the meantime the first man had re-
covered his gun, but he could do nothing as his friend and
the Leopard rolled over and over to the bottom of the steep
bank. When at length he was able to lay the savage beast
low, it did but hasten its death from the knife wounds of
the hunter, who now lay dying with his throat practically
torn out.
126 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
The Asiatic Leopards are no whit better than their African
cousins : whether in Western Asia, India, China, Siberia, or
Japan, and many a region between, the Leopard bears the
same bad character. Feeding largely on putrid flesh, its
bite more often than not causes blood-poisoning ; and it is
always ready to satisfy its ravenous appetite with anything,
from a cow to a bird on its roost.
In Central Asia is the beautiful Snow Leopard (Felis
uncia), or Ounce, the colour of its long fur being white,
clouded with a delicate grey and resetted irregularly with
black. The tail is long and bushy. A lady kept one as
a pet for a long time, afterwards transferring it to the Zoo,
where it was far more friendly than many cats. The lion
and tiger, too, are frequently tamed, but such animal friend-
ships often end in dire tragedy, the creatures being liable at
any moment to be impelled by some wild impulse to exhibit
their ingrained ferocity.
JAGUAE (Felis onca).
Coloured Plate VI. Fig. 4.
Of the cats inhabiting the New World, the largest and
handsomest is the Jaguar, an animal which the European
residents invariably miscall by the name of tiger. There is
no difficulty in distinguishing the Jaguar from the true
leopards. In the first place, when full grown, it is not much
less than the tiger itself. Moreover, the rosettes of dark
spots with which its fur is adorned have a black spot in the
centre of each group. Then, when the animal is viewed in
front, several bold black stripes are seen to be drawn across
the breast and lower portion of the neck, which is never the
case with the leopards of the Old World.
The Jaguar inhabits nearly the whole of Central and
South America to Southern Brazil, from which it wanders
to the pampas of the Argentine, attracted thereto doubtless
by the vast herds of cattle. In the Amazon valley the
animal lives largely in trees, chasing and catching even
the active American monkeys, in spite of their additional
limb in the form of the prehensile tail. It^would not,
THE JAGUAR 127
however, be so successful did it not trade upon the in-
quisitive and mischievous nature of the monkey race. They
seem positively fascinated by the presence of the Jaguar,
and cannot refrain from lingering in their flight or even
trying to slap the Jaguar on the nose as they fling them-
selves past it. The Jaguar, on its part, bides its time, and,
swift as is the spring of the monkey, the stroke of the savage
paw is swifter still, and the unfortunate monkey falls a victim
to its own vagaries. So swift, indeed, is the blow of the
Jaguar's paw that the animal will take its place at a shallow
bend of a river and scoop out the fish with its broad paws.
The peccary, capybara, and, in fact, any creature furred or
feathered, are all preyed upon by the Jaguar.
The body of the Jaguar is extremely robust, the limbs
short, thick, and muscular ; the head large and square ;
and its whole contour lacks the supple gracefulness that is
so characteristic of its Old World cousin. It is the most
formidable of the American beasts of prey ; for though
it seldom ventures to attack man, especially if on his
guard, it unsparingly destroys horses, oxen, and other
domestic animals. The mode of killing its prey is in-
variably the same ; it leaps upon the back of its victim
and by a powerful movement of the forepaws twists the
head until the neck is broken. It is said that it attacks
and even conquers the alligator on land, but that in the
water the reptile gains the mastery. There appears never
to have been an eye-witness of any such encounter; but
a Jaguar has been surprised when making a meal off an
alligator.
When floods drive the Jaguar from its favourite haunts
and it finds it difficult to secure animals upon which to sate
its ravenous appetite, it will attack man without scruple.
At St. Fe two priests were killed as they entered the church,
where a Jaguar was lying in wait behind the door ; and
more than one traveller can vouch for men having been
seized and carried off while sitting by a blazing camp-fire.
In the settled regions the Jaguar is allowed but little
scope for depredation. No sooner is evidence given of
its presence in a district than a hunting party is arranged
by the planters and ranchers, and they do not rest satisfied
128 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
until they have exterminated the unwelcome visitor. At
any rate, there are not now two thousand Jaguar skins
exported annually from Buenos Ayres alone, as Humboldt
says was the case in his day, when he calculated that quite
four thousand Jaguars were killed in South America every
year.
PUMA (Felts concolor).
Coloured Plate V. Fig. i.
Few animals have been gifted with more names than
the Puma, which is the largest American cat next to
the jaguar. Sometimes it is called the Cougar, but it is
familiarly known by the names of Panther (corrupted into
Painter) and the Lion. The last mentioned name has
been given to it in consequence of the hue of its fur,
which much resembles that of a true lion, being of a
uniform dun. Hence the specific name, concolor, i.e.,
uniformly coloured. In some cases the animal's coat
cannot fairly be described as dun, being more of a
cinnamon colour tinged with gold, while the belly and
chest are white.
Being able to endure great variations of temperature, the
Puma has a wide range, extending from Montana to the
south of Patagonia. In the northern animals the fur shows
a marked seasonal change, being redder in tint in summer
and greyer in winter. Strangely enough, the fur does not
lengthen as a protection against the cold, as does that of
the tiger in Central Asia.
The Puma is much smaller than any of the preceding
Felidae, its total length seldom exceeding six and a half
feet, its height at the shoulder being about twenty-five
inches. Considering its size, it is undoubtedly the boldest
and fiercest of the cats. In the south it will attack the
jaguar, from which it will snatch its still living prey ; and
in the north, with equal fierceness, it will overcome the
grizzly bear.
In addition to preying upon deer, the capybara, viscacha,
the rhea or American ostrich, and many other wild
creatures, the South American Puma is a terrible scourge
PLATE VIII.
i. DOMESTIC CAT.
(See page 131)
2. WILD CAT (SCOTLAND).
(See page 130)
(Photo W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
PLATE IX.
i. CARACAL. 2. CARACAL CUB.
(See page 133)
3. OCELOT.
(See page 130)
(Photos W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
THE PUMA 129
to horse, sheep, and cattle breeders in the order given ; it
has a mania for horseflesh, and the herds of wild horses
are in danger of dying out owing to the constant loss of
their colts. The northern animal is said to eat anything
from deer to mice or fish, not even disdaining the
malodorous skunk or the prickly porcupine.
The Gauchos make very short work of the Puma when
they encounter it. First entangling its feet in the bolas, i.e.,
three cords knotted together, and having a stone or metal
ball at the end of each cord ; and then, casting the noose
of a lasso over it, they gallop away at full speed, making the
helpless body rebound from the earth until the animal is
dead. In the north the creature is relentlessly hunted
with dogs, treed, and shot.
Notwithstanding the ferocious attitude of the Puma
towards quadrupeds generally, it seldom attacks man, and
sometimes will not even defend itself against him, resigning
itself unresistingly to death which it might very easily
escape. When a traveller has been sleeping in a hammock
in the forest, the Puma has been known to lie on the ground
underneath him, as though for the pleasure of human
company. Mr. Hudson, in The Naturalist in La Plata,
says : —
1 It is notorious that where the Puma is the only large
beast of prey it is perfectly safe for a small child to go
out and sleep on the plain. The Puma is always at heart
a kitten, taking unmeasured delight in its frolics.' There
are various stories in proof of this cat's generally harmless
character that would be incredible were they not backed
by good authority. In more than one instance a traveller
would have succumbed to the attack of a jaguar, but that
a Puma came to the rescue and put the bigger carnivore
to flight.
It must, however, be admitted that such pretty instances
of amiability on the part of the South America Puma are
at least quite equalled in number by those in which the
animal displays all the ferocity of its race, crouching and
springing at mankind and biting and scratching in the
manner characteristic of the attacks of the cats. An angry
Puma is generally an opponent to be feared. Its leaping
10
iso FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
powers are enormous ; it can reach with ease the bough
of a tree that is twenty feet from the ground.
There are a large number of smaller tiger cats and
leopard cats, possessing the beautiful coats and all the
bloodthirsty characteristics of their larger brethren. The
Ocelot (Felis pardalis), Plate IX. Fig. 3, of South America
has a body three feet in length without the tail. Its fur
is a mixture of grey and fawn, upon which are drawn
longitudinal partially broken bands of fawn, black at the
margins ; on the neck, head, and inner side of the limbs the
bands give place to irregular spots and dashes. It can be
easily tamed and kept as a pet. Mr. Waterton had one for
some time, and found it very useful in extirpating rats.
The Fishing Cat (Felis viverrina) of India is brownish
grey in colour, marked with dark brown or black spots.
It is supposed to live largely upon fish, but although it
is only two and a half feet in length from the nose to the
root of the tail, it is fully capable of destroying calves, sheep,
and dogs, and upon occasion carries off a Hindoo baby.
There is one very well authenticated instance of the Fishing
Cat's ferocity. A newly captured male broke into a neigh-
bouring cage, where it destroyed a tame female leopard that
was quite twice its size.
The Serval (Felis serval), Plate X. Fig. 3, is a spotted
tawny cat with longer legs than the foregoing. The tail is
ringed with black. It is found from Algeria to the Cape.
It feeds mainly on hares, rabbits, rats, birds, &c., but it is
large enough to pull down and kill the young of the smaller
antelopes.
WILD CAT (Felis catus).
Plate VIII. Fig. 2.
The Wild Cat of Europe is one of the oldest inhabitants
of Britain, but was never known in Ireland. It is now
practically extinct in England, but still lingers in some parts
of Scotland. When one hears of a Wild Cat being seen or
captured in any other part of the country, it is almost sure
to be but a feral cat, or one that has abandoned domesti-
THE WILD CAT
cated habits for a free life in the woods. Animals that
revert to a wild state soon become astonishingly fierce.
It is a matter for congratulation that the Wild Cat is
on the verge of extinction, and the last one will be allowed
to depart without regret, if it is only half as bad as Mr.
Pennant painted it : * The Wild Cat may be called the
British tiger ; it is the fiercest and most destructive beast
we have, making dreadful havoc amongst our poultry,
lambs, and kids. It inhabits the most mountainous and
woody parts of these islands, living mostly in trees, and
feeding only by night.' Upon occasion the animal proved
its bad character to be understated, for in the church at
Barnborough, in Yorkshire, was formerly a rude painting
that testified to the fact that a man died in the church
porch after being attacked by a
cat. Even in captivity the crea-
ture remains absolutely intractable
after years of confinement.
The Wild Cat ranges from the
north of Scotland across Europe
and Northern Asia to the
northern slope of the Himalayas.
In colour its soft and thick fur is
usually grey or yellowish, with a
black streak running down the
back, from which fall transverse
stripes down the sides; the tail is ringed with black. In-
cluding the rather short tail with its obtuse end, the animal
is about three feet in length.
DOMESTIC CAT (Felis domesticus).
Plate VIII. Fig. i.
It is impossible to say at what period cats became
domesticated, but it is almost certain that the Egyptians
were the first to make use of their undoubted good qualities.
The Domestic Cat is smaller than its wild progenitor, and
shows endless variations in colour in the different breeds.
Those most valued are the Persian variety. No animal
exhibits more maternal fondness for its young ; and it
TEETH OF THE DOMESTIC CAT.
(Natural size.)
i32 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
is an exceedingly clean animal. Though the cat is the
most familiar of our domestic creatures it does not attach
itself to persons nearly so much as to houses. Thanks to
its inherent hunting habits it is extremely useful as a
vermin-killer. Notwithstanding that by descent it is a true
carnivore, the Domestic Cat will eat vegetable food.
LYNX (Felis lynx).
Coloured Plate VI. Fig. 3.
Some naturalists consider that the several species of Lynx
ought to form a distinct genus in themselves. They are
decidedly less cat-like than any of the members of the
family already described, especially in their longer legs,
shorter tail, and pointed and tufted ears. The Lynx is a
thickset, square-headed animal, three to four feet long,
exclusive of the tail, with very strong paws and forearms.
The Common, or European, Lynx is found right across
the northern regions of Europe and Asia, extending as far
south as the Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, and Persia.
Owing to its great range and its ability to live in either very
hot or very cold countries, there is considerable variation in
colour. The Common Lynx has soft, thick fur, greyish
or reddish in tint, and usually marked with black spots.
The Southern, or Spanish, Lynx (Felis pardina) is of a
redder shade, while the animal of Central Asia is paler and
more uniform.
It is mainly a nocturnal forest-dweller, hunting small
mammals and birds, following them even up to the tops of
trees. It is the most destructive of the carnivores now left
to plague Europe. To sheep and goats it is a relentless
enemy, killing an animal instantly, devouring but a small
portion of the body and leaving the rest. A single Lynx has
been known to slay forty sheep in the space of a few weeks.
Being seldom seen, the animal is but little hunted unless
it makes forays on the live stock of settled districts. In
Norway the Lynx is now rather rare, but it has a worse
character than the wolf, and in the Balkan Peninsula it
works considerable mischief among the flocks.
THE CHEETAH 133
The Canadian Lynx (Felis canadensis) is a timid, cowardly
creature that is more or less common in the forest regions
of Canada about as far north as the Arctic Circle. It
seldom attacks any of the larger quadrupeds, preferring to
subsist chiefly upon the hare. In this region the animal is
hunted for its fur, and when face to face with the hunter it
rarely does more than set up its hair and spit like an angry
cat ; but a blow on its back is generally sufficient to give it
its quietus. Lynx skins at one time were sent to England
in thousands by the Hudson Bay Company, but the animal
now exists in greatly diminished numbers.
The Caracal (Felis caracal), Plate IX. Figs, i and 2, the
handsomest of the Lynx tribe, is elegant in shape, light
chestnut in colour, and not spotted as are many others of
its kind. It is found throughout Africa, Arabia, Persia,
India, and Tibet. In size it is considerably less than the
Common Lynx. In the East the Caracal is trained to
catch hares and birds, such as peafowl and cranes.
CHEETAH (Cynalurus jubatus).
Coloured Plate VI. Fig. 2.
The Cheetah is found throughout south-western Asia and
in many parts of India, while a variety only differing in its
fur is found in Africa, especially in the dry, open plateaus
of Somaliland, East, and South Africa. In the last-named
region the animal is known as the Woolly Cheetah (Cynce-
lurus laned).
There can be no doubt that the Cheetah belongs to the
Felidae. Its dentition is the same as in the leopard, but it
is a slenderer animal, with a smaller head and longer legs.
There is, however, a marked difference in the claws, which
are only semi-retractile, which has caused modern naturalists
to place the animal in a distinct genus.
The ochreous yellow fur is rather coarse and somewhat
long on the neck and shoulders, forming almost a mane, as
indicated in the specific name. The body and limbs are
covered with circular black markings without pale centres ;
on the under-parts the colouring fades to white. Standing
i34 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
about three feet high at the shoulder and with an extreme
length of seven feet, the Cheetah is well set up and exhibits
nothing of the crouching gait that is a common feature
of the cats ; nevertheless, the leopard itself is not more
secretive and stealthy.
The chief point of interest concerning the Cheetah is the
manner in which it is pressed into the service of man.
When it is captured it is reduced to submission by starving
it and keeping it awake, until it becomes pitifully abject and
ready to be trained to engage in antelope-hunting, which is
the favourite sport of the wealthy natives of India.
The Cheetah, or Hunting Leopard, as it is called, which
soon learns its business as well as any falcon, is placed on
a low car, where it sits quietly by the side of its trainer.
When a party of antelopes is seen the sportsman drives
towards them, but not making directly for their position.
Being accustomed to seeing these vehicles, which are con-
stantly used by the native agriculturists, the antelopes take
no notice of the car, but allow it to pass within a hundred
yards or so. Choosing some spot which will afford cover
to the Cheetah, the keeper removes the bandage from the
animal's eyes and points out the antelopes.
The Cheetah immediately slips off the car, taking care to
do so on the side opposite the antelopes, and creeps swiftly
and warily towards them, skilfully availing itself of any
cover on its way. When it has crept as closely as it can do
without discovery, it dashes boldly upon the antelopes, and
with a few tremendous bounds flings itself upon the nearest
animal, bearing it to the ground. The keeper immediately
runs up and cuts the antelope's throat, so as to make it
lawful meat. He then either cuts off a piece of the leg, or
fills a ladle with the blood and offers it to the hunting cat.
While the Cheetah is busied with its food the keeper slips
the hood over its eyes, replaces it on the car, and looks
out for more game.
FAMILY HY^ENID^E (HYAENAS).
The remarkable animals called Hyenas in some respects
form a link between the cats and dogs. The skull is cat-
THE HYAENA FAMILY
like, while the claws, four on each foot, not being retractile,
resemble those of the dog. They form a small but impor-
tant group, which, like the rest of the animal kingdom, can
only exist where their work lies. Their special office is to
remove from the earth the carcasses and bones of the larger
animals after death. For example, if a camel should die,
the vultures, jackals, and other creatures begin to consume
the soft parts almost before the breath is out of it. But the
bones are beyond their power, and in order to remove them
we have the Hyaenas, whose jaws and teeth are formed for
the express purpose of crushing the bones, which no other
animal can break. The thigh-bone of a buffalo will be
smashed almost with the
sound of the report of a
pistol-shot. It must not,
however, be supposed that
the Hyaena scavenger is
restricted to bones ; quite
as often as not it is on the
scene early to do its share
of the picking.
It is quite evident that the
Hyaena must possess parti-
cularly strong teeth, with
massive jaws and powerful
muscles to work them ; the
enormous bony ridges on
the top of the skull mark the tremendous power in the
jaw, since they indicate the size of the muscles which are
attached to them. The teeth, of which there are four more
than in the cats, are large and strong ; the canines are
smaller and the outermost incisors are much longer than
in the Felidae, and some of the molar teeth have three
cutting edges. The tongue is set with prickly, spike-like
Papilla, which form a powerful rasp.
The Hyaena is notable for the great development of the
front part of the body and the very small size of the hind-
quarters, which fall away rapidly and give the animal a
peculiarly slinking gait. This peculiar formation is visible
even in the skeleton. Its character does not belie its
SKULL OF THE HY^NA.
(About one-fifth natural size.)
136 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
appearance, for, in spite of its terrible jaws, it is a cowardly
creature. Only when driven to bay will it turn upon its
foes and fight with desperate courage, but as a rule it will
not attack any enemy which will boldly face it.
The Hyaena is the veriest pariah of the animal world,
and few writers are able to say anything too scathing
concerning it. In his book upon lion-hunting in Algeria,
Jules Gerard states that the Arabs hold the animal in utter
contempt, and think that if any weapon of war, such as a
rifle, a sword, or a spear, be used against a Hyaena, that
weapon will desert its owner in the day of battle. Some
Arabs, however, are less punctilious, and will not hesitate
to eat the flesh of the animal, although it is so rank and
offensive that even a hungry dog will not relish it.
There are three species of Hyaena, neither of which is
now found in Europe, though the unlovely carnivore once
ranged the Continent, and spread right across Asia to the
shores of the Pacific.
STRIPED HY-ffiNA (Hycena striata).
Coloured Plate VII. Fig. i.
The Striped Hyaena inhabits a large portion of Africa
from Senegal to Abyssinia, and thence into Asia Minor,
Persia, and India as far as the Himalaya. Of a dirty-grey
colour, with darkish transverse stripes on the sides and
limbs, the animal is about five feet in length, including the
tail. It is the size of a large mastiff, with head and neck
of great thickness and enormous strength. Owing to the
bowed and proportionately weak hind legs, its walk is a
shuffling, awkward pace, but it can run with great celerity.
Only the Striped Hyaena is found in India. It is a
solitary animal, and rarely are more than two seen
together. It feeds principally at night, and conceals itself
during the day in its den, among ruins, craggy rocks, or
lonely thickets. As evening draws in the animal com-
mences its prowl, haunting the streets of villages and
towns, where it devours the offal and bones, for in many
Eastern cities the inhabitants pay little heed to sanitary
THE STRIPED HYAENA 137
matters. Cemeteries are favourite resorts, and from freshly
filled in graves it will drag out the bodies that are not buried
deeply. And all the time the hungry beast is on the look
out for living prey, especially the ass, which is its favourite
food, while cattle of all kinds are ravenously devoured.
During the ruthless wars which formerly constantly took
place among the barbarous nations of Africa, Hyaenas and
vultures were regular attendants upon the field of battle.
The dead were left unburied, the vultures gorged their fill,
and the Hyaenas completed the work, so as scarcely to leave
a bone to commemorate the slaughter.
In modern times matters have improved, but it is in-
teresting to note the testimony of Bruce concerning his
encounters with the Hyaena. ' They were,' says he, * the
scourge of Abyssinia. From evening till the dawn the
town of Gondar was full of them. Here they sought
the different pieces of slaughtered carcasses which were
exposed in the streets without burial. Many a time when
the King had kept me late in the palace, on going across
the square, I have been apprehensive lest they should bite
me in the leg. They grunted in great numbers around me,
although I was accompanied by several armed men, who
seldom passed a night without wounding or slaughtering
some of them.
'One night I went out of my tent and, returning imme-
diately, I perceived two large blue eyes glaring at me in the
dark. I called my servant to bring a light, and we found a
Hyaena standing near the head of the bed with two or three
large bunches of candles in his mouth, by keeping which
he seemed to wish at that time no other prey. I was not
afraid of him, and with a pike struck him as near the heart
as I could. It was not until I had done this that he showed
any signs of fierceness, but, upon feeling his wound, he
dropped the candles and endeavoured to run upon the
shaft of the spear to arrive at me, so that I was obliged
to draw a pistol from my girdle and shoot him, and nearly
at the same time my servant cleft his skull with a battle-axe.
In a word, the Hyaenas were the plague of our lives, the
terror of our night walks, and the destruction of our mules
and asses, which are their favourite food.'
138 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
A few writers maintain that no wild animal is more easily
tamed or exhibits more affection, and Bishop Heber re-
corded that in India he saw a Hyaena which followed a
gentleman about like a dog, and fawned on those with
whom it was acquainted. Cuvier, that close observer of
animals, believed that in a domestic state the Hyaena would
' doubtless render to man services of the same kind and
degree as the canine species.'
SPOTTED HY.EINA (Hycena crocuta).
Coloured Plate VII. Fig. 2.
The Spotted Hyaena roams all over Africa between a
line drawn from Senegal to Abyssinia and Natal, where a
few are still to be found. It is more massively built, and
is larger, stronger, fiercer, and more aggressive than its
northern cousin. It measures as much as six feet in
length, including the sixteen-inch tail, and stands nearly
three feet high at the shoulder. Its front and hind legs are
not so unequal in length, and consequently its gait is less
ungainly. Its usual cry is a horrible maniacal sound that
has gained for it the name of the ' Laughing Hyaena,'
although in South Africa it is far more often mistakenly
called the Wolf or Tiger-wolf.
Unlike the Striped species, the Spotted Hyaena largely
hunts in packs, carrying off the animals of travellers that
are tethered near the camp, seizing sheep and calves out of
the herds, and even snatching children from the arms of
their sleeping mothers. Its appetite is most voracious, and
the animal welcomes, if it does not prefer, putrid and
decaying flesh.
The statement requires corroboration, but some travellers
assert that the Hyaena stores up fresh food until it is suffi-
ciently tainted to tickle its palate. Bearing this in mind
was rvnce the means of saving a hunter's life. While he was
unanhed he fell in with a troop of Hyaenas, and with great
presence of mind lay down and shammed death. The
animals examined him, turning him over with their grue-
some snouts, and one gaunt creature bit him on the thigh,
Plate VII.
1. Striped Hyaena
THE SPOTTED HYAENA 139
as if to test the toothsomeness of the prospective meal.
The hunter concluded that he was considered too fresh
for immediate use, for presently several of the Hyaenas
took hold of him and carried him a considerable distance
to a cave, where he was dumped down in what the hunter's
olfactory senses told him was the troop's larder. It was a
ghastly situation. The vile odour of the reeking spot
nauseated him, and yet he dare scarcely breathe lest the
savage beasts should turn upon him and rend him.
At last the Hyaenas took their departure — all save one
animal that was left to guard the meat store. As the man
lay in the foul den he racked his brains how he might evade
the watchful animal that was stationed at the mouth of the
cave. At intervals the Hyaena came and smelt him, until at
the end of forty-eight hours the custodian of the larder set
off to join the troop in a foraging excursion, or may be to
lay information that the body was now deserving of serious
attention. Which surmise was correct the prisoner did not
stay to observe; he at once got on a trail that would lead
him to safety in an entirely opposite direction.
Sir Samuel Baker describes how a Hyaena paid a visit to
his tent at midnight. Lady Baker awoke her husband to
inform him that one of the animals had been in the tent,
but had bolted when she made an involuntary movement.
The explorer's chief fear was that the beast would return
and eat their saddles, so he lay back in bed with his rifle
to his shoulder. In a few minutes the wary creature was
again at the door, thrown into strong relief by the brilliant
moonshine at its back. The explorer seized the opportunity,
the trigger clicked, and the animal fell dead.
It is said that in some of the well hunted big-game regions
the Hyaena has increased rather than decreased in numbers
in recent years. The beast prefers to pick up its food ready
killed rather than hunt it for itself. Frequently wounded
animals escape into dense cover, only to die where the
sportsman cannot find them ; but the Hyaena follows up the
blood trail, to find a meal without any more trouble than is
entailed in the eating of it. In addition to this, many large
animals are shot, and when they have been skinned the
carcasses are useless to the hunter ; and thus every season
i4o FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
the Hyaena finds itself in a perfect paradise of easily
acquired food, which draws still more of its tribe to the
region.
AARD WOLF (Proteles cristatus).
Plate XIV. Fig. 2.
The Aard Wolf of South Africa is sometimes classed with
the hyaenas and sometimes with the civets. It really
belongs to neither, and is rightly placed in an intermediate
group, called the Protelidce. It is by no means a large
animal, its extreme length being about three feet six inches.
Its colour is yellowish gray, banded with dark stripes. The
Aard Wolf, i.e., the Earth Wolf, is a mighty burrower and
sometimes excavates a common habitation, almost if not
quite unique in zoology. Several of the animals will dig as
many burrows, but they will terminate in a common
chamber, though each appropriates to its own use the tunnel
which it has dug. Carrion and white ants form the chief
food of this hyaena-like animal.
FAMILY VIVERRID/E (CIVETS AND
ICHNEUMONS).
This Old World family of animals includes the Civet,
Ichneumon, Mongoose, Genet, Paradoxure, and several
others. The family gains its name from the civet, or pale
yellow fatty substance which is secreted in two little pouches
just under the tail of the true Civet. Most of the animals
are sharp-muzzled, long in the body and short in the leg.
They have five toes on each foot, and while some of them
have the walk of the true cats, others are but semi-planti-
grade; the iclaws, too, are only imperfectly retractile. The
jaws are not so strong as in the cat tribe, but there are ten
more teeth, six extra premolars and four additional molars,
making a total of forty as compared to the thirty of the
cat. The shape of the teeth likewise differs considerably ;
the canines are less pronounced, and the grinders, losing
their shear-like action, have their surfaces raised in little
lumps or cusps.
THE CIVETS 141
CIVET (Viverra civetta).
Coloured Plate VIII. Fig. i.
This animal, a native, of tropical Africa, and especially
common in Abyssinia, is generally known as the Civet Cat.
It varies considerably in size, but averages two to three feet
in length without the fairly long tail ; the height is from ten
to twelve inches. In colour it is yellowish-grey, marked
by dark blotches and broken dark streaks ; the tail is darkly
ringed, the bands getting fainter towards the tip. The
Civet of India (Viverra zibetha), Southern China, and parts
of Malaysia is a slightly bigger animal, with stripes replacing
SKELETON OF THE CIVET.
(One-tenth natural size.)
the spots, and the tail is marked by only five or six broad
bands of white.
In habits the two animals are very similar, hiding in
woods or thick grass during the day, wandering into the
open at night, when they explore the neighbourhood of
habitations. They are very destructive to small mammals
and birds, preying upon fowls and ducks whenever
opportunity offers, but also feeding on snakes, frogs,
insects, eggs, roots and fruits.
The Civet, of either species, when captured, is placed in
a cage too small to allow it to turn round, and two or three
times a week the secretion is removed from the scent glands
with a spoon. At Enfras, in Abyssinia, multitudes of Civets
were kept in captivity for the purpose of supplying the
markets with material for use in perfumery ; Buffon states
that the Dutch also kept large numbers of the animals.
142 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
When civet is mixed with other substances in certain
proportions, the offensive strength of the perfume changes
into an odour, aromatic and fragrant. It is less used now
than formerly, but it is still employed in the preparation of
various scents, and as much as forty shillings an ounce is
paid for the substance.
ICHNEUMON (Herpestes ichneumon).
Coloured Plate VIII. Fig. 2.
The Ichneumon of Northern Africa, Asia Minor, and
the South of Spain is the creature about which so many
improbable stories have been told. Stripping the * travellers'
tales' of their exaggerations, it has been ascertained that the
Ichneumon is a terrible foe to the crocodile, discovering the
eggs which the reptile has buried in the sand and destroy-
ing them without mercy. As the egg of the crocodile is
extremely small, the Ichneumon is obliged to eat many of
them before its hunger is satisfied, and so the number of
crocodiles is sensibly diminished by this one animal.
The Ichneumon does not depend wholly upon the eggs
for its subsistence, but feeds on rats, mice, lizards, and
snakes. It is easily tamed, and was formerly kept in houses,
just as we keep cats, for the purpose of ridding them of
vermin. Even at the present day it is sometimes kept for
the same purpose. The reader will observe that the long,
lithe body, snake-like neck, and slender head are exactly
adapted for following its prey into their hiding-places. The
word 'ichneumon' signifies a ' tracker.'
The common Ichneumon, or Pharaoh's Rat, as it is often
wrongly called, is the largest of the species, measuring a few
inches over three feet, the tail accounting for nearly half of
it. It is peculiarly graceful and easy in its movements, and
endowed with surprising agility ; when irritated or about to
spring on its prey, its eyes become vivid, its hair erect, and
its whole aspect betrays great eagerness and ferocity. The
fur of the little animal is of a uniform silvery grey, the
tip of the tail being black ; but each hair of the body, if
examined separately, will be found ringed with white, dark,
Plate VIII.
1. Civet
S.Arctic Fox
THE MONGOOSE 143
and fawn colour ; its eyes are red, small, and sparkling ; its
voice is soft and murmuring, and it often sits up like a
squirrel in feeding.
MONGOOSE (Herpes tes mungo).
Coloured Plate VIII. Fig. 3.
The Mongoose, or Mungoose, is a native of India, and
in spite of its natural fierceness is quite popular as a
domestic pet on account of its snake-destroying habits,
which make it very useful in that serpent-haunted country.
It is rather a smaller animal than the ichneumon. Even
in England the Indian Ichneumon, as it is termed, is some-
times kept as a pet, and if purchased when young is as
pretty, playful, and affectionate a creature as can be
imagined.
Mrs. Brightwen, that well-known lover of animals, kept
one for years that did not so much as wear a collar to
remind him of captivity. ' He is never so happy as when
curled up in the lap of some indulgent friend ; yet, as
he unfortunately looks like a ferret, many people find it
very hard to believe that he can be perfectly harmless/
Though ' Mungo ' would sometimes absent himself for
hours, he always returned home, except upon one occasion
when he got caught in a steel trap, which necessitated
the amputation of a paw. So well did the wound heal that
the limp could hardly be observed, and the little creature
was as merry as ever, scampering about and playing with
his own tail as lively as any kitten.
When bitten in its fights with poisonous snakes, the
Hindus and Egyptians believe that the Mongoose has
recourse to some plant as an antidote to the poison. In
reality the nimble creature is very rarely bitten at all,
avoiding the darts of the snake with wonderful adroitness.
In any case it would be difficult for the reptile to drive
its fangs through the harsh hair and thick skin of the
Mongoose, which, however, is not afraid of a dose of
poison, for it will eat a cobra's head, poison glands and all.
Rats are another pet aversion of the Mongoose, which
i44 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
has been employed on many occasions to rid ships of the
vermin, &c. In 1871 the sugar plantations of Jamaica were
plagued by rats, until nine Mongooses were turned loose
in the island. Within a few months their numbers were
increased considerably, and very speedily the effect was
visible ; fewer rats were caught in traps, and fewer canes
were destroyed. From that time the island ceased to
trouble about the rats, but as the Mongoose had still to
get a living for itself and family, it behoved the planter
to watch his henroosts ; but it is easier to keep a Mongoose
out of enclosed premises than it is to keep rats out of open
plantations.
Closely allied to the civet is the Genet (Genetta vulgaris),
Plate X. Fig. 2, with its still more weasel-like body,
slender and elongated, its short limbs, and sharp pointed
muzzle. It is a native of Africa, north of the Sahara, which
separates the animals of a great part of the continent in
the north from those of the equatorial belt, as effectively
as though the wilderness of sand was one of the great
oceans. The animal also extends into Syria and the
southern countries of Europe, where it is largely domesti-
cated for the purpose of destroying rats and mice, lizards,
snakes, &c., which often infest houses in warm countries.
Owing to the shortness of its legs, the Genet can make
its way into very restricted spaces in search of its prey.
It is a beautiful grey animal spotted with brown, with
a black muzzle and a ringed tail. The Genet possesses a
scent pouch a little more pronounced than the ichneumon's,
but still very inferior to that of the civet.
The Paradoxures are called Palm Civets, Tree Cats, or
Toddy Cats. The generic name means ' queer- tailed/ because
some of the animals twist their tails screw fashion, bringing
the underside uppermost. The common Paradoxure (Para-
doxurus musanga), the Palm Civet of India and Ceylon,
has a body quite twenty inches in length, with a tail
only an inch or two less. The Binturong (Arctictis bin-
turong) of Burma, Assam, and the regions beyond, is
nocturnal and omnivorous, with a prehensile tail to help its
rather slow movements. The Meerkat or Suricate (Surlcata
PLATE X.
SURICATE. 2. GEXET. 3. SERVAL.
(See page 130)
(Photos W. S. Eerridge, F3.S.)
PLATE XI.
i. FOX TERRIERS. 2. POINTER. 3. GREYHOUND.
THE DOG FAMILY 145
tetradactyla), Plate X. Fig. i, pops in and out of its holes in
the South African veldt like magic ; while the Cynogale
(Cynogale bennetti), an animal of Malaysia, has webbed feet
and very much the same habits as the otter.
FAMILY CANID.E (DOGS).
Under the general title of Dogs are included not only
the Dog proper, wild and domesticated, but also the wolf,
jackal, and fox, each of which constitutes a more or less
natural division among the many species that make up
the family. The Dogs are more widely spread than any
of the foregoing Carnivora, and in those that are to follow
they are second in this respect only to the weasels.
The Dogs, with one exception, have five toes on the fore
feet and four on
the hind, to which
latter a small rudi-
mentary claw is
sometimes added.
The blunt claws
with which the toes
are furnished are
not retractile. In
gait they are all
Digitigrades. The
paw of a dog is not
the perfect weapon
of a cat, and hence
a dog always attacks at once with its teeth, never begin-
ning with a blow of the paw.
It is easy to distinguish the Dogs from the cat tribe
by their elongated muzzle, and with few exceptions their
larger number of teeth, viz., forty-two instead of thirty,
the extra teeth consisting of six each additional premolars
and molars. Their strength of jaw is very great. The
senses of smell, sight, and hearing are very acute. Except
in the fox the pupil of the eye is round and not elongated
as in the cat. When tired by exertion a Dog pants and
lolls out its tongue, through which organ it perspires.
n
SKULL OF THE DOMESTIC DOG.
(One-fourth natural size.)
146 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
In addition to its uses in chewing and swallowing, the Dog's
tongue acts as a cooler and sweater.
In marked difference to the cats, the Dogs are very
gregarious, collecting in packs for the joint hunting of
their prey. They are more intelligent than any other of
the Carnivora, and practically all of them are tamable,
though in varying degrees.
DOG (Cam's familiaris).
Plates XI. and XII.
The Domestic Dog has been from time immemorial the
friend and companion of man ; yet its original stock still
remains a matter of considerable doubt, since, excepting
the wolf and the jackal, we know of no wild beast to which
we can refer with anything like certainty as its primeval
ancestor. Naturalists, however, incline to the belief that
the Dog owes its origin to the wolf or the jackal, or both
together.
The Dog is commonly mentioned in the Bible, but
always in terms of disparagement or contempt. Dogs were
domesticated and tolerated around houses only because
they were considered useful as scavengers. At this day,
every town, from the greatest to the least, in Palestine
swarms with lazy filthy curs that impede pedestrians in the
daytime and howl hideously throughout the night. Doubt-
less the life which the Dog leads in the East tends to make
it mean-spirited and greedy, and being a constant devourer
of offal renders it impossible as a pet.
Of the domestic Dog there are so many varieties, and
their forms are so diverse in shape and size, that if half of
them were described they would occupy the entire volume.
The outstanding feature of the Dog is the creature's affection
and intelligence, and thousands of instances could be given
where training, added to natural instinct and reason, place
the ' friend of man' in the very forefront of the brute creation.
Of our own Domestic Dogs there is a long series of
animals, ranging from the Mastiff, attaining a height of as
much as thirty-three inches at the shoulder and a weight of
THE DOMESTIC DOG 147
one hundred and seventy-five pounds, down to the Toy
Terrier, only a few inches in length. Many of them are
too well known to call for individual description, even if
space allowed, and only those possessing some notable
characteristic will be so much as mentioned.
The Sheep Dog, or Collie, as it is often called, is one of
the cleverest of the Dog tribe. To see it at its best one
must watch its operations amid the hills of Wales and
Scotland, collecting and driving sheep to any point that
its master desires. It is a remarkable fact that, when
alarmed, the sheep will run to the Dog for protection.
The Newfoundland Dog has its feet partially webbed,
which provision specially adapts it for swimming. At times
innumerable it has saved the lives of drowning persons,
who would have perished long before human aid could
have arrived.
The St. Bernard, one of the noblest of the Dogs, for ages
has been trained by the pious monks of the monastery of St.
Bernard in the Alps to rescue travellers who have lost their
way in the snowdrifts in the mountain passes. ' Barry,' one
famous animal, saved no less than forty lives, and lost his
own life while engaged in a further rescue. In our country
there is no opportunity of utilising the St. Bernard's services
in this direction ; but the breed is very popular, and as much
as ^1,500 has been paid for a prize animal.
The Setter, Pointer, and Retriever are particularly useful
sporting Dogs. Either of the two former will go running
ahead, and the moment a bird, rabbit, or hare is scented the
Dog stands still, with its limbs rigid and tail stretched out
behind it. This action is called a l point,' and indicates to
the sportsman the presence of game. When the game has
fallen to the gun, the Retriever will bring it to the foot of its
master. Upon one occasion a wounded partridge escaped
into a ditch, from which a little later the dog emerged,
carrying a rusty old kettle by its handle, which to the
amusement of the party it added to the heap of dead game.
Only then was it discovered that the partridge had taken
refuge in the kettle.
The Chow, something like the Pomeranian breed in shape
is a popular pet Dog in England. It is often a shade of red
i48 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
or black, and its tongue is blue-black in colour. The Dog
is better off in England than in its native home, for John
Chinaman views it as a special delicacy, and fattens it up for
the table.
It must be remembered that all the different ' breeds ' are
purely artificial, and if a number of mastiffs, greyhounds,
bulldogs, poodles, terriers, &c., were landed upon an
island where they could obtain food, but would not see a
human being, in a few years all the ' breeds ' would vanish,
and in a few more their descendants would revert to the wolf-
like semi-wild Dog, which still infests the cities of the East.
To return, however, to the original stock of this useful
animal. There are evidences that the Domestic Dog existed
among the prehistoric savages of Europe, and in some of
the ancient nations was worshipped as a god. May we not
believe that when man 'went out to till the ground from
which he was taken ' the Dog was expressly given to him as
his assistant and ally? Of all animals the Dog alone is
identified with its master's interests and pursuits ; other
animals may be said to endure his dominion, but the Dog
is one of the family, knows his looks, his voice, his walk,
rejoices at his approach, solicits his notice, and defends his
person.
ESKIMO DOG (Cam's familiaris var.).
Plate XII. Fig. i.
This variety of Dog deserves extended notice if only
because it is a necessity of life in the northern regions. Its
size is about that of a mastiff, and it has a firm, muscular
figure, thick furry hair, and bushy tail curled over its back.
When it sleeps, it can curl its tail over its nose, tuck its feet
under its body, and be warm during its repose amid an
intenseness of cold that words can scarcely convey. Besides
possessing this thick coat, the Eskimo Dog is an astonish-
ingly hardy animal, capable of sustaining life under condi-
tions that any other breed would find intolerable.
Inhabiting the arctic regions of the American continent
and the adjacent islands, the Eskimo look to their Dogs for
assistance in the pursuit of the seal, the bear, or the rein-
PLATE XII.
I. ESKIMO DOG. 2. POODLE. 3. NEWFOUNDLAND DOG.
PLATE XIII.
i. CAPE HUNTING DOG. 2. DINGO.
(See page 151)
(Photos W. S. Ben-idge, F.Z.S.)
THE ESKIMO DOG 149
deer ; nor is this all : they yoke them to heavily-laden
sledges, which with untiring patience these animals will
drag from one hunting ground to another. The following
extract is from Captain Parry's Journal of a Second Voyage
for the Discovery of a North-west Passage : —
' When drawing a sledge, the Dogs have a simple harness
of deer or seal skin going round the neck by one bight and
another for each of the forelegs, with a single thong leading
over the back, and attached to the sledge as a trace.
Though they appear at first sight to be huddled together
without regard to regularity, there is, in fact, considerable
attention paid to their arrangement, particularly in the
selection of a dog of peculiar spirit and sagacity, who is
allowed by a longer trace to precede the rest as a leader.
' The leader is usually from eighteen to twenty feet from
the fore part of the sledge, and the hindmost dog about half
that distance, so that when ten or twelve are running
together, several are nearly abreast of each other. The
driver sits quite low, on the fore part of the sledge, with his
feet overhanging the snow on one side, and having in his
hand a whip, of which the handle is eighteen inches, and
the lash more than as many feet.
'Though the Dogs are kept in training entirely by the
fear of the whip, and, indeed, without it would soon have
their own way, its immediate effect is always detrimental to
the draught of the sledge, for not only does the individual
that is struck draw back and slacken his trace, but generally
turns upon his next neighbour ; and this passing on to the
next, occasions a general commotion, accompanied by the
usual yelping and showing of the teeth.
' The Dogs then come together again by degrees, and the
draught of the sledge is accelerated ; but even at the best of
times there is the constant entanglement of the traces, by
the dogs repeatedly doubling under from side to side to
avoid the whip, so that after running a few miles the traces
always require to be taken off and cleaned.'
With ' good sleighing ' — that is, on good roads — ' six or
seven dogs will draw from eight to ten hundredweight, at
the rate of seven or eight miles an hour, for several hours
together.' With a smaller load they will run ten miles an
i5o FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
hour, and are, in fact, almost unmanageable. To the
women, who nurse them when they are ill and treat them
with greater kindness than the men, the Dogs are affec-
tionate in the highest degree. From the men they receive
little except blows and rough treatment ; still they are faith-
ful and enduring.
WILD DOG.
In various parts of the world there are Wild Dogs, of
which it is impossible to say whether they are of the
original stock, or whether they are the descendants of once
domesticated animals, which at some time deserted into
the woods, in a country where game abounds, there shifting
for themselves and becoming the ancestors of a numerous
race.
The Pariah Dogs of India are a sort of half-domesticated
breed, which roam about the towns and villages, where
they fulfil the office of scavengers, devouring the offal of
the markets and clearing the streets of refuse. They are
generally ugly brutes, coarse-skinned, blear-eyed, and
scrubby-tailed. Though treated kindly by the public, they
are absolutely ownerless, and have no idea of human com-
panionship. In the large cities the Dogs divide themselves
into communities, each of which is restricted to a certain
area, and if an animal strays from its own quarter of the
town it is immediately driven back by the pack into whose
domain it has intruded.
These remarks apply not only to the Dogs of India, but
of other Eastern countries also. It is the same dog that is
so often mentioned in the Scriptures as a ravening beast ;
which licked up the blood of Ahab ; and which so terribly
fulfilled the prophecy that ' the dogs shall eat Jezebel in the
portion of Jezreel, and there shall be none to bury her/
Quite different is the Red Dog of the Deccan. It is not a
city dweller, but roams in troops through the jungles. It
is individually a match for any of the smaller mammals, for
it is ferocious and wonderfully bold ; but in the pack it will
cause even the tiger hastily to desert its freshly caught prey
and take refuge in the low fork of a tree, there in impotent
wrath to watch the disappearance of its meal.
THE WOLF 151
The Cape Hunting Dog, or Wild Dog of Africa
(Plate XIII. Fig. i), represents a distinct genus, for it
has only four toes on each of its feet, and is spotted
something like the hyaena. Hunting in packs, it is the
scourge of the continent, and in particular it lays a heavy
toll upon the antelope family. In the neighbourhood of
settlements these organised marauders will kill cattle and
sheep. Dashing into a herd near a house, the Dogs will
select an animal and drive it away over the nearest rising
ground. Once over the ridge, they kill it and pick its bones
before a horse can be saddled and some one come to the
rescue.
The Dingo (Plate XIII. Fig. 2) was at one time
extremely numerous throughout Australia and New Zea-
land ; in the former it is getting rare, and in the latter
it has been exterminated. The early colonists suffered
immense loss from the raids of the Dingo, which, some-
thing like the fox in its life and habits, would play havoc
with the sheep and poultry. The animal is interesting as
being one of the few Australian mammals outside the
Marsupial group ; and no end of discussion has waged
around the question whether it is really an indigenous
animal or a descendant of some of the Dogs of Asia, intro-
duced into the island long ages ago.
It is a point worth noting, as bearing upon the probable
origin of the domesticated Dog, that the various wild
species are easily tamed when caught young, and that the
domesticated and the wild animals often breed with each
other. A wolf and a dog or a jackal and a dog will mate
together, but a fox and a dog never.
WOLF (Cants lupus}.
Coloured Plate VII. Fig. 3.
Different species of Wolves rank next to the bears as
formidable beasts of prey in the northern parts of both
the Old and the New World. The European Wolf is
coated with thick, coarse, yellowish-grey hair. Standing
about two feet high, it measures over four feet from the
152 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
end of the nose to the tip of the tail, though in exceptional
cases it is nearer six feet. In character it is skulking,
cowardly, savage and voracious.
The Wolf is noticed in several passages of the Holy
Scriptures, and always with an allusion to its cruel and
savage disposition. The animal still abounds in the colder
and more mountainous parts of Europe, and in winter the
depredations of the packs are a serious matter. During
severe weather Wolves from the Carpathian Mountains and
from Russia cross the frozen rivers as far as to the Ardennes
Forest in the south-east of Belgium. In the early part of
last century, in Livonia, a province of Russia, only six times
the area of Yorkshire, in one year Wolves destroyed nearly
two thousand each of horses and cattle, fifteen thousand
sheep, over two thou-
sand goats, and four
thousand swine,
together with calves,
lambs, kids, dogs, geese,
and fowl in smaller
numbers.
We can readily be-
lieve that the Wolf was
SKULL OF THE WOLF. at one time a terror in
(Nearly one-fourth natural size.) England. The month
of January was called
' Wolf-monat ' by our Anglo-Saxon forefathers, ' because
people are wont in that moneth to be more in danger to be
devoured of Wolves than in any season of the yeare.' King
Edgar forced the Welsh to pay him annually a tribute of
Wolves' heads, but the animal was common in English
forests for many centuries after Edgar's reign. Like the
eagle, the beast lingered in Scotland long after it was
extirpated from England, the last specimen being killed in
1680 ; and in Ireland it survived still longer, for in the
eighteenth century a reward was claimed for Wolf-killing.
The history of the Wolf in Europe is a tragical record.
It rarely attacks man except under stress of extreme hunger ;
but there are many stories told of packs of Wolves chasing
sledges in winter. By taking advantage of a characteristic
THE WOLF 153
of the Wolf, a well armed traveller has often reached a place
of safety. When the pack is in full cry and the occupant of
the sledge fires into them, the wounded animal is at once
fallen upon by its companions and devoured. During this
respite the sledge has made good progress, only to be over-
hauled again by the hungry beasts, when the driver repeats
his manoeuvre. Sometimes the ammunition has failed and
horses and travellers have been devoured.
Almost incredible are the tales which are told of the
ferocious obstinacy of the Wolf when it casts aside its
natural fear and dread of man. A man-eating Wolf is more
to be feared than lion, tiger, or leopard. It is a dog, and
has far more intellect than any of the cats. It has a way of
working in concert with other Wolves, one diverting atten-
tion while the other makes off with the prey. No one ever
heard of a troop of lions, tigers, or leopards chasing prey in
concert. A lion and his mate will sometimes work together,
but the capacity for chasing prey in packs belongs to the
dogs and not to the cats.
' In the commencement of the reign of Louis XIV., in the
depth of winter and of the snows, a large party of dragoons
was attacked near Pontarlier, at the foot of the mountains
of Jura, by a multitude of Wolves. The dragoons fought
bravely and killed many hundreds of them ; but at last,
overpowered by numbers, they and their horses were all
devoured. A cross is erected on the place of combat, with
an inscription in commemoration of it, which is to be seen
at this day.'
By taking joint action the Wolf is enabled to overcome
other animals that would outrun or overpower it singly.
Half-a-dozen Wolves will stalk an antelope and stealthily
form a cordon round it, or drive it to a point where one
of their number is lying in ambush. Buffaloes, too, are
killed by the brutes in an ingenious manner. In an ordinary
way and with ordinary animals a buffalo is a tough cus-
tomer, but the Wolves contrive their business very effectively.
They drive the doomed animal to the edge of a cliff, over
which they force it by flying at its nose. Their purpose
accomplished, the Wolves jog quietly down and pick its
bones.
154 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
The cunning of the Wolf sometimes degenerates into
cowardice. It is afraid of anything that looks like a trap,
and will never venture into a space which has been en-
closed by poles connected by a rope. In Norway the
electric telegraph proved quite an unexpected blessing.
The wolves mistook the wires for a new kind of trap and
never dared to pass beneath them.
Notwithstanding all that has been said of the naturally
savage disposition of the Wolf, it has sometimes become
domesticated ; but, as in the cases of tame lions and tigers,
the result is more a proof of the triumph of the dominating
art of man, than evidence of a relenting nature in the
animal. In Munich was once to be seen a vehicle drawn
by two enormous Wolves, which a Russian merchant had
captured when very young and tamed to his service.
The true Wolf, restricted to the Northern Hemisphere, is
found all over Europe, Northern, Central, and Western
Asia, Northern America and the North of Africa. Except
in a few regions the animal is the common species, whose
habits are more or less similar all the world over. In the
more northern regions of America and Asia, in winter it
may have a lighter coat ; but an albino Wolf is little more
than a freak (Plate XV. Fig. 2). The Indian Wolf
(Canis pallipes) is less gregarious than the common species,
and in some districts makes a speciality of preying upon
children. The superstitious natives believe that the little
victims are sometimes suckled by the she- Wolf, who thus
completely changes their nature. In early times European
nations held somewhat similar beliefs, e.g., the Anglo-Saxon
Were-Wolf was a mythical being, who could assume the
form and nature of a Wolf at pleasure, delighting in human
flesh and deeds of horrid cruelty.
The Coyote, or Prairie Wolf (Canis latrans), Plate XIV.
Fig. i, of the United States and Southern Canada is smaller
and not nearly so ferocious as the common Wolf, although
it is the unrelenting foe of all young creatures. When
animal food fails, however, the Coyote readily makes up
for the deficiency with leaves and berries. Just as in the
old days packs of Coyotes followed the prairie caravans, so
now do the animals station themselves along the trans-
THE JACKAL 155
continental railway lines in the hope of picking up the
waste scraps thrown from the dining cars.
JACKAL (Canis aureus).
Coloured Plate VII. Fig. 4.
The Jackal rather exceeds a large fox in size, though its
tail is not so long proportionately, nor so bushy as in the
latter animal. It is an inhabitant of the Old World, the
common species being found in the South-east of Asia and
onwards to India and Ceylon, and practically the same
animal ranges through Egypt and Abyssinia. Several other
species extend throughout Central and South Africa from
Nubia to the Cape.
The common Jackal of India shows considerable variation
in colour, but as often as not it is mottled black, grey, and
brown on the back, with the under fur brownish yellow ;
the limbs are more or less foxy red, with the tail a darker
shade. The name aureus is derived from the yellowish
tinge of the fur.
The Jackal only measures from two to two and a half
feet without the tail ; the ears are pointed ; the pupils of
the eyes are round, and the skin exhales a strong and
offensive odour. It hunts in troops or packs, pursuing the
antelope and other animals for its prey, as well as rendering
useful service in clearing the country and suburbs of towns
and villages of carrion in every stage of putrefaction. The
animal has been called the ' lion's provider/ and is popularly
supposed to hunt down the quarry for the royal beast. It
is far more likely that when the cry of the Jackal is heard
the lion makes its appearance, and seizes without any
ceremony upon the booty, leaving the Jackals to clear up
the remains of the repast.
Most travellers agree in the terrific effect which the cry,
or rather shriek, of the animal produces, resounding during
the stilly darkness of the night from a hundred throats.
In many cases the fox of the sacred writers more properly
refers to the Jackal, especially where mention is made of
feeding upon carrion. The fox is not a carrion-eater by
156 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
choice, whereas the Jackal prefers it, and resorts even to
graves and cemeteries to satisfy its ghoulish taste. We read
that Samson ' went and caught three hundred foxes and
took firebrands/ which he tied to the animals for the pur-
pose of burning the cornfields of the Philistines. The
difficulty of procuring three hundred foxes would be very
great, since the animal is not gregarious and would require
to be captured singly, whereas Jackals might be captured in
a drove.
The Black-backed Jackal (Canis mesomelas) of South
Africa is the handsomest of its race, having its back adorned
with black, broken with silvery hairs and tufts. During the
South African War the Jackals, like the leopards, very
greatly increased, owing to there being no men on the farms
to keep down their numbers. This animal is particularly
destructive to sheep and lambs, leading to Government
rewards for its capture, viz., seven shillings and sixpence
per head.
In India and South Africa sportsmen often regularly hunt
the Jackal in the same manner as the fox is chased in
England. The animal can be tamed with ease, and exhibits
most of the manners of the dog, even to the wagging of the
tail when pleased. In a few generations it could be com-
pletely domesticated and rendered capable of useful service
to man.
FOX (Cam's vulpes).
Coloured Plate VIII. Fig. 4.
Of the common Fox, our own British animal, the terror
of the farmyard from its voracity and the favourite object
of the chase in England, almost endless interesting informa-
tion might be afforded. If the animal had not been pre-
served for purposes of sport, in the British Isles it would
long ago have been as extinct as the wolf. With slight
variations in size and strength and colour, the common Fox
is found throughout Europe, Northern and Western Asia,
and Northern Africa ; in India and North America are
various allied species.
The British Fox, as represented in the coloured plate, is
PLATE XIV.
I
i. PRAIRIE WOLF.
(See page 154)
2. AARD WOLF.
(See page 140)
(Photos If. S. Bet-ridge, F.Z.S.)
PLATE XV.
i. FENNEC.
(See page 159)
2. ALBINO WOLF.
(See page 154)
(Photos W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
THE FOX 157
mainly of a reddish-brown colour, with the under parts and
the tip of the tail white ; the outer surfaces of the ears and
some portions of the limbs are often quite black. It is
about two feet in length, with a bushy tail a foot or more
long, which chiefly distinguishes the animal from the dog.
Another point of difference is that the pupil of the eye is
less round and contracts into a mere slit, for which reason
chiefly the Fox is sometimes classed in a genus separate
from the dogs.
The Fox is generally a solitary animal, living in an ' earth '
of its own excavation, although it sometimes appropriates
the burrow of the badger. It is practically omnivorous in
diet ; its general prey consists of hares, rabbits, and ground
birds, rats, mice, and even frogs, beetles, and worms. It
has a mania for poultry, as the British farmer often learns
to his cost.
The cunning of the Fox is proverbial, and space alone
prevents a description of some of the artifices to which it
will resort to outwit the hounds. After a chase of no less
than twenty-seven miles a hunted animal has finally escaped
from its foes; and although not supposed to be a tree-
climber, in the forest of Savernake a Fox was found hiding
in the foliage at a height of thirty-seven feet above the
ground. One more instance of the creature's cunning
and courage must suffice.
A well-known taxidermist had the body of a Fox sent to
him to be stuffed. The animal had only three feet, but on
opening it the missing foot was found in its stomach. There
could be no doubt that the Fox had been caught by the
foot in a trap, and, in order to escape, had bitten off and
swallowed the imprisoned limb. Rabbits, when similarly
caught, tear themselves away, leaving their feet in the trap,
together with the sinews ; while the cat, when taken in a
snare, seldom has the courage to tear itself away, and never
would dream of biting off the limb.
In affection for its offspring the Fox is scarcely surpassed
by any other animal. The vixen seldom has more than
five cubs, and she will defend them with great courage.
More often, however, she exercises her wits to protect her
progeny. When she has suspected that her den has been
158 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
discovered, she has been known to remove the litter a
distance of three miles in a night. She could only carry
one of her young at a time, and if the cubs numbered four,
their removal entailed journeys that totalled up to twenty-
one miles.
All Fox skins are of value, and where the animal exists
in great numbers they become an important article of
export. In South America is found the Cross Fox (Canis
decussatus), a red Fox with a black cross on its neck and
shoulders. A skin of this animal is worth several pounds.
It should be noted that the price of furs varies constantly
according to the supply, and not a little on account of
changing fashions.
ARCTIC FOX (Canis lagopus).
Coloured Plate VIII. Fig. 5.
The Arctic Fox is common within the Arctic Circle. It
is smaller than the red Fox, and is coated with thick,
long hair quite to the soles of its feet. In summer it is a
grey or even a bluish shade ; but, in common with other
polar animals, the fur lightens in winter to a pure white.
Late in autumn this species collects in multitudes in such
regions as Hudson Bay, migrating southwards, where they
remain until the following spring. Trappers capture the
animal in vast numbers ; the skins are useful, but less in
value than those of the red Fox.
In some of the islands of the Bering Sea the Blue Fox is
reared for the sake of its valuable fur. This species retains
its colour all the year round. The animals feed chiefly on
seal flesh, of which, in the sealing season in particular,
there is plenty and to spare.
Another native of Northern America is the Black or
Silver Fox (Vulpes argentatis). The animal is exceedingly
rare ; its fur is among the most valuable in the world. Its
colour is a deep black, the long hairs all terminating in
white, which produces a singularly beautiful effect, whence
the title ' silvery.' The imperial pelisse of the Czar of
Russia, made of the black necks of the Silver Fox, was
exhibited at Hyde Park in 1851. It was valued at £3,500.
THE WEASEL TRIBE 159
FENNEC (Cants zerda).
Plate XV. Fig. i.
There are many species of Fox, but none so quaintly
pretty as the Fennec of Northern Africa. It appears to
have been first noticed by the celebrated traveller Bruce,
who discovered it during his endeavours to reach the source
of the Nile. Its ears and tail are so large and its body is so
small that it looks as if it were made of a pair of ears and a
tail, to which a body had been attached as an afterthought.
From the nose to the root of the tail the Fennec measures
barely a foot, the bushy appendage being eight inches in
length. Its colour is pale fawn and its eyes are blue.
Like the rest of the foxes, it is nocturnal in its habits, and
remains during the day in holes and burrows which it digs
in the sandy soil.
FAMILY MUSTELID^:.
This family forms a most heterogeneous collection of
carnivorous animals, which are found in all parts of the
world with the exception of the West Indies and Australasia.
Differing much among themselves in size, and including
burrowers, tree-climbers, and animals distinctly aquatic, it
would be almost useless to attempt to describe characters
common to all, except certain physiological similarities, as,
for example, the organs of digestion.
Many of these animals are classed as ' vermin/ but that
derogatory term does not depreciate the value of the
magnificent furs with which many members of the family
are coated. Numerous as the animals are, they conveniently
divide into three sections, or sub-families :—
1. Musteline?, or true Weasels, e.g., Weasel, Marten,
Polecat, Stoat, Glutton, &c.
2. Melince, e.g., Badger, Skunk, &c.
3. Lutrince, or Otters.
Sub-Family Mustelinse.
The majority of these animals are small, the Wolverene
being quite a giant among them ; but even the smallest
160 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
of them possess strength out of all proportion to their
size. The muzzle of the small head is pointed; the teeth
are sharp and thoroughly carnivorous in character. Their
relish for blood is strong, and only their inferiority of
size prevents their being among the most formidable of
animals. Their bite is keen and deep, and they generally fix
upon a vital part where some large vein invites them, and
there hang until their victim expires. From their slender,
elongated figure they are termed vermiform (or worm-like)
mammals. They worm their way in and out of the smallest
crevices where it could hardly be supposed possible for
them to enter ; and they climb with remarkable adroitness,
thanks to their short, strong limbs and sharp claws. More
or less nocturnal in habit, the Weasel tribe carry death to
every creature smaller than themselves and to not a few that
are much larger. Most of the Weasels give off a disagree-
able odour from glands which are placed beneath the root
of the tail.
WEASEL (Putorius vulgaris).
Coloured Plate IX. Fig. 6.
The whole of the true Weasels are terribly bloodthirsty,
and the common Weasel, the smallest and commonest of
its race, is second to none in its determination and fierce-
ness. The animal is found in most countries of Europe
and is still more abundant in North America. The generic
name (putorius) means bad smelling.
The Weasel is but seven or eight inches in length with-
out the tail, which is another two and a half inches. The
body is remarkably attenuated and cylindrical, the flattened
head, with its pitiless eyes, merging almost imperceptibly
into the neck and the neck into the body, this worm-like
formation enabling the creature to thread even the under-
ground galleries of the field mice.
Being an expert climber, the Weasel preys upon birds,
their eggs and young. It can run along the top of a hedge
with almost the facility of a bird hopping from twig to twig.
Rats and mice are its commonest prey : one bite on the
back of the head pierces the brain, which the fierce little
Plate IX.
7. Ferret
8. Mink
THE WEASEL 161
animal at once devours as a special delicacy. Birds are
generally first bitten under the wing, where the great blood-
vessels lie. By destroying rodents, especially when it takes
up its quarters near hay and corn ricks, the Weasel renders
good service to the farmer ; and in 1892, when the
Lowlands of Scotland suffered from a plague of voles,
the Weasels increased in numbers enormously.
As the Weasel breeds at least twice a year and preys upon
game birds as big as the pheasant and grouse, the game-
keeper makes relentless war upon the miniature tiger, which
not infrequently hunts in parties of as many as eight or
nine. Small as it is, the Weasel, when incensed, will attack
any being which it considers to be an enemy. It has been
seen to fly at a cow and hang on her dew-lap because
SKELETON OF THE WEASEL.
(One-fourth natural size.)
she took the liberty of feeding on some grass which grew
on the stone-heap in which the Weasel had made its home.
A kite has been known to swoop down upon a foraging
Weasel, only to find, when up in the air, that the prospective
prey turns to a bloodthirsty aggressor. With the blood-
vessels under its wing completely lacerated, the bird
gradually sinks back to earth again, while the Weasel
remains unhurt to make a meal of the fierce bird of prey.
Many instances are recorded where Weasels have even
attacked human beings, swarming out of their holes and
making a combined assault upon the enemy. In such cases
they are most dangerous foes, for they always make for the
face and neck, screaming with rage, and biting cruelly with
their needle-like teeth. Upon one occasion a farm labourer
was beset by half a dozen Weasels, and although armed
with a large cart-whip, the man was unable to keep the
12
162 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
fierce little creatures off his body. Not until he secured a
stout stake, with which he killed three of his assailants, did
the remainder seek safety in the crevices of a neighbouring
rock.
The Weasel is capable of being tamed, and is said to be
one of the most delightful of pets, cleanly in the extreme,
and as playful and inquisitive as any kitten. Most persons,
however, would prefer to accept the statement without
actually putting it to the test, for the average Weasel is in
reality as little likely to modify its nature as is a leopard
to change its spots.
STOAT OR ERMINE (Putorius erminea).
Coloured Plate IX. Fig. 3.
The Stoat differs from the Weasel only in its greater size
and certain distinctive features in the colouring of its coat.
It is found throughout Europe and Asia as far south as the
Alps and the Himalaya respectively, and also in many
parts of North America. It averages about ten and a half
inches in length, with a tail of six inches, including the long
fur at the tip.
In England the Stoat has a beautiful coat, reddish-brown
above and yellowish-white below, while in winter it becomes
more or less yellowish-white all over. In very cold regions
the fur changes to pure white, except the tip of the tail,
which is black. This white-clothed animal is the Ermine,
whose fur is in great request.
The Stoat outvies the weasel in its absolute passion for
killing for killing's sake. It is the deadly enemy of all small
animals ; and when it enters a rabbit warren, for example,
it ruthlessly destroys all the young ones, even when it is
gorged with blood and flesh. Game preservers view the
Stoat with positive hatred, and Mr. Westell states that he
has seen as many as fifty hanging on one keeper's vermin
pole. The reason is not far to seek when one hears of fifty
pheasant eggs being found in the retreat of one pair of
Stoats. Not one of the eggs was even cracked 1 In
another hole were found a couple of dead but unmutilated
THE POLECAT 163
leverets, a brace of young partridges, and a pheasant's egg,
together with the heads of two leverets in a state of decom-
position. This appears to bear out that the animal is fond
of putrefied flesh, and that it hoards up food until it is
sufficiently 'high.' The back of the neck or the throat is
the spot in its prey which the Stoat seizes, and it will cling
to its victim, ravenously sucking its blood, even when it is
picked up.
The white coat of the Ermine is the royal fur of England
as well as of the sovereigns of Europe. The robes of the
Pope and Cardinals of the Church of Rome are also
adorned with the fur according to their rank. Edward III.
forbade the use of ermine by any persons except those
of royal birth. In our country, nowadays, it is officially
worn by royalty, the nobility, and judges. The fur is
ornamented by the insertion at intervals of the black tails.
Royal personages alone wear ermine which is spotted with
black in about every square inch, not with tails, but from the
paws of the Astrachan lamb. A band of ermine with a
single row of spots adorns the royal crown. Rows or bars
of the fur in the case of the scarlet robes of peers, and
rows of black spots on the ermine capes of peeresses,
denote the varying degrees of rank of the wearers. The
more common use of ermine is for ladies' muffs, tippets,
trimmings, and linings generally.
POLECAT (Putorius fcetidus).
Coloured Plate IX. Fig. 4.
The Polecat is common in most parts of Europe, but
it is now one of the rarest, as it is the largest, of the British
Weasels, surviving only in Scotland, Wales, Exmoor and
Dartmoor, and a few of the largest woodlands in the
Midlands. Even in the remotest of these districts it is
so scarce that very few persons have ever seen one at
liberty, and even if they did happen to catch sight of the
animal, doubtless they would view it as one of the
commoner of the Weasel tribe.
The male is sixteen or seventeen inches long from the
164 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
nose to the base of the tail, which is another six or seven
inches in length ; the female is four or five inches shorter.
The coat of the Polecat is rather handsome ; it is prin-
cipally dark brown, almost black, the under fur being pale
yellow, while the head is marked with black and white.
When molested, or irritated, the animal emits an odour
that is markedly unpleasant. The fur, too, bears this evil
smell, but it disappears during the preparation of the skin
for wear.
In disposition the Polecat is ferocious to a degree,
destroying any small animal
with which it comes in con-
tact. It hunts rabbits with
almost incredible fierceness ;
a single Polecat will speedily
clear a whole warren, for the
depredator will kill as many
SKULL OF THE POLECAT. as twenty rabbits at a single
visit, and all without a
scarcely perceptible wound. A few generations ago the
animal was the terror of the farmyard, for if it contrived
to break into a hen-roost or pigeon-loft, scarcely a bird
could hope to escape beheadal.
The Polecat is an expert swimmer and can catch fish.
Eleven eels have been found in a single nest. In move-
ment it is extremely active, and when it runs it arches
its back, giving it the sinuous snake-like motion that is
characteristic of the gait of the Weasels.
FERRET (Putorius furo).
Coloured Plate IX. Fig. 7.
The Ferret, though of African origin, is practically a
domesticated variety of the polecat, if an animal which
manifests no attachment nor acquires any habits of
dependence can be said to be domesticated. The animal
was first introduced into Spain, whence it has spread all
over Europe. It is whitish or pale yellow in colour and
has red eyes ; and in shape and disposition, so far as other
THE MINK 165
animals are concerned, it is little less bloodthirsty than any
of its race. Only can it be said in its favour that it can be
handled with safety by persons accustomed to it.
The Ferret is employed to drive rats and rabbits out of
their burrows ; in the latter case it is generally muzzled,
or it would kill and devour the rabbits in their holes
instead of driving them out to the rabbit-catcher. But
though a useful servant the Ferret is rather a perilous friend,
as more than one warrener has found to his regret. A Ferret
that escapes from its cage into a fowl or duck pen promptly
gives bloodthirsty evidence of the race to which it belongs ;
and sometimes it has attacked sleeping children, inflicting
frightful wounds on the nose, eyes, and lips, which have
afterwards ended in death. A man, too, was once aroused
from his sleep by a Ferret, which had seized him near the
eyebrow. So tenaciously did the creature hold on that
the victim was only freed by severing the Ferret's head
from its body.
MINK (Mustela lutreola).
Coloured Plate IX. Fig. 8.
The Mink is found in the northern regions of both
hemispheres, although it is a stranger to Britain. Of
several species two only need be mentioned, viz., the
European Mink as figured on the plate and the American
Mink (Mustela vison).
This animal differs considerably in habits from the
other species of the genus. It is a kind of water polecat,
which spends as much time in the water as it does on
land. It feeds on the smaller mammals, but a great deal of
its food consists of aquatic creatures — fish, frogs, crayfish,
etc. In disposition the Mink is by no means so destructive
and voracious as its nearest relations, generally killing only
sufficient to meet the demands of its appetite.
The Mink, with a body fifteen to eighteen inches in
length, is more stoutly built than the weasels already
described. Its fur, generally dark chocolate in colour, is
particularly glossy, with the close felting of the under fur
166 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
that is specially adapted to resisting water. The fur of the
animal is largely used for ladies' cloaks, muffs, and vic-
torines, and as many as a quarter of a million skins have
been imported into England in a year.
In America the Mink is often trained to take the place of
the ferret, and ' Minkeries,' or Mink farms, have been estab-
lished, where the animals are reared for the sake of their
furs. It is rather remarkable that a similar plan has not
been adopted with the sable, for while the skin of the
Mink only fetches from ten to fifteen shillings, that of the
sable is worth perhaps as many pounds. When the Mink
happens to be silver-grey, it takes on added value, six skins
making a muff worth as much as twenty-five guineas.
PINE MARTEN (Mustela martes).
Coloured Plate IX. Fig. 5.
Of the Martens there are two species, the Pine Marten, as
figured in the illustration, and the Beech, or Stone, Marten
(Mustela foina). The distinguishing feature of the latter is
its white throat ; it is not a British animal, but is found in
Central Europe, extending into Asia as far as Sikkim.
The Pine Marten is found in the northern regions of both
hemispheres ; in Central Europe often in the same neigh-
bourhood as the Beech Marten ; and only to a small extent
in the British Isles. The finest of the species are the
Martens of Scandinavia, but those of Ireland, in the
Wicklow and Mourne mountains in particular, are a very
good second.
The body of the Pine Marten, slender and flexible, is
about twenty inches in length ; the tail is long and bushy.
It is an agile, graceful animal, elegantly furred in brown of
various shades, while the under fur is beautifully soft and
of a rather lighter colour ; the throat is yellow. The
animal's feet are very cat-like, and between the naked pads
are densely furred. When annoyed, the Marten arches its
back, erects its hair, and hisses like a cat. The odour of
the animal is something like musk, quite unlike the fetid
smell of some of its relations.
THE SABLE 167
Squirrels are the favourite prey of the Pine Marten, but
none of the smaller animals are rejected, and it does
not hesitate to attack and overcome lambs and young
fawns. When chased it takes flight in a series of bounding
leaps of six or seven feet, generally making for the nearest
tree, up which it darts with extraordinary speed. The
female often appropriates the nest of a squirrel which she
has eaten, wherein to bring up her young ones, or else
she makes a nest in the hollow of a tree. Marten skins,
especially the Canadian variety, are often cleverly [dyed to
imitate real sable.
SABLE (Mustela zibellind).
Coloured Plate IX. Fig. 2.
Some naturalists rather incline to the belief that the
Siberian Sable is but a local variety of the pine marten ;
but the conical head, larger ears, and bigger and stronger
limbs of the former denote a distinct species.
The fur of the Sable is long and fine and a rich dark-
brown in colour. Though only a small animal, its skin
is worth from three to ten guineas ; but the darkest skins,
which are considered the best, rarely pass out of Russia.
The Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Sheriffs of London
have their official robes lined with Russian Sable, varying
in accordance with their respective ranks. In olden times
Sable fur was probably of still more value, for a sixteenth
century writer says that a bale of forty skins was worth
more than a thousand pieces of gold.
Not only is the Sable a rare animal, but it dwells in
such inclement localities that none but the hardiest hunters
can venture upon its chase, especially as its fur is only in
best condition in the winter. The creature must not be
shot, as the valuable fur would be injured, and it is
therefore taken in ' fall-traps/ which kill the animal at
once. Like most of the weasels, the Sable is a cunning
animal, and not easily enticed into snares ; and if the
hunter finds one Sable in ten traps, he is well satisfied.
A Sable trap is simple in construction, consisting of a
168 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
little staked inclosure, in which is placed the bait, with a
log of wood or a big stone overhanging it. The moment
the bait is touched, down falls the weight, which kills the
intruder at a blow. A hunter will often set a hundred
and fifty traps in a line extending for perhaps fifty miles.
When he goes to collect his spoils, he often finds that a
Wolverene, Arctic Fox, or other hungry carnivore has
forestalled him, the first named, in particular, not only
eating the captured animals, but artfully annexing the
baits from the still fixed traps by taking them from the
rear, and thus avoiding the falling log. To add an element
of danger to the injury, the greedy beast not infrequently
discovers the hunter's cache, or provision store. It will
eat every bit of animal food, such as beef, pork, bacon,
and venison ; and other food, as flour, oatmeal, &c., it will
scatter about in the snow, thus leaving the trapper food-
less in a region where the thermometer registers many
degrees below zero.
GLUTTON (Gulo luscus).
Coloured Plate X. Fig. 4.
The Glutton, as it is called in Europe, and Wolverene in
America, the largest of the Weasel group, is not at all unlike
a small bear. It is found in the northern regions of both
the Old and the New World. Its bulky body is nearly
three feet long, exclusive of the thick, bushy tail. The
fur is long and of a fine, deep chestnut colour, with
a dark saddle on the back ; its sides are a pale reddish-
brown.
The feet are large and hairy and furnished with strong,
curved claws. The motion of the animal is slow and
clumsy, semi-plantigrade, and altogether in marked con-
trast to the movements of the true Weasels, which are
Digitigrades. It is often stated that the Wolverene climbs
trees, from which it leaps to the throats of animals as big
as the Reindeer, whereas the animal is not at all a good
climber.
The Glutton is sufficiently bad in character without
THE BADGER 169
resorting to exaggeration. It is notoriously powerful, and
its strength is fittingly matched by its undoubted cunning ;
and were its size only proportionate to its voracious
appetite, it would be one of the most formidable of the
Carnivora.
It has already been told how the marten and sable trapper
is often literally plagued to death by the Wolverene's
artful depredations. A well-known skilful trapper relates
how one of the animals depleted his traps time after time,
until he determined to devote his energies to catching the
marauder. He set nine traps for three weeks, but while
the cunning creature carefully avoided them, it still stole
the baits and any captured animals that were in the simpler
marten snares. The trapper next set a spring gun, only to
find that the Wolverene gnawed through the string which
connected the trigger with the bait, which it then carried
away without fear of injury. Three times this occurred,
and then the trapper gave up the task in despair, trusting
to find another 'marten-round' where he would be free
from the unwelcome attentions of this particular animal.
The fur of the Glutton or Wolverene is valuable, and
when a trapper can catch his inveterate enemy, there is
some consolation in receiving a good price for the pelt of
an animal that has perhaps deprived him of scores of
marten skins.
Sub-Family Melinse.
BADGER (Meles taxus).
Coloured Plate X. Fig. 5.
The common Badger is the largest of the indigenous
Carnivora of our own country, for though it is shorter in
the body than the fox, and only one foot high at the
shoulder, its stout, broad body is of rather clumsy build.
One of the heaviest known specimens turned the scale
at forty-two pounds.
Like the wolverene, the Badger is only semi-plantigrade,
the heel being slightly raised from the ground. Its long
1 70 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
feet have straight toes with curved but rather blunt, non-
retractile claws, with which the animal burrows with
wonderful rapidity. In common with various animals of
the family, the Badger can easily walk or trot backwards.
The hair is reddish or yellowish grey, the lower parts
being darker, and the head black and white.
Found throughout the northern parts of Europe, Asia,
and America, the Badger is still fairly common in many
parts of the British Islands. It is a perfectly harmless
animal until provoked to defend itself ; its bite is particu-
larly powerful, and the jaws so lock together that their
hold is difficult to shake off. Shy, wary, and nocturnal, the
SKELETON OF THE BADGER.
Badger is practically omnivorous, living upon small animals,
insects, frogs, roots, fruits, &c.
The Badger's burrow is very deep and winding, and in it
is placed a warm nest of dried grasses and bracken. In
this the three or four young ones are born at the end of
March, but they do not come out into the open until June.
Very often several burrows are quite close to each other,
and it is nothing uncommon for the female Badger to make
her nest in a fox earth, even while part of it is tenanted by
its original owner.
Like the generality of weasels, the Badger possesses
offensive glands, the nature of which is denoted in Burns' s
poetical allusion to the 'stinking Brock/ Contrary to
general opinion, the Badger, when at liberty, is scrupulously
clean in its ways. A gentleman who captured a young
THE BADGER 171
Badger in Bulgaria speaks quite enthusiastically of its good
qualities : —
' He lived with us for years, and I am able to give him
an excellent character. There is a saying, " smells like a
Badger." This is a shameful libel on the cleanest beast
I know. It is only when shut up in some small place that
he becomes objectionable, and I am sure that, much as
man dislikes the smell, the Badger likes it less. The grey-
hounds soon made friends with him, and long before he
was fully grown he was their master, and could roll them
over with the greatest ease. He was omnivorous, but the
treat of his life was a lump of sugar, or, better still, a little
honey. He slept under my bed all the time we were in the
tent, and would follow me almost like a dog/
Badger-baiting was at one time a very popular sport in
England. Even nowadays the discovery of one of the
animals is the occasion for much barbarous treatment.
Though naturally harmless and rather slothful, scarcely any
animal can defend itself so obstinately, or inflict keener
wounds on its adversaries. Its skin is thick and loose,
permitting it, even when seized, to turn round upon its
assailants. Not infrequently the unfortunate beast will
endure torture throughout a whole day, maintaining the
unequal fight until, worn out by wounds and continual
reinforcement of its enemies, it is drawn from its hole and
forced to submit.
The skin of the Badger, dressed with the hair on, is
manufactured into pistol-cases, and is often used for cover-
ing travelling trunks ; the long hairs are used for making
shaving-brushes and painters' pencils. In Italy and France
the hindquarters of the animal are cured like hams, and
are said to be superior to the flesh of the hog.
The American Badger (Taxidea americana) is larger than
the European species. In some portions of the United
States the animal is so numerous that the burrows render
travelling on horseback dangerous.
The Cape Zorilla (Ictonyx zorilla), or Cape Polecat, is
often tamed for ferreting purposes. It is striped something
like the American skunk, to which it is only second in
evil-smelling qualities.
172 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
SKUNK (Mephitis variant).
Coloured Plate X. Fig. 2.
Although, as we have seen, the badger does not possess
the vile odour with which it has been credited, there is a
North American weasel which surpasses all power of
description in this respect. This is the Skunk, which has
the power, when alarmed, of ejecting with some force a
secretion which none but a Skunk can endure. The fiery
liquid is discharged from two teats under the tail, which
have a range of twelve feet. The odour is so persistent that
if a spot of the fluid should drop upon the dress no amount
of washing suffices to purify it. If it come in contact with
the skin the whole system is affected, and the victim is
nauseated until he would welcome sea-sickness as an agree-
able exchange. Audubon declared that the spot where an
animal was killed in the autumn still retained the foul odour
when the snow melted in the following spring.
Dr. Coues states that the evil-smelling secretion has been
recommended as a cure for asthma. A story is told of an
afflicted public speaker who used a smelling-bottle in which
was the loathsome gland of a Skunk. In a moment of
forgetfulness he uncorked the bottle while on the platform,
with the result that the audience incontinently fled, gasping
for breath, into the street.
The Skunk is to be feared for another reason. When
hunters are camping out it is apt to gnaw their hands while
they sleep, in most cases causing death by hydrophobia.
The animal figured in the illustration is a North American
species ; its length is about eighteen inches, exclusive of the
tail. It is a very handsomely clothed creature, the soft fur
being generally dark brown or black, with two white stripes
running from the head to the tail, which is an elegant
appendage.
Skunk fur is rid of its offensive odour by being subjected
to great heat. If the carcass of the animal is unsoiled by
the secretion, the flesh is at least eatable. The natives
consider it excellent, but the white man views it with con-
siderable suspicion.
THE OTTER 173
The skunk is quite weasel-like in build, but the Teledu
(Mydaus meliceps) is of stouter build and more generally
resembles the badger. It is a native of Java. In size it is
about equal to the skunk, though its shorter hair and
stumpy tail give the impression that it is much smaller. It
is a confirmed burrower, and when it makes its way into
gardens and plantations it works much damage. The land-
owner almost cheerfully suffers this injury rather than eject
the creature and thus give rise to an intolerable stench,
almost as vile in character as that emitted by the skunk.
Sub -Family Lutrinae.
OTTER (Lutra vulgaris).
Coloured Plate IX. Fig. i.
The Otters, while quite active on land, are only thoroughly
at home when in the water ; yet in order to conform them to
an aquatic life there is little change in their structure beyond
the webbing of the toes, the shortening and flattening of the
head, and the horizontal flattening of the tail into a very
serviceable rudder.
The Common Otter is one of the largest and certainly
one of the most attractive of the British Carnivora ; and it
is more common than is generally supposed where fish are
abundant. Very often the animal travels considerable
distances from river to river, incidentally straying into
special trout pools and fish-breeding ponds, to its own
satisfaction and correspondingly to the chagrin of the
owner. When the supply of fish fails it will prey upon
birds, small animals, poultry, and even young lambs
and pigs.
The Otter is about a yard in length, of which the tail
forms one-third. The legs are short and the five toes are
webbed and fitted with blunt claws ; the feet are so placed
that they can almost perform the action of fins. The
eyes of the animal are placed nearer the nose than in
most other animals, allowing it easily to see upwards, for
which reason the Otter generally pursues its prey from the
i74 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
bottom. The fur of the animal consists of a short, close
waterproof vest of a light grey colour, and a long, silky,
shining upper coat of a rich brown tint.
Fierce, wild, and shy, the Otter is chiefly nocturnal in
habit ; its retreat is generally a burrow by the water's edge,
extending to some distance under the bank, and concealed
by overhanging brushwood, tangled briers, and herbage, or
by the roots of an old tree.
Otter-hunting is still a favourite so-called sport in several
districts. The moment the animal is discovered it betakes
itself to the water, where it is more than a match for the
strongest dog. Wearied out by its exertions to escape its
foes, assailed on every side, covered with wounds, and
prodded with poles as it rises to breathe, still the Otter's
SKULL OF THE OTTER.
(Two-thirds natural size.)
determined courage holds out to the last, and it dies without
uttering a cry. It requires no little skill on the part of the
hunters to effect the capture, for the Otter knows every hole,
drain, or other place of refuge within several miles, and
never sleeps twice in the same place. One animal, which
had long baffled the hounds and hunters, actually made its
hiding-place inside the wheel of a water-mill.
An Otter-worry from first to last is a particularly odious
and cruel business that causes a lover of animals to be
ashamed of his kind. In a fox-hunt the quarry is afforded
an opportunity to escape from its foes — the pack is in the
rear and an open countryside lies in front, wherein the fox
can exercise its feet and its cunning to outwit its pursuers.
The chase of the poor Otter resolves itself into cowardly
persecution, pure and simple. Before the wretched hunt
THE OTTER 175
really begins all hope of escape is cut off by a cordon of
hounds and waders who block the stream above and below.
The worry itself is a series of acts of cowardice and cruelty
that would shame savages.
To see the Otter in perfection, two or three of the
animals ought to be in a playful mood, enjoying a skir-
mish in the water, ' rolling and diving, and twisting
and wrestling, and cuddling and kissing, and biting and
scratching, in the most charming fashion that ever was
seen/ The Otter chiefly hunts the water at night, but
daylight is no bar to the satisfaction of its appetite. In
December, 1908, at Middletown, in Ireland, there was a
tremendous fight between a great pike and an Otter in the
local canal. The pair repeatedly rose to the surface and
dived again, the water being coloured with blood. Finally,
the Otter, which lost an ear in the struggle, killed the pike
and dragged it ashore, where the victor was shot by an
onlooker. The fish weighed twenty-three pounds, very little
short of the weight of the finest specimens of British dog
Otters.
The Otter is far from being destitute of intelligence and
docility ; it may be easily tamed, and has indeed been
frequently kept in a state of domestication. Bewick tells
of a Scotsman who employed one very successfully in
salmon-fishing, the animal sometimes taking nine or ten
fish in a day. It followed its master like a dog, and dis-
played great confidence and attachment. The chief
objection to the Otter in a wild state is that, when prey
is plentiful, it becomes exceedingly dainty, and after bring-
ing a salmon ashore will merely bite a piece from the
shoulder, leave the fish on the bank, and go after another.
The Scotch shepherds who are stationed near salmon
streams find the Otter one of their best friends, as it keeps
them supplied with fish season after season.
In some parts of the world the Otter is quite extensively
tamed, and taught to catch fish for its master. The
Chinese and the Hindoos are great adepts at this art.
Bishop Heber mentions in his journal that when passing
near a river he saw nearly a dozen Otters lying on the banks,
tethered with straw collars and long ropes. They were
176 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
of great assistance to their masters, driving the shoals of
fish into the nets, and then bringing out the largest in their
teeth. The good Bishop sensibly remarks that ' the simple
Hindoo shows here a better taste and judgment than
half the Otter-hunting and badger-baiting gentry of
England.'
SEA OTTER (Enhydra marina).
The Sea Otter is a larger animal than its fresh-water
cousin, attaining a length of four or five feet, including
the tail, and weighing as much as seventy or eighty pounds.
In its strong, blunt teeth the grinders do not present any
cutting edges, as in most animals of the Carnivora, but
the surface of each is raised into little eminences that prove
exceedingly useful in breaking up shell-fish, &c. There
is also a difference in the hind feet, which are long and
flipper-like, each with a surface of about twenty-four square
inches, similar to those of the seal.
The fur is soft, thick, and velvety ; it is brownish-black
in colour, with long stiff hairs, grizzled at the tips, which
assist to give the whole coat a hoar-frosted appearance.
The Sea Otter is gregarious, often being found in bands
numbering hundreds of animals. When undisturbed they
spend a great deal of time floating or swimming on their
backs ; they frequently devour prey in this attitude ; and
the female thus supports her young one on her chest, even
while she is asleep. The flesh of the young Otter is
considered a delicacy, and is said to be not unlike lamb in
flavour.
The Sea Otter never was a very common animal, not
even in its particular habitat, the eastern and western
shores of the North Pacific Ocean, from Alaska to
California, and from Kamschatka to the Yellow Sea.
As a good Otter skin is valued at -£40, there is little wonder
that the creature is remorselessly hunted.
Formerly the Otter was either speared or clubbed. In
the first case a number of boats, each manned by a
couple of men, would be engaged in the pursuit of an
animal. Whenever it came up to breathe it was forced
instantly to dive again, repeating the operation until the
Plate X.
5. Badger
6. Raccoon
THE RACCOON 177
Otter could dive no longer, when it was speared and drawn
into the boat. Clubbing was a winter method. During
the frequent gales the Otters, to avoid the wind, often
bury their heads in the sea kelp near to the outlying
rocks. Under cover of the noise of the storm the hunters
were enabled to despatch one animal after another without
disturbing the main body. In this manner two men have
been known to slay as many as eighty Otters in a couple
of hours.
Nowadays the rifle is the chief means employed to
capture the Sea Otter, and as the head offers a fair mark
even at a distance of a thousand yards, it is a far easier
method than the old style. The Otter rifleman plies his
business throughout the year, and consequently there is
little wonder that Sea Otter skins get fewer and fewer
each season.
FAMILY PROCYONID^E.
RACCOON (Procyon lotor).
Coloured Plate X. Fig. 6.
Though in appearance animals of the Raccoon type differ
from each other very considerably, they are all distant
cousins to the bears, from which they are chiefly dis-
tinguished by their inferior size and the possession of two
true molar teeth on each side of the jaw.
The Raccoon of North America ranges from British
Columbia to Paraguay. It derives its specific name of
lotor or ' washer' in consequence of its habit of rinsing
its food in water before eating it. A female Raccoon in
the Zoological Gardens washed her kittens so frequently
that they died from the effects of their mother's mistaken
zeal.
The animal is arboreal and nocturnal in habit, climbing
trees with great facility, and sleeping in the hollows of
trunks. It is a restless, prying creature, and when tamed is
an interesting, if mischievous, pet. In body it is short and
13
178 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
stout, and generally about the size of a fox. The general
colour is blackish grey, and the bushy tail is ringed with
bands of black hair. Its food is extremely varied, ranging
from vegetable to animal, as occasion serves. It is rather
apt to invade hen-roosts, but otherwise does little harm.
The fur is valuable and makes very handsome carriage
rugs, and the flesh is peculiarly good to eat.
A 'Coon hunt used to be one of the favourite amuse-
ments of the negroes when slavery was still practised in the
United States. When the animal lives near the coast it
adds oysters, mussels, and crabs to its diet. To catch the
last named the Raccoon hangs its tail just on the surface of
the water. As soon as the crab grips it in mistake for
food, the animal whisks it out of the water, and then, seizing
it from behind, greedily devours its prey.
COAITI (Nasua rufa).
Coloured Plate X. Fig. 3.
The Coaiti-mondi is a native of South America. The
generic name of nasua signifies 'nosy,' and a glance at
the illustration will show the great length and extraordinary
mobility of the snout, which by no means adds to the
animal's beauty.
The covering of the Red Coaiti is short and reddish-brown
in colour, and the thick tail is ringed with black and
brownish-yellow. The animal is longer in the body
than the Raccoon ; but with its short limbs, and the inqui-
sitive manner in which it continually turns its snout in all
directions, it is not nearly so attractive. Like the Raccoon,
the Coaiti is a great tree-climber, and, indeed, is almost equal
to the monkey in that respect. It is nocturnal in its habits,
sleeping during the day, with its bushy tail curled over its
long nose. When hunted it fights desperately, and it
behoves one to avoid its double-edged canine teeth.
Another species of Coaiti, called the Quasje (Nasua
nasica), is a Central American animal, differing in no
important respect from the foregoing, except that there is
no red tint in its coat.
VARIOUS RACCOON TYPES 179
KINKAJOU (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus).
Coloured Plate X. Fig. i.
The Kinkajou derives its name from two words, Greek
and Latin respectively, both of which mean ' twisted tail/
given to the lovely furry creature in allusion to its pre-
hensile appendage, which is nearly as flexible as that of
the spider monkey. The earlier naturalists classed the
Kinkajou among the Lemurs. Though it has no opposable
thumb and the fingers are webbed very nearly to the
claws, the animal holds food in one hand, breaking pieces
off with the other in a manner almost human. The tongue
is extremely long and
flexible, the owner using
it for the purpose of
extracting insects from
the crevices in which
they are lurking. When
asleep it rolls itself into
a ball. It will also sit
demurely on its hind
legs like a Scotch terrier. SKULL OF THE KINKAJOU.
(Two-thirds natural size.)
There are other mem-
bers of the raccoon family that deserve brief mention.
The Cacomistle (Bassaris astuta) of California, Texas, and
Mexico is often called the Ring-tailed Cat. Miners, in
particular, capture the animal and tame it, and in a
mining camp a mousing Cacomistle will always fetch a
good price.
The Panda (&lurus fulgens), whose generic name means
'waving tail/ is another beautiful cat-like creature, mostly
found in the Eastern Himalaya. Its coat is a rich red
chestnut, darkening into jet black on the under parts, another
example of the converse to the general rule. It is a pity
that the beautifully coloured animal does not exist in
sufficient numbers to render its fur a more common article
of commerce.
i8o FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
FAMILY URSID2E (BEARS).
The Ursine family (Lat., ursus, a bear) consists of bulky
animals with thick fur, the largest beasts of prey in the
Northern Hemisphere. All of them are plantigrade and
markedly deliberate in gait. On each foot are five toes,
furnished with strong curved claws. Though the claws are
often five inches long over the outside curve, being non-
retractile they get worn down at their tips through coming
into contact with the ground ; thus in conflict with another
thickly-haired animal a Bear can inflict but little injury.
Most of the Bears are admirable climbers of trees, and
some species seem to pass most part of their existence
among the branches.
The Bears possess the teeth of the true carnivores, differ-
ing technically from their nearest relations only by having
two molar teeth on each side of the upper and three in
the lower jaw. The canine teeth are large and strong, but
not nearly so prominent as in the cat and dog tribes.
There is a marked difference in the jaws from those of the
Carnivora generally. The Bear's jaws are not limited to a
scissor-blade movement ; it can work them from side to
side, and chew to a pulp roots, &c., which it could not
possibly swallow whole. Except in the case of one species,
Bears are not strictly carnivorous, for in addition to animal
food they eat largely of roots and fruits, and in particular
they are fond of honey ; but even the Polar Bear, whose
diet is chiefly animal food, and the Sloth Bear, which is a
vegetarian, have exactly the same kind of teeth and similar
jaw movement.
In cold regions, from October to March some of the
female Bears hibernate in hollow trees, caves, or collections
of branches and moss, during which time birth is given to
the young ; the males and younger females do not take
an unbroken rest. Though most Bears do not, as a rule,
molest human beings, it is best to give them a wide berth
when, gaunt and hungry, they wake up from their long
fast.
Compared to the cats the Bears are clumsy and shuffling
in movement, their coats are more sombre, and in teeth,
THE BROWN BEAR 181
claws, muscularity and agility, there is an all-round in-
feriority. Nor have the Bears so wide a range as the
Felidae, for though they are found in both hemispheres,
there are vast regions from which they are excluded.
They are unknown in Africa, south of the Sahara, and are
absent from not only the true Australasian regions, but
also from many of the islands of the south-east of Asia,
where various members of the cat tribe abound.
BROWN BEAR (Ursus arctos).
Coloured Plate XI. Fig. i.
The Brown Bear is not only the commonest, but is the
most typical species of the whole tribe. Its range extends
throughout almost the whole of Europe, particularly Russia,
Scandinavia, Central Europe, the Pyrenees, and the Balkan
Peninsula ; in Asia it is found throughout Siberia to the
shores of the Pacific ; and it also inhabits the colder regions
of North America.
There is not the slightest doubt that this Bear at one time
existed in Britain, for the Romans exported the beast to
fight in the arena. The citizens of Norwich sent annually
to Edward the Confessor a Bear and six dogs with which to
bait it ; and there is rather a shadowy record that one of the
Gordon family killed a fierce animal in Scotland in 1057.
Bear-baiting and whipping the blinded Bear were con-
sidered sports sufficiently refined to please Queen Elizabeth ;
but there is reason to believe that by that time the Bear had
been exterminated in Britain, and that animals were im-
ported from the Continent to make sport for British holiday
crowds.
The Brown Bear is the largest of the European Carnivora,
if we except the Polar Bear, which is found in the frozen
regions of the extreme north. In length from five to seven
feet, and standing about three and a half feet high at the
shoulder, the Bear, with its long and shaggy dark brown coat
and shambling gait, is an uncouth-looking brute.
Not only are the Bears plantigrade, but the lower surface
of the foot is so large that when they fight they stand nearly
i82 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
erect upon the hind feet and strike with the armed fore
paws. The power of the Bear's stroke is terrible, and is the
more to be dreaded because it is as quick as it is strong. No
trained boxer can deliver a blow more swift or more true
than that of the Bear. Many writers assert that it clasps
its antagonist in its arms, and squeezes him with such force
that it drives all the breath out of his body. It is almost
useless to attack a Bear with a club or the stock of a rifle.
The Bear wards off the blows with perfect ease, strikes
the weapon out of the hands of its assailant, and then
closes to claw and bite rather than hug him.
In food most Bears are omnivorous, and are exceedingly
fond of fruit ; and, as Mr. Lloyd, a well-known Bear-hunter,
tells us of the Brown Bear, 'he feeds on roots and the
leaves and small limbs of the aspen, mountain ash, and other
trees. He is also fond of succulent plants, such as the
mountain thistle, &c,, and partial to many berries common
to the Scandinavian forests. Ripe corn he also eats, and
sometimes commits no small havoc among it ; for, seating
himself on his haunches in a field of it, he collects in his
outstretched arms nearly a sheaf at a time, the ears of which
he then devours/
Cattle-owners have but little fear of the Bear, for it much
prefers vegetable food — varied occasionally with wasp and
bee grubs — to the flesh of animals ; but now and then
a Bear does take to cattle-killing, and then becomes the
terror of the neighbourhood, and must be destroyed. The
usual mode of killing the Bear in Scandinavia is by a shall,
i.e., by finding its den, surrounding the spot with a large
body of armed men, and then closing upon the animal from
all sides. The flesh of the Bear being very good to eat, and
its skin always fetching a high price, a successful skall repays
the hunters for their trouble. Bears' paws are considered a
great delicacy, and after being salted and smoked were often
reserved for the tables of princes in Germany. Occasionally
Bear's flesh is obtainable in London, where it is eaten
chiefly out of curiosity.
The Bears of Russia in particular are of great size, and in
winter their coats are in magnificent condition, and are in
great request among Russian nobles for warm sledge rugs.
PLATE XVI.
GRIZZLY BEAR.
PLATE XVII.
i. MALAYAN BEAR. 2. SLOTH BEAR.
(See page 188)
(Photos W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
THE GRIZZLY BEAR 183
Some of the finest skins obtainable are used for making the
caps of our Grenadier and Coldstream Guards.
The Bear swims well and fast, and is fond of bathing in
the heat of summer ; its climbing powers are well known :
all who have visited the Gardens of the Zoological Society
have witnessed the feat of mounting the pole for the tempt-
ing morsel proffered as a reward. In descending a tree or
precipice it always comes down backwards, much resembling
a human being in its actions and cautious mode of pro-
ceeding.
The Brown Bear, when caught young, is rather easily
tamed, but its temper is always uncertain ; and sometimes
without preliminary warning it will ferociously bite any one
with whom it has hitherto been on friendly terms. The so-
called dancing Bears sometimes seen in our streets were
formerly chiefly the Alpine variety, but, the Swiss supply
failing, nowadays most of the animals come from the
Pyrenees or Roumania.
The American Brown Bear, distinct altogether from the
Grizzly, is still larger than the Russian, and especially is
this the case in Alaska. A skin of nine feet across the
shoulders, and requiring two men to carry it, is by no
means a rarity.
GRIZZLY BEAR (Ursus ferox).
Plate XVI.
The Grizzly Bear, now found only in the Northern
Rockies, is the most formidable animal of the North
American Continent, as it is the most ferocious of the Bear
tribe. It commonly grows to a length of eight or nine feet,
with an average weight of about eight hundred pounds.
Sir Samuel Baker asserted that the commoner Brown Bear
is often mistaken for the Grizzly, which latter may weigh
anything up to fourteen hundred pounds, which is about
the weight of an English cart-horse ; and of all the Bears
the real Grizzly, or ' Old Ephraim,' is the most dreaded.
The more correct title is ' Grisly ' in reference to its
ferocious character, rather than one applied to the coat of
i84 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
brown hair grizzled with white ; its feet and paws are
enormous, with claws six inches in length. Its strength
may be gauged from its ability to drag to a considerable
distance the carcass of a buffalo weighing not much less
than half a ton.
The Grizzly has no liking for vegetable food so long as
flesh is obtainable, and its ferocious disposition leads it to
attack man, when other species would use all their energies
in taking to flight. To its savage nature this Bear adds a
tenacity of life that makes it a doubly dangerous foe. It
has been known to receive five balls actually through the
lungs, and five others in different parts of the body, and
yet be left with sufficient vitality to chase a couple of
hunters into a river, where, fortunately, a shot from a third
man on the bank penetrated the brain, just as the infuriated
animal was about to seize one of its enemies.
Hunters in the Rockies tell of marvellous escapes from
death when at close quarters with the Grizzly. More than
once men have saved their lives at a critical moment by
feigning death, when an enraged animal would cease to
maul them. One trapper, who had been stunned, awoke to
the fact that he was ' dead and buried.' It is characteristic
of the Bear to store surplus food, and during the man's un-
consciousness the huge beast had scratched out a shallow
hole, into which it tumbled the body and lightly covered it
with mould and leaves. When the Bear later in the day
returned to dine at its leisure, the prospective meal had
recovered his rifle, and from a safe spot was enabled to turn
the tables on ' Old Ephraim.'
SYRIAN BEAR (Ursus syriacus).
Another variety of the Brown Bear and the oldest of
which we have historical record, is the Syrian Bear, found
in various parts of Western Asia. Judging from the
frequent references to the Bear in Scripture, in Biblical
times it was probably common where now it is very rare.
The native haunt of the Syrian Bear to-day is only the
remote fastnesses of the wooded heights of Hermon and
Lebanon. It is narrated that David had to defend his
THE POLAR BEAR 185
flocks against this Bear, and again that ' there came forth
two she-Bears out of a wood and tare forty and two of
them/ when the children of Bethel mocked at Elisha.
There is now practically no timber in Judaea, and with the
gradual destruction of its shelter the Bear has retreated
further east of the Jordan.
Several times in the Scriptures the Bear's ferocity when
deprived of its young is used as a simile, e.g., ' Let a Bear
robbed of her whelps meet a man, rather than a fool in
his folly' (Prov. xvii. 12). A female Bear guarding her
young is a most dangerous animal ; she will fight to the
death on their behalf, and in her expiring moments her
sole concern is wrapped up in the safety of her progeny.
The Syrian Bear is not a large animal, little more than
a third of the size which the common Brown Bear some-
times attains. Its chief depredations are confined to steal-
ing corn, apples, and grapes from the vineyards.
POLAR BEAR (Ursus maritimus).
Coloured Plate XI. Fig. 2.
The Polar Be*r, Ice Bear, or White Bear, is so called
from the region it inhabits, or the creamy yellowish fur of
its coat. It is found on the desolate shores of the Arctic
Ocean in both hemispheres ; and it is one of the few
animals that make no attempt by migration to escape the
rigours of the terrible winter. It is found sometimes in
Iceland, but only when it has reached the island on a
berg or drifting ice.
Though not so bulky as the grizzly, the Polar Bear is
longer in the body. The animal is a mighty swimmer ; it is
as light as a cork, and the broad feet make excellent paddles.
Upon occasions it is seen swimming eighty miles from land,
with not so much as an icefloe in sight ; and at other times
it will drift hundreds of miles on iceberg or floe, feeding
upon the seals around it.
As it lives among ice, and often has to capture the seal,
or even the walrus, as the prey lies upon a glassy surface,
the under surface of the paws is covered with a dense
186 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
coating of hair, so that it can traverse the ice without
slipping, while its footsteps are absolutely noiseless.
The Polar Bear has a very remarkable way of attacking
the walrus. Now, it must be remembered that the walrus
is nearly equal in bulk to a small elephant, weighing some-
thing in the neighbourhood of a ton, and is, moreover,
armed with a pair of terrible tusks. The usual mode of
attack is for the Bear to creep up behind a sleeping walrus,
and then to spring on its shoulders, maintain its hold with
one paw, and with the other to deal such terrific blows at
the marine mammal's head that the skull is fractured before
the animal can gain the water. Should the prey succeed in
SKELETON OF THE POLAR BEAR.
(About one-eighteenth natural size.)
reaching water, the walrus has the best of the battle, as it
dives to depths which are too great for the endurance of
the Bear, and thus rids itself of its foe.
In stalking seals, or even man, the huge carnivore
exhibits the greatest cunning, taking care to hide its black
muzzle, which is the only part of its body likely to show
against its frozen surroundings. In capturing seals it is
remarkably adept, diving under a floe and appearing at the
hole, which is the only retreat open to the easily alarmed
prey.
The Polar Bear grows to an immense size, sometimes
attaining a length of thirteen feet. One, which measured
i
Plate XL
1. Brown Bear
2. Polar Bear
THE POLAR BEAR 187
seven feet eight inches in length, weighed over eleven
hundred pounds. The skin of this animal was placed in
the national collection. Another, which measured nearly
a foot longer, weighed sixteen hundred pounds. And the
Bear's strength is in proportion to its size, or it could not,
for example, hoist a dead walrus out of the water on to the
ice, there to enjoy a leisured repast.
A White Bear at bay is an exceedingly dangerous animal,
for, unlike its more sombre-clothed cousins, it does not
attempt to hug the foe, but furiously bites and claws at
every opportunity. If there are two hunters opposed to
the animal, it is comparatively easy to overcome it, since
when it turns with its upraised arms to counter the assault
of one, it exposes its other side to the second hunter, who
is able to inflict a death-wound.
If the hunter be alone, he recognises the harder task, but
does not hesitate. He first provokes the animal, and then
runs as if to escape, knowing that the Bear will pursue him.
With a rapid jump the hunter suddenly doubles on his
track, and the exasperated beast in the act of turning is
pierced with a lance below the shoulder. Unless the
thrust is a dexterous one, inflicting vital injury, the hunter
has to leave his spear in the side of his prey and seek his
own safety in flight, about which there is then no pretence.
But, aided by his dogs, the hunter seldom fails to overcome
his huge adversary.
The flesh of the Polar Bear is not in such good repute as
that of the brown species. Arctic explorers assert that some
portions of the body are poisonous, and sailors have certainly
fallen ill after partaking of it. The Bear is a notoriously foul
feeder — fish, flesh, or fowl, living or dead, fresh or putrid,
nothing is rejected. When whaling was more followed
than it is nowadays, the Bear had greater opportunities
of gorging on decaying offal which the whalers left in
their track, and in all probability a prolonged diet of putrid
food had more than a little to do with the unwholesome-
ness of the Bear's own flesh.
The Polar Bear is by no means hard to keep in captivity
in England, notwithstanding the inability to provide it with
anything like its accustomed environment. One animal
i88 FLESH-EATERS OF THE LAND
lived at the Zoo for over thirty years. In November, 1908,
a young Polar Bear was born in Regent* s Park, the first since
1866, when an animal was born and died the same day.
This tiny fluffy new arrival was about the size of a kitten.
In a natural state the White Bear has the reputation of
being a most devoted mother ; but the one in captivity
made no attempt to sustain the character of her tribe. The
little one was born at 9 a.m., and the only notice the
mother took of it was to pick it up by the neck or leg and
then drop it heavily on to the hard concrete floor of the
den. It was rescued at the end of three-quarters of an hour
only just in time to avoid its immediate death from cold
and exposure. A retriever foster-mother was obtained for
the little creature, but all to no purpose, for it lived only
a few hours longer.
In addition to the foregoing there are various species
of the Bear family. The Black Bear (Ursus americanus)
is the smallest of the American Bears and is practically
harmless, except that it frequently ravages the maize-fields.
The Malayan Bear (Ursus malayanus), Plate XVII. Fig. i,
of the Malay Peninsula and neighbouring islands, is a great
honey-eater, and, in addition, does much damage in the
cocoa plantations. The Spectacled Bear (Ursus ornatus) of
South America is a black-coated animal with dirty yellow
rings around its eyes.
The Indian Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus), Plate XVII.
Fig. 2, is a rough, clumsy animal with an elongated
muzzle and remarkably mobile lips, which it protrudes and
retracts with wonderful facility. This modification of the
mouth enables the creature to pick up ants and grubs.
Although it only weighs from two to three hundred pounds
it is a formidable little beast ; and Sir Samuel Baker was of
opinion that it caused more accidents to Indian natives than
any other animal. Major C. S. Cumberland says that, when
wounded, the Sloth Bear ' is a perfect fiend, rushing about
hither and thither, clawing and biting anything he comes
against, yelling and roaring all the time.' This Bear
often raids the natives' palm-juice vessels, with the result
that it retires to its den in a sad state of intoxication.
Chapter VII
ORDER IV.— CARNIVORA (continued)
SUB-ORDER 2.— CARNIVORA OF THE SEA
General description of the Pinnipedia— Com-
mon Seal — Grey Seal — Bladder-nose or
Crested Seal — Greenland Seal— Sea Leopard
— Sea Elephant — Sea Lion — Sea Bear or
Northern Fur Seal — Walrus.
CHAPTER VII
Order IV. — Carnivora (continued)
Sub-Order 2.— CARNIVORA OF THE SEA
PASSING from the Carnivora of the land to those of the
sea, we come to the Pinnipedia (Lat., pinna, a fin ;
pes, pedis, a foot), the fin-footed animals, or Seals, which
include the Sea Lions and the Walrus. Various other
marine carnivores (Cetacea) form an order of their own.
Before describing the life-history of any particular
member of the sub-order, it will be well to examine the
skeleton of the Seal, and note how, by certain modifications
of the bones, the mammal practically becomes a fish, just as
in the Bats it is in reality transformed into a bird.
The name Pinnipedia is very appropriate, as is the
alternative name Pinnigrada (Lat., pinna, a fin ; gradus,
a step). The limbs are shortened, and are so arranged that
they act exactly like the pectoral fins and tail of a fish.
The hind limbs, especially, are directed backwards, and
the bones are so modified that, when the feet are pressed
together, they can be swept from side to side as if they were
the tail fin of a fish. Indeed, as the Seal feeds on fish, as
does the otter, it is necessary that it should be swifter than
its prey. In the otter the tail is the propelling organ ; but
in the Seal the hind limbs are used in tail fashion.
In the water the movements of the Seal are extremely
graceful and rapid, but on land its motions are exceedingly
awkward. The limbs, even the fore ones, are practically of
no service. The spine is furnished with specially strong
191
192
FLESH-EATERS OF THE SEA
muscles, by means of which the body is contracted and
thrown forward by a succession of ungainly jerks.
Naturalists have arranged the
Seals in various technical divi-
sions. Traders adopt a simpler
classification, dividing the diverse
varieties into Hair Seals, Fur Seals,
and the Walrus, the first-named
being of service for their hides
and oil, the second supplying skins
from which are made the ' sealskin'
garments that are so highly prized.
To economise space and the reader's
patience only a few of the more
notable typical examples will be
offered for consideration.
Scientifically the Seals may be
roughly divided into the Phocidae,
or true Seals ; the Otariidae, or
Eared Seals ; and the Trichechidae,
or Walrus, of which only one
species is in existence. These
groups may be easily distinguished.
The Phocidae have no external ears ;
the Otariidae have small pointed
ears ; and the Walrus has two
enormous tusks projecting from the
upper jaw.
One peculiarity in all the Seals is
worthy of notice. The nostrils are
surrounded by a muscle, called a
sphincter, i.e., a constrictor, by
which the nostrils are kept closed
until required, when they can be
opened while the creature breathes,
closing again automatically, without
any exertion on the part of the
animal. The object of this structure is to prevent water
passing into the lungs while the Seal is below the surface.
When we come to the Whales, we shall find that the same
THE COMMON SEAL 193
object is attained by means of a self-acting valve. On
land the respiration of the seal is slow — two minutes
between each breath ; the animal can remain under water
for twenty-five minutes.
FAMILY PHOCID^E.
COMMON SEAL (Phoca vitulina}.
Coloured Plate XII. Fig. 3.
Of the Earless, or True Seals, the Common Seal is an
excellent example. It has an exceedingly wide range ; it
is found on both coasts of the North Atlantic, from Spain
to Spitzbergen on the east, from Florida to Greenland on
the West. The Mediterranean, Black, and Baltic Seas
are visited ; and it is common on the loneliest shores of
Scotland and Ireland. At one time the coast of Cornwall
and the Isle of Wight were favourite resorts of this Seal, but
the shy creature has almost forsaken these regions for many
years. Occasionally small herds enter our river mouths,
and not far from the Tay Bridge was once witnessed a
terrific encounter between a Seal and a large salmon. For
an hour the huge fish made gallant efforts to escape its foe,
but eventually the Seal caught and devoured it in triumph.
Only a few years ago a Seal was shot in the Thames at
Richmond.
The Common Seal is not a large animal, its length not
exceeding five feet. Its rather handsome skin is chiefly
yellowish-grey above, with patches and spots of brown
or brownish-black ; the under surface of the body is much
lighter, silvery grey or almost white. There is no under fur,
and in consequence the skin, though useful, is of no special
value.
Upon the British coasts the Seal is not found in sufficient
numbers to make it of commercial importance, chiefly
giving rise to the cruel and fruitless sport of Seal-shooting.
In other regions, Newfoundland for example, the animal is
hunted for the sake of its oil and hide.
It is a most intelligent and affectionate animal, being
194 FLESH-EATERS OF THE SEA
easily tamed, and becoming very fond of a kind master.
There are several instances known where the Seal became
so much attached to the fishermen that it spent the greater
part of its time on the shore, and even in the house, only
going into the sea for the purpose of obtaining food. It
would accompany the boat and return with the fishermen
after the voyage.
A Seal that was captured in Clew Bay showed tameness
to a remarkable degree for a period of four years. Three
HIND FLIPPERS OF THE SEAL.
A. Open. B. Closed.
times it was taken out to sea and set free, but upon each
occasion it returned to its foster home. To test the Seal
still further, it was blinded and again set in the ocean many
miles from Clew Bay. At the end of eight days it again
waddled ashore, as if to prove that the brute beast was
in some respects, at least, superior to the inhuman beings,
who had so cruelly used it in the satisfaction of a brutal
curiosity.
Of other species of the genus Phoca may be mentioned
VARIOUS SEALS 195
the Grey Seal (Halichcerus grypus) of the North Atlantic,
which is well known on the North British coasts. It is
a larger animal than the last named, measuring as much
as eight feet in length and attaining a weight of four
hundred pounds. It is less gregarious than many of its
cousins, usually being met with only in pairs.
The Bladder Nose, or Crested Seal (Cystophora cristata),
is the largest, fiercest, and most dangerous of the northern
Seals. In harpooning it, the Eskimo often finds the
animal turn upon him to upset the frail kayak in which
he is seated. Probably the hardy Northman considers the
capture well worth th/ risk entailed, for two hundred
pounds of flesh and over a hundred pounds of blubber
form no mean addition to a scanty larder. The crest
of the animal is neither a kind of armour plate to pro-
tect it against wounds, nor a bladder to give increased
buoyancy, as was once supposed ; it is nothing but an
enlargement of the nasal passages.
The Greenland Seal (Phoca grcenlandica) ranges along
almost the whole of the Arctic coasts. It is an animal
that has given rise to much confusion. Not only do
the males and females differ very considerably in size
and colouring, but as they grow to maturity they undergo
marked changes that have gained for the same species
a great variety of names, each really applicable to the Seal
only at some particular period in its existence, e.g., Ice
Seal, Saddle Back, White Coat, Blue Side, and Harp
Seal.
The animal is invaluable to the Eskimos, and at one
time in Danish Greenland an annual catch of nearly forty
thousand was nothing uncommon. From the crow's-
nest of a British sealing vessel could sometimes be seen
half a million seals, 'literally covering the frozen waste
as far as the eye can reach with the aid of a telescope.'
A party from one vessel has caught as many as twelve
thousand Seals in a day. Fortunately for the species,
however, Hair-sealing for various reasons has ceased
to be so profitable as was once the case, and in all proba-
bility the Seal is as numerous as ever it was when the
annual catch ran into hundreds of thousands.
196 FLESH-EATERS OF THE SEA
SEA LEOPAED (Ogmorhinus leptonyx).
Coloured Plate XII. Fig. 2.
The Sea Leopard is a Southern Hair-Seal that is found
on some of the Australasian coasts ; on various islands,
such as the Falkland, Auckland, and Lord Howe's ; and
on the ice pack of the Antarctic Ocean. The Leopard
Seal is sometimes erroneously stated to be an entirely
different species in the North Pacific.
Very little is known of the Sea Leopard, and as sealing
in the far South is practically a dead industry, it is difficult
to glean accurate facts concerning this cat-like looking
marine mammal. In only few museums are male and
female stuffed specimens, and occasionally isolated captures
have taken place in Australia and New Zealand. The male
Sea Leopard attains a length of at least twelve feet. Its
skin is a glossy silvery grey, with darker shadings merging
into patches of yellowish-white.
SEA ELEPHANT (Macrorhinus proboscided).
Plate XVIII.
The Sea Elephant, or Elephant Seal, is the largest of the
marine Mammalia, excepting only the larger whales, for
it grows to a length of twenty to thirty feet. Nevertheless,
it is just a big black Seal, with the skin of the nose pro-
longed to hang limply before the mouth for about
a foot, which the animal inflates when it is excited or
enraged.
This unwieldy creature is common to both hemispheres,
but it has been hunted with such ardour that very few exist
north of the Equator. In the southern seas it forms
practically the only population on many a series of barren
rocks, although even there it was at one time hunted by
whalers until it was almost a rarity. Once it abounded
in immense numbers in the Antarctic Ocean, especially in
Kerguelen's Land and neighbouring islands. In the chase
of the Sea Elephant sealers ran terrible risks, endured
PLATE XVI 1 1.
SEAL ROOKERY AND SEA ELEPHANT.
THE SEA ELEPHANT 197
incredible hardships, and their reward after a successful
voyage worked out at something like ten shillings per week.
Only the hide and blubber were sought, the animal having
no fur. A bull Sea Elephant will furnish eight to ten
barrels of oil ; a cow rarely more than six barrels.
' My own recollection of this miserable business is a brief
one/ says Frank T. Bullen, ' but quite lengthy enough
to make me thankful that I shall never repeat the experi-
ence/ He proceeds to relate particulars of a visit to
Auckland and Campbell Islands, where, provisions and
materials for building huts having been landed, the ship
sailed away ; it was no place for a vessel to linger at
anchor. Better by far face the utmost fury of the open sea.
'We plunged into work of the hardest in order to get
things a bit shipshape ; but before we had been toiling an
hour we were all suddenly startled stiff by a most tremendous
roaring, as of a troop of lions newly landed. Coming
across a ridge of rock into view of a little exposed bay,
we saw at least a hundred of these huge Seals emerging
from the broken water and lumbering1 shorewards.
' We had been told that all we had to do was to smite
them fiercely on the nose, and they would fall an inert
mass at our feet, when we were to cut their throats
immediately. But somehow a sight of them did not seem
to inspire us with much confidence in our ability to carry
out these simple orders to the letter.'
Presently, when the last of the mighty family had
heaved his huge bulk out of the surf and waddled after the
rest inland, the sealers, armed only with clubs and knives,
got between the animals and the water-line. Their loud
yells caused the creatures to come lumbering back to the
sea. ' Our chief faced the leader and smote him so felly
that the vast mass of the body collapsed like a burst
bladder and spread itself upon the ground. Immediately
we were all doing likewise, yelling like demons at the same
time.'
But the hunters were not to come off scatheless. One
man missed his blow and his footing at the same time, and
putting his left arm out to save himself from falling, thrust
it into the monster's gaping jaws. ' Now the Sea Elephant
198 FLESH-EATERS OF THE SEA
can crack pebbles as large as goose eggs like nuts, and does
do so, apparently for sport, so that when we drew Sandy
from underneath his fallen foe, and prising open the jaw,
released his arm, it looked more like some shreds of red rag
than anything else.'
' The upshot of the raid was twenty-one elephants killed.
We were a study in ruffianism — " gaumed" all over with
blood and grease, stumbling over the smallest stone for
very weariness, yet compelled to toil on with only a few
minutes' rest at long intervals all through the night at the
unfamiliar work of skinning those great beasts and securing
the masses of fat-laden hide.'
SEA LION (Otaria stelleri).
Coloured Plate XII. Fig. i.
The seals already described either possess no external ears
or else they are very small ; in the genus Otaria, of which
the Sea Lion is the largest, they may be short, but, never-
theless, are very distinct. There are differences in the skull
and teeth. All the seal tribe possess strong canine teeth,
but the Sea Lion has six molars instead of four, as in the
common seal. In addition, the eared seals make progress
on land or ice with far more facility than the true seals.
The hind flippers are placed at right angles to the body,
and these the creature gathers up underneath it, raises itself
on the fore limbs, and then gives a push. The movement
is extremely cumbersome, but the animal will contrive to
mount a slope that a man could not compass without much
exertion ; and the Sea Lion is often found quite four miles
from the edge of the water.
The home of Steller's Sea Lion is the Bering Sea, and
as far South as the Kurile Islands on the one side of the
North Pacific and California on the other. In the latter
case a rookery of Sea Lions is strictly preserved by the
American Government, or probably long ere this the animal
would have been exterminated in those waters, as it has been
in many other regions after a century and a half of constant
persecution.
The male Sea Lion, of eleven or twelve feet in length and
LIOIST 199
a thousand pounds in weight, is yellowish-brown in colour
with shaded darker patches. There is a distinct mane upon
the neck, which, with its upright posture, combines to give
the creature its supposed leonine appearance. The males
are fierce in aspect, and if hard pressed will turn and show
fight. Old animals bellow like bulls ;Jhe younger ones
bleat like sheep. They bolt their fish without mastication.
The female is only about half the dimensions of the male,
and is considerably lighter in colour. The animal is one
of the hair seals, useful only for its hide, flesh, and fat. To
the Aleutian islander it is as useful as is the walrus to the
Eskimo, and there is scarcely any part of the body that is
SKELETON OF THE SEA LION (WALKING ATTITUDE).
not of service. At one time the catch was forty thousand
per annum. The Sea Lion frequents the same breeding-
grounds as the fur seals, though the animals keep strictly
apart ; and an account of a fur seal rookery will, in its
main features, apply equally well to the habits of the
larger animal.
The Patagonian Sea Lion (Otaria jubata) formerly existed
in immense numbers. It is chiefly interesting on account
of its being one of this species that was first brought to
England. Probably this animal is more energetic than its
northern cousin, for it often hunts in packs, catching not
only fishes and squids, but also preying upon the slow-
going penguin.
200 FLESH-EATERS OF THE SEA
SEA BEAR (Otaria ursina}.
Coloured Plate XII. Fig. 4.
There are four or five Southern fur seals that have been
almost wiped out of existence by continual hunting ; but
the Sea Bear, or Northern Fur Seal, still resorts in immense
herds to the islands in the Bering Sea, though it is by no
means so abundant as was once the case.
A full-grown Sea Bear is six or seven feet long, turning
the scale at perhaps six hundred pounds ; the female is
much smaller, seldom reaching five feet in length, and
weighing as little as eighty pounds. The male generally
is of a greyish tint on the shoulders, the rest of the body
varying from reddish-grey to almost pure black ; the under
parts are of a reddish-brown tint ; the female is lighter, a
mixture of grey and brown.
The coat of the Sea Bear is the famous ' sealskin' fur.
When the skin is first taken from the animal it gives no
promise of the soft beauty which makes it so valuable, being
apparently coarse and rough. This appearance is caused by
a coating of long and coarse hairs, which penetrate through
the thick soft fur which is
next the skin. These hairs
are removed in a very
ingenious manner. Being
much longer than the hairs
which constitute the fur,
their roots penetrate the
skin much more deeply.
VERTICAL SECTION OF THE SKIN OF In order to remOVe them,
11111 r L Iv o£sA.L*
the dresser lays the skin,
The coarser hairs (/;) penetrate quite through ... . . .. ,
the skin (s). with the fur downwards,
on a table. With a long-
bladed knife, as sharp as a razor, he shaves off the skin,
cutting it just deep enough to sever the roots of the bristles,
without touching those of the inner fur. The bristles are
then easily removed, leaving the fur untouched.
The gathering together of the seals in the breeding
season is one of the most remarkable sights in the world
THE NORTHERN FUR SEAL 201
(Plate XVIII.). At the Pribyloff Islands and other such
lonely spots in the North Pacific the male seals begin
to arrive early in May. Just as in a gold rush the miner
stakes out his location, so the seal allots to himself on the
rocky shore a space of about ten feet square as tne site for
his housekeeping. Normally the seal is a soft-eyed, amiable
creature, except in his attitude towards the fish upon which
he feeds ; but now he becomes a fierce beast with bristling
moustache, glaring eyes, and teeth ever bared towards any
of his companions. No sooner has he entered into posses-
sion of his freehold site than he becomes engaged in a series
of terrible combats with new-comers to retain it.
About the beginning of June the female seals arrive, and
then the scene simply defies description. Each bull is bent
upon stocking his allotment with partners, and as a female
comes swimming in to shore she is pounced upon by a mob
of roaring, frenzied males. She is bitten, scratched, banged
down upon the rocks, and sometimes literally torn limb
from limb ; but usually she escapes so severe a fate and is
seized by the neck by a victorious bull, who dumps her
down in his reservation. But when he has secured from a
dozen to fifteen wives the bull has to battle just as strenu-
ously to keep them. Often a discontented spouse will
endeavour to escape to a neighbouring family, and not
infrequently, unhappily, a bigger and stronger bull will
annex the whole harem, leaving its owner lamenting until
he can despoil of his wives another bull weaker than himself.
When the baby seals arrive, about the end of the month,
the mothers pay them but scant attention, beyond affording
them plentiful supplies of rich milk, upon which the young
pups make amazing progress. The bulls appear not to be
even faintly interested in nursery matters. Strangely enough
the young seal is not a born swimmer ; it is necessary for
its mother to give it lessons in the art of natation. The pup
proves to be an apt learner, and very shortly thousands of
young animals are gambolling in the water of their own
accord.
One feature of the seal's life appears to be absolutely
inexplicable. For ten months of the year a bull requires
a hundredweight of fish a day, and it is no fault of his if the
202 FLESH-EATERS OF THE SEA
supply falls short of his necessities. But for two months
at the ' rookery ' he ' fights, makes love, never sleeps, never
drinks, and never eats.' There are many animals that
fast for longer periods, but it is always in a season when
their natural forces are torpid ; but the seals fast ' through-
out the most strenuous period each year of their intensely
strenuous life.' In any case food is scarce in the neigh-
bourhood of a rookery, for the appearance of the seals is
the signal for the fish to remove themselves elsewhere.
What the pups live upon after the time they are weaned
until the whole colony goes to sea again is equally mys-
terious ; for if one is killed its stomach will be found to
contain only stones.
By the end of October the breeding location is deserted ;
the thousands of its late tenants are scattering themselves
over the free ocean. No one can accurately gauge the
extent of their wanderings during the eight months which
elapse before they return to the earnest life of the rookery.
The killer whale probably knows something about it, for one
of these ocean wolves, when captured off the coast of Cali-
fornia, had no less than fourteen fairly large seals in its
capacious maw. Sharks take a bite out of the sleeping seal
as it lies afloat upon the curling waves, and the Polar bear
on the icefloes stealthily cuts off its retreat to the water.
But these inroads upon the numbers of the seal family
count as nothing compared to the fierce toll which man
takes. Even within recent years a hundred thousand Fur
Seals have been taken in one season in the Pribyloff
Islands alone. ' It is a sordid, horrible business, which
cannot be written about nicely.' In their greed for gain
the sealers are charged with skinning their victims while
they are but stunned, and one writer (Burn-Murdoch) tells
of the newly flayed seal lifting itself redly towards heaven,
in the glowing sunshine, as if asking its Maker why this
thing should be.
The Northern Fur Seal was likely to be exterminated
until Government intervention insisted upon giving the
seal a close time, protecting the immature animal, and
especially preventing the capture of the creatures when
on their way to the breeding grounds. Even though the
Plate XE.
1. Sea Lion
5. Walrus
THE WALRUS 203
regulations be constantly broken by lawless men who risk
the remote chances of detection, the seal harvest in any
year is not equal to what it was when indiscriminate
slaughter was general ; but moderate seasons in perpetuity
will stand for wealth incalculable, instead of a few flush
seasons that would have spelt extinction for one of the
most wonderful, amiable, and intelligent of God's creatures,
whether on land or in the sea.
WALRUS (Trichechus rosmdrus).
Coloured Plate XII. Fig. 5.
Standing alone, a real monster of the deep, the Walrus,
Morse, or Sea Horse is the most extraordinary member of
a remarkable family. The word ' Walrus' is of Scandinavian
origin, and literally signifies 'Whale Horse' ; though why, in
naming one of the most ungainly of the brute creation, it
was thought necessary to libel one of the most beautiful of
our animals, the horse, is difficult to comprehend.
' None can compete with the Walrus for clumsiness. He
has a gigantic body — in the fullest grown adult about a ton
in weight — and about as unsymmetrical as a leathern bag of
oil. It is covered with a tough, gnarled hide, scantily
clothed with coarse brown hair, very patchy — in fact, not at
all unlike one of those old hair-trunks we used to see occa-
sionally. The fore flippers are very short, and the hand-like
members are planted flat at almost right angles to the body,
while the hind flippers have no legs to them, being appar-
ently just an ornamental appendage to the body in lieu of a
tail. Consequently, he who can watch the progress of a
Walrus over land or ice and not laugh must be quite devoid
of humour, for it is certainly one of the most droll-looking
methods of progression conceivable.'
The Walrus is practically restricted to the Arctic Circle,
though two or three centuries ago it abounded off Norway,
and one was seen as far South as the Orkney Islands in 1857.
The outstanding singularity of the immense animal, which
often measures eighteen or twenty feet in length and ten or
twelve in circumference round the chest, consists in the con-
204
FLESH-EATERS OF THE SEA
struction of the skull. The lower jaw lacks both incisor and
canine teeth, and is compressed laterally to fit in between
two enormous canine teeth, or tusks, which are set in the
upper jaw, and are inclined downwards with a gentle curve.
The length of these tusks is sometimes a couple of feet, with
a girth of seven inches at the base, and each weighing
upwards of ten pounds. The primary object of the ivory
tusks is to act as ice-hooks, enabling the animal to haul
itself out of the water on to the ice. They are also used
in raking out of the sand and mud the cockles, mussels,
worms, and other shore-frequenting creatures on which
the animal feeds. It does not disdain the offal of a
dead whale, or indeed any
animal food that calls for no
chase in getting it.
The nostrils of the Walrus,
instead of terminating in a
snout, are situated far above
the mouth, on what appears
to be the middle of the face.
The ears are merely two small
orifices ; the neck is short ;
the lips are thick. Almost all
the hair-producing power of
SKULL AND DENTITION OF WALRUS, the animal seems to be con-
centrated in the upper lips,
which are thickly covered with
enormously developed bristles,
sharply pointed, and so large as to remind the spectator
of the quills of the porcupine. The generic name, Trichechus,
is formed from a Greek word signifying a hair or bristle.
Notwithstanding its intensely ferocious appearance, the
Walrus is a markedly inoffensive creature, except during the
breeding season, when the males will fight desperately with
each other for the locality which they select for their
nurseries, and the result is that there is not an old male to
be found that is not covered with scars from the tusks
of his rivals.
The Walrus is a very sociable creature, loving to herd in
hundreds. Captain Cook thus describes his meeting with
A. Skull of adult animal.
B. Palate and dentition of young.
C. Lower jaw and dentition of young.
THE WALRUS 205
the animal off the northern coast of America : ' They lie in
herds of many hundreds upon the ice, huddling over one
another like swine, and roar and bray so very loud that in
the night or foggy weather they gave us notice of the
vicinity of the ice before we could see it. We never found
the whole herd asleep, some being always on the watch.
They were seldom in a hurry to get away till after they had
been fired at ; they would then tumble over one another
into the sea in the utmost confusion. . . . The dam, when
in the water, holds the young one between her fore arms/
No animal, perhaps, takes its parental responsibilities
more seriously than the Walrus, which will undergo much
privation for the sake of its young. The great tusks which
are so vitally necessary to the existence of the animal, only
attain a length of one or two inches by the time the young
one is two years old. When a young male, in particular, is
nearly as big as his mother, he will still take milk from the
patient dam, who will also grub up succulent morsels to
satisfy the appetite of her ponderous offspring.
In one respect at least the Walrus is fortunate — it may be
considered to have no serious enemy among the animal
inhabitants of the chilly regions where it dwells. The
Polar Bear, gaunt and ravenous, will not enter joyfully into
a conflict with a Walrus, for it knows that the ivory tusks
are capable of being put to sterner use than digging in the
mud for shellfish, &c. It is difficult, too, for even the bear's
terrible claws to make much impression on the thick and
leathery hide.
The Walrus, however, is no match for the Polar Bear in
cunning, and often it is roused out of its sun-bath on the
edge of the ice by the onslaught of the foe, which has
stealthily crept up to take the huge creature by surprise.
If the bear can leap on to the shoulders of the Walrus,
while it is yet some distance from the water, the result is,
more or less, a foregone conclusion — no skull could with-
stand the terrible blows which the bear deals it. But if the
Walrus can slip into the water before it is incapacitated, it
has more than a sporting chance of effecting its escape.
There are limits to the diving powers of the bear, who
speedily comes to the surface, sadly disappointed, and in a
2o6 FLESH-EATERS OF THE SEA
temper that bodes ill for the next prospective prey that is
encountered.
To the Eskimo tribes, the Walrus is the first necessity of
life. From the skin are made the coverings of the kayaks,
or canoes, in which the Eskimo hunts the seal and the
Walrus. The bones furnish him with the runners for his
sledges and the heads of his weapons, while the tusks form
the points of his spears and harpoons, and are also cut into
fish-hooks, the weights of bird-slings, and similar objects.
The intestines are split, and twisted into twine of great
strength, from which are made the nets and fishing-lines on
which the livelihood of the native largely depends. The
flesh supplies him with ample stores of food, while the
abundant fat is used as fuel in the stone lamp, without
which the Eskimo could not possibly live.
It need scarcely be said that man has wrought terrible havoc
among the Walrus tribe. King Alfred records how Othere
and his men made a fine battue of these marine mammals on
the coast of the Arctic Ocean, and it is a well-known fact
that the Greenlanders paid their contribution to the cost
of the Crusades in Walrus tusks. In later times one hears
of the voyagers to Spitzbergen slaying nine hundred
Walruses in a few hours. Mr. Lyddeker says that in the
ten years 1870-80, Russian whalers alone obtained 400,000
pounds of ivory and 2,000,000 gallons of Walrus oil. These
figures point to the capture of at least a hundred thousand
Walruses. The diminution in their numbers has reduced
Walrus-hunting to rather a low ebb, but so long as there
are sufficient to meet the needs of the Eskimo all may be
accounted well.
Chapter VIII
ORDER V.— RODENTIA (GNAWING
ANIMALS)
SUB-ORDER I.— SIMPLE-TOOTHED
RODENTS
SUB-ORDER 2.— DOUBLE-TOOTHED
RODENTS
General description of the Rodentia— Table of
Sub-orders — Common Squirrel — Grey Squirrel
— Taguan Flying Squirrel — Polatouche —
Assapan — Anomalure — Chipmunk — Marmot
— Wood-chuck — Prairie Dog — Beaver —
Mouse-like Rodents — House Mouse — Field
Mouse — Harvest Mouse — Dormouse — Black
Rat— Brown Rat — Field Vole — Water Vole-
Musquash — Hamster — Lemming — Jerboa —
Cape Jumping Hare — Porcupine — Chinchilla
— Viscacha — Agouti — Guinea Pig — Capybara —
Hare— Rabbit— Pika.
PLATE XIX.
AMERICAN GREY SQUIRRELS.
(See page 213)
(Photo IF. S. Bt-iridge, F.Z.S.)
PLATE XX.
i. FLYING SQUIRRELS.
(See pai*e 214)
2. WATER VOLE.
tS« page 232)
CHAPTER VIII
Order V. — Rodcntia
(Gnawing Animals)
THE Rodents are small or moderately sized animals,
many of which in their external appearance strongly
resemble some of the Insectivora. They are more widely
distributed than any other order of the Mammalia ; except
in the extreme Polar regions they are found everywhere,
although Australia, especially considering its size, is poorly
represented. There are quite a thousand species, some of
which are marked by their countless myriads of individuals ;
and in this respect it is fortunate for mankind that most of
them are ' Wee, sleekit, cowerin', tim'rous beasties.' Never-
theless they have very diverse habits. They are among the
swiftest of the Mammalia, they are diggers and delvers in
the earth, they are flying gymnasts, they are expert divers,
or they are agile leapers whose movements the eye can
scarcely follow.
The word ' Rodent' literally means a gnawer, and is given
to the animals on account of the structure of their teeth.
Of grinders they are usually furnished with at least three
above and below on each side. Canine teeth are altogether
absent. They all possess two incisors in each jaw, which
occupy more than half the space ; in a very few species
there is a pair of small or rudimentary incisors in the upper
jaw. The number of grinders may differ, but the incisors
are always widely separated from them. Their outer
surface is faced with enamel, which wears more slowly than
the softer inner side of the tooth, so as always to present a
15 209
2io GNAWING ANIMALS
sharp edge like that of a chisel, whose cutting edge consists
of a plate of hard steel backed by softer iron.
The incisors, set exactly opposite each other, need
continual use to preserve their cutting edge. As fast as
the teeth are worn down fresh material is supplied from
the hollowed base. The growth of the incisors in the
Rodents is so rapid that the animals must continually gnaw
if they are to exist in comfort, or in fact to exist at all, for
they would grow to such a size that it would be impossible
to open and close the mouth. Hence, when a Rodent is
not employing its teeth on food, it apparently engages them
in the wanton destruction of some hard substance altogether
useless for food ; or failing
that, it works its jaws in-
cessantly from side to side,
grinding the teeth against
each other, ever seeking to
prevent the possibility of
overgrowth.
The illustration of the
rabbit's head shows what
happens when the animal
breaks an upper incisor of
the right side and a lower
HEAD OF A RABBIT. inCiSOF °f the left Side« The
Showing abnormal growth of incisor teeth. Unbroken teeth grOW UI1-
checked, following the curve
of their sockets, and assuming the remarkable forms which
are there figured.
The Rodentia are for the most part vegetable feeders ;
some are really omnivorous ; and the majority of them
are particularly destructive to grain, whether in the crop
or garner. The fur of some of the species is of considerable
commercial importance ; and there are few of them whose
flesh is not fit for food, though in several cases its odour
leaves something to be desired. In England hares and
rabbits are the only Rodents which are usually eaten, but
mankind is as omnivorous as any of the beasts of the field,
and in one region certain animal food is accounted a
delicacy, which in another is viewed with loathing.
Plate
7. Golden Agouti
S.Syrian Hyrax
SQUIRREL-LIKE RODENTS 211
Owing to the number of species of marked similarity
in structure, zoologists have not always agreed concerning
the classification of the Rodents, but it is generally accept-
able to divide them into two Sub-orders : —
I. Simple-toothed Rodents (Simplicidentata), or those
species which never possess more than two incisors in the
upper jaw.
This Sub-order is again divided into three sections : —
1. Squirrel-like Rodents (Sciuromorpha).
2. Mouse-like Rodents (Myomorpha).
3. Porcupine-like Rodents (Hystricomorpha).
II. Double - toothed Rodents (Dupliddentata). This
Sub-order contains only two families, of which that of
the Hares and Rabbits contains four times as many species
as the family of the Pikas.
Sub-Order I.— SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS
SQUIRREL-LIKE RODENTS.
FAMILY SCIURID^E (SQUIRRELS).
BED SQUIRREL (Sciurus vulgaris).
Coloured Plate XIV. Fig. 4.
The Squirrel, light, nimble, and graceful, is practically
distributed throughout all the world except Australia,
and is particularly abundant in North America. With
comparatively few excep-
tions the animal is a tree-
dweller, for which its
fore feet, with finger-like
toes and sharp nails,
specially fit it.
The Common or Red
Squirrel of the British CLAWS OF THE SQUIRREL.
Isles is a pretty little
animal of about fifteen inches in length from the tip of
its nose to the end of its tail. It is clad in a coat of
2i2 GNAWING ANIMALS
short, silky, russet-brown fur above ; below it is princi-
pally white. The species extends from Norway to Japan
and from Lapland to Italy. On the Continent and in
Northern Asia the animal is a little larger in size, and
in the colder regions the fur changes to grey or nearly
white. On the whole russet brown or red is the prevailing
colour of the Squirrels ; a Chinese variety has a red and
black coat and, strangely enough, red teeth.
The ears of the English Squirrel are erect and usually
tufted ; its eyes are large and black and sparkling. Its
long, spreading, bushy tail is carried erect when the
animal is running on the ground or along a branch ; but
in the course of its leaps it is extended behind, and serves
at once as a Vudder and a parachute. It can run up or
down a tree trunk with astounding facility ; and it can leap
from a great height without fear of injury. It is extremely
vigilant, and the merest tap upon a tree trunk will cause
the Squirrel to take instant flight out of its branches.
During the heat of the day the animal generally sleeps.
Its almost spherical nest of interlaced twigs, grasses, leaves,
and moss is an artistic and perfect specimen of animal
architecture that perhaps no other mammal, unless it be the
harvest mouse, can equal ; it is rain-proof, and, secure in
the fork of a lofty branch, will defy a gale.
A single pair of Squirrels often mate for life, and occupy
the same nest year after year. The family of three or four
is born in the middle of summer, and the young ones
remain with the parents until the following spring, when
they take on the cares of housekeeping for themselves.
In addition to its ordinary food, nuts, acorns, fruit,
seed, and beech-mast in particular, the Squirrel will eat
insects, and plunder nests of their eggs and young. In
Canada the little animal, when driven by hunger, will
attack the meat with which traps are baited to catch some
of the fur-bearing carnivores. In feeding, all Squirrels sit
up on their haunches and hold their food in the forepaws.
The Squirrel does not hibernate in the true sense of
the word. In autumn it commences to lay up stores of
provisions on which to subsist when the country is in
the icy clutch of winter. It forms little magazines of food
THE SQUIRREL 213
in various selected spots, where it almost invariably finds
them when an occasional fine winter's day wakes the
animal up from its long sleep. When it has dined it again
retires to resume its slumbers. In the warmer regions the
Squirrels do not sink into a state of torpidity at any time
of the year.
The Squirrel makes a charming, frolicsome pet, and
there are few persons who cannot take pleasure in its
antics. In some American public parks the animals are
given their freedom, and their merry life in the trees is
an additional charm to the public pleasure resorts. It has
been proposed to adopt the same plan in London. There
is no doubt that the Squirrels would permanently make
their homes within the confines of the parks, and it is
equally certain that the London cat would assume it was
its special prerogative to add squirrel-hunting to its many
misdoings. The hordes of town-bred cats have developed
quite wonderful arboreal powers, which have already
resulted in the disappearance from the parks and gardens of
many charming little songsters, who can no longer nest
there in safety. The mother Squirrel would be faced with
the same difficulty, for if the old ones escaped the feline
prowler, the young Rodents would fall victims whenever
they descended to the ground.
The best-known Squirrels of the United States and
Canada are the Black or Fox Squirrel (Sciurus niger)} nearly
three feet in length, and the smaller Grey Squirrel (Sciurus
carolinensis). Some of these animals have been set free
in the Zoological Gardens, where they are great favourites
with visitors (Plate XIX.). The Grey Squirrel was at
one time a pest in the New England States, vast numbers
of the animals migrating from one region to another,
devastating large tracts of cultivated land in the process.
Under an old Pennsylvanian law threepence was paid
by the State for each head of this animal ; and in a
single year in the middle of the eighteenth century the
Government paid no less than .£8,000 on this account.
This meant the death of nearly two millions of the little
animal, whose ornamental fur, which is quite different from
the grey coat of the Siberian variety of the Common
2i4 GNAWING ANIMALS
Squirrel, goes to make the ' squirrel cloaks ' that are such
coveted wear.
The tropical species of Squirrel are often more beauti-
fully furred than their Northern brethren. One of the
best examples is the Jelerang (Muscardinus avellanarius),
or Javan Squirrel, whose brownish-black coat merges into
yellow on the sides and abdomen, the same tint adorning
the head of the animal.
TAGUAN FLYING SQUIRREL (Pteromys petauristd).
Plate XX. Fig. i.
The Taguan is one of the best examples of the Flying
Squirrels. It is a native of India and the further south-
east. It is rather a large species of the family with a body
from two to three feet in length and a tail of twenty
inches. Its colour is chiefly clear chestnut, deepening
into brown on the back. The skin of the flanks is
modified in something like similar fashion, but to a much
less extent than in the Colugo or Flying Lemur. In this
present case the flying membrane extends to and includes
the limbs only as far as the wrists and ankles, and parti-
cularly it does not include the tail. The skin is developed
to such a degree that when the animal is sitting, the paws
only just appear from under the soft folds of the delicately
thin membrane.
When making one of its marvellous leaps, the Taguan first
stretches out its four limbs to their fullest extent ; and then,
taking off at a greater height than where it will alight, it is
upborne through the air on the furry parachute. Strictly
speaking the action thus described is not that of flying ; it
more resembles the daring dive of the gymnast from the
flying trapeze ; but nevertheless the mode of progression
well serves the Taguan in moving with the utmost rapidity
from tree to tree.
Various species of Flying Squirrels are found from
Lapland and Finland, through Siberia, to China and Japan ;
and in North America as far south as Guatemala. The
PLATE XXI.
, . - ^- • .
\ W\^m\ ^ ''"^v,,lf/(»,
I. POLATOUCHE. 2. ANOMALUKE.
FLYING SQUIRRELS 215
Polatouche (Sciuropterus volans), Plate XXI. Fig. i,
is an elegant little creature, whose tawny brown body
is only six inches long ; on the outside of the limbs
and the flying membrane it is darker. In winter the silky
fur not only becomes longer, but the main portions of it
change into silver grey. Like its bigger relative, the
Taguan, this little flier is nocturnal, only leaving its soft-
lined nest in a hole in a tree when dusk arrives. Though
it is really a diminutive creature even when stretched out
in flying attitude, it can take flights of thirty yards with
ease. The Assapan (Sciuropterus volucella) is the North
American Flying Squirrel. It is even smaller than the
preceding, but often attracts more attention, if only because
a number of sociable Assapans engage in their evening
evolutions, whereas the Polatouche usually moves about
alone or only in pairs.
ANOMALURE (Anomalurus fulgens).
Plate XXI. Fig. 2.
Though it is a Flying Squirrel, the Fulgent Anomalure
presents marked differences in construction sufficient to
raise it to the dignity of a separate family. It is a
West African animal, found chiefly in the Gaboon
region.
One special point of difference rests in the fact that in
front the flying membrane extends, not from the wrists,
but from elbow to elbow, being additionally braced by a
rod of bony cartilage, almost as though the animal pos-
sessed four front limbs. The flying membranes of the
Colugo, the Taguan and its allies, and the Anomalure,
really differ only in the points of attachment to the limbs,
but the last-named animal exhibits a feature that is entirely
absent in the others. On the under side of the root of
the long, thickly-haired tail is a row of horny scales,
which are useful as an additional aid in holding securely
to the bark of a branch while preparing to take a flying
leap.
216 GNAWING ANIMALS
CHIPMUNK (Tamias striatus}.
Plate XXIV. Fig. 3.
The true Ground Squirrels, of which the North American
Chipmunk is the best known, are, first and foremost, bur-
rowers ; but they are equally at home in whisking about
brushwood and small timber. The animal is also known
as the Hackee, or Chipping Squirrel. This last name is
gained from the animal's little cry, like the chip-chipping
of a newly hatched chicken. It is a beautiful creature in
form and colour, and, including its tail, is just under a foot
in length. On the back the fur is brownish-grey, warming
into orange-brown on the forehead and hindquarters ;
upon the sides are stripes of black and yellowish-white ;
but the colours vary considerably, being generally lighter
in the north. If only the fur were less common and more
difficult to obtain, it might easily take as high a rank as
sable or ermine.
The American Ground Squirrel extends roughly from
the St. Lawrence and Manitoba as far south as Missouri
and Georgia ; and what is practically the same animal is
found in the north-east of Europe and across Northern
Asia. They live in burrows deep enough to afford pro-
tection from the severe cold in winter. Most of these
burrowing squirrels have cheek pouches, which are speci-
ally useful when the animals are storing up food for winter
use. They have very liberal ideas of what their needs
will be during their retirement, and though it is hard work
to dig the animals out of the frozen ground — in Siberia, for
example — the poor natives are satisfied with the hoard of
nuts and roots which usually rewards them for their
trouble.
Being ground-dwellers, the Chipmunk and its various
relations are always liable to be raided by birds of prey
and various of the carnivores ; but the female breeds
twice a year, and thus the animals abound sufficiently
to migrate in quite large bodies when the food supply
of any region makes it advisable for them to change
their quarters.
GROUND SQUIRRELS 217
MARMOT (Arctomys marmottd).
Coloured Plate XIV. Fig. 7.
The Marmot in appearance differs from the chipmunk
only in its heavier build, its shorter tail, and its stronger
claws for more extensive burrowing. In disposition and
ordinary movement it is sluggish, and under no circum-
stances is it a tree-climber in the Old World. The various
species are restricted to the Northern Hemisphere. The
best known is the Alpine Marmot, which is about the size of
a rabbit. It inhabits the higher regions of the Alps,
Pyrenees, and Carpathians, at elevations of seven or eight
thousand feet, and is the only European warm-blooded
quadruped found permanently at so great a height.
The burrows of a Marmot colony, which in Europe are
found in open spaces very near the line of perpetual snow,
are rather complicated. They consist of a number of
chambers approached by narrow tunnels six or more feet
in length, from which the animals issue to feed on the
mountain herbage, roots, leaves, and seeds of various plants.
While they are feeding, one or more of the number keep
watch to prevent surprise by enemies. The slightest
unusual circumstance will cause the sentinels to give the
alarm, and the animals at once dart for the entrances to the
burrows, where they sit up to look back and ascertain the
nature of the threatened danger. If it is not a false alarm
they dive headlong into their retreats. Very often they
quickly reappear, but two alarms, even though they are in
quick succession, will cause them to remain underground
for the rest of the day.
The squirrel wakes up from its winter sleep at intervals
to pay visits to its various storehouses ; but the Marmots, in
their grass-lined burrows, stop up the outlets. The earlier
portion of their retirement is spent in eating their stores, and
then, huddled up in parties of a dozen or fifteen, they sleep
for as long as six or seven months. Just before the retiring
season the Marmot is very fat and its fur is in excellent
condition ; and this is the time which is chosen for Marmot-
hunting.
218 GNAWING ANIMALS
At one time it was no uncommon event in England to
see an Alpine Marmot carried by a Savoyard beggar ; but
nowadays a monkey is the usual aid to extract coppers from
the charitable, probably because its antics are more pleasing
to children. There are other Marmots very similar in ap-
pearance and habit. The Bobac (Arctomys bobac) is found
in Eastern Russia and throughout Siberia to the shores of
the Pacific ; the Hoary Marmot (Arctomys pruinosus), one
of the largest species, lives in the north-west of British
North America, certainly as far North as the Arctic Circle.
WOODCHUCK (Arctomys monax).
The Woodchuck, the smallest of the American species,
only measures twenty inches, including the tail. Preferring
to live in hillsides or open grass land near to cultivated
districts, the Woodchuck is often responsible for much
damage to agriculture. In the New England States it has
sometimes been found necessary to offer rewards to keep
down the number of the animals. The Woodchuck, unlike
its relatives, will sometimes ascend trees, especially when it
is pressed by an enemy. It appears to fix the time of its
retirement to its winter quarters altogether regardless of
climatic conditions. At the end of September it vanishes
for months. Thus it comes about that it is often under-
ground during weeks of genial weather and while there is
abundance of food ; and in the succeeding spring it reap-
pears when, owing to the belated season, winter has not
really taken its departure. Its retirement and its reappear-
ance a month later in each case would appear to make for
comfort, and why the animal's instinct does not suggest
such a course cannot be explained.
PRAIRIE DOG (Cynomys ludovicianus).
Plate XXII. Fig. 2.
The Prairie Dog is not a member of the canine family,
and in form and habits it bears not the least resemblance to
a dog. The animal probably gains its name on account of
THE BEAVER 219
its bark-like cry when alarmed. It is also called the Barking
Squirrel, which is strictly appropriate, as it is simply a
Marmot inhabiting the prairies to the east of the Rocky
Mountains. In its general size and coat the animal is un-
doubtedly of the ground squirrel type, though its head is
rounder and it possesses a tail only three inches in length.
The Prairie Dog is gregarious, often living together in
huge numbers in a labyrinth of burrows and tunnels, which
is usually called a ' dog town.' The warren does not
appear to be of haphazard construction, for there is always
a number of tunnels, unbroken by burrows, which serve as
the main thoroughfares. A ' dog town/ under usual cir-
cumstances, is a scene of peaceful animation. In front of
every hole is a little hillock of earth, which the Prairie
Marmots use as seats and watch-towers. If danger threaten,
the very first yelp of alarm is sufficient to cause the whole
populace to disappear in a cloud of dust, thrown up by
countless legs and tails. The animal is in no sense a hiber-
nator, only retiring during the most severe period of the
winter.
Alien inhabitants are viewed with dislike in the cities of
men, and measures are taken to restrict their entrance, or at
least to enforce obedience to the laws of the community.
The inhabitants of a ' dog town ' are helpless against two
intruders who often take up their residence with them.
The rattlesnake and the burrowing owl not only seize
upon ready-made quarters, but mainly subsist upon the
young of their unwilling hosts.
FAMILY CASTORID^:.
BEAVER (Castor fiber).
Coloured Plate XIV. Fig. 9.
The Beaver, the sole representative of the family, is an
aquatic animal, one of the largest of the Rodents, attaining
a length of three feet. It is stoutly and heavily built,
especially in the hind-quarters. The legs are short and
strong, and the five toes on each foot are sharply clawed ;
220 GNAWING ANIMALS
on the second toe of the hind foot is an additional claw,
assisting to make the foot a better comb for the animal to
dress its fur. The hind feet only are webbed to the nails.
The head is large and round and the ears are short ; the tail,
broad and flat, is scaly and furrowed. The coat of the Beaver
is very thick and peculiarly soft and silky ; it is chestnut-
brown above and greyer below. The fur is generally
darker towards the northern limits of the animal's habitat.
A few centuries ago the Beaver was common to almost the
whole of Europe, from Wales to the Urals, and it extended
across all Northern Asia. It has disappeared entirely from
Britain, and the few that still exist in Europe are to be
found only in Scandinavia and Poland, and only there
because they are strictly preserved. There used to be
Beavers in the Thames, and they existed in Wales as late as
1188.
The American Beaver was extremely common when the
continent was first discovered, but comparatively very few
now remain in the United States, chiefly in the West ; and
in Canada their numbers are being steadily thinned towards
vanishing-point. In 1743, from Quebec alone, 127,000 skins
were exported to England, and the depletion has proceeded
apace since that time, until now in the course of a whole
year perhaps not more than a few thousand Beavers fall to
the trapper.
The Beaver figures in the Canadian national shield as
an emblem of industry and sagacity ; and, indeed, if only
half of humanity was as intelligent, as provident, and as
laborious, ours would be a very different world. It is
chiefly its constructive capacity that attracts popular
interest, and of all animals it is the most methodical
engineer and builder.
Living in smaller or larger societies, the animals select a
site in a stream upon which to rear an elaborate habitation.
They require still water of sufficient depth to leave at least
the bottom of it free of ice even in the most severe frost ;
and as timber is an absolute necessity, the animals only
frequent streams with wooded banks. The incisor teeth of
the Beaver are large, and so hard that the Indians use
them for cutting bone ; and the animals find little difficulty
THE BEAVER
221
JAWS OF THE BEAVER.
in gnawing through the trunks of trees six or seven or as
many as eighteen inches in diameter. Trees on river-banks
usually lean towards the water, and consequently they
fall in the right direction.
A tree is stripped of its
branches and is then cut
into logs from three to six
feet in length, which are
conveyed to the bed of the
stream, and with the
branches, stones, and mud
are built up into a dam.
Sometimes a dam is two
hundred yards long, from
ten to twelve feet in thick-
ness at the bottom, narrowing to about two feet at the
top. The dam is either straight or curved, as called for by
peculiarities in the bed of the stream.
Within the pool thus formed the Beavers build ' lodges,'
somewhat dome-shaped houses, of branches, moss, and
mud, each large enough to afford accommodation for five
or six animals. The lodges, of which there are sometimes
as many as thirty in a ' village/ are connected with the
bank by burrows, the entrances to which are always under
water. There are two reasons for this precaution — it is
a protection from the wolverene, which dislikes water
as much as a cat ; and it enables the Beaver to reach or
leave its retreat,
to gain access to
food, when the river
is frozen over to a
depth of three feet
or more.
The mud roof of
a lodge is repaired
or renewed every
year. The plaster-
ing is done with the fore feet, and not with the tail as
is so often stated. The Beaver only uses its hind legs in
swimming, and the tail is simply a rudder, particularly
TAIL OF THE BEAVER.
222 GNAWING ANIMALS
serviceable when the animal is propelling a log to a desired
spot.
In winter, the wolverene, the inveterate foe of the
Beaver family, comes across the ice to a lodge. But the
compost of mud and moss is frozen into almost the solidity
of concrete, that would offer good resistance to iron tools,
and the carnivore's claws make little impression upon it.
Though the Beaver does not hibernate, it is far less
active in winter, only leaving the lodge to pay a visit to the
heap of logs fastened down in the mud. Having dragged
a log out of the store, the Beaver eats the bark and then
usually applies the timber to strengthen the dam. In
summer the animal eats the roots and stems of various
aquatic plants, but bark is its staple diet.
The Beaver is hunted for its fur, which is employed for
expensive articles of apparel. It also yields castoreum,
which is obtained from two glands near the end of the
body. At one time used in medicine, the odoriferous sub-
stance is now chiefly employed in perfumery. Beavers can
scent castoreum at a considerable distance, and are irresis-
tibly attracted by it. When a hunter sets a trap he fixes
it about six inches below the surface of the water, and from
it projects a twig that has been dipped in castoreum, or
' barkstone,' as the trappers call it. The Beaver, drawn to
the spot by the powerful odour, often falls a victim to the
hidden snare.
It is asserted that sometimes are found lazy Beavers who
will not assist in building dams or lodges. As these drones
are usually males, it is most probable that they have
been conquered by their stronger brethren in fights for
partners, and then driven out of the community, to
become idlers from necessity rather than from choice.
MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS.
FAMILY MURID^E.
The Muridae is the largest and most typical family of the
Rodents. They are mainly small animals, and include some
of the tiniest of the mammals. Mice and Rats are almost
THE COMMON MOUSE 223
too familiar to require description, but there are a number
of other animals whose relationship to them might not at
first glance be suspected.
Most of the Mouse-like Rodents are terrestrial, but among
them we find climbers, jumpers, and swimmers, many of
which, to accord with their particular habit, have some
modification of structure. Some or other of the three
hundred and thirty species are found throughout the world.
The Common Mouse and the Common Rat in particular are
cosmopolitan, having accompanied the white man in his
restless wanderings into the uttermost corners of the earth.
Individually, any one of the Muridae family is practically in-
significant in size, and in natural disposition is one of the
most timid of living creatures. But many of the smaller
omnivorous species are so prolific, and multiply to such an
amazing extent, as to demand far more attention than very
many larger animals.
It is manifestly impossible to describe a tithe of the
various species, but it will not be difficult to give a selection
of typical representatives that will well serve for the whole.
HOUSE MOUSE (Mus musculus).
Plate XXIII. Fig. 2.
This small creature possesses the characteristics of the
true Rodent, and a brief description of its structure will in
the main apply equally to the larger members of the family.
The fur is usually of a brownish ash colour above and
light beneath — just the colour that ren-
ders the animal difficult to detect at
night-time. Its legs, with squirrel-like
paws, are short and noiseless for creep-
ing. The ears and eyes are large, in SKULL OF THE
agreement with the watchful creatures MOUSE.
necessities. The forepaws are used as
hands, during which time the tail assists to steady the
body in sitting up. The long, flexible, scaly tail is very
sensitive to touch. Though so small, the incisor teeth
of the Mouse, with their rasp-like edges of enamel, can
224 GNAWING ANIMALS
easily gnaw through boards, and even through leaden
pipes.
The Mouse makes a ball-like nest of rags, paper, wool,
straw, and all kinds of nibbled litter, in which it brings forth
a family several times a year ; and in fifteen days the young
ones are able to foray for themselves. When only a few
months old they commence to bring litters into the world ;
which accounts for the fact that the natural enemies of
Mice make so little impression upon their numbers.
In ordinary dwelling-houses Mice cause considerable
annoyance ; but in stores, warehouses and barns their
opportunities for mischief are increased a hundredfold.
Rickyards are the happiest abodes of the little Rodents,
which can make their runs in and under a cornstack
secure from disturbance until the corn is threshed. At the
threshing of one rick it is nothing unusual to capture
Mice by the bushel, and the quantity of grain they con-
sume may easily make inroads upon the farmer's profits.
FIELD MOUSE (Mus sylvaticus).
The Field Mouse, often called the Wood Mouse,
frequents gardens, hedgerows, and cornfields, although in
winter it does not hesitate to seek shelter in barns and
outhouses. In rickyards it is common, but in far less
numbers than the foregoing. It makes its home in any
small crevice, under the roots of trees, and often in the
deserted runs of the mole. It is distributed over all the
temperate regions of Europe.
It is slightly larger than the common mouse, and its tail
is nearly the length of its head and body ; the legs, too, are
rather longer. The fur is reddish grey, with a spot of light
brown on the chest.
The food of the Field Mouse consists chiefly of grain
and seeds, acorns and nuts, of which it stores up a
considerable quantity for use during the winter. Though
the creature works no little injury to crops, the greatest
damage arises from hogs rooting up the ground in search
of the winter hoards of the thrifty little Rodents.
PLATE XXII.
or>-cf f./^
FIELD VOLES.
(Sec Page 230)
2. PRAIRIE DOG.
(Src afe 218
PLATE XXIII,
i. HARVEST MICK.
2. HOUSE MICE.
(Sec page 223)
THE HARVEST MOUSE 225
HARVEST MOUSE (Mus minutis).
Plate XXIII. Fig. i.
Except for the pigmy shrew the Harvest Mouse is the
smallest of the mammals, as it certainly is the prettiest of
all those found in the British Islands. It is only about
two and a half inches long from the nose to the tip of its
tail, and it is less than a quarter of an ounce in weight.
The colour of its fur is a delicate yellowish red, with white
on the under parts ; the two colours are separated by a
well-defined line. All mice and rats are good climbers,
but the Harvest Mouse is easily superior to all others.
It holds on to a grass stem as firmly as if the tiny paws were
those of a monkey, twisting its partly prehensile tail around
it. The stem may bend over until it reaches the ground,
but the little climber will not be displaced.
Gilbert White was perhaps the first naturalist to take
particular notice of the habits of the Harvest Mouse. Says
he : ' They breed as many as eight at a litter, in a little
round nest composed of the blades of grass or wheat.
One of these nests I procured this autumn, most artificially
plaited, perfectly round and about the size of a cricket
ball, with the aperture so ingeniously closed that there
was no discovering to what part it belonged. It was so
compact and well filled, that it would roll across the
table without being discomposed, though it contained eight
little mice that were naked and blind. As this nest was
perfectly full, how could the dam come at her litter
respectively, so as to administer a teat to each ? Perhaps
she opens different places for that purpose, adjusting them
again when the business is over ; but she could not
possibly be contained herself in the ball with her young,
which, moreover, would be daily increasing in bulk.'
In winter the Harvest Mouse retires to its burrow, where
it lies in a state of torpor. But in harvest-time vast
numbers of them are transported in the sheaves to the
rickyards, where they join the common and the field mice.
Perhaps it is owing to an entirely mistaken sense of grati-
tude that the Harvest Mouse in a rick does not hibernate.
16
226 GNAWING ANIMALS
DORMOUSE (Muscardinus avellanarius).
Plate XXIV. Fig. i.
Although belonging to another family we will here con-
sider the Common Dormouse, rather an elegant little animal
only two and a half inches in length, with a bushy tail
quite as long. It is not a true mouse, but appears
to be about intermediate between the squirrels and the
mice, with a nearer affinity to the former. It is confined
to the temperate and colder regions of the Old World,
and, for example, is not found in Southern Europe.
In body it is plumper than the common mouse, and
its nose is less acute. Its coat is mainly reddish brown ;
it is lighter underneath and almost white on the throat.
Its tail is more hairy as it approaches the tip.
The Dormouse inhabits woods or thick hedges, making
a nest of woven grass in the hollows of tree-trunks or
near the roots of close shrubs. Instead of being diurnal
like the squirrel, the Dormouse is nocturnal. It eats nuts
and seeds, although it does not disdain an insect that
comes its way. It is particularly fond of hazel nuts,
extracting the kernels without removing them from the
stems or even from their cups. Hence the name ' Hazel-
mouse ' which the animal bears in Germany.
As winter approaches the Dormouse commences to
collect a store of nuts, acorns, &c., to serve it when it
wakes at intervals in its long sleep. With the arrival of the
cold weather it rolls itself up in its winter nest and falls
into a lethargic state. Both summer and winter nests
are frequently found, to the number of a dozen or more, in
the same thicket.
A larger European specimen is the Loir, or Fat Dor-
mouse (Myoxus glis), with its habitat in the Southern
countries and extending into Asia. It attains a length of
six inches with a tail three-quarters as long. It is said
to add small birds and smaller animals than itself to its
professedly vegetable diet. The Loir is eaten by the
Italians, only following the old Roman epicures, who
specially fattened the little animal for the table.
RATS 227
BLACK EAT (Mus rattus).
Plate XXIV. Fig. 2.
Any species of true rat may be best described as a large
mouse with its powers of destruction developed out of
all proportion to its size. The Black Rat, or Old English
Rat as it is called, is often stated to be indigenous to
Britain, but there is little doubt that the animal was
introduced into Europe from the East. It is now com-
paratively scarce in this country, but on the Continent it is
still widely dispersed.
The Black Rat is about seven inches long, with a tail
as long or even longer. Its upper parts, in colour, are
deep iron-grey, bordering upon black ; the under parts are
lighter. The feet, dirty pale flesh-colour and practically
destitute of hair, differ in one important particular from
those of the mouse. The hind feet can be turned right
round, and with the claws thus at the back the animal can
walk up a rough wall or fence, or come down it head-
foremost. Like most of the genus, it holds its food in its
fore paws.
BROWN RAT (Mus decumanus).
Coloured Plate XIV. Fig. i.
The Brown Rat is often called the Norwegian Rat, under
the mistaken idea that the animal was imported into this
country from Norway. It is really a native of China, that
in the short space of two cen-
turies has not only spread
across the whole of the Eastern
Hemisphere, but by means of
shipping has been carried into
every part of the world. It is SKULL OF THE
authentic that in the year 1727
immense swarms of Brown Rats swam across the Volga to
make their homes in Eastern Europe, and twenty years
later the rodent usurper was established in England. But
the outstanding feature of the Western invasion by the
228 GNAWING ANIMALS
Brown Rat is the manner in which it has made war upon
the black species, which it has practically exterminated in
England and many parts of the Continent.
The Brown Rat is two inches longer, and is of heavier
build than its black relative ; its muzzle is blunter, ears
smaller, and tail shorter than the head and body. In colour
it is greyish-brown, but the shade varies considerably.
The chief character of the Brown Rat is undoubtedly its
astonishing voracity. There is no human food that it will
not eat greedily. Provisions of all kinds are ruined, ricks
and grain-stores are looted, hen-roosts are robbed of their
eggs and young chicks, and rabbit warrens of their young.
In the summer the pertinacious Rodent will betake itself
to the fields, making its home in the hedge-banks, from
which it issues to prey upon the contents of birds' nests,
and almost anything that creeps or crawls that is smaller
than itself. It frequently takes up its quarters in a river-
bank, where it will contrive to catch fish. In such a situa-
tion the Brown Rat is frequently mistaken for the Water
Rat, or Water Vole as it is more properly called.
The Brown Rat is wonderfully prolific, the female pro-
ducing litters of from eight to ten young ones several times
a year ; and a young female will commence breeding by
the time that it is half-grown. It is easy to understand
how these Rodents may speedily become a pest in any
locality they particularly favour. They excavate with a
persistence that often endangers the foundations of build-
ings ; they burrow through river and canal dams, often
resulting in immense damage ; they infest the holds of
ships, and in a variety of ways they contrive to effect
endless mischief.
Although the animal is omnivorous, it displays a prefer-
ence for animal food. In large towns the sewers are infested
by hordes of rats, which devour the animal offal and refuse,
and in this respect do good service in their office as scaven-
gers. But the creatures do not restrict themselves to offal ;
if they can effect an entrance into a butcher's store they will
not only attack the meat, but will confine themselves to the
best joints. It has frequently occurred that, from a ship,
Brown Rats have obtained entry into an island, where
THE BROWN RAT 229
hitherto they were unknown. In a few years they exter-
minate the smaller animals and birds, and have to continue
a more precarious subsistence upon the marine crustaceans
and molluscs that can be picked up on the shore.
Rats always prey upon any of their kind that have been
wounded or disabled ; and when food is scarce the strong
inevitably prey upon the weak. No better example can be
adduced than the manner in which the comparatively gentler
Black Rat has succumbed to the brown species. In some
cases the former have been known to confine themselves to
one part of a building and the latter to another portion ;
on board ship one species has kept to the fore part, while
the aft has been the special domain of the other. But
the ultimate result is always the same — the Brown Rats
invariably devour their sable kindred.
The superiority of the brown species, and its extreme
ferocity, are exemplified in an incident vouched for by
the late Frank Buckland. A London rat-catcher captured
several dozen rats, consisting of more or less even numbers
of brown and black ones. They were intended to provide
sport for some dogs on the following day. By morning,
however, only Brown Rats remained — the black ones had
fallen victims to the rapacity of their cannibal fellow-
prisoners.
Though a rat will always attempt to escape from man
and any animal not weaker than itself, it will present a
savage front when brought to bay. It will defend itself
to the last against man, and many cats and dogs will turn
tail at its desperate onslaught. In some cases it has been
known to attack persons, especially children, in their sleep.
When impelled by hunger, rats migrate in large bodies
in search of food, and then, with the additional courage
which numbers give, they will not hesitate to attack human
beings, as a Hertfordshire farmer received painful proof.
One night, in crossing a common, he encountered a body
of rats, a hundred strong. Though by throwing stones at
them he endeavoured to prevent their purpose, they sur-
rounded him, some of them running up his body as high
as his shoulder, and inflicting severe bites, especially upon
his hands.
23o GNAWING ANIMALS
English rats occasionally attain a weight of more than
four pounds and a length exceeding twenty-two inches. In
China they are fed up for food, and are hawked about for
sale. Weighing as much as seven or eight pounds, they are
not at all unlike small sucking-pigs.
Rats are always found in coal-mines, securing the greater
part of their living from the provender of the horses em-
ployed underground and scraps of the miners' food. At
holiday times it is not unusual to bring to the surface the
horses and the store of corn. Once, says Mr. Robert
Stephenson, a pit was closed for a longer time than usual,
and the rats were reduced to starvation. The very first
man who descended to resume work was attacked by the
hungry horde, and killed and devoured before his friends
could descend to his rescue.
Modern science has proved that the rat is very largely
instrumental in the spread of the plague, the ravages of
which, for example, in India alone in the years 1906-1908
caused no less than five million and a quarter deaths.
The Rodent is particularly susceptible to disease, that is
conveyed to man by fleas which infest its fur. The fleas
suck the blood of a plague-stricken rat, and as soon as the
victim is dead they desert the cold carcass to inflict, per-
haps, their next bites upon human beings, to whom they
convey the plague bacillus. Although the rat has always
had every man's hand against it, the constant efforts to
exterminate it have generally met with failure ; but the
resources of science are capable of proving too much for
the destructive and disease-disseminating vermin. Prepara-
tions can now be obtained which rats will greedily devour,
the effect of which is to cause a deadly epidemic to rage
among not only those that partake of it, but also the
animals with which they mix. Dogs, cats, fowls, &c., can
eat the preparation without suffering inconvenience.
FIELD VOLE (Arvicola agrestis).
Plate XXII. Fig. i.
The Field Vole, or Short-tailed Field Mouse, with a
body four inches long and a tail of an inch and a quarter,
THE FIELD VOLE 231
bears a close resemblance to the true mice. The head is
large in proportion and the body is stoutly built. It is
of a reddish-brown colour, changing to grey underneath.
The favourite resort of the Field Vole is damp meadows,
adjacent to woods and copses, where it burrows incessantly
and makes innumerable runs. The general food of the
species consists of herbage of all kinds, roots, bark, buds,
leaves, and fruit ; but it will dine with almost equal readi-
ness on insects and flesh. It does not confine its depreda-
tions to the field ; it readily transfers them to the rickyard
and the barn.
It is an amazingly prolific little animal, as it need be, one
would think, to exist at all in face of the ceaseless toll levied
upon it by weasels, owls, and other carnivorous creatures.
But the Vole brings three or four families a year into the
world, and exhibits a peculiarity in making its appearance
in swarms in some selected locality. ' Mice plagues ' have
appeared in various parts of the country, usually without
any apparent reason. One such visitation occurred in
1891 in the counties of Dumfries and Roxburgh in Scotland.
It was suggested that gamekeepers had almost exterminated
the weasels and owls, and thus the Voles had been allowed
to increase without hindrance ; but in other districts
that have suffered no such reason could be advanced.
In the Forest of Dean about the middle of the last
century certain new plantations became so infested with
Voles as to threaten destruction to the whole of the young
trees. ' In the reports made to Government on the subject,
it appeared that the roots had been eaten through wherever
they obstructed the runs of the mice. Various plans were
devised for their destruction : traps were set, poison laid,
and cats turned out, but nothing appeared to lessen their
number. It was at last suggested that if holes were dug,
into which the mice might be enticed or fall, their destruc-
tion might be effected.' This plan was adopted, and at
intervals of about twenty yards were dug holes, eighteen to
twenty inches in depth, and wider at the bottom than at the
top, so that the animal once in could not readily get out
again. In these holes at least thirty thousand Voles were
caught in the course of three or four months ; and this
232 GNAWING ANIMALS
without taking into account the vast number that was eaten
by weasels, stoats, kites, hawks, owls, magpies, &c., which
were attracted to the district.
WATER VOLE (Arvicola amphibius}.
Plate XX. Fig. 2.
The Water Vole, the largest of the British Voles, is
common in all parts of Europe and in Northern and
Central Asia. The colour of the British species is a
mixture of grey and brown. Its nose is more snub, the ears
shorter, and the eyes smaller than those of the brown rat.
It is an expert swimmer and diver, and its coat is as
impervious to water as the plumage of a duck. When
alarmed, it dives to the bottom, where it can remain for
a minute or more before coming up to the surface else-
where to breathe. During hard winters, when its usual
food of aquatic plants is not available, the Water Vole
adopts a diet of bark, to satisfy which it works much
injury in osier plantations. It will also raid the ' buries ' of
turnips, mangolds, and potatoes in fields near the river-
banks. But the animal is not so voracious as the common
rat, and it is also far less prolific. Though English streams
are seldom, if ever, without the Water Vole, the animal is
not found in Ireland.
MUSQUASH (Fiber zibethicus}.
Coloured Plate XIV. Fig. 3.
The Musquash, Musk Rat, or Ondatra, the largest of the
Voles, is a North American species. Its range extends
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Arctic regions
as far South as Texas. It is a solidly built animal of a foot
in length, with a tail of ten inches. It presents marked
differences from the true Vole in more than its size.
Besides being longer in proportion, the tail is compressed,
and scales almost wholly replace the hair. The hind feet
are partially webbed. The head is remarkably wide, and
THE HAMSTER 233
there is no apparent neck. The animal is furred to its
nostrils, its coat being chiefly blackish-brown with grey on
the under parts, and in texture it is soft and glossy like that
of the beaver. In its thick-set form and not a few of its
instincts the Musquash resembles the last-named animal,
with which at one time it was supposed to be closely allied.
The Musk Rat, so called from its musky odour, is a well-
equipped aquatic animal. Water plants form a great part
of its food, varied with fish and fresh-water mussels. The
burrow of the animal is always in the bank of a stream,
with numerous passages, whose entrances are always under
water. In a nest in the burrow as many as five to nine
young ones are born at a birth, and there is often more
than one litter in a year.
For use in the winter the animal frequently constructs
a dome-shaped ' hut,' either upon the bank of a river or in
the stream itself upon a mound of mud, sufficient to raise
it above the water. Though some writers assert that these
huts are comparable to the lodges of the beaver, there is
no doubt that the winter quarters of the smaller animal are
little better than heaps of roots and other vegetable sub-
stances. It can burrow into them for cover and warmth,
and can at the same time satisfy the claims of an appetite
that is always more or less obtrusive.
The Musquash is hunted for its fur, which is useful
but not particularly valuable. Twenty years ago as many
as four million skins annually marked the abundance of the
animal and the assiduity of the trappers. The numbers are
now very considerably smaller. Notwithstanding its musky
odour, the insipid flesh of the Musquash is a constant dish
with the Indians in winter.
HAMSTEE ( Cricetus frumentarius) .
Coloured Plate XIV. Fig. 6.
The Common Hamster, unknown in Britain, is found
throughout Central and Eastern Europe, and in Central and
Northern Asia. It is a handsomely coloured animal just
under a foot in length, with a tapering hairy tail of
234 GNAWING ANIMALS
two and a half inches. Its coat is brownish-yellow on
the back, the under parts are chiefly black, and the feet
are white ; but in different regions there is considerable
variation in colour, from black to almost pure white.
The Hamster is perhaps the most systematic of all the
burrowers. Its winter quarters, in particular, are of quite
elaborate construction. The spacious dwelling-chamber is
one or even two yards deep, with an almost vertical hole
for an entrance and a gradually ascending tunnel for
an outlet. The males and females and young ones use
separate burrows as they do separate storehouses ; of these
last a male will sometimes construct three or four. Breed-
ing twice a year, with families of six to eighteen, in
favourable localities the Hamster increases rapidly and
works immense injury to crops.
The animal is by no means a vegetarian, but will kill
and eat smaller animals, including those of its own kind.
There is no vegetable substance that it will not devour ;
but corn, peas, and beans are chiefly what it stores up for
winter use. It conveys its spoils to its burrow treasury
in its cheek pouches, which are of a half-pint capacity.
The injury that Hamsters may work to agriculturists can
be easily gauged from the fact that a single animal will
hoard a couple of bushels of wheat, and of beans still more.
Hamsters hibernate from October to at least the end of
January. When they awake they do not leave the burrow,
but for some weeks subsist upon the stores they accumu-
lated during the previous autumn. Peasants go Hamster-
hunting in the winter, the net results of which consist
of skins and no inconsiderable quantity of hoarded grain.
LEMMING (My odes lemmus).
Coloured Plate XIV. Fig. 2.
The Lemming is another Vole-like animal, about six
inches in length, including its half-inch tail. It is an
inhabitant of the northern regions of both hemispheres, the
European species figured in the illustration being the
largest. In Scandinavia, where it is best known, it abounds
Plate XIV.
9. Beaver
THE LEMMING 235
in the mountains beyond the belt of the firs, where it feeds
upon the mountain herbage, roots, &c. Even in winter
it does not cease its activity, but burrows under the
snow, where it can at least find lichens.
For a small animal the Lemming is remarkably
courageous, not hesitating to bite at the legs of men who
approach too closely to its burrows. It must be one of
the most prolific of the Murines, for at irregular intervals
of ten to fifteen years the creatures descend from the
mountains literally in millions. The migration may be
caused by an unusual multiplication of their numbers, a
deficiency of food, or perhaps by an instinctive knowledge
of an approaching severe winter. Either of the reasons
is only surmise, but the migration itself is a fact that the
inhabitants in its line of march know to their grief.
The hordes of Lemmings move chiefly at night or in
early morning, and no obstacle can deter them. The
herbage in their course is licked up as though by flame ;
growing crops disappear with heart-breaking rapidity,
corn-ricks are reduced to heaps of chaff. They swim rivers
and lakes ; they swarm through towns, filling wells and
polluting the water, so that frequently after the visitation
the people are stricken with a form of typhoid called
' Lemming fever.' All along their route the plague of
Rodents is accompanied by clouds of birds and hosts of
beasts, which prey upon them without ceasing, and the
inhabitants adopt all kinds of plans to lessen their numbers.
But on and on the countless pilgrim Lemmings sweep
over the land, day after day and week after week, until they
reach the coast. This is inevitably the end of the migration ;
the final stage is always either the Atlantic or the Gulf of
Bothnia. The already lessened host unhesitatingly plunges
into the sea, and the Scandinavians know that the costly
scourge is at an end.
In olden times the people superstitiously believed that
the Lemmings fell from the clouds, and the clergy were
called on to exorcise the myriad-footed demon. The Turks
under similar circumstances pin their faith to holy water
from Mecca, which is sprinkled on the ground in the hope
that it will abate a Vole plague.
236
GNAWING ANIMALS
There still remain many species of Mouse-like Rodents
that are not without interest, but space forbids even the
bare enumeration of more than a few, and those chiefly
whose distinguishing characteristic is indicated in their
name : —
The Mole Rat, ranging from the south-east of Europe to
Persia ; the Fish-eating Rat of Peru, with its webbed and
fringed hind feet ; the Naked Sand Rat of Somaliland,
about the size of a mouse and much resembling a tiny,
hairless, but lively puppy; and the Spiny Mouse (Plate
XXV. Fig. i) of Syria and East Africa, which is some-
thing like a diminutive hedgehog. The Kangaroo Rat
is not an Australian animal, as one might be led to suppose,
but is one of a family that is confined to the New World.
Its distinctive features are the possession of hair-lined cheek
pouches and kangaroo-like hind legs, from which last it is
but a natural step to the concluding family of the Murines.
FAMILY DIPODID.E (JERBOAS).
JERBOA (Dipus cegypticus).
Coloured Plate XIV. Fig. 8.
The Jerboa is of rather wide habitat,
for it is found in the South-east of
Europe, Central Asia, India, and
Ceylon ; from Syria and Arabia it
extends to Egypt and a great portion
of Africa. It is a small Rodent, almost
bird-like in aspect, six to eight inches
in length, with a tufted tail longer than
its body. Its home is largely in desert
regions, and the fur of the Jerboa
is generally of a sand colour. The
animal's most marked feature is the
disparity in length between its fore and
hind legs. Only three toes of the hind
foot are well developed, but the sole is fitted with elastic
pads. The hind limbs alone are used for progression, an d
SKELETON OF THE
JERBOA.
THE PORCUPINE 237
it skips over the ground with such astonishing bounds as to
seem to fly instead of leap. So great is its speed that it is
difficult for the eye to follow its movements. The Jerboa
feeds upon such grasses and roots as arid regions afford.
The animals dwell in companies, excavating burrows with
branching galleries, into which they retreat at the least
alarm, and from which in any case they seldom emerge
except at dusk.
CAPE JUMPING HARE (Pedetes caffer).
Another species of the family is the Cape Jumping Hare,
very similar in build to the preceding animal ; but the tail
is bushy, and the toes of the hind feet are provided with
hoof-like nails. In size and colour the animal is much like
the common hare. In making its kangaroo-like progress
the Jumping Hare will clear as much as thirty feet at a
leap.
PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS.
FAMILY HYSTRICID^E (PORCUPINES).
PORCUPINE (Hystrix cristata).
Coloured Plate XIII. Fig. 3.
These rather large Rodents are extraordinary animals, as
evidenced by their French name, Porcupine, the literal
meaning of which is ' spiky pig.' The common species is
nearly three feet in length. The head and fore part of the
body are clothed with short spines with a crest of longer
ones ; the hinder part is covered with sharp pointed quills,
a development of the hair, even greater than that in the
hedgehog.
The Common Porcupine is a native of Southern Europe
and Northern and Western Africa ; and there are various
species in other parts of Africa, in India, and in the New
World. At one time it was believed that the animal possessed
the power of flinging its dart-like quills at an antagonist, and
there is no doubt that leopards, and even tigers, have been
238 GNAWING ANIMALS
found dead with Porcupine quills piercing their nostrils and
muzzles. Getting one's ' back up ' is an expressive term
often applied to human beings when labouring under great
irritation. When the Porcupine is in its normally placid
humour the quills lie smoothly along its back ; but when it
is attacked it erects its panoply of spines and runs backward
against its foe. The strangely clothed Rodent sheds its
quills periodically, and some of them are always more or
less loose ; and when they pierce an enemy's skin they
remain there. Casual observation would lead one to
suppose that such a weapon would not seriously injure a
leopard, and in reality if the quill were withdrawn the great
feline would think little of the wound. But try as it will the
animal cannot get rid of the dart, for it carries projections
which not only foil all efforts to remove it, but assist it to
work its way further and further into the tissues, until
inflammation sets in and the animal dies of hunger. As a
matter of fact one of the large carnivores is in little danger
of meeting with such a fate, for one stroke of the paw upon
the head would effectually dispose of the Porcupine, even
before it could roll itself up into a ball for protection.
The Porcupine is a nocturnal animal living in a burrow,
which it excavates with its long and powerful claws, and
wherein it lies in winter in a torpid state. Roots are its
staple food. The animal is not so clumsy as its appearance
would seem to indicate. It is as quick on its feet as it is
sharp of eye ; and three or four natives armed with spears
can rarely despatch the animal without their bare legs
showing traces of its swift offensive movements. Dogs are
usually trained to hunt the Porcupine, and their concerted
movements speedily bring about its undoing. While the
baited Rodent is endeavouring to injure its foes on its
flanks and rear, one of the dogs will dart at its defenceless
head and disable it by a single bite.
Unlike those of the Old, the New World Porcupines are
tree-climbers, various species of which range over the
greater part of America that lies between Mexico and
Paraguay. They usually possess a partly prehensile tail.
The Urson or Canadian Porcupine (Erithizon dorsatus),
Plate XXV. Fig. 2, is the only species found so far North,
PLATE XXIV.
i. DORMICE.
(See page 226)
2. BLACK RAT.
(See page 227)
3. CHIPMUNK.
(See page 216)
(Photos W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
PLATE XXV
i. SPINY MOUSE.
(See page 236)
2. TREE PORCUPINE. 3. V1SCACHA.
(See pane 238) (See page 240)
(Photos W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
THE CHINCHILLA 239
but its habitat includes practically the whole of the United
States. Indians call it the Cawquaw. Though it lacks a
prehensile tail, it is an adept at climbing, stripping trees
quite bare of the leaves, especially hemlocks, of which it is
particularly fond. The animal does not hibernate, but in
winter lives upon the bark of young trees. A single Porcu-
pine will thus be responsible for the destruction of hundreds
of trees between autumn and spring.
The Urson is the creature which furnishes the quills with
which the Indian squaws embroider moccasins, leggings,
pouches, and other objects of use or ornament.
Porcupine quills for use as penholders, fishing-floats, &c.,
are chiefly the product of the European species, and as the
animal is by no means common, the quills are expensive.
FAMILY CHINCHILLID.E (CHINCHILLAS).
CHINCHILLA (Chinchilla lanigera).
Coloured Plate XIII. Fig. 2.
The Chinchilla is only about ten inches in length,
exclusive of its tufted tail, which is four or five inches
long. It is an elegant, active little creature, with its hind
legs longer than the anterior pair. It was at one time
classed with the jerboas. In size and general form it is
not unlike a rabbit, with a squirrel's tail. It inhabits the
Andes of South America at considerable elevations, as do
the marmots in the Alps.
Chinchillas live in large companies in burrows, where
they appear to breed all the year round, which helps the
creatures to keep pace with the demand for their skins.
The fur is thick and exceedingly soft, of a delicate grey
on the back and greyish-white beneath. It is much
admired when made into muffs, boas, cloak-linings and
other wear for ladies. Like all animals whose coats are
of very fine texture, the Chinchilla is a particularly
clean creature. Its agility is remarkable, and it darts up
and down precipitous walls of rock with the utmost
rapidity. The natives in hunting the little creature call
24o GNAWING ANIMALS
into service a species of weasel, which enters the burrows
and drives out the occupants.
Of several somewhat similar species, one, the Viscacha
(Lagostomus trichodactylus), Plate XXV. Fig. 3, is a
decidedly more marmot-like creature. It is a plain
dweller, larger, and with a more varied coat than the
Chinchilla proper. It abounds on the pampas of Southern
Argentina, where it has a better choice of food than can
be found at high altitudes. Very often the Viscachas do
much damage in cultivated fields. While a party is
engaged in a foray, sentinels are posted to give the alarm
at the least appearance of danger, and in a flash all dart
off to take refuge in their holes.
FAMILY DASYPROCTID^E (AGOUTIS).
AGOUTI (Dasyprocta aguti).
Coloured Plate XIII. Fig. 7.
The Agouti, a beautifully formed Rodent, is about the
size of a rabbit ; and in its swift, active, watchful move-
ments it is not at all unlike that animal. The Common,
or Golden, Agouti will serve as an example of any
member of the family, which all more or less resemble
each other in form and habit. It is found almost through-
out all South America, but its home is chiefly in the forests
of Brazil, Guiana and Peru.
The animal is usually eighteen to twenty inches in length
from the tip of its nose to its pointed and mere stump
of a tail, and its compact body is supported on four
slender legs. Its coat consists of coarse hair, olive brown
in colour, the longer hairs on the hind quarters merging
into a shade of bright orange.
The Agouti is nocturnal, hiding itself by day in the
hollows of trees, or in burrowed cavities two or three feet
deep at their roots. Often a score or more of the animals
will live peaceably together, frequently wandering miles
from home, which is an unusual feature with most burrow-
THE GUINEA PIG 241
ing animals. The food of the Agouti consists chiefly of
herbage, roots, and fallen fruits ; nuts present no obstacle
to the sharp incisor teeth. When the animal is found
in the neighbourhood of sugar and other plantations its
raids lead to considerable damage, which has caused
planters to hunt the animal more than otherwise would
have been the case. In some of the West Indian Islands
it has been almost exterminated. Young Agoutis are no
uncommon pets in South America.
FAMILY CAVIID^E (GUINEA PIGS).
GUINEA PIG (Cavia cobaya).
Coloured Plate XIII. Fig. i.
The best known representative of the Cavies is the
animal commonly and absurdly called the Guinea Pig ;
the correct title is Guianan Pig, the creature being a native
of Guiana. There are no species of the animal in Africa,
so that ' Guinea ' is distinctly out of place. The Cavy is
a tailless animal, six or seven inches in length, with a coat
marked by its variety of colouring, irregular patches of
orange and black upon a white ground being not the least
beautiful. The Common Guinea Pig is doubtless the
descendant of a wild species that was first domesticated
by the Incas of Peru, and introduced into Europe by the
Dutch.
The Guinea Pig is exceedingly prolific, producing litters
of as many as ten young ones at intervals of less than
three months. The young are wonderfully developed at
the time of their birth ; not only can they see, but they
possess their second set of teeth. In a few hours they
can run about, and before forty-eight hours have expired
they are nibbling not only soft food, but corn. Im-
mense numbers are reared in Europe, chiefly as pets
for children, for though the creature displays little intelli-
gence, nor evinces affection for its owner, it is very
cleanly, and never attempts to bite those who handle it.
17
242 GNAWING ANIMALS
CAP YEAR A (Hydrochcerus capybara}.
Coloured Plate XIII. Fig. 5.
The Capybara, Carpincho, or Water-Hog is the largest
of the Rodents, attaining a length of three or four feet,
and possessing a very thick body, short legs, and long feet.
Its solidity is shown in its weight, for it often scales very
little short of a hundred pounds, or very nearly twice as
much as a very large beaver.
This big Cavy is covered with long, brown, bristly hair ;
its tail is but the merest stump. It is found chiefly on
the banks of South American rivers, and its half-webbed
feet fit it for an aquatic life. It swims and dives well,
and, very much like the otter, it can catch fish to add to
its ordinary vegetable diet. The molar teeth of the
Capybara markedly resemble those of the elephant ; they
are of special service in pulping the vegetable food upon
which it feeds, so that the food will pass down its remark-
ably narrow gullet, which is so small that it will barely
allow the passage of a crow quill.
The Capybaras frequently go about in herds of as many
as twenty, concealing themselves amid the reeds and
rushes that fringe the streams. When alarmed they take
to the water, only just showing the upper parts of their
heads. They are listless, almost stupid animals, and even
the female and its young of half a dozen indulge in no
sportive capers. The native Indians eat the flesh of the
Capybara, but it is the jaguar that keeps down the numbers
of the animal, which forms a large part of the ordinary
food of the ' American tiger.'
Sub-Order 2.— DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS
FAMILY LEPORID^E (HARES AND RABBITS).
HARE (Lepus Europceus).
Coloured Plate XIII. Fig. 6.
The Common Hare, widely distributed in Europe, is
the largest and the most perfect type of the whole family.
THE HARE
243
An animal so well-known requires little description save
for comparison with some thirty other species, most of
which are confined to the Northern Hemisphere. In the
whole of South America, for example, there is but the
Brazilian Hare.
The Common Hare is about two feet long and clothed
in reddish-brown fur, with white upon the chin and belly.
The tips of the ears are blackish, as is the top of the short
tail. The hind legs are longer than the fore limbs and the
feet are hairy. It possesses the distinguishing feature of the
sub-order, viz., four incisors instead of two in the upper jaw.
A full-sized animal will weigh eight or nine pounds.
All the members
of the family are
markedly shy and
timid ; their sole
means of defence
is their speed.
The ears are
longer than the
head and adapted
to catch the
slightest sound;
the eyes are large
and prominent,
and said to be
open even when
the animal is asleep. In any case they are placed so that
to a great extent the animal can see backwards while it
is on the run forwards.
The Hare prefers dry flat grounds, where it feeds chiefly
by night, during the day lying concealed in its ' form/
It is a strictly herbivorous animal, its food consisting of a
variety of herbage, but it is very fond of young corn, and
sometimes, especially in winter, ruins plantations of young
trees by gnawing off the bark as high as it can reach.
In quite early times the Kings of England enacted game
laws which assured to the owners of land certain animals
and birds found thereon. For one of the common people
to be detected killing a deer entailed the loss of the culprit's
JAWS OF THE HARE.
244 GNAWING ANIMALS
hand, or even having his eyes torn out. The best known
'game' are pheasants, partridges, grouse, and Hares. A
Hare may only be killed during certain months by a
licensed sportsman, and it can only be sold by a licensed
dealer.
The Hare often contributes to sport in other ways.
When hunted by hounds, though the animal is really
speedier than the fox, it does not display such good
generalship, usually exhausting itself in its earlier efforts ;
but it frequently displays considerable cunning. It will
take refuge in a sheep-fold and hide among the sheep ;
it will run up one side of a hedge and down the other ;
it will swim a stream ; and it has been known to gain the
top of a newly cut hedge and then to run along it for a
considerable distance to throw its pursuers effectually off
the scent.
The Hare has many enemies. No dog with the sense
of smell can resist the desire to track it ; the weasel tribe
are ever on the watch for it ; and birds of prey and
snakes leave it no peace. Man always hunts it assidu-
ously. It is a wonder that the creature can contrive to
exist in any numbers: and but that the female produces
several litters in the course of the year and that the
animal is so strictly preserved, the Hare would become
exceedingly scarce in Britain. The fecundity of the animal
has been tested by placing a male and two females in
a walled enclosure. At the end of twelve months there
were no less than forty-seven animals awaiting their
freedom. Out in the open the net result would have
been far less, for these particular animals were freed
from the attentions of their natural foes. Young Hares,
which are called ' leverets,' are born clothed and with their
eyes open.
The flesh of the Hare, which is dark in colour, is
greatly esteemed in most countries, but it was a for-
bidden animal to the Jews and Mahometans. The
Mosaic law included it among the unclean animals
' because he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the hoof.'
The Hare has neither the teeth nor the stomach of a
ruminant ; but in early times it was supposed to chew
THE RABBIT 245
the cud, when it was but moving its jaws about in the
constant endeavour to keep down the growth of the
incisor teeth.
Large numbers of Hares which are sold in our home
markets are in reality the Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus),
which abounds in North America, Northern Asia, and the
North of Europe, especially Russia, from which we import
vast numbers. They are excellent in the eating, but do
not realise the price of the British species.
Hareskins vary in colour largely according to the climatic
conditions ; the Northern species are uniformly lighter,
grey in summer and almost white in winter. The Arctic
Hare (Lepus glacialis) is wholly white, except for the cha-
racteristic black-tipped tail. Until silk largely displaced it,
the fur of Hares and rabbits was of particular service
in the manufacture of hats. The skins are converted
into caps, cheap muffs, and the linings of cloaks ; whether
the fur is not passed off as the product of more fashionable
animals is best known in trade circles.
WILD RABBIT (Lepus cuniculus).
Coloured Plate XIII. Fig. 4.
The Rabbit is less in size than the hare, smaller in the
body and shorter in the leg, but there is less disparity in
length between the hind and fore limbs. The ears of the
wild Rabbit are only about as long as the head, and they
are tipped with black. The fur is greyish-brown, becoming
whitish on the under parts ; the tail is rather large and con-
spicuous, brown above and white below, and it is usually
held upright. Notwithstanding their marked similarity,
the Rabbit and the hare are very distinct, never associating
together or producing a mixed race of descendants.
The Rabbit is an inveterate burrower, preferring to take
up its quarters in sandy heaths or dry grounds covered
with bushes ; the burrows of a Rabbit colony form a
' warren.' The animal is exceedingly prolific, commencing
to breed when it is but six months old, and having families
several times a year.
246
GNAWING ANIMALS
In 1850 a gentleman set half a dozen Rabbits at liberty
in New South Wales. Long before the end of the century
the south-east of Australia was suffering from a Rabbit
plague. Weasels and mongooses were introduced to check
the pest ; but while they had little or no effect upon the
Rodents, they played sad havoc in the hen-roosts of the
colonists, not proving a cure, but rather an additional
nuisance. Attempts to exterminate the Rabbits by infecting
them with disease germs had to be abandoned, because
some of the domestic animals were liable to infection.
Some areas had to be given over altogether to the Rabbit,
and everywhere cultivated tracts had to be protected by
rabbit - proof wire
fencing. New Zea-
landers met with the
same troublesome
experience.
Nowadays we hear
less of the Rabbit
pest, but we do know
that New South
Wales and Victoria,
in a single year, ex-
port to the Mother
Country twenty
millions of Rabbits,
frozen or tinned,
worth nearly half a million sterling, together with myriads
of skins for manufacturing purposes. New Zealand sends
Rabbits for our dinner tables to the value of a quarter of a
million pounds, as well as immense quantities of skins. It
is not always that a plague can be turned to such a golden
account.
The flesh of the Rabbit is good and acceptable food,
and enormous quantities come into the British market in
addition to the supplies of the home animal. The sandy
shores of Ostend, for example, afford a fine breeding-
ground for a large-sized variety, which is exported to
England at the rate of several hundreds of tons per week.
Rabbit skins are of great commercial value, for they can
SKELETON OF THE RABBIT.
(About one-sixth natural size.)
THE RABBIT 247
be converted into all kinds of warm and cheap clothing.
Vast quantities of skins are stripped of their fur, which is
mixed up with some sticky substance into a glutinous mass,
and then pressed into felt.
TAME BABBIT.
Of the tame Rabbit there are at least a dozen well-recog-
nised varieties, which were probably derived from as many
different countries. They vary considerably in colour,
which is a common feature in animals that have been
called from a wild state to lead an artificial life.
One of the hardiest and strongest of fancy Rabbits is the
Dutch — a variety which, notwithstanding its small size, is
greatly admired. In what is considered a perfectly coloured
animal the fore part of the body is white, while the hinder
part may be black, grey or blue, &c. No dark hairs should
encroach upon the white, and no light hairs should show
upon the coloured part. The head and ears are dark ; the
face is marked with a white blaze ; and the feet and tail
are white.
The Angora, looking more like a ball of fluff than any-
thing else, is one of the daintiest of Rabbits. The head is
broad and massive ; the creature's eyes are pink ; and the
ears are small and well tufted. The beautiful, silky white
coat needs to be parted along the back and brushed
downwards on either side, to prevent the fur becoming
tangled.
A prime favourite with fanciers is the Lop, whose chief
point is its tremendous ears. Show animals often have ears
that drop evenly on either side of the head, and measuring
twenty inches from the tip of one ear to the extremity of
the other ; the width of an ear will not be less than four
and a half inches. In colour Lops are usually some shade
of fawn, bright orange fawn being the most popular. A
full-grown buck of this variety will weigh quite twelve
pounds.
The Himalayan has a soft, white, glossy coat, with the
nose, ears, feet and tail, black. The small ears are erect.
The ideal life for this variety is in a warren, where it retains
248 GNAWING ANIMALS
the spotlessness of its white coat far more perfectly than
when it is cooped up in a hutch.
The Flemish Giant will weigh anything up to eighteen
pounds. It has a big head, a large dewlap and sturdy legs.
The fur, soft and standing out, gives the rabbit an appearance
larger than it really is. Usually the colour is steel grey
interspersed with black-tipped hairs.
PIKA.
The Pikas form the second family of the Double-toothed
Rodents. They are often called tailless- hares. One species
is found in North America, and several inhabit the Himalaya
and neighbouring regions ; but the best known is the Sibe-
rian Pika (Lagomys alpinus), which extends into Eastern
Europe. It is rather a pretty little Rodent, smaller than a
rabbit. In habits it much resembles the marmot, living in
burrows, the entrances to which may sometimes be counted
by the thousand. When only in pairs or small parties they
sometimes occupy the crevices of rocks. Inhabiting ele-
vated, cold, and arid regions, which are under deep snow
for several months in the year, the Pika does not hibernate,
but stores up food for winter use. The animal is not on the
list of the Siberian fur-hunters, who content themselves with
using the creature's winter store of dried grasses, roots, &c.,
as provender for their horses. The Pika, however, is not
short of enemies, for various wild animals of the cat and
dog tribes, together with the eagle, falcon, and owl, cease-
lessly prey upon it.
Chapter IX
ORDER VI.— UNGULATA
(HOOFED ANIMALS)
SUB-ORDER I.— HYRACOIDEA
SUB-ORDER 2.— PROBOSCIDEA (PROBOSCIS
BEARERS)
SUB-ORDER 3.— PERISSODACTYLA (ODD-
TOED ANIMALS)
General description of the Ungulata —
Sub-order i. Hyracoidea — Syrian Hyrax —
Sub-order 2. Proboscidea — Elephant — Sub-
order 3. Perissodactyla — General description
of Rhinoceros family — Indian Rhinoceros —
Other Asiatic species — African Rhinoceros —
Tapirs — Family Equidae : Horse — Wild Ass
— Domestic Ass — Zebra — Quagga.
CHAPTER IX
Order VI. — Ungulata
(Hoofed Animals)
IT is impossible to overestimate the importance of this
order, if only because all the domestic animals, which
are used as food, are Ungulates. Among the preceding
animals many have been described as eatable, but it is safe
to assert that the ordinary reader, except in the case of hare
and rabbit, has never partaken of the flesh of any one of
them. Native trappers and even white hunters will cook
the best portions of an animal which they have killed, chiefly
because no better flesh is available; and always in thinly
peopled countries the natives largely supply the family larder
with the flesh of animals that are found in their particular
region. But civilised man, and even the savage more often
than not follows his example, rears vast numbers of cattle,
sheep, goats, and pigs, wherewith to meet the demand for
flesh, which forms an important part of the daily food.
The Ungulates, which are all vegetable feeders except
the pig and the peccary, include the largest of all the
mammals, save only the whale and the sea elephant. All
the ' clean animals ' belong to the order, i.e., those which
' chew the cud and divide the hoof.' So do some of
the animals which were ' unclean ' under the Jewish law,
but since we have been liberated from the Mosaic law by
Him who ' cleansed all meats/ they are nearly as useful to
us as the clean animals. Such are the swine, the horse,
the ass, &c.
The name Ungulata is derived from the Latin word
251
252 HOOFED ANIMALS
ungula, which signifies a nail, claw, or hoof. These
animals fall rather easily into various smaller groups or
sub-orders.
Sub-Order i.— HYRACOIDEA
FAMILY HYRACIDjE.
SYRIAN HYRAX (Hyrax syriacus}.
Coloured Plate XIII. Fig. 8.
The Hyrax is a remarkable little mammal that has greatly
puzzled zoologists. It was formerly accounted one of the
Rodents, and in its small size, thick fur and general appear-
ance, it appeared to be well qualified for the position. It
is, however, so nearly related to the Pachyderms, or thick-
skinned animals, that some naturalists would unite it with
the elephant in a single order of their own.
Place a Hyrax and an elephant side by side and appa-
rently no two animals could less resemble each other.
The Hyrax, in size and coat and toes, greatly features the
rabbit ; and it lives among the rocks, flying about with
the agility of a squirrel in a tree. Indeed, there are some
species that are tree-dwellers.
Yet upon examination we find that the toes of the
animal are little hoofs, united by skin to the very nail, as in
the elephant and rhinoceros. The teeth are of the hippo-
potamus type. Cuvier said that excepting for the horns the
Hyrax is ' a rhinoceros in miniature.'
The Syrian Hyrax is the ' coney ' of the Bible, the little
animal who is ' exceeding wise ' though a ' feeble folk/
It exhibits wisdom in a wariness that makes it a matter of
difficulty to catch it, even when it leaves the rocky clefts
in which it makes its home, and with which its colour so
agrees as, to make it not easy to detect it. But it does
not chew the cud, as the Jews believed, a mistake that was
repeated by the traveller Bruce in much later times.
There are over a dozen species in addition to the one
above. The Cape Hyrax (Hyrax capensis) is well known in
South Africa, where the Dutch colonists called it the
THE ELEPHANT 253
Klip-das or Rock Badger. Similar species are found in
Abyssinia, but in East and West Africa are Tree Hyraces,
whose habits are entirely arboreal.
Sub-Order 2.— PROBOSCIDEA
(PROBOSCIS BEARERS)
FAMILY ELEPHANTID^: (ELEPHANTS).
AFRICAN ELEPHANT.
Coloured Plate XV. Fig. 2.
INDIAN ELEPHANT.
Plate XXVI. Fig. 2.
The Elephant, the largest of the land mammals, is at
once distinguished by its size, even if it did not possess
SKELETON OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT.
various other marked characteristics that render it prac-
tically unique in the animal world.
254 HOOFED ANIMALS
The nostrils and upper lip of the animal are drawn out
into a long, flexible proboscis, at the end of which are
sensitive processes that render the organ of more use to its
owner than is the prehensile tail to the spider monkey.
The loss of the monkey's tail would only rob the creature
of a little of its activity, but the Elephant would die if
deprived of its trunk. It cannot eat until the proboscis
places food in its mouth ; it cannot satisfy its thirst unless
the waterhose-like member takes up water and then blows
it into the stomach. In short, the trunk is to the Elephant
more than arms and hands are to a human being. An
armless man in extremity could eat and drink in the
fashion of most animals, but the Elephant would be de-
barred by the formation of its jaws.
The teeth of the Elephant are no less remarkable. It
possesses no canines, and the incisors, limited to two in
the upper jaw, are often enormously developed until they
assume the form so well known as tusks; they are deeply
embedded in the massive skull, and as the tusk is worn
away at the tip, fresh tooth-matter is supplied at the base.
The position and character of the limbs of the Elephant
are without parallel among living animals, especially in their
straightness and the absence of angulation at the joints. A
glance at the skeleton of the animal will show that the
construction of the legs is that best fitted to support an
enormous weight, which would prove too great a strain
upon angulated limbs. Yet, notwithstanding the pillar-like
strength of the legs, a certain amount of activity is retained.
Few persons recognise how active the Elephant really is
in spite of its bulk. Shakespeare believed it possessed no
joints in its legs, so that it could not lie down. But what
are the true facts ? The animal can lie down, or rise again,
as easily as a dog ; it can stand on its hind feet alone, or on
its fore feet alone ; on the feet of the right or the left side
alternately ; and it can even stand on its head. In kneeling,
the hind feet are stretched out behind, but the fore feet
extend frontwards.
There are only two existing species of Elephant, the
Asiatic (Elephas indicus) and the African (Elephas afri-
canus) ; but in far distant periods when the world was
THE ELEPHANT 255
young, various colossal species roamed over the greater
part of Europe, Northern Asia, and America. Fossil
remains of the extinct Elephant, usually known as the
Mammoth, have been dug up in England, in various parts
of the Continent, and have been dredged up from the bed
of the North Sea. But it is evident that Siberia at one time
possessed as many Elephants, as ever did Africa before the
incessant hunting for ivory caused the animal to disappear
from many of the regions where it once roamed. Embedded
in the ice in the north of Asia have been found the remains
of Elephants with large curving tusks far exceeding in size
SKELETON OF THE MAMMOTH.
those of the present day. So often did these remains come
to light that quite a large trade sprang up in fossil ivory,
as it was called. In one year (1873) no less than eleven
hundred tusks were imported into England ; and it was
calculated that within a score of years the remains of quite
twenty thousand mammoths must have been discovered.
The mammoth remains are a puzzle alike to the naturalist
and the geologist. Some of the frozen monsters have con-
sisted of entire animals, with the flesh, even to the eyes, so
well preserved that the Yakut dogs devour it with avidity ;
and in the mouth of the mammoth are sometimes found
the very twigs upon which it was feeding when death over-
256
HOOFED ANIMALS
took it. It is possible that in this early period, lost to
history, there may have occurred some sudden climatic
revolution, a catastrophe instantly turning at least moderate
heat into intense cold, with consequent death for those
animals thus hurled into a terribly uncongenial environ-
ment.
Although there are points of difference between them, and
the African and Asiatic species can be distinguished from
each other at a glance, in most respects they are so much alike
that their life-history may be taken at the same time. The
ears of an Elephant are at once a sure indication of its
species ; those of the African animal are of enormous size,
completely covering the shoulders, and their tips falling
below the neck, while the ears of the Indian species are
comparatively small. The African Elephant is darker in
colour, the middle of its back is flatter or hollower, and its
hind foot only possesses three nails compared to the four of
its Asiatic relative.
The molar teeth are of enormous size, and so deeply sunk
in the jaw that they project but little above the gum. There
are twenty -four of
these cheek teeth, six
on each side of both
upper and lower jaws.
They are never all in
use, however ; only
two of each half
dozen are ever above
the gums at any one
time. The teeth are
not solid, but consist
of a number of plates
set side by side. As
may be seen from the
illustration, the plates of the African Elephant, when viewed
from above, present a distinctly diamond-shaped aspect,
while those of the Asiatic animal are narrow ovals.
The average size of the African Elephant exceeds that of
the Asiatic, but in both species the males in particular attain
immense proportions. As a rule, Asiatic elephants do not
INDIAN LOWER MOLAR.
AFRICAN LOWER MOLAR.
Plate XV.
1. Rhinoceros
2. African Elephant
THE ELEPHANT 257
exceed nine feet in height at the shoulder, with a length of
twenty-six feet from the tip of the trunk to the extremity of
the tail ; but in the Calcutta Museum is the skeleton of an
animal that was quite twelve feet in height. Jumbo, once a
favourite at the Zoo, was eleven and a half feet high and
weighed six and a half tons. He was of the African species,
and as he was reared in captivity it is not unreasonable to
suppose that wild animals may exceed even those enormous
dimensions.
It is a doubtful point to what age Elephants attain ; but in
captivity they have been known to exceed the century, and
in their forest homes, with the advantage of strictly natural
food, they might easily live half as long again. It is said
that the remains of a dead Elephant are rarely met with,
even in its most favourite haunts. It is suggested that the
animal retires to some secret spot upon its approaching
demise ; but no ivory-hunter has even been known to
stumble unawares into an Elephant cemetery and a fortune
at the same time.
The two species differ considerably in the matter of tusks.
In the African Elephant both sexes are tusked, the only
difference being that the tusks of the male are larger than
those of the female, whereas in the Asiatic species the tusks
of the females never more than barely protrude beyond the
jaws, and not even all the males possess tusks worth mention-
ing. Tusks vary from one to nine or even ten feet
in length, with a girth of twenty-four inches at the base,
and weigh anything up to 235 Ibs. A tusk of these dimen-
sions is the exception and not the rule. Animal for animal,
African tusks are not only larger, but the ivory is of better
quality.
There is practically no difference in the natural habits of
the Elephant, whether in Asia or Africa. It is mainly a
forest-dweller, living on a diet of roots, twigs, leaves, young
shoots, fruits, grass, and other herbage. It prefers to feed
from trees, from the branches of which it strips the leaves
with its trunk ; in eating grasses it twists its trunk round a
tussock ; fruits are picked separately. In a forest the animal
will work extraordinary damage. Trees that possess no tap-
roots are levered up with the tusks by the roots in order to
18
258 HOOFED ANIMALS
bring the upper branches within reach, and frequently tusks
are broken in the operation. The tusks are also used to grub
up succulent roots.
Elephants roam about in herds of from twenty to fifty,
though hunters report seeing as many as four hundred at
a time. It is certain that nothing like such numbers could
now be met with in Asia, and in Africa it would be unlikely,
except possibly in the Kilimanjaro region, for incessant
ivory-hunting has practically exterminated the Elephant in
wide regions where it formerly abounded.
The eye of the Elephant is exceedingly small for an
animal of its size ; especially is this the case in the Asiatic
species. Sight and hearing are both generally defective.
The same cannot be said of the power of scent, and the
hunter experiences great difficulty in approaching a herd
without causing the animals to take alarm. In disposition
the huge creature is naturally timid, and will take to
flight rather than come to the attack. Often solitary male
Elephants are met ; usually they have been expelled from a
herd, not adopting a lonely life from choice. In any case
they are almost invariably fierce and quarrelsome, and the
particular region they favour is best avoided by human
beings who have no desire to make a strenuous fight for
life. A 'rogue,' as a solitary bull is termed, will often do
immense damage to the crops in a settled district. In
fighting, the Elephant endeavours to trample on its victim
with its feet or knees, while tuskers will pin down the
object of their rage with their tusks.
Through no fault of its own, the African Elephant was
rarely tamed and domesticated, except by the Cartha-
ginians in their wars with Rome. In the second Punic
War (B.C. 218-216) Hannibal traversed Spain and Gaul
with nearly forty Elephants trained to warfare, finally cross-
ing the Alps and inflicting defeat upon the Romans at
Ticinus. The Romans used the Elephant chiefly for the
purposes of sport in the arena, and it is told of Pompey
that at one great festival he had no less than five hundred
lions and eighteen Elephants engaged in the ring at one
time. In those days the Elephant was found in North
Africa ; but the demand for ivory and the necessities of the
THE ELEPHANT 259
Roman arenas depleted that region, and the animal is now
never found North of the Sahara.
From the very earliest ages of civilisation the Asiatic
Elephant was brought under the dominion of man. The
Greeks, when they invaded Persia, were filled with terror
at the Elephants in their war-trappings, but in later periods
made use of the animal in their various campaigns. In
India the Elephant was always recognised for its strength,
courage, sagacity, and generous qualities. Indian princes
estimated their power by the number of Elephants they
possessed, and in modern times British generals did not
hesitate to press the animal into service. Powerful and
hardy, no better beast exists for carrying war stores in
regions almost inaccessible to ordinary conveyance. Bear-
ing a load equal to that of sixteen bullocks, it can subsist
upon leaves, whereas horses and bullocks require large
amounts of fodder to be carried for their sustenance. The
short, broad feet of the Elephant are well adapted for pro-
gress in mountainous regions, the flat, cushion-like soles
enabling it to ascend or descend steep and difficult places
with great facility.
At the battle of Goojerat, in the Punjab, in 1849, a
body of Elephants dragged 2o-pounder field-pieces to the
centre of the lines, where they were able to work such
execution as completely to break the power of the Sikhs.
Even in very recent years Elephants have transported
mountain-guns into districts that were otherwise inac-
cessible to artillery.
Useful as Elephants may be in warfare, their employment
needs circumspection, as Rajah Sahib found to his cost
when he tried to take the crumbling walls of Arcot, behind
which Robert Clive and his small but heroic force were
playing the desperate game of Empire-making. In the
forefront of his attack Rajah placed a number of Elephants,
wearing heavy iron spiked helmets with which to batter
down the rotten gates. But the living battering-rams never
reached them ; they were received with such a withering
fire that the Elephants turned tail and ran through their
own lines with disastrous results.
There is often much misunderstanding concerning the
260
HOOFED ANIMALS
possibilities of the usefulness of the Elephant to man. Its
ordinary pace is a walk ; it cannot trot, canter, or gallop,
but it can shuffle along, under necessity, at a rate of from
six to eight miles an hour. As its maximum stride is six
and a half feet, a seven foot ditch stops its career com-
pletely.
The trunk is a marvellous organ of touch and smell, its
wonderful mechanism consisting of nearly forty thousand
muscles ; but it does not possess the strength that is often
attributed to it.
It can, by means
of the finger-like
processes, pick
up an object
as small as a
needle, but the
animal is too
sensible of the
value of its
trunk to attempt
to raise heavy
weights with it.
In dragging, it
will hold a rope
with its teeth ;
and in moving
weighty objects
^ Always pUSheS
again St them
with the head
or tusks. In harness, of course, it can exert enormous
power.
The brain cavity of the Elephant's skull is very small,
out of all proportion to the size of the animal. It is claimed
that the immense creature naturally is less intelligent than
the dog ; but owing to its docility and capability of receiv-
ing instruction, it can be educated to render a variety of
services to man, but of its own initiative it would never
make itself useful. That the animal's memory is very
retentive there is no room for doubt ; it will remember acts
SECTION OF THE SKULL OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT.
s, Air sinuses ; «, Nostrils ; b, Brain ; m, Molar ; /, Tusk.
THE ELEPHANT 261
of kindness or cruelty for quite long periods, and will
return good or ill in strict accordance with the treatment
meted out to itself.
With the majority of wild animals there is usually little
hope of usefully domesticating them unless they are caught
when quite young ; with the Elephant it is different, for
most of them are not captured until they are more or less
mature. Probably the chief reason for this lies in the fact
that Elephants in captivity comparatively rarely breed ; in
any case the young are born singly, at rather long intervals,
and great expense is incurred in their rearing before they
reach an age to render their services useful.
The method of hunting and taming the wild Elephant
in Asia is well worth description. In the forest where the
animals are known to exist a large space is marked out and
well fenced in with stakes. The enclosure, called a corral,
is narrow at one end and gradually widens until it takes
in a considerable extent of the forest. At the far end is
a long, narrow passage leading into a still smaller space
with a stout and impenetrable fence. Hundreds of men,
by means of noises and the kindling of fires at regular
intervals, drive the animals into the wide mouth of the
staked-in area, and then one by one they are urged along
until they reach the small enclosure. Here two specially
trained female elephants make friends with the captive,
soothing it until it allows itself to be conducted to a
tree, to which it is bound by the leg. Within the space
of a couple of weeks the wild Elephant is reduced to a state
of subjection; it is stabled, and quickly learns to recognise
the voice of its keeper. The tame Elephants employed in
the capture of their wild friends are called Koomkies, and
they exhibit no small amount of sagacity in seeking to
domesticate their species. A Koomky has been known to
go into the forest alone, make friends with a male, and bind
him to a tree without assistance ; and then in animal glee
fetch her owner to view the capture which she had
effected for him.
The African Elephant is seldom hunted for domestic
purposes : its flesh and ivory are the main objects of the
hunter, and consequently the methods employed aim at
262 HOOFED ANIMALS
its capture without trying to avoid injury to the animal,
as is generally the case in Asia. Pitfalls are placed by the
natives in the vicinity of Elephant drinking-places, artfully
concealed by herbage and sprinkled with dung to give a
natural effect. As soon as one animal crashes into a pit
the rest of the herd will usually stampede, and, shaken out
of their caution, other Elephants speedily meet with a
similar fate. The pits narrow towards the bottom, and the
more the huge creature struggles, the tighter it becomes
wedged in the hole, to which the hunter comes and
despatches his victim with ease.
The Hamrans, an Abyssinian tribe, stealthily follow the
tracks of an animal until they find it asleep, or listless, as it
usually is about mid-day. Creeping up to their quarry, they
sever its trunk with one blow of a sword, and then wait
until the creature sinks from loss of blood before finally
despatching it. Sometimes the animal is rendered helpless
by a cut at the sinews of the hind leg, which prevents it
seeking safety in flight, and makes it an easy matter to
inflict further wounds upon it.
Tracking the Elephant by its spoor is not a difficult
operation in open country or even in a well-forested region ;
but when it frequents tracts of dense grass and reeds that
reach above the animal's back, the hunter would find it less
easy to locate the quarry. Unfortunately for the Elephant,
it is usually accompanied by white egrets, which feed upon
the ticks and other insects that infest the vast expanse of
hide. And even in the densest grass or brake the presence
of Elephants is indicated by the birds fluttering and hover-
ing over their huge friends.
Shooting is the method adopted by white sportsmen ; but
even with the most approved weapons the chase of the
Elephant is often accompanied by hairbreadth escapes.
The greatest nerve and accuracy are required by the hunter,
for if a shot is ineffective the wounded animal will charge
down upon him with ferocious impetuosity. To be able to
reach the brain it is necessary to be acquainted with the
anatomy of the Elephant's skull, for, saving such points as
the temple at right angles or behind the ear, there is no
certainty. A bullet will often pierce the forehead of the
THE ELEPHANT 263
Asiatic species, but the skull of the African is well-nigh
impenetrable.
Mr. Burchell, in his Travels, relates an incident well
illustrating the danger of Elephant-hunting. Carel Krieger,
a fearless hunter, with his party, closely pursued an animal
which they had only wounded. The infuriated beast
turned round and charged down upon the person who
had inflicted the injury. Seizing him with its trunk, the
Elephant raised its victim on high, and dashed him
with terrific force to the ground. The maddened beast
then literally trampled the body to pieces, finally pounding
it until nothing remained but a few of the larger bones.
There is no famous hunter of modern times, even when
armed with the most perfect specimen of the gunmaker's
art, who has not looked death squarely in the face when in
pursuit of the Elephant. Oswell, when chased by an in-
furiated beast, was jerked from his saddle by the thorny
plants through which he madly urged his horse. Falling
directly in the Elephant's path, the huge creature blundered
right over the fallen hunter, without so much as touching
him.
Mr. F. C. Selous once experienced a few moments each
of which was punctuated with terrible thrills. The charg-
ing Elephant drove its tusk into the horse's haunch, over-
turning steed and rider. The next moment the hunter
was underneath the belly of the Elephant, which probably
thought it had destroyed its enemy. In the moment of
brief respite Selous scrambled out between the animal's
hind legs, secured his rifle, and with a deadly shot at close
quarters brought the Elephant down where it stood. Upon
another occasion a Zulu who accompanied Selous met
with a terrible fate. When racing in front of a maddened
animal the man fell. Before he could rise the Elephant
was upon him, placing its foot on the prostrate figure,
which with its trunk it literally tore into three pieces.
Mr. A. H. Neumann was not so fortunate as Selous.
At a critical juncture, when he was charged by a vicious
wounded Elephant, his rifle refused to act. In a moment
he was thrown down. He was first stabbed through the
biceps of his right arm, and a second thrust of the tusks
264 HOOFED ANIMALS
caught him between the ribs. At the same time the animal
was pounding his chest with the thick part of its trunk,
crushing in his already wounded ribs. Fortunately the
beast, which was a female, either thought he was dead, or
she was anxious to return to her calf, and she left him to
recover from as narrow an escape as can well be con-
ceived.
Mr. Bryden, who speaks out of the fulness of personal
knowledge, says: 'The charge of an Elephant is, as even
the most cool and self-reliant hunter is fain to confess, one
of the most nerve-shaking experiences that any man can
hope to go through. With ears spread out at right angles,
like a pair of sails, screaming like a locomotive, the great
pachyderm comes down upon his disturber at thirty miles
an hour.' Fortunately the cool, resourceful hunter knows
that a well-directed bullet will cause the blundering beast to
swerve out of its path; and thus the whirlwind of flesh is
avoided by, perhaps, only a few inches.
A few words may be given to the consideration of the
future of the African Elephant, which in all ages has been
hunted for the sake of its ivory. The average weight of
cow teeth is about twenty-four pounds a pair, though in
exceptional cases they may weigh from twenty-four to thirty
pounds each. The finest ivories are obtained in Central
and East Equatorial Africa, where the male tusks average
about a hundred and fifteen pounds apiece. Exceptional
specimens range much bigger; for example, Sir Edmund
Loder possesses a fine tusk that measures 9 feet 5 inches
over the curve and weighs 184 Ibs. Probably the finest
tusks known came from East Africa, measuring 10 feet
2 inches and 10 feet 4 inches, with a weight of 224 Ibs. and
235 Ibs. respectively. They were sold to a museum in the
United States for -£1,000.
Mr. Selous, the modern Nimrod without compare, shot
seventy-eight Elephants in the years 1873-75, when he was
engaged in ivory-hunting and the capture of natural history
specimens. Upon one occasion he formed one of a party
of four who shot twenty-one Elephants in a day, and once
three of the same men killed nineteen out of a herd of
twenty-one. Huge bags as these were, they could not
THE ELEPHANT 265
compare with the feat accomplished by three Boers.
Coming up with a troop of a hundred and four Elephants,
they caused the animals to stampede into a marsh, where
their heavy bodies became helplessly bogged. During the
day every animal was slain, a piece of wanton destruction
in which neither females nor calves were spared.
Towards the close of the year 1908 news reached Eng-
land that eight thousand Elephants had been rounded up
in the Lado region by hunters, who were shooting the
males ; and that at Entebbe two hunters had obtained
£5,000 worth of ivory in a four months' trip. Mr. Selous
promptly ridiculed the report, stating that the largest known
herds of Elephants only reached four hundred, and even
that number was exceedingly rare. Ivory-hunters, too, were
little likely to prefer bull tusks, which realise about twelve
shillings a pound, to cow tusks, which fetch very nearly
twice as much. The famous hunter declared that the
Elephant is no more likely to become extinct in Africa
than is the giraffe.
Within the last dozen years hunting prospects have
undergone a great change in Africa and many other
regions, notably India and North America. Laws have
been enacted for the preservation of big game that are
calculated to save many different species from the
extermination that was rapidly overtaking them. In East
Africa, Uganda, and elsewhere the hunter has to pay a
license of ^50, and even then his season's bag is limited to
two bull elephants, two rhinoceroses, and a certain number
of antelopes. In Burma the shooting of Elephants is very
strictly regulated. Marauding 'rogues' are not protected,
and may be shot on sight ; but for shooting an Elephant
of good character, or against whom, in the language of the
police court, there are no previous convictions, a fine of
five hundred rupees is imposed.
But the real danger of extinction comes from the native
rather than the white man. Armed with a gun, the black
man in Africa is daily and hourly stealthily hunting, with a
patience that seldom fails to be rewarded ; and in wild and
thinly populated regions the game laws are exceedingly
difficult to enforce.
266 HOOFED ANIMALS
Sub-Order 3.— PERISSODACTYLA (ODD-TOED
ANIMALS)
Perissodactyla means uneven-toed, and included in this
sub-order are only those animals that have an odd number
of toes on the hind foot. There are very few species of
animals possessing this characteristic — in fact, only three
families. The Equidae, or Horses, have only one developed
digit on any foot ; the Rhinocerotidse, or Rhinoceroses,
have three toes on each foot ; while the Tapiridae have four
digits on the front feet, but meet the necessary qualification
for inclusion in the sub-order by having only three toes on
the hind feet.
FAMILY RHINOCEROTID^ (RHINOCEROSES).
The Rhinoceros family cannot well be mistaken for any
other group of animals. The word ' Rhinoceros ' is formed
from two Greek words signifying ' horned-nose,' and the
various species possess at least one horn, while some have
two. The horn has no connection with the skull ; it simply
grows from the skin, from which it may be cut off with
a sharp knife when the animal has been recently killed.
The family is restricted to the Old World ; several species
inhabit India, Burma, and through the Malay Peninsula
to the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo ; and as many
if not more are found in Central and Southern Africa.
They are all unwieldy animals, dull, sulky, and irritable,
but seldom attacking man until provoked, when they become
exceedingly dangerous foes.
The figure of the Rhinoceros on its short, stout legs is
not unlike that of a monstrous hog, with a big, elongated
head, in which are set eyes very small in proportion. The
upper lip is prolonged and is generally prehensile. The
animal is always destitute of canine teeth, and the number
of upper incisors never exceeds two pairs. In the lower
jaw there is often a pair of large, pointed, almost hori-
zontal tusks, with a pair of small incisors sometimes
between them.
THE RHINOCEROS 267
The hide of the Rhinoceros was at one time supposed to
be bullet-proof. Though it is very thick and solid, the
animal may be shot almost as easily as an ox. When dried,
the skin is remarkably hard, and in India, particularly, it is
used in the construction of shields. The skin, dense as
it is, is far from being insensible, for the animal is often
infested by ticks, the stings of which cause the Rhinoceros
to indulge in mud baths whenever the opportunity arises.
The animal is mostly nocturnal, and its food is entirely
vegetable.
Notwithstanding its apparently clumsy shape, the
SKELETOM OF THE RHIN7OCEROS.
Rhinoceros is swift of foot to an unexpected degree.
When hunting the Keitloa Rhinoceros of Africa, Sir
Samuel Baker found it difficult to overtake the animal,
although he was mounted on a particularly good horse.
The Arab hunters assured him that the Keitloa was never
killed with the sword except after a long and fatiguing
chase, and that even when the animal was brought to bay
two hunters were required — one to distract its attention,
while the other hamstrung it from behind. Even then the
contest is not always ended, for the Rhinoceros can run
well on three legs, and will unexpectedly turn upon its foes
just when it appears to be disabled.
268 HOOFED ANIMALS
INDIAN RHINOCEROS (Rhinoceros unicornis).
Coloured Plate XV. Fig. i.
The Common Indian Rhinoceros is the largest of the
Asiatic species, and has a wide range in the south-east of
the continent and adjacent large islands. Its skin, blackish
grey in colour, lies in a series of folds, not unlike armour
plates or shields in appearance. The first living animal
seen in Europe was one that was sent to Emanuel, King of
Portugal, as early as the year 1513. An average sized
animal has a height of about five and a half feet at the
shoulders, with the body over eight feet in length from
the tip of the snout to the root of the short-tufted tail,
which is about thirty inches long.
The distinguishing feature of the head of the Rhinoceros
is the single nasal horn, which in the Indian species is
usually about a foot in length, though there is a specimen
in the British Natural History Museum that is nineteen inches
long. Like all the Asiatic species, it possesses incisor teeth,
a single pair of broad ones in the upper jaw, with sometimes
a smaller pair behind them. The normal number of cheek
teeth is seven in each jaw ; they have flat planes, which
imply that the mode of mastication is a backwards and
forwards motion.
The Indian Rhinoceros inhabits the swampy grass
jungles, where -grasses grow to a height of twenty and
thirty feet. In these forests of grasses and reeds a file of a
dozen elephants will walk and scarcely give a sign of their
passage. The Rhinoceroses give still less evidence of their
movements, since they largely use regular runs, like those
of hares and rabbits in less luxuriant verdure.
The elephant is often called into service in hunting
the Rhinoceros. On a single animal the hunter tracks
his quarry to its lair, and from his vantage point on the
elephant's back he is usually able to shoot with telling
effect. Sometimes a string of elephants is used to beat
the Rhinoceros out of the jungle into more open ground.
There is said to be mutual antagonism between the elephant
and the Rhinoceros, and certain it is that the larger
THE RHINOCEROS 269
animal will generally retreat without hazarding an
encounter.
The capture of a specimen for the Zoological Gardens
exemplifies the fear in which the Rhinoceros is held by
the elephant. The animal, one of the Hairy-eared variety
(Rhinoceros lasotis) of Chittagong, was found stuck in a
quicksand, and, after much trouble, was secured by ropes
and tied to a tree. In order to remove her eight elephants
were brought to the spot. As soon as they saw the
Rhinoceros they betrayed great alarm, and when urged
towards her they turned round and ran away. However,
at last they were induced to approach, and succeeded in
bringing her safely to the stockade which had been
prepared for her.
The unrooted horn of the Rhinoceros does not at first
sight appear to be a very formidable weapon ; but from its
position, together with the lower stature of the Rhinoceros,
it gives advantages in striking the under parts of its larger
antagonist.
Several Europeans mounted on elephants came up
with a party of seven Rhinoceroses, led by a large and
powerful animal. When the leader charged the hunters,
the elephants wheeled round and received the blow of the
Rhinoceros's horn on the hindquarters, and so powerful
was the concussion that in more than one instance the
elephant and its rider were brought to the ground. In
the case of a contest with smaller animals the Rhinoceros
more often employs its sharply-pointed lower tusks.
Of other Asiatic species, there is the Sumatran Rhinoceros
(Rhinoceros siunatrensis), which has at least two distinguish-
ing features. Its body is covered with brown or black hair,
and it possesses two horns, the hinder and smaller one
being placed between the eyes. It is a smaller animal
than the foregoing, usually rising only to four and a half
feet at the shoulder, but nevertheless attaining a weight
of two thousand pounds. The Sumatran Rhinoceros is
likely to suffer extermination, chiefly on account of the
Chinese demand for its horns, which are ground into
powder, that is considered a sure remedy for certain
diseases.
27o HOOFED ANIMALS
The Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondiacus) is consider-
ably more gentle, and is not infrequently tamed by the
Malays. The female of this species is almost invariably
hornless.
AFRICAN RHINOCEROS.
In the several African species the skin flaps are absent,
the hide being practically naked and smooth. The
commonest of them is the Black Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros
bicornis) ; it is also called the Borele or Rhinaster. It is
a double-horned animal, the front horn measuring from
twenty-two to twenty-eight inches, while the back horn
is usually about half that length. The grinding teeth are
ridged, for mastication calls for a champing movement,
because the general food consists of twigs rather than
gras's. The animal is widely distributed, ranging through
East and South Africa, from Abyssinia to at least the
borders of Cape Colony.
It is a fierce, quarrelsome, and active animal, with its
powers of scent and hearing wonderfully acute. An
experienced hunter asserted that he would rather face
fifty wounded lions than one wounded Borele. On the
other hand, it is often hunted by natives who would not
care to engage in the chase of the lion. An enraged Borele
has been known to charge at a wagon, striking its horns
through the planks, and next scattering the camp fire in all
directions. This last is the more remarkable, in that wild
beasts are generally afraid of fire.
The capability of the Rhinoceros for taking care of itself
was once witnessed by C. ]. Andersonn. He had wounded
an animal severely, but had been unable to prevent it seek-
ing cover where it was difficult to follow. Eventually the
hunter came up with the Rhinoceros, only to find the par-
tially disabled animal was being fiercely attacked by a
couple of lions. They mauled and lacerated it severely,
but in the end the Rhinoceros beat both of them off.
For its gallant fight the hunter would have liked to spare
its life, but it was wounded to the death, and a merciful
ball put an end to its pain.
The Keitloa (Rhinoceros keitloa) possesses horns of nearly
THE RHINOCEROS 271
the same length. It is a larger animal than the Borele, and
is even more feared. The Mochuco, or Burchell's Rhino-
ceros (Rhinoceros simus), is the largest of the group. It
stands six or seven feet high at the shoulder, and has an
extreme length of sixteen to seventeen feet. Though it is
only a slightly paler brown than other species, it is often
called the White Rhinoceros. Fortunately, it is not a
quarrelsome animal, for the front horn is sometimes
three feet in length, and is a most terrible weapon. One
abnormal specimen in the British Museum is fifty-six
inches long, while Colonel W. Gordon Gumming pos-
sesses one that is 5 feet 2\ inches in length. An
English traveller was once nearly killed by a Mochuco.
He had wounded the animal, which, instead of retreat-
ing, walked quietly towards its mounted enemy. The
horse refused to stir, and when the Rhinoceros charged,
its horn passed through the body of the horse, penetrated
the saddle on the opposite side, and bruised the leg of the
rider. The force of the impact was sufficient to toss the
horse in the air, turning a complete somersault, and falling
on its back. Another species, the Kabaoba (Rhinoceros
oswelli), possesses a still longer horn. When firearms
were muzzle-loaders, ramrods, four feet in length, were
frequently cut from single horns.
Among the animals mentioned in the Scriptures, there
is one introduced under the name of Reem, or Unicorn.
Notwithstanding some difficulties that envelop the subject,
it is thought that the Rhinoceros is the animal intended.
The flesh of the Rhinoceros was held in considerable
esteem by the earlier white settlers of South Africa. The
Portuguese on the East Coast, on account of the amphibious
habits of the animal, were permitted by their priests to view
the animal as fish, and hence during Lent they partook of
its flesh with an easy conscience.
To the hunter, apart from the question of hides and
tusks, there is an indescribable fascination in fetching down
an animal perhaps a ton in weight. Between the years
1840 and 1880 the Black Rhinoceros was shot in thousands.
Two men bagged no less than fifty upon one occasion
in a single excursion ; Oswell and a companion captured
272
HOOFED ANIMALS
eighty-nine in a season ; and in the same short period sixty
fell to C. ]. Andersonn's gun alone. The White Rhinoceros
is on the verge of extinction in South Africa, but here and
there a few are very strictly preserved. Only a few years
ago a native chief was heavily fined for permitting one to
be killed in a preserved area. In Central Africa, however,
there is little fear that the Rhinoceros will disappear for
many long years to come.
FAMILY TAPIRID^E (TAPIRS).
The small group of animals which are called Tapirs look
as if they had wandered into this world from among the
extinct animals of antediluvian times. Their peculiar
contour cannot be mistaken. The smooth-skinned hog-
like body, with a pointed, conical head, produced into a
short, flexible proboscis, seems to suggest that they form
a link with the elephant. They are semi-aquatic animals,
living in the neighbourhood of large rivers. They spend
much time in the water, and
are said to be able to walk
along the bottom. They are
mostly nocturnal in habit,
coming out of their retreats at
night to feed on leaves and
fruits. The elongated snout is
of particular service as a kind of
hook in pulling down boughs or
fruits. In disposition the ani-
mal is naturally shy, timid, and
inoffensive, but when attacked
it will fight desperately. The
American Tapirs are generally of a dark brown colour ; the
Malayan species has the upper part of the body white from
the withers to the tail, with the remainder of the body nearly
black. It looks exactly as if some one had played a prac-
tical joke upon it with a whitewash brush. Strangely
enough, the young Tapirs, until they are five or six months
old, are marked with longitudinal, fawn-coloured stripes,
and rows of yellowish spots on the back and sides.
FORE (A) AND HIND (fi) FOOT
OF THE TAPIR.
PLATE XXVI.
i. AMERICAN TAPIR.
2. INDIAN ELEPHANT.
(See page 253)
(Photos W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
PLATE XXVII.
I. FOALS. 2. CART HORSE.
(See page 274)
(Photo Pictorial Agency.)
THE TAPIR FAMILY 273
AMERICAN TAPIR (Tapirus americanus).
Plate XXVI. Fig. i.
This is the commonest and best known of the five South
American species. It is found chiefly in the forests of
Brazil and neighbouring countries. It is a powerful
animal, five feet in length, with a massive body and a
thick, muscular neck, which is surmounted by a stiff
mane. It leads for the most part a solitary life, amid
the gloom of the forest, through which it makes its way,
by more or less beaten tracks, to its usual resorts for food
and water. Inoffensive and gentle, the Tapir, from its
enormous strength and the toughness of its hide, does
not fall an easy prey even to the poisoned arrows of the
native hunter. By means of the earlier firearms it was
impossible to make much impression on its stout cover-
ing. When attacked, the first thing the animal does is to
rush to the river, clearing a path through the dense under-
growth by sheer weight and strength. If followed to the
water it plunges in, where it seizes the attacking dogs and
inflicts the most dangerous wounds. The jaguar is its chief
natural enemy. On land the fierce carnivore finds it
difficult to make an impression on the tough hide, and
if the Tapir can only contrive to shake off its assailant
and reach water, the jaguar not infrequently loses its prey.
Tapirs in the neighbourhood of cultivated land work
immense damage to sugar-canes and melons, and the
cacao-planter in particular often bewails the destruction of
his young plantations. In captivity the Tapir will modify
its vegetarian diet, becoming practically as omnivorous as
the common swine.
MALAYAN TAPIR (Tapirus indicus).
Coloured Plate XVII. Fig. 4.
The Asiatic Tapir is restricted to a solitary species that is
found in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo. It is
the largest of the group, attaining a height of three and a
half feet, and a length of eight feet from the tip of the snout
274 HOOFED ANIMALS
to the scarcely perceptible tail. Like its American con-
geners, the animal is of an exceedingly retiring disposition,
but it can easily be domesticated, and a tame Tapir is an
ordinary sight in a native village. A young one, when
captured, can easily be led by the hunter, who bores
a hole in the side of the snout, through which he passes
a cord.
The flesh of the Tapir is coarse and dry to Europeans,
but the South American Indians consider it almost as
savoury as beef. The nape of the neck and the feet, cooked
to a jelly, are morsels which Lucullus himself might have
welcomed. Much the same thing used to be said of the foot
of the elephant, whereas in reality European hunters fail to
view it as a special delicacy.
FAMILY EQUID^ (HORSES).
In this family are the Horses, Asses, and Zebras, the solid-
ungulated animals which have the bones of their toes
enclosed in a solid, single hoof. Two species have been
domesticated for so long that it is somewhat difficult to
trace their natural origin. In another classification the
family belongs to the order Pachydermata, or thick-skinned
animals, in which were included the elephant, hippopota-
mus, swine, rhinoceros, tapir, and hyrax. The hair on the
body is short and smooth, with the mane and tail usually
long and bushy. There are six incisors in each jaw ; the
molars are six on each side, above and below ; and there
are two canines in the upper and the same number in the
lower jaw. Many characteristics of the family are too well
known to call for lengthy description, while the most
important points will arise in the consideration of each
particular species.
HORSE (Equus caballus).
Coloured Plate XVI. Fig. 2, Plate XXVII.
True Horses are represented by one common and well-
established species, from which all other varieties are
Plate XVI.
l.Wild Ass
2. Horse
THE HORSE
275
descended. There are various breeds, each with its own
purely artificial distinctions, such as differences in size and
colour, and even in shape, but nevertheless possessing
every point that marks the true Horse.
If the reader compare the skeleton of the Horse with that
of the elephant or any other animal described in this
chapter, he will find that it tells its own story. The
expansive chest marks the possession of lungs of great
size, and, therefore, it is intended for endurance. Speed is
denoted in the length of limb and the bold projections for
SKELETON OF THE HORSE.
muscles upon the hind legs ; while the series of curves into
which the whole structure can be resolved shows the design
of the Creator to make it elastic from the head to the toes.
Look along the spine, for example, and you will see that
the vertebral processes are directed backwards from the
shoulder nearly to the centre of the back. Beginning from
the hip-bone the processes are directed forwards, while
those in the centre of the back are upright. This is the
spot where the rider is best seated to preserve to the fullest
extent the elasticity of the structure.
276 HOOFED ANIMALS
Looking at the legs of a Horse, the question arises what
has become of all the toes. In the animals which divide
the hoof there are apparently only two toes to each foot ;
but a very superficial examination shows us that two other
toes are only partly developed, and are absolutely useless as
a means of progression. But examine the foot of the Horse,
and to all appearance there is but a single toe, until we strip
off the skin as far as the knee of the fore limb and the hock
of the hind leg.
The normal number of digits (i.e., fingers and toes) is
five ; but we have seen how various bones are often
extremely modified. The thumb of the fore feet, or the
great toe of the hind feet, is invariably the first in which
development is arrested, and the others are modified
according to the needs of the possessor. What, then, is
this single toe of the Horse ? We must transport ourselves
to the Eocene epoch to find the animal termed the
Eohippus, i.e., the Dawn of the Horse. It was little
more than the size of a fox terrier, with four complete
toes on the fore feet, and the rudiments of a thumb dis-
tinctly marked ; on the hind feet were three toes. In the
Miocene period the thumb disappears altogether and the
digits are still more reduced, until in the Pliocene,
the creature had greatly increased in size, and the digits,
with the exception of the third and fourth (counting the
thumb as the first), were fused together so as to look as if
they were a single bone.
It is now comparatively easy to understand the con-
struction of the foot of the Horse, as shown in the illustra-
tion. The left-hand figure represents the fore-foot, or, as it
might be called, the hand. Beginning at the top, we see
the end of the radius, and below it the carpal bones, i.e.,
those of the wrist. One projects beyond the others, and
this is the rudimentary thumb. Below the carpal bones is
a stout and straight bone, called the cannon bone. It is
not a single bone, but is composed of the third and fourth
metacarpals, which are fused together. At the side of the
cannon bone may be seen a slight, elongated bone, with
another of the same dimensions on the opposite side.
These are the second and fifth metacarpals (i.e., the first and
THE HORSE 277
little fingers), and are of no practical utility. They are
called the splint bones. The next three joints, which con-
stitute the pastern, are the phalanges, or finger-joints of the
third and fourth fingers. So we see that the so-called knee
HAND AND FOOT OF THE HORSE.
of the Horse is its wrist, and that the hand begins at the
end of the radius.
Passing to the right-hand figure, which represents the
hind foot of the Horse, we begin at the top with the end of
the tibia, which corresponds with the radius of the fore
limb. Next come the bones of the ankle, i.e., the tarsal
bones, the heel bone projecting very boldly, so as to give a
278
HOOFED ANIMALS
good leverage to the great ligament called the tendon of
Achilles. Then come the metatarsals of the third and
fourth toes fused together, those of the second and fifth
being represented by the splint bones, and lastly come the
digits, i.e., the fingers or toes, which correspond so closely
with those of the fore-foot that they are scarcely distinguish-
able from each other. It is a remarkable fact that foals are
sometimes born with traces of as many as four toes, some
with one or other of the splint
bones enlarged into a complete
toe with a hoof at the end.
So the reader will perceive that
the Horse walks upon the tips of
the third and fourth fingers of
the hand and the corresponding
toes of the foot. The hoof is
beautifully constructed, built up
by no less than six hundred layers
or scales of three different kinds
of horn, resulting in wonderful
elasticity to fulfil the tasks required
of it.
The hoof of the Horse in a wild
state grows as fast as it wears, but
domesticated animals require an
iron shoe to protect the foot on
hard roads. Like the nails of
human beings, the horny sub-
stance of the hoof may be pared
without causing pain unless the
quick be reached ; and thus it is
an easy matter for a blacksmith to fit and fix a horse-shoe.
The V-shaped formation on the under side of the hoof must
never be cut away, for unless the 'frog,' as it is called,
touches the ground, the hoof loses all its elastic qualities.
The teeth of the Horse will well repay inspection, if only
because they have largely contributed to, if not actually
decided, the fate of the animal as the servant of man. A
full set of teeth numbers forty, viz., six incisors above and
below ; four canines, one on each side above and below ;
FOOT OF THE HORSE
WITH SHOE.
' FROG ' OF THE HORSE'8 HOOF.
THE HORSE
279
and twenty-four molars, six on each side above and below.
Sometimes there is an additional premolar in the upper
jaw, but it is always small and is frequently wanting alto-
gether. Between the canines and the molars is a vacant
space called the ' bar,' in which fits the bit by which the
Horse is guided and controlled.
A young horse or colt gets its second or permanent teeth
in a fixed order. The two new middle incisors in each jaw
appear when the animal is two and a half years old ; the
two next teeth a year later ; and the two outside ones at the
A. Thirty days.
D. Eight years.
DENTITION OF THE HORSE.
B. Three years.
E. Fifteen years.
C. Six years.
F. Thirty years.
end of another twelve months. Up to five years the age of
the Horse can be fixed with almost perfect accuracy. After
that period only experts can judge, being guided by the
wearing of the ring of enamel round the edge of the crown
of the tooth. But when this ' mark,' as it is technically
termed, is worn down, the teeth afford no further definite
indications of age.
It is doubtful if any real wild species is now in existence.
True, there are still herds of so-called wild Horses in Africa
and in Western and Central Asia ; but there appears little
reason to doubt that they are but the descendants of
280 HOOFED ANIMALS
domesticated animals, that have escaped and reverted to the
wild state. Whether the Tarpan, or Wild Horse of Tartary,
comes into this category or not, it is certainly the nearest
approach to the original wild species. Its mouse-coloured
coat is marked by a stripe on the back. In disposition it
is wild and fiery in the extreme, and is only caught by
the Tartar hunters lassoing it ; or chasing it with trained
falcons that flutter around the animal's head to distract its
attention from the hunter.
The Horse is frequently mentioned in the Bible in a
manner that denotes it was chiefly used in war, especially
in drawing war-chariots. The animal was familiar to the
Britons before the arrival of Julius Caesar. King Ethelstan
forbade the export of native Horses, the breed of which he
improved by the introduction of German and Spanish
varieties. As might be expected, a warlike people like the
Normans paid particular attention to horse-breeding,
especially such as would best serve for cavalry. To King
John belongs the credit of introducing into England the
heavy horse of Flanders for draught purposes and for field
work generally.
The Arab Horse is probably a descendant of the original
Asiatic wild species. It was introduced into Europe in the
eighth and ninth centuries, together with the Barb, an allied
breed in North Africa. Until warriors discarded heavy
armour their horses required to be powerful rather than
speedy, but the altered conditions of warfare called for
horses possessing speed and endurance.
The result of centuries of careful breeding may be seen
in the English race-horse, graceful and elegant, the swiftest
horse the world has ever known. The record time for a
mile is i minute 35^ seconds. The hunter is not a distinct
breed, any really good horse well serving for cross-country
work, if he possess the requisite qualifications, viz., mus-
cular neck and chest, short body, and stouter legs than a
racer. The maximum broad jump for a horse of this type
is from thirty-three to thirty-seven feet.
Cart Horses require size, strength, and endurance, speed
being altogether sacrificed to attain those ends. The
English Shire Horse, the Clydesdale Horse, and the Suffolk
THE HORSE 281
Punch, are excellent types of the animals which play no part
in pomp and sport, but devote their ponderous strength to
the world of commerce. Before the introduction of rail-
ways, pack-horses were largely used in the conveyance of
merchandise to and from the English coast, and in many
countries the Horse still serves in a similar capacity.
An average horse can carry comfortably on its back a load
of only a hundred and twenty pounds, compared to one and
a half tons it can draw in a wheeled vehicle. The best
known breeds of Dray Horses can far exceed this weight. A
well-built animal was put to a remarkable test on one of the
Surrey railways. It commenced dragging twelve wagons
of a total weight of thirty-six tons, to which were added
other wagons, until the animal was moving fifty-five tons
at the rate of nearly four miles an hour for six hours. Of
course, the rails played an important part in the transport
of the great weight, but that does not discount the enormous
strength displayed by the Horse.
Of the endurance of the Horse, innumerable instances
might be afforded where the animal is legitimately employed ;
but its capabilities are best shown when driven to display
its powers to serve the dire needs of its owner. A high-
wayman took flight from Chatham at four o'clock in the
morning. At Gravesend he was delayed for nearly an hour,
waiting for a boat to convey him across the Thames ; and
this time the rider occupied in baiting his steed. At
Chelmsford the horse was rested for half an hour, and then
their course lay through Braintree, Westerfield, to Cam-
bridge, and from thence to Huntingdon. Along the North
Road the horse galloped, with occasional rests, until it was
finally drawn up at York on the evening of the same day.
In due course the rider stood his trial for robbery at
Chatham, and would have swung upon the gibbet, but that
the Lord Mayor of York testified that he spoke to the
prisoner at 8.15 p.m. on the day of the robbery. The jury
acquitted him on the ground that it was impossible for him
to have travelled so great a distance in sixteen hours ; which
showed that they did not know the Horse so well as did the
man whose life the gallant steed had saved.
Of the smaller breeds of Horses, the Shetland Pony is
282 HOOFED ANIMALS
best known. Only seven or eight hands high (a hand equals
four inches), they are as docile as they are hardy. Their
coats are shaggy, and in winter become so matted as to
protect the animals from the severe weather experienced in
their northern home. Notwithstanding their small size,
they are wonderfully strong, and they are capable of well
sustained exertion without fatigue. A Shetland Pony once
ran from Norwich to Yarmouth and back again, a total dis-
tance of forty-four miles, in three and three-quarter hours ;
and though it was a feat that redounded but little to the
credit of its owner, the result was a striking testimony to
the powers of endurance of the little horse.
No account of the Horse would be complete without
reference to the wild, or semi-wild, animals of America and
Australia. In the latter case they are certainly not indi-
genous to the Southern continent, but are positively the
descendants of horses imported by the colonists, which have
escaped into the wilds to revert to a wild state. Small and
ugly, the ' Brumbies,' as they are called, display the utmost
vigilance in avoiding capture by man. In some districts at
one time they existed in such numbers as to be a great
nuisance to the settlers ; and in 1875, on one station alone
in New South Wales, several thousands of the animals were
shot.
In the case of the Wild Horses, or Mustangs, of Mexico
and South America, there exist some elements of doubt
concerning their origin. It is said that at the time of the
discovery of America there were no Horses in any part of
the Continent, and it has been suggested that the indigenous
animals had been exterminated by the pumas. But whether
they be indigenous, or the descendants of the Horses intro-
duced by the Spaniards, the fact remains, that especially on
the boundless pampas are enormous numbers of Horses,
sometimes as many as several thousand in a single troop.
They move about in parties, usually headed by a powerful
stallion ; but when alarmed the whole herd moves in con-
cert, and if attacked the strong will protect the weak. The
jaguar is often beaten off from an animal that it has marked
down. In fighting, the Horse rears itself on its hind feet
and brings down its fore hoofs on the enemy, while at
THE HORSE 283
less close quarters it kicks out its hind hoofs with terrific
effect.
The Gauchos, or native peons, are expert Horse-catchers,
and in rendering their captives submissive they are without
equals in any part of the world, not even second to the
Mexican vaqueros, or the ranchmen, called cowboys, of
the United States and Canada. The Horses are sometimes
chased and lassoed ; but more often they are driven into a
corral, in much the same manner as elephants are captured.
' When the Gaucho wishes to take a Wild Horse, he
mounts one that has been used to the sport and gallops
over the plain. As soon as he comes near his victim, the
lasso is thrown round the two hind legs, and as the Gaucho
rides a little on one side, the jerk pulls the entangled Horse's
feet laterally, so as to throw him on his side without
endangering his knees or his face. Before the Horse can
recover the shock, the rider dismounts, and snatching his
poncho, or cloak, from his shoulders, wraps it round the
prostrate animal's head. He then forces into his mouth
one of the powerful bridles of the country, straps a saddle
on his back, and bestriding him, removes the poncho. The
astonished Horse springs on his legs, and endeavours by a
thousand vain efforts to disencumber himself of his new
master, who sits quite composedly on his back, and, by a
discipline which never fails, reduces the Horse to such
complete obedience that he is soon trained to lend his
whole speed and strength to the capture of his companions.'
Primitive man not only hunted and tamed the Horse, but
he made large use of its flesh for food. It was a well-known
article of diet in Britain in the time of the Romans, as it
was on the Continent generally, until, in the eighth century,
its use was forbidden by edict in the Christian Church. But
necessity knows no law. If the English had not besieged
Copenhagen in 1807, it is doubtful whether the Danes would
now largely utilise horseflesh, for it was when the citizens
were reduced to extremities that they gained a liking for the
meat. As late as 1629, a man was condemned to death in
France for eating horseflesh during Lent ; but in modern
times the meat is in considerable demand, largely because
it is only about half the price of beef. Attempts have been
284 HOOFED ANIMALS
made to popularise the use of horseflesh in London, but
there is practically no demand for it, except as food for
dogs and cats. Apart from the services it renders to man
during its life, the Horse on its death yields useful products
in its hide and hair ; the former is converted into excellent
leather ; the long hair is woven into hair cloth of great use
in upholstery, while the short hair is used for a variety of
purposes.
WILD ASS (Equus tceniopus).
Coloured Plate XVI. Fig. i.
Although belonging to the same genus, it is easy to dis-
tinguish the Ass from the horse. It is a smaller animal,
with a short, upright mane, very long ears, and the tail has
long hair only at the end. The hoof is narrower and more
pointed than that of the horse. Though the animal has been
domesticated from the very earliest periods, there are still
parts of the world where it is as wild and free as ever was
the Dziggetai, or Wild Ass of the Scriptures, which in its
fleetness t snuffed up the wind like dragons.'
In Asia the Wild Ass (Equus hemionus), or Onager,
ranges from Syria, through Persia, and over vast tracts in
Central Asia. In Africa the animal occurs in the north-
east of the continent, particularly in Abyssinia, Somaliland,
and parts of the Sudan. It is the African species that is
figured on the plate. The Asiatic species averages six or
seven feet in length, with a height at the shoulders of about
four feet. In colour it is generally silver-grey with the
under parts white, a dark stripe running along the middle
of the back, from the mane to the tail. There is, however,
considerable variety in colour, for reddish-grey and chestnut
animals are quite common.
Inhabiting more or less arid regions, the Wild Ass, in
parties of from two to a dozen, roams over the desert
plains or the mountain uplands, seeking grass and water
at varying elevations according to the season. It is said
that a herd of as many as a thousand animals has been
encountered, probably consisting mainly of mares and
foals.
THE ASS 285
The animal is remarkable for its wariness, fleetness, and
its ability to keep up a great pace even over very broken
ground. The Persian method of capturing the Koulan, as
they call the Wild Ass, is to lie in wait for the animal at a
drinking-pool, and then to chase it on specially fast horses.
Out in the open plains the Ass can only be taken by means
of relays of horses and fleet dogs of the greyhound type.
Even when captured it is by no means certain that a Wild
Ass can be broken in to render useful service, for frequently
it remains absolutely vicious and intractable, in which
respect it offers great contrast to the wild horse under
similar conditions.
The African Wild Ass is typified in the variety which
inhabits Egypt and Abyssinia. It is principally bluish-
grey in colour, but the ears are longer, the mane shorter,
and the tail less haired than in the Asiatic species. 'The
animal in its native desert,' says Sir Samuel Baker, ' is the
perfection of activity and courage ; there is a high-bred
tone in the deportment, a high-actioned step when it trots
freely over the rocks and sand, with the speed of a horse.
When it gallops freely over the boundless desert, no animal
is more difficult to approach, and, although they are fre-
quently captured by the Arabs, those taken are invariably
the foals, which are ridden down by fast dromedaries,
while the mothers escape.'
In the regions which it inhabits the flesh of the Wild
Ass is held in considerable esteem, the Tartars and the
Persians preferring it to almost any other meat. The skin
is highly valued, and is made into the celebrated shagreen,
which is dear not only on account of the scarcity of ass
hides, but because of the slow and intricate method of
preparation.
DOMESTIC ASS (Equus asinus).
Coloured Plate XVII. Fig. 2.
There appears to be little doubt that the domestic Ass is
the African species in a tame state. The Valley of the
Nile was the scene of its earliest domestication, from which
286 HOOFED ANIMALS
it rapidly spread to other Eastern countries. Its intro-
duction into Europe may be considered comparatively
recent ; in England it was known in the time of King
Ethelred, when it was valued at about twelve shillings, a
considerable sum in those days ; in later years it fell into
disfavour, and was little used until the time of Queen
Elizabeth. In our own rather unfriendly clime the Ass is
ordinarily a spiritless and rather degraded animal, inured
to harsh treatment, hard labour, and the scantiest of fare,
in return for which it exhibits a stubbornness and obstinacy
that are proverbial.
In Eastern countries, as Egypt and Syria, Persia, and
even India, the Ass attains a considerably larger size than
in Western countries. It is a far more valuable animal,
well groomed, better fed, with a corresponding good return
for the trouble and expenditure incurred. It is capable of
a good day's journey at a moderate pace, with a man on
its back, and it has a spirited demeanour and wide-awake
manner which render it a pleasant quadruped to deal with.
The breed is carefully selected, and a well-bred Ass will
fetch as much as forty pounds. Amongst the Jews the
most honourable persons rode on Asses, and it was
used for all purposes of agriculture and also as a pack
animal. Our Saviour made His triumphant entry into
Jerusalem upon a colt, the foal of an Ass, and the animal
selected was not typical of meekness, but honourable and
suitable in dignity to bear the King of Israel.
In the Southern countries of Europe, Spain and Italy in
particular, and in the Andes regions of South America, the
Ass is an animal of considerable importance, its sure-
footedness making it a useful pack animal, where roads are
often practically non-existent, or at best poorly constructed.
In these countries the animal attains a considerably larger
size than in our own land ; in the United States also,
the Ass frequently attains a height of from fourteen to
sixteen hands. These large male animals, mated with female
horses, produce the crossbred animals that are known as
mules ; if the sexes are reversed the offspring is called a
' hinny.' Mules are remarkably surefooted, and possess
special powers of endurance that make them invaluable for
Plate XVII.
THE ZEBRA 287
carrying burdens, in rocky regions where a horse would be
practically useless.
ZEBRA (Equus Zebra).
Coloured Plate XVII. Fig. 3.
The true Zebra was at one time found in large numbers
in the mountainous regions of Cape Colony, for which
reason it was called the Mountain Zebra. In modern
times it has been almost exterminated, and there remain
only a few, that are strictly preserved in some of the more
remote districts. It is a singularly handsome animal, four
to four and a half feet high at the withers. Upon a
groundwork of white is a series of glossy jet-black stripes,
extending from its nostrils to its hoofs, excepting only the
white under parts. The muzzle is brown ; the tail is
scantily haired, except at the tip. The animal is exceed-
ingly difficult to approach, not only on account of its
watchfulness and agility, but equally so because of the
difficult country which it inhabits. While feeding on the
hillsides, sentinels are posted, and the moment there is any
cause for alarm the animals are off like the wind.
BurchelPs Zebra (Equus burchelli) is a native of the
plains to the north of the Kalihari desert and in the
Zambesi regions. It is a little taller than the last named,
and in colour it is more yellowish-brown ; the greater part
of the legs is white, without the dark stripes, or at best only
faint ones. It is strong and muscular, and its bony limbs
suggest that it would make an excellent beast of burden.
It has been used by the Dutch colonists in harness with
mules, but not very successfully ; the Mountain Zebra was
practically fairly tractable in harness, but always returned
to its stall with such ungovernable fury as to endanger the
lives of those whose duty it was to stable it. On the
other hand the Hon. Walter Rothschild had a team of
four Zebras at Tring Park that were extremely docile.
In Burchell's Zebra the senses of sight, hearing, and
smell are particularly acute. Any object with which they
are unfamiliar, or the slightest taint in the air, immediately
288 HOOFED ANIMALS
attracts their startled attention. 'They combine in a
compact body when menaced by an attack either from
man or beast ; with their heads together in a close cir-
cular band they present their heels to the enemy, and deal
out kicks in equal force and abundance. Beset on all sides,
or partially crippled, they rear on their hinder legs, fly at
the adversary with jaws distended, and use both teeth and
heels with the greatest freedom.'
Grevy's Zebra (Equus grevyi) is found still further north
in the Victoria Nyanza regions. It combines the chief
features of the two foregoing species. Its stripes are
narrower than those of the common Zebra ; its long
mane and well-haired tail more nearly resemble Burchell's
Zebra. Though Grevy's Zebra will at times mix with
domesticated animals, unlike the other species it has not
been known to interbreed with either the horse or the ass.
QUAGGA (Equus quaggd).
Coloured Plate XVII. Fig. i.
The Quagga, slightly smaller than the zebra, was
formerly found in immense herds in the South African
plains south of the Vaal River, though it never associated
with the zebra. It not infrequently consorted with gnus
and ostriches ; and upon occasion it would join the
domesticated ass in the neighbourhood of settlements.
Zebras have been known to act similarly, and upon one
occasion a zebra stallion was fiercely attacked by a male
donkey, which held its wild relative until a settler was
able to effect its capture. Though fierce in its native
plains, and often proving a match for the hyaena, the
Quagga was amenable to man when in captivity. Quite
early in the nineteenth century a gentleman drove a couple
in harness in Hyde Park. In all probability the animal is
now quite extinct, largely owing to the Kaffirs and Bushmen
hunting it for food ; and always the lion was very partial
to zebra and Quagga flesh.
Chapter X
ORDER VI.— UNGULATA (continued)
SUB-ORDER 4.— ARTIODACTYLA (EVEN-
TOED ANIMALS)
GROUP L—RUMINANTIA
20
Sub-order 4. Artiodactyla — Group i. Rumi-
nantia — General description of the Pecora or
true Ruminants — Hollow-horned Ruminants :
Family Bovidae : Domestic Ox — Zebu — Wild
Oxen — Gaur — Gayal -- Banting — Yak -
European Bison — American Bison — Indian
Buffalo — Cape Buffalo — Anoa — Musk Ox-
Sheep and Goats — Domestic Sheep — Mouflon
— Argali — Pamir Wild Sheep— Barbary Wild
Sheep — Bighorn — Common Goat — Angora
Goat — Kashmir Goat — Ibex — Markhor — Tahr
—Various Wild Goats — Family Antilopidse :
General description — Chamois — Gazelle -
Springbok — Gemsbok — Oryx — Equine Ante-
lope — Sable Antelope — Waterbuck — Eland —
Gnu — Nilgai — Prong-horned Antelope— Saiga
Antelope — Klipspringer — Kudu — Hartebeest
— Blesbok — Addax — Royal Antelope — Dik-Dik
Antelope — Family Camelopardalidse: Giraffe —
Okapi — Solid-horned Ruminants : Family
Cervidae : General description — Red Deer —
Fallow Deer — Roe Deer — Elk — Reindeer —
Wapiti— Virginian Deer— Mule Deer — Pampas
Deer — Brockets — Pudu Deer — Axis Deer —
Sambar — Schomburgk's Deer — Eld's Deer —
Muntjac — Japanese Water Deer — Chinese
Water Deer — Elaphure — Musk Deer.
CHAPTER X
Order VI. — Ungulata (continued]
Sub-Order 4.— ARTIODACTYLA (EVEN-TOED
ANIMALS)
A RTIODACTYLA means even-toed, and in this sub-
±\. order are only those animals which possess an even
number of digits, either two or four, on all the feet. It
includes by far the greater number of the species of the
Ungulata, e.g., cattle, sheep, goats, antelopes, deer, giraffes,
camels, pigs, &c. Many of them are ruminating animals,
and, with the exception of the omnivorous swine, all of
them are purely vegetable feeders. In most of the species
the upper jaw lacks incisors, and very frequently there are
no canine teeth ; but many of them are furnished with horns,
and a few of them with tusks. It is of importance to note
that practically all the animals whose flesh supplies the tables
of all the civilised, and many of the uncivilised, peoples of
the world, are included in the sub-order Artiodactyla, which
is again divided into four well-marked groups.
GROUP I.—RUMINANTIA.
The Latin word rumen signifies the paunch of an animal,
and the title, Ruminantia, is given to those animals which
chew the cud or ruminate, i.e.f first gather their food into a
receptacle called the paunch,' and then return it to the
mouth to be masticated while the animal is at rest. In most
mammals the stomach is of very simple construction, merely
a bag, the inlet of which is the oesophagus or gullet, the
292 HOOFED ANIMALS
outlet at the other end being the pylorus, i.e., the ' little
gate/ which opens into the small intestine.
But for rumination the stomach is a much more compli-
cated structure, large in proportion to the size of the
animal, and divided into four distinct compartments. In
the accompanying figures is first presented the external
appearance of a Ruminant's stomach, and then is shown
the same organ in section. Most Ruminants have a
hard and almost horny pad in place of incisor teeth in
the upper jaw, and the food is only torn, rather than
bitten, before it passes through the gullet, marked a, into
STOMACH OF A RUMINANT.
the paunch, which is the large division of the stomach,
marked 6.
When the animal, a cow for example, has filled the
paunch, or rumen, it lies down and proceeds to chew the
cud, each process of which is distinctly easy to follow. A
portion of the food enters the second division, marked c,
which is called the reticulum, or little net, because it is lined
with small cells like network, which the butcher calls the
honeycomb. In these cells the food assumes the form of
little pellets, which are then ejected and thrown into the
mouth to undergo proper mastication, the animal chewing
THE PECORA 293
with its back or grinding teeth, moving the lower jaw from
right to left.
When swallowed for a second time the food passes into
the third division, marked d. This receptacle is called the
omasus or psalterium. The first name is from a Greek word
signifying ' all together/ because the balls which are chewed
as the cud are thrown together into it ; the second name
literally means a psalter, in consideration of the lining of
the receptacle resembling the leaves of a book. The butcher
calls it the ' moniplies ' or many-folds.
The food then passes into the stomach proper, marked e,
SECTION OF THE STOMACH OF A RUMINANT.
and which is commonly called the reed or red, from its
colour ; the scientific name is abomasus. Here the gastric
juice is secreted and the process of digestion takes place.
The gastric juice of the calf is the useful material called
rennet, with which milk is curdled before converting it into
cheese.
The technical name of the true Ruminants is Pecora, and
besides the oxen, sheep, and goats, includes antelopes, deer,
and giraffes, which chew the cud in precisely the same
manner ; in the case of the camel, llama, and chevrotains,
there are divergences, that will be best considered when the
particular animals are described.
294 HOOFED ANIMALS
The Ruminant chews the cud and also it ' divides the
hoof.' The cow has typical cloven feet, in which the thumb
of the fore and the great toe of the hind feet are entirely
wanting. The foot consists really of the third and fourth
toes, upon which it walks, while the second and fifth are less
developed, and though hoofed are little less than mere spurs.
In the camels and giraffes even these last are lacking.
Many, if not most, of the Ruminants possess horns on the
head, which may be either one of two distinct kinds. Those
of the deer tribe are not true horns, but antlers, composed of
the same material as bone ; they are not permanent, but are
shed annually. The horn of the cow is made of the same
material as the hoof, and is like baleen, or whalebone, which
is nothing less than an agglomeration of hairs (see p. 405).
It is formed round a projection of the skull, called the core,
and consequently is hollow at the base, and practically
throughout its entire length. Generally the horns are
permanent, there being but few exceptions. The Hollow-
horned Ruminants are of the utmost importance to man,
and may well take the first place in a description of the
various species of the Artiodactyla.
HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS.
FAMILY BOVID^E (OXEN, &c.)
Included in the Oxen are not only the massively built
animals with which we are acquainted in our own country,
but also the Bison, Buffalo, and Yak. A child, when asked
to define an Ox, said it was a square animal with a leg at
each corner, in which was naively expressed the childish
conception of the solidity which marks the Oxen family.
The head, short in proportion to the body, and attached to
a short, thick neck, is nearly in a line with the back. The
muzzle is broad and naked ; the tail is long, thinly haired
for the most part, but with a tuft at the end. Most of the
males show a large dewlap, extending from the chin to well
between the fore legs.
Both sexes possess horns, and there is usually little
difference in their dimensions. The horns may be cylindrical
Plate XVin.
1. Merino Sheep
2. Domestic Swine
3. Sheep
4. Domestic Goat.
5. Cow and Calf
THE DOMESTIC OX 295
or angulated, but they are never spirally twisted, or marked
by knots or excrescences of any kind. Domesticated
animals are cosmopolitan ; they are spread throughout
the entire globe, excepting only the extremely cold regions.
In a wild state Oxen are gregarious, roaming grassy plains
or dense forests, and in one or two cases even cold
mountainous regions.
DOMESTIC OX (Bos taurus).
Coloured Plate XVIII. Fig. 5.
The ancient wild Ox of Europe was the Urus, or Aurochs.
Julius Caesar has left it on record that the animal was little
less than an elephant in size, and that a man's prowess was
gauged by the number of horns he had secured in the
chase. The domesticated cattle of Europe are doubtless the
descendants of this wild species, although
it is quite probable there were others.
The domestication of the animal, the
growth of population, and the ever in-
creasing toll of man in search of the best
of meat would naturally cause a diminu-
tion in the numbers of the wild species ;
and upon this in 1348 came the Black
Death, in which animals suffered terribly,
though in a less degree than human
beings. FOOT OF THE cow.
In various parks in England and Scot-
land are still herds of wild or semi-wild cattle (Plate XXVIII.
Fig. 2), that are often claimed to be the direct descendants
of the Aurochs ; but it is far more likely that their imme-
diate ancestors were some of the earlier domesticated breeds.
One of the best known herds is that in Chillingham Park,
Northumberland, which certainly dates back for nearly
three centuries. The animals present features that are
distinctly interesting ; they graze chiefly at night ; they
hide their young ; and, though shy and moving off while
some approaching object is at a considerable distance,
they exhibit much fierceness when pressed.
296
HOOFED ANIMALS
In many regions there are numerous domestic breeds of
Oxen, differing considerably in shape and colour, and vary-
ing in the quality of their flesh, and in the quantity and
richness of the milk they yield. The flat backs and rather
rectangular bodies of the domesticated Ox always distin-
guish it from the majority of the truly wild species. British
breeds, of which there are many varieties, rank high among
the world's domesticated cattle, and they are eagerly sought
for by foreign and colonial buyers to improve their own
strains.
Various breeds of long-horned cattle have largely given
SKELETON OF THE COW.
way to the famous Shorthorns of the northern counties.
This is undoubtedly the best all-round breed — large, level-
backed animals, easily fattened for market. Apart from
meat and milk, short-horned animals are easier to handle in
the field and especially in transport, whether by boat or
rail. Herefords are chiefly red, with white faces and rather
long, upturned horns. They are excellent animals for
fattening, and are in great demand for summer beef. The
Sussex and the Devons are popular breeds ; the former in
particular was once very largely employed in draught and
farm work.
Highland cattle are moderate or small-sized animals, with
THE ZEBU 297
thick hides and shaggy black or brown coats. They are
grazed largely in the Western Highlands and fattened in the
South. They yield beef of the finest quality. Welsh cattle
are as hardy as the Highland, thriving on poor mountain
pastures ; they are mostly black, and the horns are rather
long. There are also polled or hornless cattle, of which the
Red Suffolk is one of the best examples ; it is a valuable
breed, hardy and a wonderful milker. The Alderneys and
Jerseys are small animals of practically little use to the
butcher, but they yield the richest yellow cream and butter.
So much is this the case that the milk of even one cow will
make an appreciable difference to the milk of a whole herd
of another variety.
Of the Continental cattle may be mentioned the Dutch
black and white breed, which is also popular in Denmark
and in a large part of Germany. The animal requires no
testimony beyond the statement that Holland and Denmark
are among the finest dairying countries in the world.
In all civilised countries cattle-breeding is an important
branch of agriculture, but many of the great industrial
populations look to the vast grazing grounds of the New
World and Australasia for a large proportion of their meat.
In the British Isles, with a population of about forty-five
millions, we possess about eleven million cattle ; the United
States has only double the population but five times as
many cattle ; Argentina has only a population of five
millions, yet owns twenty-one million cattle ; and Aus-
tralia and New Zealand, with a population far less than that
of London, possess more cattle than are in the whole of the
United Kingdom. Every year it is necessary to import into
the British Isles about a million tons of meat, and it is easy
to see that the three regions mentioned above will at any
rate be able to supply much of the beef that is required.
ZEBU (Bos indicus}.
Coloured Plate XIX. Fig. 3.
The Indian Ox, Zebu, or Brahmin Bull, bulks largely in
the fifty million cattle of India, and it is common in East
298 HOOFED ANIMALS
Africa and Madagascar. Its distinguishing characteristics
are a large hump upon its withers, drooping ears, and a
very large dewlap. Its coat is generally exquisitely fine, the
colour being cream or grey, white or mouse colour. It
seldom seeks the shade, and is never seen standing knee-
deep in water, as British cattle are so fond of doing in the
warm weather. There is a variety of breeds, with marked
diversity in size, ranging from those equal to our own
larger breeds to others scarcely bigger than a mastiff.
The Zebu is gentle in disposition, and is used for riding
and for draught ; but in India many of the finer bulls are
dedicated to the god Siva. These sacred bulls are nearly
as intolerable a nuisance as the venerated monkeys referred
to in an earlier chapter. They wander just where they like
in the streets and market-places, block up the traffic, and no
one dares to drive them away. They help themselves to
the choicest vegetables and fruit, and the aggrieved owners
may not even check their depredations. They behave
generally like spoiled children or dogs, rendered selfish
and offensive by the weakness of those who ought to have
taught them better.
In the early days of the railway in India a Brahmin bull
charged a locomotive, with somewhat disastrous results to
the holy animal. It was feared that the natives would view
the railway as a menace to their religion. To the great
satisfaction of the authorities the people did not take
offence ; they simply accepted the engine as a superior
divinity, and decorated it with flowers.
WILD OXEN.
In many parts of the world, but especially in India,
Australia, and South America, are vast numbers of wild
cattle, that are but the descendants of domesticated species.
They are probably as wild and unrestrained as ever was the
Aurochs itself, and in the immense plains where they roam
it is difficult to come within gunshot of them. These feral
animals call for no mention beyond the fact of their
existence, but there are various genuine wild species, with-
out which no account of the Ox tribe would be complete.
WILD OXEN 299
GAUR (Bos gaurus) .
The range of the Gaur is wide, including most of the
hilly, forested regions between the North-eastern Himalaya
and Cape Comorin ; from Assam the animal extends to the
Malay Peninsula.
The Gaur is one of the most magnificent specimens
of the Ox tribe ; so large is it that its native name
signifies ' horned elephant.* A full-grown male stands
six feet high at the shoulder ; its hide alone is a fair load
for a draught ox. The greenish-yellow horns are flattened,
especially where they spring from the skull ; they average
two feet in length, but are very often quite three. Its well
set-up, massive forequarters give the animal a particularly
bold and alert appearance, largely due to a ridge running
from the shoulders to the middle of the back. There is
practically no dewlap. The colour of the hide is mainly
dark brown, merging into black with age ; the legs are
chiefly white. The thick hide that covers the shoulders
is largely used for native shields.
Living in herds of seldom more than a dozen animals,
the Gaur is shy and timid, and never visits the vicinity of
settlements or cultivated land. Considering its size the
animal is remarkably active, especially in the hilly and
wooded ground which it frequents. Fierce combats take
place between the bulls for the leadership of a herd ; but
even an old, solitary bull is really seldom dangerous to the
hunter, except from its first blind rush when surprised in its
jungle lair.
The Gaur has been domesticated to a very small extent,
and only by the hill tribes of the North-east.
GAYAL (Bos frontalis).
Plate XXIX. Fig. 2.
The Gayal, or Mithan, is found chiefly in the region east
of the Bramaputra, but also in the coast strip extending as
far as Tenasserim. It is a smaller animal than the Gaur ;
the shoulder-ridge is less defined, but the dewlap is bigger.
300 HOOFED ANIMALS
The horns are conical instead of flat, and though they curve
upwards they do not bend inwards at their tips. The
Gayal is very easily domesticated, and in its native regions
many of the herds, though half-wild, return to their owners
at night after roaming the forest all the day. Unlike the
zebu, the Mithan is never used as a beast of burden or in
agricultural labour.
The Kukis of the Chittagong region, in capturing the
animal, trade upon its liking for salt and a particular kind
of earth. Balls of these mixed substances are thrown down
in some jungle area that is known to be frequented by a
wild herd. The animals will not leave the district so long
as there are balls to be consumed, and the hunter spreads
them about for a period of five or six weeks. During this
time he sends out his tame Gayals to mix with their wild
brethren, and then proceeds to familiarise the wild oxen
with himself. Presently he can go among the mixed
animals and stroke the tame ones without affrighting the
wild ones, who in due course allow themselves to be
caressed. Thus it comes about that at the end of the fifth
or sixth week the Kuki villager is able to drive home the
mixed herd, there to complete the subjection of the latest
additions to his stock.
The Banting, or Javan Ox (Bos sondaicus), more nearly
approaches the typical domestic oxen than either the gaur
or gayal. Its range extends throughout Burma, the
Malay Peninsula, and some of the larger islands beyond ;
in Indo-China it is by no means uncommon. It is a
dweller of the plains rather than the uplands. Lending
itself very well to domestication, the Malays keep large
herds of Bantings. The domesticated animal mixes freely
and breeds with the ordinary humped cattle of India.
YAK (Bos grunniens}.
Coloured Plate XIX. Fig. 2.
The Yak, or Grunting Ox, appears to be a connecting
link between the true Oxen and the Bisons. It is practi-
cally restricted to Tibet and the adjacent mountains and
Plate XIX.
THE YAK 301
tablelands. From the bison like head of the animal spring
two horns, often each a yard long and with a girth of
eighteen inches at the base. It is a short-legged, massive,
shaggily-clothed animal, the black, silky hair being longest
on its shoulders, flanks, and thighs, ending in a bushy
white tail like that of a horse. In India the Yak's tail is
called a ' chowry/ and as a fly-switch it invariably figures
largely in the great ceremonial processions of the East.
The wild Yak wanders about the desolate mountain
regions in herds of from ten to a hundred. It delights in
cold, and will thrive on the rough, wiry pasturage which
is obtainable at even an elevation of 20,000 feet. The
Tibetans are extremely jealous of the few foreign sportsmen
who enter their sterile country, and forbid the hunting of
the Yak under severe penalties. The French travellers,
Hue and Gabet, once encountered a herd of wild animals
that had been frozen in the ice while crossing a river. Only
the heads of the poor dead beasts appeared above the
glassy surface. If this animal tragedy had been followed
by a landslip, the preserved bodies of the Yaks might have
been dug up ages afterwards, just as in the case of the
mammoth remains in the north of the continent.
The domesticated Yak is an animal of the greatest
economic importance in the Himalayan regions. It is the
only beast of burden that can traverse those high altitudes,
and it forms really the sole means of communication
between India and Tibet. In a temperature where quick-
silver freezes, along mountain tracks covered deep in snow,
the loaded Yaks, surefooted as goats, scramble along un-
complainingly where camels and horses would lie down
and die. Even when one of the beasts slips from the
treacherous path and rolls down the mountain-side it will
recover itself and clamber back to its companions. One
great disadvantage is that the Yak will not eat grain. For
the use of the pack-animals a large amount of fodder must
be carried, or a party has to go ahead to collect the
mountain pasturage that is perhaps far removed from the
sterile, rocky passes which form the only available roads.
The Yak is sometimes crossed with ordinary cattle, and
the half-breeds are able to endure the heat of some of the
302 HOOFED ANIMALS
mountain valleys, which the pure Yak would find to be
quite intolerable. This, however, applies not to Tibet so
much as the North-western Himalaya — for example, the
route between Leh and Kashmir.
Opinions differ concerning the flesh of an old Yak, but
by common consent the meat of a young animal is
richer than ordinary veal. The milk is often dried and
powdered ; the hair is spun into a variety of fabrics ; and
in the most desolate regions Yak dung and bones are the
only available fuel.
BISONS.
The Bisons form a very distinct group of the Oxen
family. Their distinguishing features are their massive
fronts, the withers being much higher than the hind-
quarters, the general effect being heightened by the thicker
covering of hair on the head, shoulders, and fore legs.
EUROPEAN BISON (Bos europczus).
Coloured Plate XIX. Fig. i.
The European Bison is very often improperly called the
Aurochs. It resembles a brown, heavily-fronted, stout-
limbed Ox. It is usually fierce and dangerous, and as the
animal is ten feet in length, it is an opponent not to be
lightly encountered. It generally feeds in the morning and
evening, chiefly eating leaves, twigs, and bark. The cows
calve only once in about three years. It is said that a bull
Bison will maintain its own against at least four hungry
wolves.
The Bison was once common on the Continent. Fossil
remains are found in England, and indicate that the animal
was once much larger than the few of the species that are
now in existence. There are only a few wild specimens in
the Caucasus, and a fair-sized herd is specially preserved in
Lithuania. In this region, in 1752, the King of Poland in
a great hunt killed as many as sixty in a day. When the
animals were threatened with extinction, steps were taken
THE AMERICAN BISON 3°3
to preserve the species, with very good effect. But when
there was a revolution in the country numbers of refugees
fled to the forests, and they did not scruple to hunt the
preserved animals for food. Thirty years ago it was
calculated that not more than six hundred Bisons survived,
and they have gradually decreased, and the time is not far
distant when the European Bison will be added to the list
of extinct animals.
AMERICAN BISON (Bos americanus).
Plate XXVIII. Fig. i.
The American Bison, more often than not incorrectly
called the Buffalo, is a bulkier animal than the European
species, from which it differs chiefly in the possession of
a still larger head and a clothing of longer and shaggier
hair. A bull will often measure 5 feet 8 inches at the
withers, but though the average is below this, the species
will weigh anything from fifteen hundred to nearly two
thousand pounds.
Owing to its shagginess the Bison appears to be of
greater size than in reality is the case ; but ' the magnificent
dark-brown frontlet and beard, the shaggy coat of hair upon
the neck, hump, and shoulders, terminating at the knees in
a thick mass of luxuriant black locks, to say nothing of the
dense coat of finer fur on the body and hindquarters, give
to the species not only an apparent height equal to that of
the Gaur, but a grandeur and nobility of presence which
are beyond all comparison among ruminants/ These are
the words of Mr. Hornaday, than whom no one is better
qualified to speak of the animal.
A melancholy interest is attached to this member of the
Ox family, which formerly ranged over the prairies of North
America from the Arctic Circle to Mexico. Well within
the memory of living man the Bison blackened the prairies
with its countless herds. It was to the red man what the
walrus still is to the Eskimo. The flesh afforded abundant
food for himself and his wife and children ; its skins fur-
nished him with coverings for his wigwams, or tent-houses ;
3o4 HOOFED ANIMALS
supplied him with warm robes wherewith to defy the frosts
of winter ; and gave him the flexible, yet almost impene-
trable, shields with which he could ward off the arrows,
spears, and even the bullets of his enemies. It is true that
the red man, being only a few steps beyond the absolute
savage, had no idea of preserving a creature so invaluable
to himself, and that he destroyed it wherever he could find
it. He organised hunting parties and killed thousands of
Bisons annually merely for their skins or for the most deli-
cate parts of the meat, leaving the rest to the beasts and the
birds.
The destruction of a large number of Bisons at the
same time was always facilitated by their strange lack of
perception of danger. Once a herd stampeded, nothing
could turn aside the compact mass of plunging beasts,
galloping with the head close to the ground and the tail
high up in the air — not even a yawning precipice or a bog
that was a trap for pounding feet. The fate of the leaders
was no warning to those in the rear. The Indians, by
means of a cordon, often drove a whole herd to destruction,
not using one-tenth part of the dead, but leaving the
carcasses to decay. The herds always moved southwards
from two to four hundred miles as winter approached,
and during these migrations their numbers would be sadly
depleted by quicksands, bogs, river-fords, or treacherous ice.
No quadrupeds of any size ever congregated in such
immense numbers as the American Bison. To find a
parallel one must go to the Rodents ; but a swarm of
lemmings or hamsters is a very different matter to a
multitude of ponderous animals such as the Bison. It
was no mere figure of speech to say that the prairies
were blackened with Bisons. Only as far back as the
early seventies a train on the Kansas Pacific Railway
passed through a herd for a distance of over a hundred
miles. It was the construction of the transcontinental
railways that finally spelt almost total extinction of the
Bison. The white man ought to have checked the Indian
and imposed limits upon the destruction of so important
an animal ; but he outrivalled the savage in the work of
extermination. In 1872-74 no less than four millions and
I. AMERICAN BISOX.
2. ENGLISH WILD BULL.
(See page 295)
(Photos W. S. Berridge, F.ZS.)
PLATE XXIX.
i. BARBARY WILD SHEEP.
(See page 315)
2. GAYAL.
(See page 299)
(Photos W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
THE INDIAN BUFFALO 305
a half of Bisons were destroyed, merely for the sake of
the hides, the bodies being left upon the ground. Within
the space of four square acres have been counted sixty-
seven dead animals, which had merely been stripped of
their skins and then left to decay.
Less than half a century ago the American Bison
was one of the marvels of creation, in the multitude of
its individuals in a comparatively restricted area. The
rapid annihilation of a species of huge quadrupeds is
unprecedented in the history of the animal world. The
once mighty herds have been reduced to a mere hand-
ful of animals conserved by the United States Government
in the Yellowstone National Park ; but with a species so
slow in natural increase it is but a question of time when
this great race of Oxen becomes but a memory.
BUFFALOES.
The Buffaloes, another group of Oxen, differ in various
particulars from any of the foregoing members of the tribe.
In colour they are chiefly black, and generally thinly haired,
so much so that the older animals are more or less naked.
The horns are flattened and the section at the base is
triangular. The European Buffalo (Bubalus vulgaris) is
largely used in Southern Europe, Egypt, and Asia Minor in
field work and as a beast of burden. The animal is a
domesticated variety of a similar species that is a native
of India.
INDIAN BUFFALO (Bos bubalus).
The Indian species, known as the Arnee, is the largest
of the Buffaloes. It is a dusky animal, nearly six feet
high at the shoulders, and possessing horns that sometimes
attain a length of six feet. In the British Natural History
Museum is a specimen nearly eighty inches in length. The
animal is never far from the neighbourhood of water,
and is exceedingly fond of wallowing in the mud, on
which account it is often called the Water Buffalo, It
not infrequently chews the cud while immersed in water,
exposing little more than the head above the surface.
21
3o6 HOOFED ANIMALS
The Arnee lives in herds, often numbering fifty animals,
and as they do not fight shy of settled districts they often
break into cultivated land and work considerable damage.
In disposition the animal is considered the fiercest and
most dangerous of the Bovidae ; it will attack and
knock down an elephant ; and the tiger is by no means
easy in its mind when in the Buffalo's vicinity. Hunting
the animal in the low, damp jungles is consequently a
sport not to be lightly undertaken. The grass and reeds
usually hide even a fairly sized herd, making it exceed-
ingly difficult to get a shot at any particular beast.
The animal is not domesticated to any large extent, and
in subjection will not interbreed with the humped cattle.
The wild species is not found outside Hindostan, and any
similar animals in Further India and Malaysia are only the
descendants of once domesticated Buffaloes.
CAPE BUFFALO (Bos caffer).
Of all the species and varieties of the Ox tribe in Africa,
and they are many, the Cape or Black Buffalo is the most
formidable. It is no whit better than its slightly bigger
Indian relative, though from its appearance one might
judge it to be
worse. The
chief features
of this African
Buffalo are the
broad muzzle,
large ears, and
the remarkable
manner in
which in the
HORNS OF THE CAPE BUFFALO. bulls the baSCS
of the horns
are flattened out. This horny helmet, from under which
twinkle little fierce eyes, gives the animal a lowering, sullen
aspect, in strict keeping with its real disposition.
Hunters sometimes assert that the Arnee will never charge
a human being who will face it ; but the Cape Buffalo knows
THE CAPE BUFFALO
307
no such restraint. To the intruder into the marshy thickets
it is far more dangerous than the lion. It is a discon-
certing moment to find a blindly unreasoning animal,
dripping with mud and bellowing with rage, suddenly
launching itself upon one without the slightest preliminary
warning. At other times a whole herd will be swept by
a frantic impulse, which sends the animals crashing through
the undergrowth with a recklessness that ensures the weaker
of them being trampled to death. In chasing the Cape
Buffalo it behoves the hunter to beware of a wounded
animal, especially a bull, which will seek shelter in a thick
bush, from which to charge immediately it sights its foe.
The danger is increased by the natural horny helmet making
it difficult to get a killing shot at the head, even at close
quarters.
The Cape Buffalo fears nothing, whether it be on two or
four legs. It was from one of these animals that Selous had
one of his narrowest escapes, horse and man being over-
turned in an irresistible charge. The hunter was badly hurt
and his horse had to be shot. It
usually takes a couple of lions to
pull down a full grown bull,
although an old animal has gal-
lantly staved off the attack of no
less than three adult carnivores ;
and it is no unusual thing for a troop
of cow Buffaloes to keep lions at bay
all night in defence of their calves.
The Short-horned Buffalo (Bos
pumilus) roams the plains and
highlands of Western Africa. It
is a smaller animal than the Cape
Buffalo, varying in colour from
yellowish-red to black. Though
it has not got the huge flat horns
and nothing like the horny frontlet, there is no doubt that
it is closely allied to the foregoing species.
The Anoa (Bos depressicornis) of Celebes, on account of its
slender build, its small size, and the straightness of its horns,
was formerly considered to belong to the antelopes. On
HORNS OF THE AXOA.
3o8 HOOFED ANIMALS
the other hand, its thin covering of hair, the triangulation of
the horns, which in the males attain a length of two feet,
its barrel-like body, and its fondness for wallowing outweigh
its antelope qualities.
MUSK OX (Ovibos moschatus).
Plate XXX. Fig. i.
There is a difficulty in assigning this rather extraordinary
animal to its exact place among the Hollow-horned
Ruminants. As indicated in its generic name, Ovibos, it
appears rather to form a link between the Ox and the Sheep.
The Musk Ox has a coat of fine brown wool underneath its
outer covering of very long hair, which reaches nearly to
the ground. It is this latter which causes the animal to look
much larger than it really is, for a hunter is quite satisfied to
capture an animal weighing between three and four hundred
pounds. But the distinguishing feature of the male is the
appearance given to its head by the massive horns, the bases
of which are spread out in almost exactly similar fashion to
those of the Cape Buffalo. In the Musk Ox the horns take
a downward direction, and when they do curve to form
sharply pointed hooks, their tips end in about a line with
the eyes.
Fossil remains prove that ages ago the Musk Ox inhabited
Britain, a great part of Europe, and Northern Asia. Why it
has disappeared completely from the Eastern Hemisphere
no man can tell, but it is certainly now restricted to North
America, practically the region lying between Hudson Bay
and the mouth of the river Mackenzie.
Musk Oxen are gregarious, travelling in bands across the
barren and inhospitable lands, where their food, especially
in winter, is chiefly limited to lichens and mosses. A herd
will unite to beat off their great enemy, the Arctic wolf ; and
the Eskimos assert that even bears frequently fall victims to
their sharp and powerful horns. Hunters, however, find the
Musk Ox by no means difficult to approach against the
wind. If attacked from several points at once they form a
circle, their glaring, blood-shot eyes bent upon the baying
SHEEP AND GOATS 309
dogs around them. This huddling together affords the
hunter an excellent opportunity to shoot them down. Even
if the herd stampede, very often curiosity will lead some of
the animals to return to inspect a killed or wounded comrade,
thus laying themselves open to meet the same fate.
The flesh of the animal has a musky odour which is very
unpleasant at certain seasons in the year, but the Eskimos
and Indians are not troubled with fastidious palates. Apart
from food, the skin of the Musk Ox is a valuable sledge
covering in these inhospitable regions ; and it always forms
useful barter for ammunition, &c., from the white traders.
SHEEP AND GOATS.
In form, clothing, and habits there is no difficulty in
distinguishing between the common varieties of Sheep
and Goats. Yet if we attempt to fix upon the real distinc-
tions which separate the one animal from the other, the task
speedily appears well-nigh impossible. The coat, on the face
of it, would appear to form the likeliest aid, but it fails us at
the outset. The woolly coat of the domestic Sheep is due
solely to the influence of man ; wild Sheep do not possess it ;
and if tame ones are allowed to run wild in hot countries
they soon exchange their covering of wool for one of hair,
like that of the Goats. The horn, which is sometimes
accepted as a distinction, has no real value, being variable
to the last degree. In this connection the Rev. J. G. Wood
mentions a woman who had several horns removed from
her head. It is, therefore, evident that the horn cannot be
accepted as affording any absolute means of identification.
The beard of the Goat has been accepted as a distinction,
but, as some of the Goats have no beards, while some of the
Sheep possess slight ones, it is evident that the beard forms
no real distinction at all, any more than it does among men.
As most of us know, there are some races of men in which
neither sex is bearded, while there are others in which both
sexes always have beards ; and in our own race, although
the rule is that a man has a beard and the woman has none,
there are exceptional cases where the man is beardless and
the woman has a beard which any man might envy. So
3io
HOOFED ANIMALS
while we place the Sheep in the genus Ovis and the Goats
in the Capra, we may very well consider that the terms are
almost interchangeable, trusting to the descriptions of the
various selected animals to afford us the few safe means of
identification.
FAMILY OV1D1E (SHEEP).
SHEEP (Ovis aries).
Coloured Plate XVIII. Figs. I and 3.
From the very earliest days the domesticated Sheep has
been among the most valued of man's possessions ; its
history is blended with that of the laws and
customs of nations ; writers, sacred and pro-
fane, historians and poets of all times have
abounded in allusions to it ; and there is no
more interesting and beautiful sight than hill
and valley whitened with flocks feeding in
peaceful security. Such a scene takes us back
to the patriarchal days, when a pastoral life
was the chief condition of men, and when
the office of shepherd was an occupation of
chiefs and even princes. The Sheep is the
first animal mentioned by name in the sacred
writings. The firstlings of the flock were
offered in sacrifice according to the Jewish
ritual ; the Lamb was a type of
BONES OF THE innocence and purity ; and as the
*THE SHEEP.F Antitype of these sacrifices Christ
is expressly called the ' Lamb of
God, that taketh away the sins of the world '
— ' a Lamb without blemish and without spot.'
We may forgo any detailed description of
an animal with which all are so familiar, simply
remarking that in many of the domesticated
. ,. T ,.,,, , , , ., FOOT OF THE
varieties horns are so little developed that it SHEEP.
may be said that they are almost absent. In
others they are comparatively large in the male, curving
downwards and not infrequently upwards again. An
THE DOMESTIC SHEEP 311
irritated ram is no mean opponent, and his impetuous
charge will lay low a bull at the first blow.
It is impossible to say from what wild species the domes-
ticated Sheep is derived, as it would be profitless to attempt
to enumerate the breeds, which in every country present
more or less peculiar modifications. Sheep-breeders every-
where aim at producing in their animals either specially fine
wool or meat of superior quality, and in some of even the
common breeds these two features are largely combined.
The covering of the wild Sheep consists chiefly of hair, with
SKELETON OF THE SHEEP.
wool at the roots, much as a coating of down lies beneath
the feathers of some birds. In the course of domestication
the hair has practically disappeared, while the wool has been
developed into the thick, soft fleece that contributes so
largely to the clothing of mankind.
Of all the breeds of Sheep, the Merino of Spain is noted
for the excellence of its wool. Unfortunately the British
climate is unfavourable to its introduction into our own
country, but it has been transferred to many parts of the
world with excellent results. Australia at the time of its
discovery possessed no Sheep of any kind of its own.
3i2 HOOFED ANIMALS
Little more than a century ago a couple of score were
imported into Sydney from India, and later additional
stock was introduced from England and the Cape of Good
Hope; the latter were Merinoes.
There are now in Australia over sixty million sheep, or
about fifteen per head of the population ; whereas in the
British Isles there is not one animal per head. New Zealand
received its first Sheep in 1840, and now there are twenty
millions — chiefly the Southdown breed — on the sheep-
farms of the colony, or over twenty-five per head of the
population. It can readily be seen how wool and mutton
form no inconsiderable share of the wealth of our kindred
across the seas, wealth more assured and enduring than
even the gold that has been mined under the Southern
Cross. The Argentine Republic possesses over seventy
million Sheep, and there are large numbers in America
and South Africa, the Merino breed largely predominating.
Mention may be made of but a few of the best known of
our native breeds, which vary considerably in size and in
the length and quality of their wool. They thrive best in
the drier regions of the east and the chalk and limestone
areas of the south. Elsewhere the animals flourish best on
the easily drained hillsides of the west, and on the southern
uplands of Scotland rather than the plains. As a rule, the
Sheep of the west are reared mainly for food ; in the east
the quality of the wool is a very great consideration. The
humid climate of Ireland is unfavourable to Sheep. The
Southdowns of the chalk hills have rather small heads,
from which horns are absent. They are noted for their
fine, short wool, and they yield more meat than other
animals of anything like similar type. The Norfolk and
Dorset breeds are horned in both sexes. Of the long-
woolled breeds the Cotswold Sheep deserve first mention,
if only for the fact that early in the fifteenth century some
of them were imported into Spain. There they were crossed
with Merinoes, resulting in an improvement even in the
fleeces of the famous Spanish Sheep. Welsh Sheep thrive
on the sparse mountain pastures ; they are small, but noted
for the excellence of their meat. The Cheviot, its location
identified in its name, yields wool of moderate fineness and
THE MOUFLON 313
meat of good quality. The Sheep of the Shetlands and
Orkneys are small and hardy, frequently horned, and vary-
ing in colour from white to black. Their soft, fine wool is
largely mixed with silky hair.
Some breeds of domesticated Sheep have remarkably
broad tails. A Palestine variety (Ovis laticaudatus) pos-
sesses an enormous, heavy, laterally developed tail, which
quite commonly reaches a weight of from ten to forty
pounds, while a weight of sixty or seventy pounds is not
unknown. Similar animals are found in Tartary, Arabia,
Persia, and Barbary. The tip of the tail is horny, and in
many cases trails upon the ground. Very often animals
are supplied by the shepherds with little sledges on which
to support their specially weighty appendages. The fat
tail was a part of the peace-offering as ordained for the
Hebrews (Lev. iii. 9).
MOUFLON (Ovis musimori).
Coloured Plate XX. Fig. i.
The merest glance at the illustration bears out the earlier
remarks concerning the close affinity of the Sheep and
Goats. In appearance the animal is nothing like the
domestic Sheep, yet the Mouflon is only its wild relation
of Corsica and Sardinia. Even if we felt inclined to query
the relationship between the domestic species and this alert-
eyed mountain creature, the animals themselves are in no
doubt upon the matter. A Mouflon will frequently stray
into the valleys and join a flock of tame Sheep, and a
deserted lamb will seek comfort with the Mouflons, if
opportunity is only afforded it.
The Mouflon only stands about thirty inches at the
shoulder, but what it lacks in size is atoned for in vigour,
for it is by no means the rather helpless animal of the
domesticated kind. It is active and agile, springing up
rocky heights with the greatest ease and rapidity ; and so
difficult of approach is it, that only exceptionally good
shots can hope to add it to their bag.
In colour the animal is brownish-grey or foxy red, with
3i4 HOOFED ANIMALS
various streaks upon the body, and the under parts white.
The horns vary from twenty to thirty inches in length. In
summer the hair is close, like that of the deer; in winter
it is rough and wavy, concealing at its roots a fine, white,
woolly down. The young, when first born, are covered
with a soft, grey fleece, which changes into hair as the
animal grows older.
In the warmer parts of the year the Mouflon keeps to
the higher elevations, living chiefly on the young shoots of
Alpine plants; but with the approach of the cold season
the animal descends to the lower slopes and feeds mainly
on grass. It was formerly very abundant, and at one time
as many as four or five hundred animals were killed in a
single drive. Nowadays the herds are only parties number-
ing about half a dozen, consisting of a ram and several
ewes; and a well-organised hunt would not witness the
capture of more than fifty animals.
ARGALI (Ovis ammon).
Coloured Plate XX. Fig. 3.
The Argali, the largest of the wild Sheep, is a handsome
animal found in Mongolia, Eastern Siberia, Tibet, and
Central Asia generally. Any differences in the animals of
these regions are mainly concerned with their size and a
varying twist in their horns. Early naturalists regarded the
Argali and the mouflon as the same species, but comparison
of the two animals figured on the plate appears almost
sufficient in itself to negative the idea.
In summer the animal's smooth coat is a dark greyish-
brown above and whitish below; in winter it assumes a
reddish tinge and the hair is harsher. But the most promi-
nent feature is the great horns, massive and roughly ringed,
curving downwards and then upwards. In the finer speci-
mens the horns attain a length of forty-eight inches, with a
girth of twenty at the base. Even an animal of only average
size carries a weight upon its head of quite forty pounds.
The Argali is less of a wanderer than many other species
of wild Sheep, frequenting the same particular mountain
Plate XX.
1. Mouflon
2. Chamois
3. Argali
VARIOUS WILD SHEEP 315
region, unless there is a failure in the supply of natural
food. It is an extremely hardy animal, even in winter
seldom descending lower than 12,000 feet, at which ele-
vation only lichens are procurable, and even that poor food
is only available in the most exposed situations, where the
icy blasts have swept away the deep snow.
Travellers assert that the Argali can leap from a height of
thirty feet, alighting without the semblance of a stumble.
Inhabiting only the most barren and desolate mountain
regions, the rams in particular are considered to be most
difficult animals to stalk. Not only when they are feeding,
but also when they are sleeping, the Argalis post sentinels ;
and from the very nature of the country it is almost an
impossibility to approach within gunshot without the
animals taking alarm.
There are numerous other species of wild Sheep that call
for only brief attention. The Kamschatkan Wild Sheep
(Ovis nivicola) and the Pamir Wild Sheep (Ovis poli) have
their habitat indicated in their names. This last-named is
also known as Marco Polo's Sheep, so called because the
HORNS OF THE PAMIR SHEEP.
famous traveller was the first to describe the animal. The
Urial (Ovis vignei), a bearded Sheep, is found in the Western
Punjab, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, and part of Persia ;
under the name Sha the same animal extends as far as
Northern Tibet. No other Old World Sheep has so wide
a range.
The Barbary Wild Sheep (Ovis tmgelaphus), Plate
XXIX. Fig. i, or Arui, is the only wild member of the
family found in the whole of Africa. In appearance it
differs from any other species in the possession of very
316 HOOFED ANIMALS
long hair on the chest and fore legs. In one habit at least
it is very unlike any of the foregoing members of the
family. In the face of danger it prefers to hide rather
than take to immediate flight, and as its colour largely
approximates to its ordinary surroundings, so long as it
lies perfectly still, the hunter can perceive it only with the
greatest difficulty.
The Bighorn (Ovis canadensis) is the American Argali,
found chiefly in the Rocky Mountains. It is six inches
higher than the Asiatic species, and possesses much the
same massive horns. It is stated on good authority that
a flock of these animals will not hesitate to leap down a
cliff a hundred and fifty feet in height. Hunters experi-
ence great difficulty in approaching the Bighorn ; but the
Indians fasten horns to their heads, and thus frequently
deceive the animals until they are within shooting distance.
But the Bighorn is getting increasingly rare, and the time
is approaching when hunters, white or red, will cease to
count the animal among their spoils.
FAMILY CAPRA (GOATS).
COMMON GOAT (Copra hircus).
Coloured Plate XVIII. Fig. 4.
In the sheep family, and especially the domesticated
breeds, the horns curve over the side of the face ; but in
the Goats the spiral or curving adornments
appear close together just over the eyes, rising
upwards with a backward sweep, often to a
great length in the males. In some species
the horns are absent in both sexes ; in others
those of the male are quite unlike those of the
female ; and in yet other cases an animal may
possess four horns. It should be noted that
FOOT OF THE ~ ,.
GOAT. m Goats generally the horns are less cylin-
drical than they are in the sheep. Most Goats
are bearded ; and all the males are marked by a peculiar,
almost offensive, odour, which is given off by a scent gland.
THE COMMON GOAT
The common Goat for long ages has been domesticated
for the sake of its flesh and milk, and for its coat, which
is usually less woolly and coarser than that of the sheep.
There is, however, as much diversity in the covering as there
is in the horns. In some kinds the hair is as short as that
of a horse, while in others it nearly reaches the ground. In
colour it may be white or black or any shade between. The
ears may be short and upright, or long and pendent ; and
altogether some of the types are so unlike as to cause one
to doubt that they belong to the same family.
SKELETON OF THE COMMON GOAT.
The domestic Goat is believed to be descended from the
ibex. It was one of the clean beasts, which was permitted
as a sacrifice and for food to the Israelites. Among the
patriarchs large herds of Goats denoted their wealth ; and
in many countries, especially in the East, there are vast
herds that are still a source of wealth and comfort in the
regions they occupy. The same shepherd who looks after
the sheep often also herds the Goats, and they mingle in
their search for food. At night, or when being driven, they
keep apart in separate droves. In such cities as Damascus
3i8 HOOFED ANIMALS
the milkseller drives his Goats through the streets, milking
at the door of the house the particular animal which the
customer prefers.
Although, like the sheep, the Goat will feed upon grass or
hay, it has a decided liking for bark, and is in consequence
best kept where it can work no harm to the trunks of young
trees. Goats have done much to exterminate shrubby
vegetation in Southern Syria, and have thus assisted to
keep the country in a desert condition. Goats were in-
troduced into St. Helena in 1513. The result has been
that the island forests were thinned, involving the total dis-
appearance of many valuable trees, among which was the
ebony.
The Goat is not an important animal in the British Isles ;
in fact, it is little reared anywhere amid cultivated tracts.
In disposition it is more restless, curious, and adventurous
than the sheep, and ordinary fences are useless in restricting
it to any given area ; and consequently goat-herding is only
important where there are tracts of wild land over which
the animals can wander almost at will. There are quite
a dozen species of wild Goat, and of the domesticated kind
there are varieties almost innumerable. A selection of each,
therefore, must serve for the whole family.
ANGORA GOAT (Capra hircus, var.}.
Plate XXX. Fig. 2.
The Angora Goat is one of the most elegant of all the
numerous domesticated varieties. It is usually of a milk-
white colour, and has black, spreading, spirally-twisted
horns and pendulous ears. Its hair, long, wavy, and silky,
is of remarkable fineness, and it covers the body of the
animal in long spiral ringlets. The herdsmen regularly
wash and comb the fleeces to prevent the hair matting
and deteriorating.
The hair was first brought to England under the name
' mohair,' the Turks at first strongly objecting to its expor-
tation. Since that time the Angora Goat has been intro-
duced with remarkable success into the Southern United
THE IBEX 319
States, Australia, and South Africa. The last named exports
hair annually to the value of sometimes as much as three-
quarters of a million pounds sterling. In England the
Yorkshire mills absorb most of the imported raw material,
which is converted into fine shawls, velveteens, braidings,
and trimmings for gentlemen's coats.
KASHMIR GOAT (Capra hircus, var.).
The Kashmir Goat is really most abundant in Tibet and
the Kirghiz steppes region ; but it has been introduced even
into Central Europe. It is a small animal which is highly
prized for its long, fine, silky fleece, which varies in colour
and weight with the altitude at which the Goat is pastured
on the high mountain slopes. In the lowest vales the
animal is nearly pure white ; it takes on a yellowish tinge
in the more elevated regions ; while it is of a bright ochre
colour in the highest altitudes. Below the coarse upper
hair is fine curled wool close to the skin, and it is this
fine material which is converted into the beautiful and
costly shawls for which Kashmir has long been famous. It
is said that an animal only yields three ounces of the finest
wool, and the product of ten Goats is required to make a
shawl one and a half yards square. The fabric is woven by
slow hand processes, a coloured pattern often occupying
four persons for a whole year. British and French machine
weavers now manufacture the closest imitations of the
coveted Kashmir speciality, at a price far less than the
patient Asiatic craftsman can produce them.
IBEX (Capra ibex).
Coloured Plate XXI. Fig. i.
Of the wild Goats the Ibex is the likeliest forbear of the
domesticated species. It is the wild Goat of Europe and
Western Asia, and there are varieties in the Himalaya,
Abyssinia, and Southern Palestine and Arabia. It was this
last named which is believed to have been hunted by Jacob,
when he was in search of venison for his father, Isaac.
32o HOOFED ANIMALS
Of all the varieties the best known is the Ibex of the
European Alps. In one sense it can scarcely be called a
wild Goat nowadays, for it is practically restricted to the
Piedmont side of Monte Rosa, where the Italian Govern-
ment has protected it from complete extermination. Wild
Goats as a rule frequent more rugged country than even the
wild sheep ; the Pamir Sheep is found at a height of 20,000
feet, but even then it is still in comparatively open country.
The Ibex stands about three and a half feet high. Its
rather harsh hair is a deep hoary brown in summer, and
yellowish in winter. To support the thick, short body the
legs are stout and strong ; the fore legs are slightly shorter
than the hind ones, and hence it is better able to ascend
than descend, and in flight always seeks the highest points.
It is wonderfully sure-footed, and can descend clefts, or
1 chimneys ' as they are called, simply by cannoning from
one side to the other.
The horns of the animal, transversely ridged, are quite
two feet long in the male. It used to be believed that when
the Ibex climbed to some inaccessible spot from which it
could not retrace its steps, it gathered its feet together, bent
its chin on its breast, and flung itself off the precipice, falling
on its horns, and bounding from ledge to ledge until it
reached level ground. Suppose this were really so in the
big-horned males, what was to become of the more valuable
females when they were in a like predicament ? Their
smaller horns would certainly be unable to render similar
useful service. It has been clearly proved that the horns
have no preservative uses, a remark which equally applies
to the argali, another animal that was also once connected
with the pretty theory.
The Ibex is shy and wary to a degree. Hunting the
animal is dangerous, not only on account of the precipitous
regions it frequents, but also because when pressed it will
turn on its pursuers with quick impetuosity, with the chance
of a hunter being hurled down some steep declivity. The
female seldom has more than one young at a time. She is
a devoted mother, and will fight even an eagle to the death
in defence of her offspring. When caught young the
animal is easily tamed ; it is, however, rather an unsatis-
PLATE XXX.
I. MUSK OX.
(See page 308)
2. ANGORA GOATS.
(See page 318)
PLATE XXXI.
i. TAHR. 2. MARKHOR.
(Photos W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
ASIATIC GOATS 321
factory pet, usually preferring to spend the greater part
of its time on the roof of the house.
The Himalayan species (Capra sabirica) is a very similar
animal to the Alpine Ibex. A well-grown buck will stand
forty or forty-two inches at the shoulder ; a doe is
usually quite one-third smaller. Horns frequently attain
a length of forty-two inches, though they have been known
to exceed four feet. Frequenting varying altitudes accord-
ing to the season of the year, they are so familiar with the
noise of falling rocks and avalanches that they do not
necessarily take alarm at the sound of a gun ; but let one
of the animals perceive anything suspicious, and it will
issue a warning whistle that will send the herd madly racing
to a place of safety.
MARKHOR (Capra falconeri).
Plate XXXI. Fig. 2.
The Markhor, the king of wild Goats, inhabiting the
North-west of India, Afghanistan, and neighbouring regions,
is larger than the ibex. Its great flattened horns sometimes
exceed five feet in length ; they are twisted, but with only a
few turns. Like the ibex the males have a large black
beard, and in the older animals the long hair is extended
to the chest and shoulders, very much in the same fashion
as the Barbary Sheep. It seeks rocky mountain forests,
and consequently can reach cover more quickly than in the
open mountain country. The Markhor has but little under-
fur, and the cold weather causes it to descend to com-
paratively low regions. An animal in confinement at the
Zoological Gardens, notwithstanding it was hampered
by a heavy chain, always contrived to reach the top of
the wall of its pen.
^TAHR (Hemitragus jemlaicus).
Plate XXXI. Fig. i.
The Tahr, a Himalayan Goat-like animal, is one of
several species that differ in various particulars from the
22
322 HOOFED ANIMALS
true Goats, but especially in the absence of a beard. The
male is generally from three to three and a half feet in
height at the shoulder ; the horns seldom exceed fifteen
inches in length. The doe, a smaller animal, has four
teats instead of two, as in the sheep and other Goats. The
coat is fawn brown in colour, arid is long on the neck,
chest, and shoulders. The home of the Tahr is chiefly in
the elevated forest regions of the Himalaya ; and it fre-
quents such almost inaccessible spots that, when shot, the
animal often falls down precipices, where the hunter cannot
secure his prize.
Other wild Goats are the Pasang (capra czgagrus), a
Persian species, with large scimitar-shaped horns ; the
Spanish Wild Goat (Capra pyrenaica), often mistakenly
called the ibex, which is found in the Pyrenees and the
central mountains of the Iberian Peninsula ; and the Tur,
or Caucasian Wild Goat (Capra cylindricornis), which is
very closely allied to the sheep. But in form and habit
they differ only in unimportant details from the last two
species more fully described.
FAMILY ANTILOPID^ (ANTELOPES).
This great family of the Hollow-horned Ruminants
includes a vast number of animals, some rivalling the
largest oxen in stature, and some being so small that
they are to the Eland and Gemsbok what the toy terrier
is to the mastiff or Newfoundland dog. The majority of
them are medium-sized animals of graceful build and
about the same calibre as the deer. Like the wild sheep
and goats, their flesh is excellent eating, but they only
come within reach of the hunter or the natives of the
regions inhabited by the different species of the family.
The Antelopes are divided and subdivided by zoologists
into many, more or less, complicated sub-families, differing
from each other in many cases in points almost too trivial
for notice in a general survey. In not a few cases it is
difficult to distinguish the animals from oxen on the one
hand and goats on the other. Really, the great family is
THE ANTELOPE FAMILY 323
confined to the Old World, Africa with nearly a hundred
species containing the bulk of it ; in Europe and Asia there
are but a few ; and in North-west America a still less number
of species.
Usually the body of an Antelope is supported on slender
but vigorous limbs, constructed for the utmost speed,
the hinder legs being the longer and the haunches elevated
accordingly. The head, beautiful in contour, is almost
invariably small. The eyes are large, full, and brilliant.
In most cases both sexes have horns, always cylindrical and
set closely together. Many of the horns are marked by
transverse ridges ; some are perfectly straight ; some are
spirally twisted ; and they are hooked backwards or, in few
cases, forwards. There are no upper incisor or canine
teeth, but in the lower jaw are three incisors and one
canine on each side. There are twenty-four molars, six on
each side, top and bottom. The hair is generally sleek and
close.
Practically all the Antelopes inhabit open plains, eating
grass and other vegetable food. They are as fleet as the
wind, and as their speed is their only defence, they are
endowed with sight, hearing, and smell to perfection,
allowing them to perceive the ^approach of enemies while
they are yet at a distance. There are many regions,
particularly in South Africa, where Antelopes once roamed
practically undisturbed, but as these tracts are more and
more opened up to civilisation and human society advances,
the Antelopes retreat to the still further wilds and solitudes.
It is impossible to include many of the different species,
but the following selection may be accepted as typical
representatives of the great Antelope family.
CHAMOIS (Rupicapra tragus}.
Coloured Plate XX. Fig. 2.
The Chamois is sometimes classed with the goats, some-
times with the Antelopes, while some zoologists prefer
to separate it into a distinct group. It may best be
accepted as the only Antelope of Europe, being an inhabi-
tant of the Alps, Carpathians, Greece, and the Caucasus.
324 HOOFED ANIMALS
In size, and especially in the appearance of its head, the
Chamois generally resembles a large common goat. Its
dark brown hair, close, thick, long, and coarse, with an
undercovering of woolly fur, is well calculated to repel cold,
and also to protect the animal against bruises, to which it is
constantly liable. The tint of the head is lighter than that of
the body, except for a dark streak from the eye to the corner
of the mouth. The animal's horns are black, smooth, and
straight for two-thirds of their length of six to ten inches,
when they suddenly curve backwards into a hook. The
hoofs are concave at the base, there being a projecting edge
on the outside admirably adapted to avail itself of any
little unevenness in naked granite or icy glacier. It is said
that the Chamois can gather its four feet together and stand
on a rocky pinnacle the top of which is only the size of a
crown piece.
The Chamois is really a mountain forest dweller, but in
summer, numbers of the animals always resort to the more
open mountain heights and plains, in families or small
flocks of from fifteen to twenty. The hunting of the
Chamois is a most perilous undertaking, always with the
possibility of falling over the brink of a precipice, or of
being buried in some chasm beneath the treacherous
snow.
When feeding upon the herbage of the mountain sides
the herd is always protected by a sentinel, placed on some
adjacent rock which commands a view of every way of
approach. When danger threatens it makes a loud hissing
noise, and off the creatures bound where the eye can mark
no footing, from crag to crag, from point to point ; they
clear the chasm, they sweep over the glacier, they throw
themselves down the precipice, pitching as if by a miracle
on the slightest projection. It naturally follows that to be
successful in his quest the hunter must possess the highest
skill and uncommon powers of endurance.
The skin of the animal is manufactured into a soft,
pliable leather, often called wash or buff leather, which
is exceedingly useful for polishing purposes. More often
than not the so-called Chamois leather was once the cover-
ing of the common goat or the sheep.
THE GAZELLES 325
GAZELLE (Gazella dorcas).
Coloured Plate XXI. Fig. 3.
The Gazelle, of which there are at least a score of species,
is one of the most typical of the Antelopes. One of the
best known is the one figured on the plate. Its specific
name is familiar to all those acquainted with the Scriptures
as that of the ' certain disciple named Tabitha, which by
interpretation is called Dorcas,' i.e., a Gazelle, who was
restored to life by St. Peter (Acts ix. 36, &c.). It has a very
wide range of country — Algeria, Egypt, Palestine, Syria,
and parts of Asia Minor. Under the name of the Roe are
many Biblical allusions to the animal, praising its swiftness,
grace, and gentleness ; and in all ages it has been eulogised
by poetical writers.
The Gazelle, only two feet high at the shoulder, is a
beautifully sleek animal, light fawn colour on the back,
passing into a brown band along the sides, which forms an
abrupt border to the white of the under parts. The hind-
quarters are also mainly white. The face is curiously
marked with two stripes, one dark and one light. Its eyes
are large, soft, and lustrous. Its whole appearance well
harmonises with its customary desert surroundings. The
horns seldom exceed thirteen inches in length. The legs of
the animal are as slender as a reed, by which it is enabled
to skim over the ground almost like a bird, often taking
leaps of a yard in height as it pursues its rapid flight.
Xo wild beast ever attempts to catch it in open chase ; it
can only be struck down by stealing upon it unobserved.
The graceful creature is easily tamed, and is always a great
favourite in Syria.
The Indian Gazelle (Gazella bennetti) ranges through
Central and North-west India, Baluchistan, and Persia.
It is most abundant in absolutely desert regions.
Tame Gazelles readily herd with goats ; and it is no
unusual thing even for wild ones to join a herd of their
own accord. One of the largest of the family is the
Senegal Gazelle (Gazella mohr), which is thirty-two inches
high, with horns over a foot in length.
3*6
HOOFED ANIMALS
SPRINGBOK (Gazella fachore).
This animal is practically the gazelle of South Africa,
gaining its name from its habit of leaping up seven or
eight, or sometimes as many as twelve feet when it is in
full flight. Its specific name means a good dancer. Before
the South African War the animal was found in the north-
west of Cape Colony and the Transvaal ; but the Kalahari
Desert and adjacent regions are where the Springbok is
now found in greatest numbers.
In form and colour and horns the animal closely
resembles the gazelle, though it usually stands six or seven
inches taller. A distinguishing mark of the species is a
line of long white hairs arising
from between a double fold of
the skin along the middle of the
back ; in a state of rest the edges
of the fold lie close, so as to
conceal in a great measure the
snowy stripe ; but as soon as the
animal leaps, the long white patch
becomes visible, and has rather a
startling effect.
The most interesting part of
the history of the Springbok
relates to its occasional migrations from the semi-
desert regions it inhabits, when in a season of drought
no thunderstorms replenish the pools, every green thing
withers, and the whole scene becomes one of barren deso-
lation. Before the settlement of South Africa had made
such progress, and when the Springbok roamed the wilds
in countless thousands, there was no more interesting sight
in the whole of the African continent than a herd of Spring-
boks, driven by necessity to seek more fertile plains whereon
to rear the young fawns.
Gordon Cumming graphically describes the first of these
migrating herds that he had seen, and mentions that for
two hours he watched the herd moving in a solid mass,
measuring at least half a mile in width. These moving
herds are called ' trekbokken/ and they are of such vast
HORNS OF THE SPRINGBOK.
•. : : : -• '• :
•••..• .vsvtv
Plate XXI.
4.\Vaterbuck
THE GEMSBOK 327
dimensions that a lion which has tried to snatch a Spring-
bok out of a herd has been unable to extricate himself, and
in the most humiliating manner has been obliged to march
with the herd, unable even to feed upon any of the animals
which pressed him on every side. A flock of sheep has
also been enveloped in one of these ' trekbokken ' and
carried off.
The ordinary migrations of the Springbok are in an
easterly direction, but at intervals of about twenty years
an opposite course is taken. After existing for months
without water, the animals seem to be impelled to slake a
suddenly tormenting thirst. Only a few years ago there
was a great ' trek ' to the sea, where the creatures drank
greedily and then died in tens of thousands. For many
miles the dead bodies lay along the shore, presently to
putrefy and drive the few inhabitants of the region far
inland for fear of pestilence.
GEMSBOK (Oryx gazella).
There are half a dozen species of the genus Oryx, ranging
throughout many of the desert regions of Africa and extend-
ing into the south-west of Asia, The Gemsbok, one of the
finest of the group, is a South African Antelope, chiefly
roaming the Kalahari region. It stands nearly four feet
high at the shoulder, and is generally about the size of the
domestic ass. In colour it is greyish above, deepening in
shade on the haunches and the upper parts of the limbs,
a black flank stripe separating it from the lighter under
parts. There are distinctive markings on the face, a black
patch appears on the forehead, and similarly coloured stripes
run from the horns, enveloping the eye and reaching nearly
to the muzzle. The long, straight horns, as in some other
species of Antelopes, are sometimes longer in the females
than in the males. For half their length they are very
definitely ringed, after which they proceed to sharp points
that form rather terrible weapons.
The natives of South Africa often asserted that the Gems-
bok was quite independent of water, which was in due
course confirmed by Gordon Cumming, who says that the
328 HOOFED ANIMALS
animal ' thrives and attains high condition in barren regions
where it might be imagined that a locust would not find
subsistence. From my own observation and the repeated
reports both of the Boers and the aborigines, I am con-
vinced it never by any chance tastes water.' This applies
with equal truth to many Antelopes that roam arid regions.
The animals require moisture, which they procure from
various succulent plants that collect and retain whatever
moisture the atmosphere affords. They are chiefly bulbous
plants, one of which is known as the water-root.
The Gemsbok is far less fleet than many of its kind, and
it is frequently run down by means of horses and dogs.
When in extremity the animal is a dangerous foe, for it
lowers its head to the ground and strikes right and left with
wonderful rapidity. Even a lion has been killed by the
Gemsbok, being received on the sharp points of the horns
and pierced through the breast. The Gemsbok's neck was
broken by the shock, and so both animals were killed.
The Oryx proper (Antilope oryx) differs but little from the
foregoing, except that it is six inches less in height, and its
horns, instead of being straight, are bent back into a fine
curve. It is resolute and dangerous if hard pressed, and
when the dogs surround it, not infrequently several will be
wounded before the hunters can come up. It uses its horns
with amazing address and adroitness, and with such violence
as to keep a whole pack at a safe distance.
Differing in only a few trifling particulars is the smaller
Beatrix Antelope (Oryx leucoryx), Plate XXXIII. Fig. 2.
EQUINE ANTELOPE (Hippotragus equinus).
Coloured Plate XXI. Fig. 2.
Very closely allied to the oryx are the Roan and Sable
Antelopes. The Roan, or Equine Antelope of Central South
Africa, is typical of practically any animal included in the
genus. It is a handsome beast, standing nearly five feet
high at the shoulders. The colour of the hair varies con-
siderably ; usually it is more or less roan, but sometimes it
is dark grey or brown. Some brown and white markings on
THE WATERBUCK 3*9
the face are very distinctive. The horns, curving and ridged,
on the average seldom exceed three feet, but in specially
fine animals will run to another half-dozen inches.
The Sable Antelope (Hippotragus niger) is most abundant
in Mashonaland and neighbouring regions, where the herds
number from ten to twenty individuals. There appears to
be no two opinions concerning the striking handsomeness
of the animal. Says Gordon Gumming, ' I shall never
forget the sensation I experienced on beholding a sight so
thrilling to the sportsman's eye ; he stood with a small
troop of palas right in our path, and had, unfortunately,
detected us before we saw him. Shouting to my pack, I
galloped after him ; but the day was close and warm, and
the dogs had lost their spirit. My horse, being an indif-
ferent one, soon lost ground, and the beautiful creature,
gaining a rocky ridge, was quickly beyond my reach, and
vanished for ever from my view. I sought in vain to close
my eyelids that night, for the image of the Sable Antelope
was still before me.'
WATERBUCK (Cobus ellipsiprymnus}.
Coloured Plate XXI. Fig. 4.
The genus Cobus includes various Antelopes, which in
their love of water present a great contrast to the great
majority of the Antelope family. Of these the Water buck
will serve as an excellent example. Standing four feet high
or more at the withers, the animal is principally reddish-
brown in colour, with an elliptical patch of white on the
hindquarters, and small patches of the same colour adorn
the face. The hair is long and coarse. The horns vary
from two to nearly three feet in length along the curve ;
they are slightly lyrate and ringed nearly from their base
to their tips.
The Waterbuck is found in South and Eastern Africa,
especially in the valley of the Zambesi. The animal varies
somewhat in habit in different regions, sometimes frequent-
ing stony uplands, perhaps a mile or more from a river ; in
other cases, as in Nyassaland, selecting swampy plains,
33o HOOFED ANIMALS
where the tall grass and reeds afford plenty of cover. The
animals always make for the water when disturbed. It is a
peculiarity of the Water Antelopes that as long as they can
bottom the water they do not attempt to swim, splashing
along in a series of bounds. Not infrequently they stand
in water up to the tops of their legs, cropping the aquatic
plants. The Sing-Sing (Cobus defassa) is a rather smaller
animal exactly similar in habit, but with long, silky hair.
ELAND ( Taurotragus oryx) .
Coloured Plate XXII. Fig. 2.
The Eland, or Impoofo, is the largest of the Antelopes.
Standing nearly six feet high at the shoulders and with a
length of nine feet, it is more heavily built than any other
of the Antelope family, equalling in bulk the domestic ox.
The Central African variety is pale fawn in colour, but that
of South Africa is a bright yellow tan, as shown in the illus-
tration ; in old age, however, the colour may darken to
bluish grey.
The Eland possesses a well-marked dewlap, which is
fringed with black hair similar to that of the short mane ;
the tail, two and a half feet in length, is well tufted with
brown hair. From the head, light, graceful, and bony,
project two strong, straight horns, usually a couple of
feet in length ; they are twisted in an open spiral. At one
time herds of from fifty to a hundred animals were common,
but except in the more remote districts it is now limited to
small parties. It is doubtful if any specimens remain in
Cape Colony, Natal, Orange River Colony, and the Trans-
vaal ; but it is fairly common in Nyassaland and the Kili-
manjaro region.
The flesh of the Eland is very tender, even when fresh
killed; the skin is highly valued for many purposes, and the
marrow is one of the greatest dainties for which a hunter
can wish. The animal quite commonly weighs twelve
hundred pounds, while old bulls will approach two
thousand pounds ; these heavy animals are rather easily
ridden down. At one time this Antelope was introduced
Plate XXH.
THE GNU 331
into Europe with a view to breeding it for its flesh, but
the animal's ravenous appetite made it an unprofitable
undertaking.
GNU (Connocheetes gnu).
Coloured Plate XXII. Fig. i.
The two species of Gnu are certainly the strangest-
looking of the Antelopes, and they well deserve their
common name 'Wildebeest/ which is gained for them
by their wild manoeuvres as much as by their awkward
and uncouth appearance. In colour, the species figured
on the plate is mainly dark brown, except for the black
mane streaked with white at its base and a long white tail.
There are tufts of hair on the muzzle and under the chin,
together with a ruff of black hair on the neck and extending
to between the fore legs.
This extraordinary animal is equal in height to a small
pony, and its general contour is compact and very muscular.
The head is abnormally large and the eyes are wild and fiery.
The horns, large and ponderous, scarcely advance from the
skull, taking an oblique direction outwards, and then rising
again towards the points, which are long and sharp. The
horns overshadow the animal's eyes, giving it a suspicious
and sinister aspect, and hence another generic name
(Catoblepas), which means ' downlooking.'
The ancient naturalists thought the Wildebeest to be a
hybrid between a horse and a cow, and in travelling
menageries it is generally advertised as the ' Horned
Horse.' It has the odd habit of mixing with zebras,
giraffes, ostriches, &c., in a most miscellaneous herd. The
colour scarlet has for it the most astonishing fascination,
so that when the hunters wish to attract it within rifle-range,
all they have to do is to tie a red cloth to a stick, allow it to
wave in the air, and wait for the Gnu, which cannot resist
the temptation of inspecting the scarlet object. Every now
and then, even in captivity, the Gnu is seized with an ir-
repressible desire to dance, kick, and bark. Accordingly,
down goes its head to the ground, up go its heels into the
air ; then it pretends to toss some enemy to the sky ; then
332 HOOFED ANIMALS
prances up and down like a rocking-horse worked by
machinery ; then executes a series of pirouettes, and all
the time emits a string of sharp, loud barks which can be
heard at a great distance, and, in a menagerie, pierce
through the roars of lions and tigers.
This White-tailed Gnu is strictly a South African animal ;
but there is another species, the Blue or Brindled Gnu
(Connochcetes taurinus), which is more or less common from
the edge of the Kalahari Desert, through the Eastern lake
regions to Kilimanjaro. Thanks to the fact that the Wilde-
beest is as wary as it is tenacious of life, and also that the
flesh is of little value, the native hunters kill fewer of the
animal than of any other species of Antelope. Before the
war it was calculated there were not more than two thousand
Gnus in South Africa ; there are now probably less than
half that number.
NILGAI (Boselaphus tragocamelus) .
Plate XXXII. Fig. 2.
The Nilgai, or Blue Ox of India, standing five feet high
at the shoulders, is the largest of the Asiatic Antelopes. The
females are usually tawny red in colour, while the males are
generally slate blue, the under parts being darker and the
legs nearly black. Very old bulls are nearly quite black.
White lines, one above and one below the fetlock, are
conspicuous marks on the elegantly shaped limbs. The
hind legs are rather shorter than the fore limbs, which
gives the animal a somewhat ungainly appearance, but its
gait, though apparently clumsy, is very rapid. The horns
of the male are short, smooth, and straight ; the female is
hornless.
The Blue Ox, in herds of fifteen to twenty, frequents the
thickly wooded plains or low hills of Central India. It
grazes and browses, and, like the giraffe, seizes leaves and
other food with its tongue, instead of its lips. The animal
is shy and wary, and to effect its capture considerable wood-
craft is necessary. In the open it can be hunted on horse-
back and speared. It is difficult to kill the Nilgai, and
PLATE XXXII.
*
i. YOUNG PRONGHORN
(See Page 333)
.
2. NILGAI ANTELOPE.
(Photos If. S. Bern'ilge, F.Z.S.)
THE PRONGBUCK 333
frequently it will get away, even though shot in several
places. It is dangerous at close quarters, dropping upon
its knees until it is able to make a sudden leap at its enemy.
The animal is not much hunted by the natives, as the
Hindoos class it as a member of the Ox tribe, the flesh of
which is not partaken. The skin is useful, but the horns
are a very insignificant trophy of the chase.
PRONG-HORNED ANTELOPE (Antilocapra americana).
Plate XXXII. Fig. i.
The Prong-Horned Antelope, or Prongbuck, is one of
the very few species found in the New World. The horns
of the animal, as indicated in its name, are branched, and
they are shed every year. In these two respects it differs
from all other of the Hollow-horned Ruminants.
The animal, which in America is often called the Antelope,
pure and simple, is about three feet in height at the
shoulder. Lightly and gracefully built, and carrying its
head high, its coat is chestnut in colour, with the hind-
quarters and under parts white. The face is dark-brownish
with white on the top of the head, the ears, cheeks, and chin.
Across the throat are three bars of russet yellow.
The chief point of interest in the Pronghorn concerns
its horns, which in structure are very similar to those of
the sheep and goats. About a foot in length, they are
flattened from side to side, bending backwards at their
tips. From about the middle of their length is thrown
out a short branch, which is directed outwards. Hunters
frequently asserted that the animal shed its horns ; but it
does not appear to have been accepted as a fact, until an
animal in confinement in the London Zoological Gardens
afforded actual and visible proof of the peculiarity.
Notwithstanding its fine turn of speed, the Prongbuck
is a poor jumper — the result of its prairie life, where
obstacles are few and far between. In districts where the
animal has not been much disturbed it is by no means
a hard matter to get within gun-shot of it ; but it speedily
becomes shy and timid, and taxes the skill of the hunter
334 HOOFED ANIMALS
to the utmost. A well-known naturalist and sportsman
says : ' The ostrich, with his vaunted power of vision, is com-
paratively near-sighted when compared to the Pronghorn.
The giraffe may excel him, not from having superior eyes,
but from their greater elevation, and therefore greater scope.
The deer is simply nowhere in this respect. I never had
any difficulty in getting within two hundred yards of an
ostrich in any decent place ; yet I at first found it difficult
to get within six hundred yards of a Pronghorn, and then
it was invariably a wideawake one, fully able to take care
of himself.'
The flesh of the Pronghorn is excellent, although it bears
a peculiar odour which some people consider unpleasant.
Like many other North American animals, this Antelope is
rapidly approaching the point of extinction, and it is now
only found in the more remote Western regions.
MISCELLANEOUS ANTELOPES.
Of the remaining Antelopes can be briefly mentioned, in
almost haphazard order, only a few that possess some more
or less specially marked characteristic. The Saiga Antelope
(Saiga tatarica) is the only desert Antelope which is found
in Europe, chiefly on the steppes of Russia, from which the
animal extends into Asia. It is about equal in size to the
common goat. The nostrils of the animal are curiously
inflated, giving the head a generally swollen appearance,
more than matching its rather ungainly build.
The Klipspringer (Oreotragus saltator), Plate XXXIII.
Fig. i, prefers rocky ground, as signified in its name,
which means 'rock jumper.' The animal ranges from Cape
Colony through most of East Africa to Abyssinia, in which
regions it traverses even precipices with wonderful activity
and sureness of foot. It is an olive-coloured little animal,
not exceeding two feet in height, with horns only four or
five inches long, which bend forward at their tips. The
skin of the legs, with the little hoof attached, is frequently
used by the Kaffir belles as an anklet or bracelet.
The Kudu (Strepsiceros kudu) roams very much the same
regions as the last-named. It somewhat resembles a
VARIOUS ANTELOPES
335
HORNS OF THE KUDU.
small Eland, though the horns are often much longer than
in the larger animal, some
specimens measuring over
five feet along the curve.
Captain Harris considered it
to be the most majestic in its
carriage of all the Antelopes.
Inhabiting brushwood tracts,
the immense horns would
appear likely to prove a great
hindrance to rapid progress ;
but the animal lays its horns
upon its back and dashes
through the mazes of scrub
growth without difficulty.
Kudu skin is highly prized.
No other thin, tough leather
will make so good a whiplash for the long whips that are
used in oxen team driving, &c.
The Hartebeest (Bubalis caama) is typical of a genus
which includes animals ranging widely separated regions,
all of which, with one or two exceptions, are confined to
Africa, the happy hunting-ground of the Antelope family.
The animal gains its name from its more than remote
resemblance to a stag ; but it is also often called the Cervine
Antelope. It can at once be recognised by the peculiar
form of its horns, which are first curved slightly forwards
and then bent suddenly backwards. Like the Blue Ox of
India, the Hartebeest drops upon its knees to make use of
its horns.
The common Hartebeest is a South African species that is
limited to the regions south of Mashonaland. This animal
is desperately tenacious of life. Even with a broken limb
or a bullet through its body and penetrating a lung, it will
still forge along in front of its pursuer, and not infrequently
make its escape. As the habitat of the Hartebeest is only the
remote desert regions, it is not very likely to die out. This
applies equally to several other species, which are hunted
only with the greatest difficulty, for if the Antelopes con-
cerned can exist without drinking, the horses necessary to
336 HOOFED ANIMALS
engage in the chase of them must be supplied with water,
or else they will die.
The Blesbok (Bubalis albifrons) is a smaller animal, a
brilliantly coated Antelope with hair chiefly of a purple-red
colour, which serves to throw up into greater prominence
the white ' blaze ' down the face. In the neighbourhood of
the Vet River, Gordon Gumming says that he saw ' a purple
mass of graceful Blesboks which extended without a break
as far as the eye could strain.' It is said that the skin of
this Antelope gives off a delicious odour of flowers and
sweet herbs.
The Four-Horned Antelope (Tetraceros quadricornis) is a
small Indian species, almost Hare-like in its habits. The
male is distinguished by the possession of a double pair of
horns. The larger pair, only about four inches in length,
are placed well back on the skull ; the second pair, rising
immediately over the eyes, are only half as long ; in some
cases they are absent altogether or are reduced to mere
excrescences.
The Addax (Addax nasomaculatus) , Plate XXXIV. Fig. 2,
which inhabits the barren sandy deserts of North Africa
and Arabia, is a heavily and long horned animal. It is
largely hunted by the Bedouins, who use horses and grey-
hounds in the chase.
No account of the Antelope family would be complete
without reference to various pretty, graceful little animals,
which have quite whippet-like bodies, supported on rela-
tively long and slender legs. The Pigmy, or Royal,
Antelope (Neotragus pygmceus) of West Africa is less than
a foot in height. Only the males have horns, which are
nearly straight, and either vertical or inclining backwards.
The Dik-Dik Antelopes are almost as small as the fore-
going, but they possess at least two distinctive features.
Their noses are elongated and hairy, and there is usually
a tuft of hair on the crown of the head. There are half a
dozen different species in the north-east of Africa, of which
Phillips's Dik-Dik (Madoqua phillipsi), Plate XXXIV. Fig. i,
serves as an excellent example. The photograph is one-sixth
of the natural size of this tiny Antelope, which is most
popular with visitors to the Zoological Gardens.
PLATE XXXIII.
i. KLIPSPRIXGER.
(See fage 334)
2. BEATRIX ANTELOPE.
(See page 328)
(Photo Autotyfe Company.)
(Photo W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
PLATE XXXIV.
i. DIK-DIK ANTELOPE. 2. ADDAX ANTELOPE.
(See page 336)
(Photo W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
THE TALLEST MAMMAL 337
FAMILY CAMELOPARDALID^E (GIRAFFES).
GIRAFFE (Giraffa camelopardalis).
Coloured Plate XXIII.
The Giraffes are a most singular group of African
ruminants, which appear to occupy a place between the
Hollow-horned Ruminants and the Deer. A noted Swiss
naturalist, in fact, described the animals as ' a most fantastic
form of Deer.' The family name arises from their form and
coloured spots suggesting some resemblance to the camel
and leopard respectively. One writer says that ' a careful
study of its features will discover in the Giraffe a likeness to
the camel, the ox, the deer, the antelope, the goat, and the
ostrich.' The name Giraffe is a corruption of the Arabic
Zaraffa (or Seraph), the literal meaning of which is 'graceful.'
There are at least two species of the Giraffes. The
Southern or Cape species ranges from Bechuanaland to
British East Africa and the Soudan ; the Nubian or
Northern species is found in the Somaliland region and
between Abyssinia and the Nile. There are quite ten
varieties.
The Giraffe is the tallest of all known mammals, the males
attaining a height of as much as nineteen or twenty feet,
while the females range from thirteen to sixteen feet. The
short, deep body is raised on slender, elongated limbs, the
greater elevation of the withers giving the fore legs the
appearance of much greater length than the hind ones, a
difference that is decidedly more apparent than real. On
the chest and knees are pads of thick, hard skin to protect
the animal from abrasions when resting upon rough ground.
The head, splendidly poised at the extremity of the
long, tapering neck, is elegantly moulded and ends in a
singularly narrow muzzle with a well-formed mouth. The
upper lip is long and prehensile. The eyes, soft and gentle
in expression, are large and prominent, affording a specially
wide outlook on every side. The ears are large and pointed,
and the large nostril slits can be closed at will.
The head of the Giraffe, in both sexes, is furnished with
23
338 HOOFED ANIMALS
so-called horns, which in the young animals are not con-
nected with the bones of the skull, gradually becoming fixed
as the animal increases in age. The Giraffe of South Africa
Plate XXIII.
Giraffe
THE GIRAFFE 339
has two horns, but in the northern species there is usually
a third horn in the centre of the forehead. These bony
processes are unlike the horns of any other animal, being
mere knobs or protuberances that might well be the bases
from which true horns might be expected to spring. Neither
velvet nor hollow horns ever appear upon them, but a tuft
of black hair adorns their tips.
Notwithstanding the great length of the neck, it consists
of but seven vertebrae, in which it agrees with what is
practically a law among mammals. It naturally follows
that each vertebra is very long, which makes the neck
not nearly so flexible as its tapering shape would suggest.
Its length allows the animal to browse on the leaves of
trees, especially the acacia, which it prefers before all
others. To match the mobile upper lip the tongue is ex-
ceedingly long, slender, and flexible, so that the animal
can twist it round the leaves, and thus draw them into
its mouth.
This structure of the tongue can be seen to advantage by
placing a lump of sugar on the ground before a Giraffe.
The creature cannot bend its neck, but can only stoop
it from the shoulders in a straight line. By dint of much
straddling with the legs it gets its nose near the ground, and
then, by protruding the tongue and coiling its tip round
the sugar, it succeeds in gaining the coveted dainty. In
the arid regions which it inhabits the Giraffe will find no
opportunity of touching water for several months at a time,
and hence the opinion of Bushmen and earlier travellers
that the animal never drinks at all. Upon this point Mr.
Selous may be quoted. He states that upon one occasion,
a little before sundown, he was 'just in time to see three
tall, graceful Giraffes issue from the forest a little distance
beyond on their way down to the water. It is a curious
sight to watch these long-legged animals drinking. Though
their necks are long, they are not sufficiently so to enable
them to reach the water without straddling their legs wide
apart, this position having to be assumed, not only when
drinking, but likewise when the animal desires to pick up
a leaf from the ground, or on the rare occasions when it
grazes' (Plate XXXV. Fig. i).
340 HOOFED ANIMALS
The hair of the Giraffe is short and close, the ground
colour in the South African species being a creamy fawn,
marked freely with irregular patches varying from lemon-
fawn to brownish black. The Nubian Giraffe is chiefly a
light reddish chestnut, covered with a ,fine network of
tawny lines almost geometrical in design. From the nape
of the neck to the withers is a short and erect mane ; the
tail is furnished with a long black tuft at its tip.
' The Giraffe during flight,' says Andersonn, ' does not
move the limbs of either side alternately, but swings for-
ward the two legs of the same side at the same instant, so
that it is one of the most curious sights imaginable to see
a troop of these animals at full speed, balancing themselves
to and fro, while their long and tapering necks, swaying
backwards and forwards, follow the motion of their
bodies.'
The sweeping, rocking stride of the Giraffe seems to take
it over the ground with very little exertion ; it appears to
sail or glide along almost without any movement of the
legs at all. For the first two miles horses are quite unable
to cope with it, and if the Giraffe can reach mountainous or
rocky country they are still further out of the question.
Though the hoofs are like those of gigantic cattle, they are
quite goat-like in the ease and certainty with which ravines
are cleared. Like the horse, the Giraffe can use its hind-
feet very effectively, and it is said can kill a lion with a
single kick. Hunters give a dying animal a wide berth, for
there is ' little to choose between a kick from it and a blow
from the arm of a windmill.'
Like many other animals that minister to man's neces-
sities, and his still more numerous desires, the Giraffe is
often stated to be within sight of extermination. The
increasing settlement of South Africa has driven the last
remnants of the once numerous herds into the more remote
regions of the Kalahari desert. It is doubtful if in any part
of the continent will ever again be seen a herd of a hundred
and fifty Giraffes, such as Sir Samuel Baker reports that he
encountered ; but nevertheless the animal is yet more than
fairly common in the remote wilds to which it has
retreated.
THE OKAPI 341
The flesh of the Giraffe is excellent, and that of the young
is an especial delicacy ; but it is for its hide, an inch in
thickness, and fetching from ^3 to ^5, that it has been
hunted so mercilessly. He, however, who would now seek
for it must leave the haunts of man and penetrate pathless
wilds, wide and arid wastes, where the lion prowls and
the hyaena and the wild dog hunt their prey. Here man
is the enemy least to be feared ; but the Giraffe often
falls before the lion, though not without resistance. Ren-
dered desperate by necessity, it uses its hoofs as weapons,
and oftener still will it bear away its ferocious antagonist
clinging on, with teeth and talons, before sinking prostrate
in death. Even when happy and active the Giraffe is
strangely mute, and not even in its death-agonies does it
give vent to the slightest sound.
OKAPI (Okapi johnstoni).
Plate XXXIX. Fig. i.
Little is known of the Okapi, which white man had never
seen, alive or dead, until the twentieth century. When
H. M. Stanley journeyed through the great fermenting vat
of Central Africa in his task to relieve Emin Pasha, his
most interesting discovery was the existence of a hitherto
unknown pigmy people in the great Semliki forest between
Uganda and the Congo Free State.
The great explorer maintained that the Semliki region
contained animals that were yet strangers to the naturalist,
and in addition to some new animals that he had seen, the
dwarfs had told him of an animal like an ass which they
captured in pits. Unfortunately the performance of Stanley's
main purpose, and the straits to which he and his com-
panions were reduced, allowed little or no time for natural
history investigations ; and it fell to the lot of Sir Harry
Johnston to put the explorer's statement to the proof some
eleven years later, when he undertook to escort home a
party of pigmies whom the authorities had prevented being
taken to Europe for exhibition purposes.
When Sir Harry Johnston questioned the dwarfs con-
342 HOOFED ANIMALS
earning the animal, they gave him to understand that the
creature was like a mule with a zebra's skin. Arriving at a
European station, the Belgian officers admitted that they
had seen some such animal, but only when dead, after it
had been brought in by natives ; more than that, some of
the native troops were wearing strips of the animal's skin as
bandoliers. Some of these pieces of skin were presented
to Sir Harry Johnston, who promptly assumed that the
animal must be some species of horse, which was also the
opinion of leading naturalists at home to whom the speci-
mens of skin were sent. A little later Sir Harry revised his
opinion, for though he could not get a glimpse of an animal
the natives were able to show him its tracks, and the marks
were not unlike those of the eland.
Eventually were procured a couple of skulls and a com-
plete skin, which was set up and exhibited in the Natural
History Museum, South Kensington, and it remains one of
the very few specimens yet in existence in any collection.
The stuffed skin shows an extraordinary beast, suggesting
a link between the giraffe and the antelope. Though
evidently an immature animal, it stands five feet high at
the shoulder, and there is little doubt that the full-grown
Okapi is six, or even seven, feet in height. The body is a
rich, glossy purplish brown in colour, the legs, hind-
quarters, and sides of the head being white, while there are
black bands on the thighs, with a perpendicular black band
running down the front of the leg to join another broad
band of black above the hoof, which has two toes like those
of the giraffe. The legs are clean and slender and the
hoofs neat, with every indication that the creature is of
great speed. The adult male has two short curved bare
horns just above the eyes, which again appear to mark
the Okapi as a cousin to the giraffe.
SOLID-HORNED RUMINANTS.
FAMILY CERVID^E (DEER).
The family Cervidae consists of at least a score of species
and a far greater number of varieties, including a multitude
of antelope-like creatures, many of them of graceful form,
PLATE XXXV.
i GIRAFFE.
(See page 339)
2. SWAMP DEER.
(See page 363)
(Photos W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
PLATE XXXVI.
ANTLERS OF THE RED DEER: i. IN VELVET. 2. ROYAL HART.
THE DEER FAMILY 343
elastic step, and animated expression. Unlike the antelopes,
the Deer are never found in desert regions : they are chiefly
inhabitants of grass jungles and forests. They are very
widely distributed, being found in Europe, Asia, and
America ; in Africa they are restricted to the North, and in
America the species are fewer than in the Old World.
Some of the Deer are among the noblest animals on
earth ; their limbs are slender, strong, and sinewy, usually
fitted with well-developed lateral hoofs ; their necks are
tapering and swanlike ; their heads are held high, and
the males are almost invariably garnished with antlers.
There is considerable variety of colouring in the coats of
Deer, different shades of brown predominating. With the
exception of a very few species, the Elk, Reindeer, and
Sambar among them, nearly all young Deer have their
coats spotted with white, or else horizontal stripes of the
same colour. In a few cases these markings remain as a
permanent adornment, and in others the variation reappears
only at more or less regular periods.
In very many particulars the Deer follow pretty closely
the Hollow-horned Ruminants, but on account of their
antlers the males of the former, at least, are easily distin-
guished from the other Ruminants, the single exception
being provided by the female Reindeer, which is antlered
like the male animal.
Antlers differ widely from horns in their composition,
consisting of genuine bone, solid throughout, generally
more or less branched, and cast every year.
The production, loss, and renewal of the antlers of the
Deer are among the most remarkable wonders of animal
physiology. Upon the young animal's skull, covered by
nearly smooth dark skin, are two slight protuberances, the
foundations whence future antlers are to arise. In spring
the skin around the knobs upon the forehead becomes hot
and swollen, owing to a large quantity of blood being
directed to the spot. The arteries and veins of the skin
become greatly enlarged and deposit bony matter on the
skull with great rapidity. The young antler, still enveloped
in skin, which is called the ' velvet/ grows quickly, the
arteries and veins following its course (Plate XXXVI.).
344 HOOFED ANIMALS
When the antler has attained its full year's growth, it
would be useless if surrounded by the sensitive velvet, which
would bleed harmfully if wounded. At the base of each
antler there is a circular ridge or burr. As the burr is
formed it narrows the grooves in which the arteries lie and
gradually cuts off the supply of blood. The skin, thus
deprived of the life-giving fluid, shrivels and dries up, when
the Deer gets rid of it by rubbing the antlers against tree-
trunks. While in velvet the animal is very inoffensive,
taking the greatest care of its headgear.
So much for the growth of the antlers, but now for the
reason of their annual renewal. The Deer live in small
families, each family consisting of several females and one
male. In order to ensure that the offspring shall be strong
and healthy, the males always have to fight for their wives,
the latter cheerfully becoming the property of the victor.
Often in combat an antler is broken, and if there were no
means of repairing the loss, the animal would be per-
manently disabled and unable to fight, just when he was
at his best. The rapidity with which so large an amount of
bony matter is deposited is really wonderful. The antlers
of the Wapiti, for example, weigh as much as sixty pounds.
They begin to grow in February, and are complete in Sep-
tember. How the head and neck become accustomed to
the great weight is rather mysterious. Especially is this
the case with the Moose, whose broad antlers are of
enormous proportional weight ; and in the great Irish Elk
now extinct, they weighed more than the whole skeleton.
Deer feed chiefly on the leaves of young trees and shrubs,
grasses, weeds, and fungi of various kinds. In autumn fallen
fruits, nuts, acorns, &c., afford the animals almost unlimited
provender. Deer flesh, or venison, both of wild and
domesticated animals, is wholesome and nutritious. Deer
skin can be dressed as soft as that of the chamois ; and the
excellence of doe-skin gloves is too well known to need
special description.
Considering their usefulness, it is remarkable that civilised
man has not domesticated the Deer tribe more largely. It
has been left to the Laplander to show by means of the
Reindeer how largely Deer of many kinds might minister
THE RED DEER 345
to man's appetite and comfort. From the very earliest
times Deer were viewed chiefly through the eyes of the
sportsman, and stringent game laws prevented the commoner
people taking any practical interest in them.
In Britain there are comparatively few Deer ; the Red
and the Roe Deer are found wild in Scotland and a few
other districts ; and semi-domesticated Fallow Deer adorn
many parks up and down the country. Upon various estates
are small herds of imported foreign species that easily
become acclimatised, and thrive so well as to make it a
matter of regret that so little has been done in this direction.
In the royal forests, and on the estates of the princes and
rich feudal lords of Germany, Austria, and Russia are
great herds of Red, Fallow, and other species. In some of
the great hunting-parties organised by the Kaiser it is no
uncommon thing for two hundred head of Deer to mark
the result of a single day's sport.
Deer may be classified according to their tail, feet, or
antlers. The best known species easily fall into the
following : —
Short-tailed Deer.— Red Deer, Wapiti, Elk, Reindeer,
Sambar, Swamp Deer, Schomburgk's Deer, Roe Deer,
Virginian Deer, and Chinese Elaphure.
Long-tailed Deer. — Fallow Deer, Manchurian and Japanese
Deer, Hog Deer, and Axis Deer.
Of the many species of Deer can be selected but a few of
the most typical representatives, but the particulars con-
cerning them will include the chief interesting facts con-
nected with the life-history of most of this large assemblage
of species. For convenience' sake we take them more or
less in regional groups, rather than follow in strictly
scientific order.
RED DEER (Cervus elaphus).
Coloured Plate XXIV. Fig. i.
Before cultivation had extended so thoroughly over Great
Britain the Red Deer abounded in great numbers. It was
protected by the severest laws ; deer-stealers were accounted
346 HOOFED ANIMALS
criminals of the deepest dye ; but men in defiance of laws
and edicts ' bent their bows and lived upon the chase/ and
such as Robin Hood and William of Cloudesley were
accounted as national heroes, whose names have been
handed down to posterity in many a stirring ballad.
The Red Deer belongs to the Elaphine group, which
contains the grandest and most typical species of the whole
family. It still exists in a wild state in Exmoor Forest ;
in Scotland north of the Firths of Forth and Clyde, and in
various of the western islands ; and in Kerry and Conne-
mara in Ireland. It abounds in South Germany, Austria,
Poland, and the Danubian States. It is not only scarcer in
Scandinavia, but is a smaller animal. It is also found in
the Caucasus, Asia Minor, and the temperate regions of
Siberia, where it attains a greater size than in Europe.
The Barbary Deer is but the African variety of the Red
species. Thanks to the Prince Consort, the Red Deer was
introduced into New Zealand for purposes of sport with
excellent results, for it there exceeds in size any of the
Deer of the British Islands.
A well-grown stag stands quite four feet high at the
withers, the hind being four or five inches less. Its body-
colour is a rich red-brown, the neck more thickly coated
and inclining to a greyish tint ; and there is a yellowish-
white patch on the buttocks. In winter the covering is
longer and greyer. A stag in its short shiny coat, and
carrying a pair of well-curved symmetrical antlers, is in
summer the lordliest of our native animals.
A description of the various stages in the growth of the
antlers of the Red Deer will apply more or less to all the
Cervine family. The fawn or calf is usually born early in
June, and the young male animal or ' Knobber,' as it is called,
puts forth its first simple antlers in the following spring.
They are straight, conical, and unbranched, and the young
Deer's name is changed to that of ' Brocket.' About the
end of February in the following year the Brocket sheds its
antlers. The new antler rapidly makes its appearance, and
is found to have received an addition in the shape of a
brow tine, while the beam itself remains as last year, except
that it is larger and stronger. The two-year-old hart is
Plate XXIV.
3. Roe Deer
THE RED DEER 347
now known as a ' Spayad/ The next year the beam throws
out an extra front branch called the ' tres ' tine ; and in the
fourth year the 'bez' tine appears just above the brow tine,
and at the same time the top of the main beam bifurcates
into the ' sur-royals.' The four-year-old male is called a
'Staggard.' In succeeding years the whole antler of the
'Stag' is not only larger, but the sur-royals increase,
breaking out in a series of snags forming something like a
cup, until is reached the full adult, a ' Royal Hart/ with
antlers three feet long, weighing as much as seventy pounds,
and possessing from a dozen to forty 'points (Plate XXXVI.)
In Scotland a stag with the latter number would be
accounted a specially fine animal, but in Central Europe
are found magnificent harts with as many as sixty-six points,
and quite doubling in weight the twenty to thirty stone of
the finest Scotch stags, such as are found in the woodlands
of Perthshire. The great animals of Southern Germany
and Austria belong to the estates of the monarchs and
rich feudal lords, and the Deer raid the growing crops of
the agriculturist with more freedom than would be per-
mitted in Britain, and are thus fed up into splendid
specimens of their tribe.
Phosphate of lime is the chief ingredient in the Deer's
antler. Just as with our domestic poultry it is necessary for
them to eat in some form the lime which strengthens the
shell of the egg, so the Deer, if it be meant to produce a
good pair of antlers, must have access to some source
whence lime can be obtained. If hens cannot obtain the
necessary mineral substance they will eat even their own
eggs, and so, after the antlers have been shed, the male Deer
commences to eat them. That a Deer with its little mouth,
feeble jaws, graminivorous teeth, and ruminating stomach,
should attempt to eat shed bone, which would try even the
jaws and teeth of a hyaena, seems sufficiently absurd. But,
nevertheless, the Deer does contrive, by patient gnawing, to
assimilate every particle of a shed antler, in the absence of
which it will take to a bone, and treat it in the same way.
Thus we can account for the fact that, even in districts
where the Deer tribe abound, it is seldom the case that a
stray antler can be found after the lapse of a few weeks.
348 HOOFED ANIMALS
The Red Deer is gregarious, but the males and females
keep apart except during the pairing season, which com-
mences about the end of September, when the herds break
up into a number of families, each consisting of several
females and one male. At this period the harts become
dangerous, which is one of the reasons why Red Deer are
seldom chosen to roam in a semi-domesticated state in
parks and other places frequented by foot passengers.
Even in captivity the hart can seldom be approached with
safety. In the forests and uplands the males engage in
savage conflicts, antlers are frequently broken, and some-
times they get interlocked, and can only be released by a
forester.
The hind usually conceals her fawn in the heather, where
the little creature will lie motionless until one nearly steps
upon it. Though the mother is apparently absent, she is
within sight of her offspring, and will rush to guard it
against a wild cat, fox, or other hungry carnivore.
In Scotland the Red Deer is killed chiefly by driving or
stalking ; but with rifles of long range and the utmost pre-
cision the chase is not so arduous as it was in olden times.
Being a capital swimmer, a stag, when hard pressed, will
take to either lake or stream in the hope of defeating the
pursuing hounds, which are chiefly used in the chase in
Devonshire. It is a stirring sight to see a stag at bay
upon a rock in the midst of the water, making angry
sweeps with his antlers that bid a whole pack give pause,
until, alas ! the fatal rifle-shot puts an end to the gallant
struggle.
In Devonshire no less than two hundred and seventy-five
Deer were killed in the five years ending 1892; but since that
time the numbers of the Deer increased to such an extent
as to cause an outcry on the part of the farmers, whose
crops suffered from the ravages of the roaming herds. In
1905 as many as three hundred and seventy Deer were
killed by the five packs of hounds that hunt the Exmoor
and adjacent districts, which did something towards
reducing the numbers of the Deer to reasonable pro-
portions.
Let it be granted that there may be two opinions con-
THE FALLOW DEER 349
cerning the cruelty inseparably attached to hunting the
wild Red Deer for purposes of sport. But there can be
no palliation of the brutal practice as followed in some
of the southern counties, where the quarry consists of a
frightened and only half-wild animal, turned out of a box
just previously to the commencement of the hunt. Very
often, too, when the animal has been run down, it is
rescued from the hounds only to provide sport upon
another occasion.
FALLOW DEER (Cervus dama).
Coloured Plate XXV. Fig. 3.
The familiar Fallow Deer, which is so ornamental an
inhabitant of many parks and pleasure-grounds, easily
accommodates itself to domesticated ways, and becomes
much more tame than the generality of sheep. At the
time of year, however, when the males are doing battle
for their partners, they consider any living creature as a
rival, and attack it furiously. It is as well to keep out of
their way until they have settled all their households, as
even the keeper who feeds them becomes an object
of suspicion.
The Fallow Deer is said to have been introduced into
Britain by the Romans. It probably died out in later
times, and James I. is sometimes credited with having
reintroduced it from Norway. In all probability the
original habitat of this species of Deer was the shores of
the Mediterranean, but in any case Fallow Deer existed
in Windsor Park quite one and a quarter centuries before
James came to the throne.
Smaller and more slender than the Red Deer, a full-
grown fallow buck rarely exceeds three feet in height at
the withers. Its head is short and broad, and it has a
tail six or seven inches long. In both sexes the colour of
the coat in summer is fawn or yellowish-brown, marked all
over above with large white spots. In winter the spots
nearly completely disappear, and the colour becomes
more sombre, taking on a greyish tint. The Fallow
350 HOOFED ANIMALS
Deer of Epping Forest are not spotted, and, singularly
enough, the fawns are of the same dark brown colour as
their parents.
A special feature of the antlers is the manner in which
the upper portions flatten or palmate — i.e., they take on the
shape of a hand (Lat., palma, a palm). Twenty to twenty-
seven inches is a good length of antler, and there is no
record of one as long as thirty inches. The male up to its
sixth year takes a fresh name each season with the annual
change in its spreading crest. A fawn is antlerless. The
' Pricket ' possesses simple snags, to which the ' Sorrel ' adds
two front branches a year later. In the next season the
increasing antler shows a slight amount of palmation,
the animal becoming a ' Buck of the first lead ' in its fifth
year, and a Buck complete in its sixth. A well-grown
animal will turn the scale at two hundred pounds.
The Fallow Deer has to be supplied with hay and corn
in winter, owing to living in enclosed tracts where its
natural food is limited and soon exhausted. It is par-
ticularly fond of horse-chestnuts, for which reason this
tree is largely planted in deer parks.
On February 8, 1899, a pack of hounds chased a Red
Hind into Pixton Park, where they ran it down and killed.
The dogs then fell upon a herd of tame Fallow Deer, of
which they killed seventeen before the huntsmen could
come up to stop the slaughter.
The extinct Irish Elk is supposed to have been only a
species of the common Fallow Deer. In County Water-
ford has been dug up a pair of antlers, the right one of
which measured six feet on the inside, while the left one
was four inches shorter. From tip to tip the spread just
exceeded nine feet. The chase of an animal so immense
must have furnished rare excitement, when one re-
members the clumsy weapons with which primitive man
was provided. The Irish Elk roamed over Great Britain
as well as over a great portion of the Continent.
The Fallow Deer of Mesopotamia is not only a larger
animal, but is more brightly coloured, and there is less
palmation of the antlers, which are more vertical and
spreading.
THE ROE DEER 35'
EOE DEEE (Capreolus caprea)
Coloured Plate XXIV. Fig. 3.
This elegant and active Deer is the smallest of the Euro-
pean species, even an adult buck being little more than two
feet high at the shoulder, and weighing only about sixty
pounds. The Roe Deer is a native of the British Isles, but
is also found in many parts of Europe between the Baltic
Sea and almost as far South as Spain and Italy ; and
from the Caucasus it extends into Persia. In
Asia it is of larger size than elsewhere. In
Britain the Roe Deer is now found in a wild
state only in the Highlands of Scotland,
except for a few scattered herds in Blackmoor
Vale, Dorset, and Epping Forest. In many
English parks are herds of semi-domesticated
animals.
In summer the coarse and stiff hair of the
Roe Deer is a dark reddish-brown, with a
white haunch patch ; in winter the colour
is grey with a tinge of yellow. Normally,
the nine-inch-long antler possesses but three
points, each taking a year to grow ; but not
infrequently there are a number of other ill-
formed and irregular tines. While in the stag
the antlers are shed early in spring and BOXES OF
renewed with the advance of summer, those T^ROE°DEER.
of the Roe Deer are shed by the end of
December and renewed by the following February. No
antler has been found to exceed thirteen inches in length ;
but it has been known to prove a sufficient weapon to
kill a man. Sometimes there is a third antler in the middle,
and at rare intervals a hind is found in possession of
antlers.
Wild, shy, and cautious, the Roe Deer generally frequents
woods, where it lives in small companies of a pair and
their young, which often number two at a birth, though
three is by no means a rarity. The spots on the coat of
the fawn fade away towards the end of its first year. In
352 HOOFED ANIMALS
one particular at least the Roebuck is unlike others of his
kind; he never forsakes his mate.
When hunted, this Deer is said to endeavour to elude its
pursuers by the most subtle artifices : it repeatedly returns
upon its former steps till, by various windings, it has quite
confounded the scent. The cunning animal then, by a
sudden spring, bounds to one side, and, lying close down,
permits hounds to pass quite near without offering to stir.
The Roe Deer can never be perfectly tamed. Even in
captivity it retains most of its natural wildness, refusing
even to become friendly with the one at whose hand it
feeds. In hunting the Roe Deer in Scotland the animals
are frequently driven to the guns, which are often loaded
with shot instead of ball cartridge. One notable day's bag
in Inverness-shire consisted of sixty-five bucks and thirteen
hinds. On the Continent this species of Deer is still more
abundant, and in Austria over sixty-eight thousand have
fallen to the hunters in a single year.
ELK (A Ices macklis).
Coloured Plate XXVI. Fig. i.
The Elk or Moose, huge and ungainly, is the giant of the
Deer tribe, attaining a height of from six to nearly eight
feet, and weighing as much as fourteen hundred pounds.
Fossil remains prove that the animal existed in the British
Isles some ten thousand years ago. It now inhabits the
extreme North of Europe and the cold regions of Asia
and North America, being commonest in the last-named.
There are only a few strictly preserved animals in the
north of Scandinavia and various parts of European
Russia ; in Siberia it is more numerous. In the middle
of the last century this great Deer was common throughout
the north of the New World, but reckless hunting for the
sake of its hide has greatly diminished its numbers.
Labrador and the basin of the Lower Mackenzie are
now the chief hunting-grounds, and there the Govern-
ment restricts the slaughter, and only permits fair sporting
methods of capture.
THE ELK 353
The Elk is remarkable for its huge, broadly palmated,
shovel-shaped antlers, the upper portions forming concave
sheets of bony tissue, roughly measuring forty inches in
length and half as much in width. They attain their full
length, varying from three to five feet, in about five years,
after which they increase in breadth and weight until the
animal is ten or more years old. The coat of the animal
consists of harsh, brittle, close-set hair, in colour a dark
reddish-brown, varying to yellowish grey ; and in winter
there is a plentiful under-fur. The neck is covered with
longer hair, forming a ruff underneath.
It is the manner in which the Elk carries its short, thick
neck, outstretched at a lower angle than
the withers, that gives the animal its
awkward appearance, which the greater
length of the fore legs does nothing to
lessen. The upper lip is rather singu-
larly developed, forming a great muffle,
as it is called. This mobile extension
is particularly useful in browsing upon
the leaves of trees, which the Elk
prefers to grazing. The muffle, when
cooked, is considered to be the best part
of the animal.
While running, the Elk makes a
singular clattering sound at each step. UNDER ^^ ELK>S
This is caused by the structure of its HOOF.
hoofs, which are so modified that when
the foot rests with its weight upon the ground, the hoofs
separate widely, so as to present a large surface on which
so heavy an animal can be borne. As it raises its foot from
the ground the two halves of the hoof fall together and
so cause the characteristic clatter, which has been com-
pared to the sound of castanets.
In habit the Moose is generally an almost solitary animal ;
it is seldom that more than one at a time is seen except in
the pairing season, or when the female is still accompanied
by her young. Upon rare occasions a bull will remain
with the old and young females. Wary in the extreme, and
ready to detect the pres.^ce of man by hearing, scent, or
24
354 HOOFED ANIMALS
sight, the Moose does not yield itself an easy prey, but
taxes the resources of the hunter to the utmost. If, for
example, a hunter should come within a mile of a Moose,
and allow the wind to blow from him to the Deer, the
animal will scent him at once and make off with
immense strides, greatly accelerating its usual high
shambling trot. Trappers and hunters assert that even
amid the most furious tempest, the snapping of a twig by
human hand or foot will be detected by the cautious and
suspicious animal, causing it to be additionally watchful
for hours afterwards.
There is, in fact, only one part of the year in which the
Moose can be hunted openly. When the snow is deep, and
a sharp frost has covered it with a thin crust, the Moose-
hunter rejoices. He puts on his snow-shoes, and by their
aid skims lightly over the frozen surface. He then boldly
gives chase to the Moose, which, by reason of its great weight,
breaks through the ice-crust and sinks beyond its knees at
every step. By driving the animal incessantly through this
treacherous snow, the hunter tires it so effectually that
when he comes up with it the Moose has no strength left
wherewith to resist. But even at such a time it is necessary
for the hunter to exercise caution, for if he approach too
near, the animal will turn upon its pursuer, leap upon him,
and trample him underfoot.
On firm ground the Moose is a most formidable anta-
gonist, using not only its horns but its feet with terrible
effect. In face of an injured and infuriated animal a
hunter will sometimes shelter himself behind a tree, and in
its efforts to reach its foe the enraged Moose will completely
strip the bark from the trunk by striking vicious blows with
its forefeet.
The wily Red Indian stalks the Moose with marvellous
skill. Selecting a place of concealment, upon a birch-bark
pipe he gives the call of the cow Moose with a fidelity
that completely deceives the bull. With a bellow of
defiance to all other males, the bull comes crashing
through the forest, and all unsuspectingly offers itself as
a fair mark to the artful red man, who reaps the reward
of his ruse.
Plate XXVI.
l.Elk
2. Reindeer
THE CARIBOU 355
REINDEER {Rangifer tarandus).
Coloured Plate XXVI. Fig. 2.
Just as the Prong-horned Antelope affords an exception
to the otherwise universal rule that the hollow-horned
ruminants do not shed their horns, so the Reindeer is an
exception to the rule that in the solid-horned ruminants the
antlers belong only to the male. In the Reindeer both
sexes have antlers, though those of the male, often nearly
five feet in length, are quite unlike those of the female. In
both cases the antlers originate further behind the eyes than
in most of the Deer tribe. In the males are particularly
noticeable the brow tines, which are palmated in a
special degree well over the animal's face. This share-like
expansion, larger in one tine than the other, forms a useful
tool with which to burrow in the snow in search of lichens,
mosses, &c. The antlers of the female are smaller,
slenderer, and with less palmation. Really, Reindeer antlers
are seldom exactly alike in any two animals, and often in
the same animal the two antlers differ widely from each
other.
The Reindeer is found in the Arctic regions of Europe,
Asia, and America, and though it differs considerably in
size in different regions, there is a consensus of opinion
that there is really but one species. In America, the
Caribou, as the Reindeer is called, is smaller in the barren
lands of the North than it is in the more southern wood-
land region. In Europe, as late as the sixteenth century, the
Reindeer existed in Poland ; in the time of Julius Caesar it
was found in the Black Forest, and in still earlier periods as
far South as the Pyrenees. Nowadays it does not extend
further South than the northern shore of the Baltic Sea.
The Reindeer possesses a characteristic Deer-like form,
with a stout heavy neck and short limbs, the whole build
denoting considerable power. . The feet are marked by the
wide cleft and the well-developed lateral hoofs, as in the elk.
An American buck of the larger variety stands about four
and a half feet high at the withers, and an exceptionally fine
animal will weigh four hundred pounds. Dark brown,
356 HOOFED ANIMALS
tending to grey, is the prevailing colour ; the face, neck,
and throat are whitish, and there is a white band round
each fetlock. There is, however, considerable variation
in tint in individuals, and in winter the almost crimped and
wavy hair is always lighter, in some cases nearly white.
The under-coat of woolly fur renders the skin especially
valuable for clothing and other coverings in the Arctic
regions.
Concerning the habits of the wild Reindeer compara-
tively little is accurately known. Baron Nordenskiold
closely observed it in Spitzbergen, in which desolate region
herds of Reindeer are very numerous. Owing to the
nature of its habitat the Reindeer is of necessity a migrant.
In the short summer the animal seeks the ice-free grassy
valleys, withdrawing in the autumn to the sea-coast, where
its food is chiefly seaweed. In winter it retires to the high
lands in the interior, where it can find a living on the
lichens and mosses. In America the northern variety
migrates southwards in winter to the woodland regions ; in
spring a plague of gnats and gadflies drives the animals
back to the colder uplands.
Of the various animals which man has domesticated,
some, as the ox, sheep, horse, and the dog, have spread over
the globe, and, particularly in company with the white
man, prosper and thrive thousands of miles away from their
original habitat. Others again, of undoubted utility,
remain bound to certain latitudes, isolated regions, where,
with a nature accordingly adapted, their services are invalu-
able— thus are the camel for the arid deserts of the East,
the llama for the snow-clad Cordilleras, and the Reindeer
for the hills and plains of Lapland.
Various tribes of Indians would be unable to exist in the
Arctic portions of British North America were it not for
the immense herds of Caribou. Of the antlers they form
fish spears and hooks, and, previous to the introduction of
European iron, ice-chisels and various other tools were
likewise made of them. From the hide is made soft and
pliable leather, and when sixty or seventy skins are sewed
together, they make a tent sufficient for the residence of
a large family. The shin-bone of the Deer, split so as to
THE REINDEER 357
present a sharp edge, is the knife that is used to remove the
hair in the process of making the leather.
The undressed hide is cut into thongs of varying thick-
ness, which are twisted into deer-snares, bow-strings, net
lines, and, in fact, supply all the purposes of rope ; the finer
thongs are used in the manufacture of fishing-nets, or
in working snow-shoes, while the tendons of the dorsal
muscles are split into fine and excellent sewing thread.
Nor is the Reindeer less useful as food, but the Indians
never attempted its domestication, regarding it solely as
a beast of the chase.
In Northern Asia the Reindeer is used as a beast of
burden, but it is in Lapland that the value of the animal
is most appreciated. On the Reindeer the Laplanders
depend almost wholly for their means of life. It is too
valuable for them to feed largely upon its flesh, but they
make much use of its milk, and, besides, it is beyond all
price as a beast of transport, either as carrying burdens or
as drawing the sledge.
Among the Laps, the Reindeer is the only wealth, and
is to them what cattle are to the Kaffir tribes of South
Africa. Happy the man who possesses a herd of a thousand
Reindeer, as he thereby becomes a chief among his fellows,
very much as was the case in the old patriarchal times, with
the herds of camels and oxen and flocks of sheep. As
Reindeer do not thrive except in company, those who
possess only a few unite them into one herd, each marking
his own animals. A herd of five hundred antlered Reindeer
collected together at milking-time must present a striking
sight, in full accordance with the wild, romantic scenery;
nor can it fail to bring to mind scenes of a similar character
in the days when the patriarchs were shepherds, and Kings
were called from the fold.
But for the Reindeer the Laplander would be cut off
from communication with other peoples during a great part
of the year. The sledge is a light vehicle, running not on
wheels, but on flat runners. The Reindeer is yoked to it by
a collar, and guided by reins attached to its antlers ; and
with a load of several hundred pounds the animal will trot
over the glazed snow at the rate of ten miles an hour, a
358 HOOFED ANIMALS
journey of a hundred and fifty miles in nineteen hours being
by no means uncommon. At the palace of Drotningholm,
in Sweden, is a portrait of a Reindeer which, upon an
occasion of great emergency, drew an officer with important
despatches the incredible distance of eight hundred miles in
forty-eight hours.
The Lapland Reindeer is a smaller animal than that of
America, the male averaging only about four feet in height.
Attempts have been made to naturalise this Deer in the
British Isles. Herds have been placed among the moun-
tains of Scotland and Ireland, as well as in parks and heaths
in England ; but every experiment has failed, the animals
sickening and dying in comparatively very short periods.
WAPITI (Cervus canadensis).
Plate XXXVII.
The Wapiti is the Red Deer of the New World, where
at one time it ranged from Mexico as far North as the
Great Slave Lake. With the advance of civilisation this
noble Deer has retreated, until in greatly decreased numbers
it is now found chiefly only in the Cascade and Rocky
ranges and adjacent coast elevations, the mountains of
Vancouver Island, and in the forested regions of the
North-west territories of British North America.
The Wapiti, or Elk, as hunters often erroneously call it,
is a considerably bigger animal than the British Red
Deer, to which it is closely related. Only the moose
exceeds it in size, a fine male standing from five to five
and a half feet high, with antlers measuring as much as
five feet in length, the brown beams with white burnished
tips completing a superb head, perhaps second to none
in the animal world. Even in captivity in the Zoo the
antlers of the Wapiti weigh about forty pounds.
The neck of the animal is strong ; the limbs clean
and finely knit; and the whole figure displays great
power and vigour. The coat differs from that of the Red
Deer, being creamy grey for the most part, darkening
into brown on the head and neck. The legs are brown,
PLATE XXXVII.
HEAD OF A WAPITI.
PLATE XXXVIII.
T. SAMBUR. 2. AXIS DEER.
(SlY fifl& 362)
(Pliolos II'. S. Herri ilgc, F.Z.S.)
THE WAPITI 359
and the white patch on the hindquarters is edged with
black.
A fight between two male Wapitis is one of the sternest
struggles imaginable. When an animal intends to dis-
pute the supremacy of the leader of a herd he gives
vent to a loud whistle of defiance, which is promptly
answered by a similar cry of the angry leader, and the
animals meet with a clash of the antlers that can be
heard for a considerable distance. Bellowing and grinding
their teeth, with lowered heads they stalk round each
other, advancing, retreating, and feinting until there is
an opening for a charge. Even in the mildest contest
ugly wounds are given and antlers are frequently broken.
Sometimes, too, the antlers of the enraged animals inter-
lock, and both combatants perish miserably of hunger, or
become the easy prey of the bear, coyote, or other
beast of prey.
The hind in defence of her fawn exhibits the utmost
courage, offering a stout resistance to hungry carnivores,
while she utters a loud cry which summons to her
assistance all of the herd in the near vicinity, and then
all join furiously in beating off the foe. The young
fawn, when discovered in the thicket where the hind has
hidden it, will feign death with limbs as limp as possible,
only forgetting to close its eyes to complete the illusion.
The flesh of the Wapiti is said to be perhaps more
nutritious than that of any other Deer ; and its skin
makes the most valuable leather, preserving its suppleness
even after being saturated with water, on which account
it is always prized by the native Indians. The red
man hunts the Wapiti by forming a cordon of mounted
men around a herd, detaching selected animals and then
riding them down to a standstill ; or sometimes a whole
herd would be driven over a precipice. In more modern
times, however, the rifle is most frequently employed, for
the Wapiti is by no means difficult to approach, and a
shot in any part of the body is usually sufficient to lay
the big animal low. The Indians not infrequently keep
the animal in captivity, using it as a beast of burden and
for draught purposes.
HOOFED ANIMALS
The Altai and the Manchurian Wapiti of Asia are very
similar animals, less in bulk, but with antlers bigger in
proportion. These Deer appear to agree with the sugges-
tion that the American Wapiti originally reached the New
World from Asia by way of Bering Strait.
MISCELLANEOUS AMERICAN DEER.
The Elk, Reindeer, and Wapiti are in many respects
allied to different species in the Old World ; but the
remaining Deer of the New World show marked differ-
ences in the construction of the skull and in the shape
of the antlers. There are no brow tines, and the beams
consist either of simple spikes or branches of a fork-like
character. The chief species are the following : —
The Virginian, or
White-tailed Deer (Cariacus
virginianus) is by far the
commonest Deer of North
America, different varieties
ranging throughout the
United States from Mexico
to Canada. It is a grace-
ful animal, slightly smaller
than the Fallow Deer,
with a coat of reddish
yellow in summer and
light grey in winter. The
antlers differ a great deal
in the several varieties, but
the front prong of the
main fork is generally
better developed than the hinder one.
The animal is shy and timid, and as it is extremely
speedy and an excellent swimmer, its capture is by no
means easy. A well-known hunter describes it as ' an
exasperating little beast/ in whose haunts the sportsman on
foot must needs almost crawl if he wish to bag his quarry.
Often the Deer make their home in cane-grass seven feet
high, through which the hunters ride on horseback, driving
ANTLERS OF THE VIRGINIAN DEER.
VARIOUS AMERICAN DEER 361
before them the animals, which dash away in a series of
leaps, in which they show their backs above the tall grass.
Mr. Selous states that he shot one when it was quite six
feet off the ground.
The Mule Deer (Cariacus macrotis), found in the Missouri
basin and in the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains,
is slightly larger than the Virginian Deer. Its distinguish-
ing features are the enormous size of its ears and its great
double-pronged antlers, which attain a length of over two
and a half feet, with a span of nearly forty inches. In
summer, when its coat is thinly haired, the Mule Deer
retreats to very near the snow line to avoid tormenting flies.
The Pampas Deer (Cariacus campestris), as implied in its
name, is a South American species with a coat of reddish -
brown, glossy hair. The antler boasts of but three points,
the two at the extremity being far more developed than the
tine midway along the beam. When a hind and her fawn
are approached by an enemy — hounds, for example— the
mother and the young one adopt an extraordinary method
to secure their safety. The fawn will dash away at the
top of its speed for perhaps a distance of over half a mile,
where it will lie down in concealment. Meantime the
mother stands still until the dogs are close upon her,
when she too sets off, but in an opposite direction to
that taken by the fawn. She will at times slacken her
speed, and even assume a limping gait, all the while
enticing the pursuers from the original starting-point.
At length she will increase her speed, and, working round
to rejoin her fawn, will often get clear away from the
hunters.
The Brockets, of which there are several species in the
northern portion of South America, are small animals
from one and three-quarters to two and a quarter feet in
height. The antlers of the full-grown male consist only
of simple spikes, such as are carried by the Red Deer in
its first year.
The little Venada, or Pudu Deer (Pudua humilis), with
its rounded head and rather large ears, is not much larger
than the common hare. Its antlers are but two tiny
spikes. The home of the animal is in the Chilian Andes.
362 HOOFED ANIMALS
ASIATIC DEER.
AXIS DEER (Cervus axis).
Plate XXXVIII. Fig. 2.
The Axis, or Spotted Deer, of India and Ceylon, about the
size of the Fallow Deer, though varying somewhat in
colour in different regions, is generally a rich golden brown,
with a dark stripe along the back and a white streak across
the haunches. The chief feature of the animal's coat are
the large white spots, arranged in almost longitudinal lines,
making the Axis, or Chital, as it is called, one of the most
beautiful of the Deer tribe.
One might suppose this spotted coat would make the
Chital a conspicuous mark for the hunter. The opposite,
however, is the case ; for the covering harmonises with
dead vegetation and the flecks of sunlight passing through
the dense foliage. The three-tined antlers often exceed
three feet in length.
The Axis Deer breeds naturally in October, but in English
and French parks, into which the animal has been success-
fully introduced, the birth of a fawn at such a time would
expose the young animal to the severe weather of winter.
It is a singular provision of nature that the acclimatised
animals do not give birth to their young until June — that
is, about the same time as the Deer among which they
have been introduced.
SAMBAR (Cervus unicolor).
Plate XXXVIII. Fig. i.
The Sambar, or Gerow, is the largest of the Rusine group
of Deer, the antlers of which consist of a brow tine and
a simple bifurcation of the beam. It is a woodland animal
that is widely distributed in India and the south-east of Asia.
The finest representative of a number of similar animals,
the Sambar is the largest of the true Deer, outside the
Elaphine group, of which the Red Deer is the most con-
THE SAM BAR 363
spicuous example. A fine Sambar varies from four to five
feet in height at the withers, and attains a weight of as
much as seven hundred pounds.
The general colour of the rather shaggy, wiry hair is a
deep brown, but of rather a yellowish tint in the female.
Among the Indian Deer the fawn of the Sambar is the
only one that is unspotted. The antler consists of a
brow tine followed by a roughly ridged beam from three to
four feet in length, breaking into two fairly equal snags at
the top. Save for their size, and the fact that the long
brow tines curve sharply upwards, the antlers of the
Sambar are similar to those of the Spayad or Red Deer in
its third year. It is said that in some cases the stags do
not shed their antlers for two or three years.
The Sambar is nocturnal in habit, frequenting jungly,
wooded hills, seldom in herds greater than a dozen, except
in the pairing season. It is quite remarkably tenacious of
life, and it is only when struck by a shot in one of a few
vital spots that the animal falls in its tracks. It is usually
stalked or beaten, but in Ceylon Sir Samuel Baker used
hounds to run it down. In the chase of a fine buck he
describes how ' the whole pack was around him; but not
a hound had a chance with him, and he repeatedly charged
in among them, and regularly drove them before him,
sending any single hound spinning whenever he came
within his range.' When the hunter broke cover within a
few yards of the quarry ' his mane was bristled up, his
nostril was distended/ as he commenced carefully to pick
his way along narrow precipices with the whole pack in
single file at his heels. The thrilling hunt continued, the
buck leaping across some boiling rapids, only to alight
upon a steep crag, from which he fell into the torrent, into
which some of the dogs also rolled over in a confused
mass. The Deer escaped, and at length reached a platform
from which it could not proceed, while the pack prevented
the animal returning upon its tracks. He made a dash into
the pack, striking out with his horns and his forefeet, and
then sprang into the abyss below, at the bottom of which
he was afterwards found with all his bones broken.
A somewhat similar animal is the Swamp Deer, or
HOOFED ANIMALS
Barasingha (Cervus duvuacelli), Plate XXXV. Fig. 2,
though there is a difference in the antlers. The brow tine,
about a foot in length, extends
almost at right angles instead of
sharply upwards, and the prongs
of the bifurcation again divide.
The bucks attain a weight of from
thirty to forty stone.
In Schomburgk's Deer (Cervus
schomburgki) the antlers are very
similar in formation, except that
the beam is shorter and the for-
ward prong considerably smaller
than the hind one.
Eld's Deer (Cervus eldi) pos-
sesses a very distinctive antler.
The brow tine bends down over
the forehead and then upwards to
form a well curved hook. The
beam does not bifurcate until very
near the top, where the short fork
breaks out into perhaps eight or even more points. The
length of the antler may be anything from forty inches to
very nearly five feet.
The food of Eld's Deer is mainly grass, but if a herd
finds its way into the paddy fields the agriculturist is left
lamenting. In habits these Deer 'are very wary and
difficult to approach, especially the males. They are also
very timid and easily startled ; the males, however, when
wounded and brought to bay with dogs, get very savage
and charge vigorously. On being disturbed they invariably
make for the open. ... It commences by giving three or
four bounds like the Axis, or Spotted Deer, and afterwards
settles down into a long trot, which it will keep up for six
or seven miles on end.'
The Burmese formerly hunted Eld's Deer on a large
scale, the men of neighbouring villages combining to
'encircle three or four moderate-sized herds with long
strings, upon which plantain leaves were tied so as to
flutter in the wind. . . . The Deer, afraid to pass the scare-
ANTLERS OF
SCHOMBURGK'S DEER.
VARIOUS ASIATIC DEER 365
crows, got gradually driven together, until they were com-
pletely surrounded and at the mercy of the hunters.' One
battue often resulted in the capture of two hundred deer ;
and as the species was likely to be exterminated the
Government forbade methods of wholesale slaughter.
MUNTJAO (Cervulus muntjac}.
Coloured Plate XXIV. Fig. 2.
The Muntjacs form a group of small and elegant Deer,
often called Jungle Sheep, which are found in India, Burma,
the Malay Peninsula, and some of the larger islands of the
Indo-Malayan Archipelago. The diminutive antlers are
simple in character, and take their rise from bony, skin-
covered knobs, not at all unlike the horns of the giraffe.
Commencing below the eyes are two elongated ridges
running obliquely downwards, V-shaped, gaining for the
animal the name of Rib-faced Deer.
The Indian Muntjac, or Barking Deer, so called from its
peculiar cry, is the best known of the five different species.
In size it is less than the Roe Deer, being but two feet
in height and weighing only about twenty-eight pounds.
It is one of the most beautiful animals of its race.
Its hair, of a dark-reddish fawn colour, is close and shiny ;
its limbs are slender and agile ; and its eyes are large and
brilliant. The antlers, only five or six inches in length,
consist of but the undivided beam and a brow tine.
The Kakar, as the animal is frequently called, is a hill-
dweller, rarely being seen on the plains. It can make its
way at a great speed through the densest jungle, and, owing
to the difficulty of getting anything like a sure aim, hunters
use a charge of shot in preference to a bullet. By means of
rather long tusks in the upper jaw the bucks frequently gash
pursuing hounds severely.
There are numerous other Asiatic Deer, of which only
briefest mention of several may be made. The Sika, or
Japanese Deer (Cervus sika), is common in Japan and
Northern China. In colour it is a beautiful brilliant chest-
366 HOOFED ANIMALS
nut, thickly spotted with white. When in velvet the antlers
are a bright chestnut red with black tips, giving the bucks a
strikingly handsome appearance. This animal has been
introduced into many English deer-parks. The males are
small but strong, and often carry off the hinds of the Red
Deer in face of the bigger red bucks.
The Chinese Water Deer (Hydropotes inermis) frequents
the beds of rushes along river banks. Even the bucks
possess no antlers. Strangely enough, John Chinaman does
not care for the flesh of the animal, and consequently
it exists in rather large numbers. The Water Deer is an
adept at concealment ; in the park at Woburn Abbey, where
the Duke of Bedford keeps many specimens of foreign deer,
it is often difficult to discover the animal even in a grass
paddock.
The Chinese Elaphure, or David's Deer (Cervus davi-
dianus), is practically only found in the Imperial hunting
park at Pekin, where M. David, a French naturalist, first saw
it from over the wall in 1865. Four years later a pair was
obtained for the Zoological Gardens in Regent's Park. The
antlers of the Elaphure are unlike those of any other Deer.
The beam ascends very abruptly, throwing off very near to
the base a back tine of enormous length. The Chinese call
it the Sze-poo-seang, which signifies ' Like none of the
Four,' i.e., the animal resembles neither the horse, cow,
deer, nor goat.
MUSK DEEB (Moschus moschiferus).
Coloured Plate XXV. Fig. i.
The Musk Deer of Central Asia, and the Himalayan
region in particular, was long one of the accredited wonders
of the animal kingdom. It so differs in various particulars
from any other of the Deer, that some naturalists prefer to
view it as forming a distinct family of its own. The absence
of antlers in both sexes is not wholly a distinctive charac-
teristic. Three special peculiarities are not external. The
Musk Deer is the only one of the Cervine family that
possesses no gall-bladder to the liver, which is so common a
THE MUSK DEER 367
feature in the Bovine family ; it has a simpler form of brain
than in any other Deer ; and the musk, from which the
animal derives its name, is secreted in an abdominal pouch,
technically named the pod. When it is first removed from
the animal the odour is so overpowering that the dealers
are obliged to envelop their nostrils in cloths, lest bleeding
at the nose should ensue. The musk is not only valuable
for perfumery purposes, but it also possesses useful
medicinal qualities.
The dentition of the Musk Deer calls for notice, in that
the canine teeth of the upper jaw are so greatly developed
that they remind the
observer somewhat of
those of the young wal-
rus, being sometimes
three inches in length.
At one time it was be-
lieved that these tusks
were intended to insure
the animal's safety, and SKULL OF THE MUSK DEER.
that when it was hunted
and could not escape from the hounds it sprang into the
boughs of the nearest tree, hooked its tusks upon a branch,
and hung there until the hounds had passed by and lost
the scent. With increasing knowledge this pretty fiction
became entirely exploded.
The feet of the Musk Deer are quite distinctive, the hoofs
being widely cleft, while the large lateral hoofs are almost
equal to claws. The animal is almost, if not quite, as sure-
footed as the chamois, ascending and descending the most
frightful precipices with the greatest ease. It inhabits
the loftiest mountain ranges, its favourite haunts being the
pine forests, although in summer it goes much higher than
the region of pines. It is nocturnal in habit, in addition
to which it is exceedingly timid. Little wonder that before
the invention of long-range rifles the capture of an adult
male was an event in a hunter's life.
Standing from twenty to twenty-four inches in height, the
Musk Deer is about the size of the Roe Deer, but it is much
more clumsily built. It is covered with long, coarse brittle
368 HOOFED ANIMALS
hair, varying in colour from a rich dark brown to a mixture
of brown and whitish yellow.
Though it is a watchful and timid animal, the natives of
these wild regions contrive to capture the Musk Deer in a
manner at once easy and profitable. On the ridges which
separate the valleys frequented by the animals they erect
fences, with gaps at intervals, in which traps are concealed
in the ground. Rather than jump over the obstruction the
animals elect to pass through the gaps, in the course of
which they tread upon a bough that releases a noose to
entangle the feet. At intervals the trappers collect the
snared animals and reset the traps.
'No animal/ says Captain Kinloch, ' seems more in-
different to cold, from which it is protected by its thick
coat of hollow hair, which forms as it were a sort of
cushion, which acts as an insulator, and enables the Deer
to lie even on snow without much loss of animal heat. It
is amazingly active and surefooted, bounding along without
hesitation over the steepest and most dangerous ground.
Its usual food seems to be leaves, but the natives say that
it will eat snakes.'
Plate XXVH.
2. Camel
Chapter XI
ORDER VI.— UNGULATA
Sub-Order 4.— ARTIODACTYLA (continued)
GROUP IL—TRAGULINA (CHEVROTAINS).
GROUP IIL—TYLOPADA (CAMELS).
GROUP IV.—SUINA (SWINE-LIKE ANIMALS).
Group II. Tragulina : The Chevrotains — Kan-
chil. Group III. Tylopada: General descrip-
tion—Arabian Camel — Bactrian Camel— Llama
— Alpaca — Guanaco — Vicuna. Group IV.
Suina : Wild Boar — Domestic Swine — Baby-
russa — Wart Hog — Peccary — Hippopotamus.
CHAPTER XI
Order VI. — Ungulata
Sub-Order 4.— ARTIODACTYLA (continued)
GROUP II.—TRAGULINA.
FAMILY TRAGULID^E.
THIS group, known as the Chevrotains, Deerlets, or
Mouse Deer, consists of diminutive, graceful, deer-
like animals, possessing certain well-defined characteristics
that well separate them from the true deer. They have
no antlers, the upper jaw is furnished with long canine
tusks, and each foot has four well-developed digits, approxi-
mating somewhat to those of the pig. The family really
appears to form a link between the deer and the swine.
There are half a dozen species of Chevrotains, the Water
Chevrotain (Dorcatherium aquaticum) of West Africa being
the only one that is found outside the continent of Asia.
KANCHIL (Tragulus pygmaus).
Coloured Plate XXV. Fig. 2.
The Kanchil, or Pigmy Musk Deer, is a native of Java
and various adjacent islands. It is a very small animal,
with a body only about as big as a hare or rabbit. Its
legs are slender and but little thicker than a blacklead
pencil. Little over a foot in height and measuring but
eighteen inches in length, except for the ten-inch high
371
372
HOOFED ANIMALS
Royal, or Pigmy, Antelope (see p. 336) of the Guinea
coast, it is the smallest of the Ungulates. The colour of its
rather fine hair is chiefly greyish above, brightening to a
reddish tint on the sides, with a broad dark stripe along
the back of the neck, and a band running up the chest.
It is difficult to discover the timid animal in grass or
jungle. The Kanchil can feign death with a cleverness
second only to the opossum itself. Caught in a noose
or other trap, the animal will exhibit not the faintest sign of
life until it is released from the snare while the hunter resets
his trap. The clever animal-actor often seizes the oppor-
tunity to dart away into the jungle before an effort can be
made to defeat its purpose.
GROUP III.—TYLOPADA (CAMELS AND
LLAMAS).
Derived from two Greek words, the first meaning a
knot or callus and the second a foot, 'Tylopada' thus
signifies feet that are covered with hardened skin instead of
being furnished with hoofs. There are but a few species
in this group, and they are confined to the deserts of Africa
and Asia and the Andes regions of South America. They
are hornless animals. Un-
like other Ruminants, they
possess incisor teeth in the
upper jaw and canines in
both jaws. The Camel has
six upper and five lower
cheek teeth on each side ;
the Llama has only five
upper ones on each side.
There is a marked differ-
ence between the feet of the
Camel and the Llama. In the former the two toes are
elongated and furnished with soft pads like cushions,
which spread out and enable the animal to tread the loose
sand without sinking or slipping. In the Llama the two
toes still retain their length, but the pads are only slightly
developed, giving place to two sharp and hard little hoofs
FOOT OF THE CAMEL.
THE CAMEL
373
that are of great service in assisting their owner to make
good progress over rocky ground.
In the stomach of the animals of this group there are
only three compartments, the first and second (paunch and
reticulum) of which are fitted with a collection of cells for
storage of as much as a gallon and a half of water, upon
which the animal can draw at will. Another common
feature of the Tylopada group rests in the fact that the
bones of the animals are quite ivory-like in character.
FAMILY CAMELIDj®.
ARABIAN CAMEL (Camelus dromedarius).
Plate XXXIX. Fig. 2.
The One-Humped Camel is the true Arabian species, a
large, ungainly-looking animal, nearly seven feet long and
standing seven feet high at the shoulder, or
about nine feet to the top of the head. Apart
from the hump, the back of the animal is long
and arched, and the head is set on a long
curved neck. In colour the coat of soft, woolly
hair is generally reddish grey, though darker
and even quite black animals are not unknown.
Pads of hard skin take the place of hair on
the chest and leg joints, which points would
otherwise suffer when the Camel kneels or
lies down.
The ears of the animal are small and rounded,
and the eyes are protected by large eyelids and
eyebrows ; the large nostrils can be closed at
will. The eyes and nose are thus capable of
being protected during the terrible sandstorms
that are common in the desert. The lips are
mobile, and the upper one is cleft like that of
the hare, the better to take hold of food to draw
it into the mouth. The Camel is a ruminant,
but nevertheless it has incisor teeth in the front of the
upper jaw, but in the adults only a single pair remains.
BONES OF
FORE FOOT
OF
THE CAMEL.
374
HOOFED ANIMALS
The legs of the Camel are long and slender, notwith-
standing which their looseness gives them a flabby and
rather straggling appearance. Reference has already been
made to the cushioned feet of the animal, which specially
adapt it for traversing sandy deserts. It is often stated that
the Camel is quite unfitted for walking on hilly or stony
ground ; but the Camels of Sinai can pick their way with
remarkable celerity amongst boulders and in rocky places
that would often puzzle a mountain pony.
On wet and slippery roads the Camel is simply helpless,
and is very apt to dislocate its hind legs. They slide
asunder on a treacherous surface, and the animal is unable
to bring them back ; and the result is that the weight of the
body, to say nothing of
am.
a burden, forces the
bones out of their
sockets, and nothing
can be done with the
unfortunate creature
but destroy it.
The qualities which
make the Camel in-
valuable in desert
regions are its powers
as a pack animal and
of subsisting with little
food and absolutely no
drink for comparatively long periods. It can dispense
with water without discomfort for several days, but in
face of dire necessity it can exist as long as ten days,
travelling during the whole of that period and carrying a
fairly heavy load. It sometimes happens that when the
water contained in the skin bags of the travellers is ex-
hausted, a Camel is sacrificed for the sake of the liquid
which remains unconsumed in the stomach.
Often the Camel saves the caravan from destruction by
the exercise of its faculty of scenting water at a great
distance, bending its course directly towards it, and even
going to the length of breaking its halter if the driver fail to
understand the animal's instinctive knowledge.
WATER CELLS OF THE STOMACH OF THE
CAMEL.
PLATE XXXIX.
i. OKAPI.
(Sec page 341)
2. DROMEDARY.
(Photo IP. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
THE CAMEL 375
The hump or ' bunch ' on the back was at one time
popularly supposed to be the water reservoir, whereas
it is composed of fatty cells which form a reserve of food.
There is something analogous to this in the hibernating
animals, which are always particularly fat when they
retire, and extremely lean when they make their reappear-
ance after their long sleep. In the case of the Camel the
store of fat is restricted to the hump, which is fat and plump
when the animal is well fed and lightly worked, shrinking
almost to nothing in a trying journey during which food is
scarce.
In Arabia there is at least a score of different breeds,
but for all practical purposes they are either baggage animals
or fast riding Camels, which last are usually known as
Dromedaries. Small animals are loaded up to eight hun-
dred pounds and large ones up to half a ton, with which
they will move along at the rate of two and a half or three
miles an hour. A good Dromedary, such as the swift breed,
the Heirie, will travel eight miles an hour and keep up that
pace for a long time ; seventy or eighty miles a day will
be maintained for successive days, totalling in some cases
a distance of six hundred and thirty miles in five days.
In their figurative language the Arabs describe the
capabilities of their fast Camel couriers thus : ' When
thou shalt meet a heirie and say to the rider, Salem alic
(Peace be between us), ere he shall have answered thee,
Alic salem (There is peace between us), he will be far off
and nearly out of sight, for his swiftness is like the
wind.'
The Arabian Camel is found not only in Arabia but
Syria, Asia Minor, Persia, Afghanistan, and India; and it
is common in Egypt and Northern Africa generally. It has
been introduced among other places into the South of
Europe, United States, and Australia. In the New World
it was not a success, and the few animals in Italy are very
inferior to those on the other side of the Mediterranean ;
but in Australia the Camel has proved invaluable in the
desert regions, and the thorough exploration of the interior
would have been practically impossible without it.
Though the Camel is used in harness as a draught animal
376 HOOFED ANIMALS
and in agricultural labour such as ploughing and harrow-
ing, it is as a beast of burden that it renders inestimable
service. The internal trade of desert countries would be
impossible without this ' ship of the desert.' In North
Africa, for example, caravans of Camels, sometimes to the
number of a thousand, regularly cross the terrible ocean of
sand, the great Sahara, to and from the coast regions ; or
traverse the burning wastes of Arabia just as at the time
when Joseph was sold to ' a company of Ishmaelites from
Gilead with their camels, bearing spicery and balm and
myrrh, going to carry it down into Egypt.' Caravan Camels
are those of the largest kind. With only a single feed of
beans during the day, or a handful of dates or small balls
of barley meal, with perhaps occasionally the dry and thorny
plants found at some points in the desert routes, the animal
forges along without exhaustion or even the desire for
better fare.
Nor is the Camel of less importance to the wandering
Arab than he is to the merchant. He loads it with his
tents, his wealth, and his family, and traverses the ever-
moving sands from one oasis to another. An astonishing
load can be piled upon a Camel — bales on the back,
panniers at the sides, or children in a bag on one side,
a young camel in a bag or net on the other. A mixed
collection of merchandise, waterskins, and cooking utensils,
all are carried with submissive docility.
Notwithstanding its extreme usefulness the Camel is one
of the least intelligent of animals. Unlike most mammals,
it has no instinctive notion of swimming ; it has the greatest
possible aversion to water ; and when fording a river under
compulsion, should it happen to lose its footing, it will
simply roll over and allow itself to drown. It is, too, quite
devoid of sympathy, and never comes to an understanding
with its master, such as a dog or a horse naturally acquires.
Patience it may possess, but it is the patience of stupidity,
and there is no knowing when the animal will not change
it for an unmovable obstinacy and an exhibition of a most
vicious temper, to which the bitten arm or shoulder of a
driver often bears painful testimony. Its revengeful dis-
position is always a positive danger, and in this respect it
THE CAMEL 377
perhaps shows intelligence in an undesirable direction, as
evidenced in the following incident : —
A Camel, working in an oil-mill, was beaten by the
driver. For several months the animal gave no sign that it
bore ill-will for the punishment. One moonlight night the
man, while sleeping in an unaccustomed spot, awoke in
time to perceive the animal steal softly to a heap of clothes
that bore some resemblance to his own sleeping figure.
With the greatest fury the Camel threw itself upon them,
rolling with all its weight and tearing them to rags with its
teeth. When it had completed its work of destruction the
driver spoke to the animal, and such was its chagrin at the
failure of its purpose that, in a fit of uncontrollable rage, it
dashed its head against the wall and died on the spot.
Riding a Camel is an unpleasant and even painful process
for a beginner. The action of the animal as it first gains
its feet is singularly discomposing. The saddle has two
upright wooden horns, between which the rider sits. When
he is seated and the Camel released, the animal suddenly
plunges upwards with its forequarters, so as to place its feet
on the ground. Almost before the rider has recovered from
the shock, the hindquarters are elevated with similar quick-
ness, so that a novice has all the breath knocked out of him
by alternate contact with the two horns. And then comes
the monotonous back-breaking jolt as the Camel swings
along on the two legs of one side at a time, not adding
to the comfort of the inexperienced rider by its habit of
snatching at intervals at any tempting thorn or green
branch in its path. The Camel is not bitted, but guided
by a string attached to a noose fitted tightly round the nose.
To say it is guided is a mere figure of speech, for it is
difficult to direct the animal in any way except that which
it proposes to follow.
The Camel is to the Arab what the reindeer is to the
Eskimo. Not only does he use it for burden, but he feeds
almost wholly on the thick, rich milk, mixed with meal ; the
tents in which he lives, and the great mantle, or burnous,
which he wears— such as was worn by Elijah, and be-
queathed to Elisha — are made of the Camel's hair, of which
it is despoiled annually. The skin is valuable for many
378 HOOFED ANIMALS
purposes ; of it are made tents, shields, harness, saddles,
trunks, &c.
Of the real history of the Camel little is known. Whether
Asiatic or African, there is no record of a Camel that was
not the property and the servant of man from the time
when Abraham possessed oxen, asses, and Camels (Gen.
xii. 16), or when the sons of Reuben took from the Hagar-
ites when "they were delivered unto their hands, of their
Camels fifty thousand." The Beni Sakkar Arabs, who
now dwell in the Hagarites' country, are said to possess a
hundred thousand Camels ; and the sheikh of the Anazeh,
one of the foremost Bedouin tribes, can put into the field
ten thousand horsemen and ninety thousand Camel-drivers.
BACTRIAN CAMEL (Camelus bactrianus).
Coloured Plate XXVII. Fig. 2.
The Bactrian Camel, inhabiting the desert regions of
Central Asia, is recognised at once by its double hump. It
is a heavier animal, and its legs are shorter and its hair
longer than in the foregoing species. The legs in particular
render it better fitted for traversing rocky regions than its
Arabian relative. In habits and disposition the Bactrian
Camel is very similar to that of Arabia, and to the nomads
of Central Asia it is every whit as important from an
economic point of view. The Persians use it for their cele-
brated Camel artillery, a light swivel-gun being mounted
on the saddle and worked by the rider.
In the Gobi Desert are wild Camels that are supposed to
be the descendants of domesticated animals which have
escaped from captivity. Over two centuries ago a rather
populous district, Taka Makun by name, was swept by
a devastating sandstorm. It is said that not a single human
being escaped, but probably some of the Camels survived,
and it is from these animals that the present wild ones took
their rise. They are exceedingly difficult to capture, for in
the deep, loose sand of these regions horses are quite help-
less in the chase.
NEW WORLD CAMELS 379
LLAMA (Lama glamd].
Coloured Plate XXVII. Fig. i.
Of the genus Llama there are four species, two wild
and two domesticated, but strictly speaking the title is
confined to the latter. Though they are smaller in size,
lighter in build, and without the hump of the Camels
of the Old World, they are all formed on much the same
model, yet at the same time fitted for a very different life.
Instead of being natives of flat and sandy ground, they are
inhabitants of the lofty and snow-clad mountains of Peru
and Chili, traversing them with an agility little inferior to that
of the chamois by means of the two
sharp, hard hoofs that take the place
of the small nails which are quite
sufficient for the Camel.
The ancient Peruvians domesticated
the wild Guanaco, from which in the
course of time they bred two distinct
varieties, viz., the true Llama, as figured
on the Plate, which was used as a beast
of burden, and the smaller Alpaca,
domesticated in a less degree mainly
for the sake of its wool. Both animals FOOT OF THE LLAMA.
vary considerably in colour, being
white, or white marked with brown or black, and sometimes
completely brown or black.
Standing from three to four feet in height, and very much
resembling a long-necked sheep, the * American Camel'
can carry a load of a hundred pounds at a rate of twelve
miles a day ; and on a journey it can manage on very little
food and travel for four or five days without water.
The Spaniards, in their conquest and occupation of South
America, made much use of the Llama as a pack animal,
for in those days there were no horses or asses in the New
World. Gregory Bolivar said that in his day there were
three hundred thousand Llamas carrying silver ingots from
the Potosi mines alone to the coast, and that annually
several millions of the animals were used for food. Only
38o HOOFED ANIMALS
the male Llamas were pack animals, the females being kept
for the sake of their milk and flesh. A long file of Llamas
would traverse the broken mountain steeps, the highest
passes, and narrow ledges of precipitous rocks with remark-
able surefootedness.
In disposition the Llama is much like the Camel. It will
only go at its own speed, and will frequently sulk and lie
down if it consider its load is too heavy. Rather a remarkable
characteristic of the Llama family is that of spitting in the
faces of persons with whom an animal is annoyed. If a
STOMACH OF THE LLAMA.
a. b. Water Cells.
man is riding one of the animals and the Llama feels tired,
it turns its head round and discharges a mouthful of
offensive saliva into the rider's face. Visitors to zoological
gardens have often experienced unpleasant proof of this
objectionable habit.
ALPACA (Lama pacos).
The covering of the Alpaca, more often brown or black
than in the Llama, differs from that of the latter very much
as does the wool of the sheep from the hair of the goat.
THE GUANACO 381
Except for its longer neck, which it carries very erect, the
animal is more sheep-like than the Llama. The Alpacas
are pastured on the high mountain tablelands during the
greater part of the year, being brought down into the
valleys only at the shearing season. Alpaca wool, which is
yellowish brown, or grey, or white, or black, was first used by
the natives for making tent covers and similar purposes. It
was also made into coarse sacks for the transmission of goods.
When emptied, these sacks were destroyed as useless. But
the late Sir Titus Salt, when quite a young man, invented a
set of machinery which could deal with the peculiar fibre
of the wool, bought for a trifle all the old bags that he could
procure, and set up the machinery that gave rise to the great
factory of Saltaire in Yorkshire.
The Alpaca is one of the very few animals which the
white man has not transferred with success from its native
home. A large herd that was imported into England led to
no useful result, and in different parts of Europe similar
attempts ended in failure. Australia appeared to be the
likeliest region to suit the animal ; but as a herd of three
hundred dwindled down to a dozen in about five years, it
seems to point out that the Alpaca is not likely to be added
to the many more or less cosmopolitan animals of the
world.
GUANACO (Lama guanacus).
The Guanaco, or Huanaco, the ancestor of the present-
day Llama, extends throughout the Andes region from the
Equator to Cape Horn. The coat, rough and short, is
usually brown in colour. Though exceedingly wild and
wary, the animal has little idea of defending itself, but
the males fight furiously among themselves.
The animal is said to retire to some secluded place when
it is about to die ; and Darwin found certain spots near the
Santa Cruz river that were white with bones. This strange
habit has given rise to considerable discussion among
naturalists. The most probably correct explanation is, that
long ages ago the Guanaco in the severe weather came
down from the heights to the wooded valleys for warmth.
An animal approaching its end would feel cold from its
382 HOOFED ANIMALS
own decreasing vitality, and hence it would seek cover
under the bushes where its remains have been found.
VICUNA (Lama vicunia).
Plate XL. Fig. i.
The Vicuna, about two and a half feet high, is smaller
and of lighter build than the Guanaco, and its habitat is
more restricted, being chiefly in the region of which Peru is
the centre. It is generally found at greater and much
colder heights than the foregoing member of the Llama
family. Its coat is more or less light brown, with white
underwool.
The Indians hunt the Vicuna for its flesh which is
excellent, and its wool, which is of remarkably fine quality.
The weapon employed is the bolas (see p. 129), which is
whirled round the hunter's head and then released, to go
with unerring aim at the flying animal, and entangle its
feet. In olden times as many as twenty thousand men
would engage in a grand drive over an area of twenty square
miles, when the bag would include not only hundreds of
Vicunas and Guanacos, but deer, bears, pumas, and other
animals.
At one time it was made an offence to kill the Vicuna ;
hunters were to shear it, and then set it at liberty. Owing
to the wildness of the creature this was found impracticable,
with the result that continual hunting has greatly reduced
the number of the animals in this species.
GROUP IV.—SUINA.
All the members of this group are non-ruminant, pig-
like animals, generally with four toes on each foot, although
there are exceptions in which the hind feet possess but three.
The teeth consist of two or three incisors, one canine, and
five or six molars on each side of the jaw. Though at least
one family is particularly numerous as to individuals, the
group includes but three existing types.
PLATE XL.
mam
i. VICUNA. 2. WART HOG.
(Sec page 389)
(Photos W. S. Ber ridge, F2.S.)
THE SWINE FAMILY 383
FAMILY SUID^E (SWINE).
All the Swine have elongated snouts with the nostrils at
the end ; the ears are often large and flapping ; the eyes
are small ; and the bodies are often nearly naked, or with a
sparse covering of bristly hair. Their favourite location is
in damp, swampy regions. The upper canine teeth of the
male in particular are long and flattened, slightly curved,
and so sharpened that they cut like knives when used as
weapons. The feet are narrow, with four toes on each. In
a wild state Swine are mostly herbivorous, but will eat flesh
when the opportunity offers. The illustrations show that
Swine, which do not chew the cud, yet divide the hoof.
WILD BOAR (Sus scro/a).
Coloured Plate XXVIII. Fig. i.
The Wild Boar, the only European specimen of the
family, was once exceedingly abundant in Central and
Southern Europe, and it is still common in the more
remote, well-wooded regions, such as the Black Forest, &c.
Practically the same animal extended into Western and
Central Asia as well as into the North of Africa. It
formerly roamed in the forests of Britain, and was another
of the animals that William I. protected and preserved
with such severity. In later times the animal died out;
Charles I. imported fresh animals into the New Forest,
but during the Civil War they were all destroyed.
The shape of the Swine's head shows that it is intended
to force its way through forest undergrowth, the wedge-like
snout assisting to make a passage to allow the body to
follow easily. The snout is also used for grubbing up
ground in search of food ; and as the animal possesses
an acute sense of smell, nothing escapes it as it turns up
the soil. Wild Swine are chiefly vegetarians, but, urged
by a voracious appetite, they eat insects and reptiles, even
the fangs of the viper having no terrors for them. In
North America the domesticated Pig will kill and greedily
devour the dreaded rattlesnake, the poisonous stings
3*4
HOOFED ANIMALS
taking no effect on the hard hide and its protecting layer
of fat.
Though the Wild Boar differs considerably in appearance
in various regions, the European specimen will well serve
for the others. Its colour is a dusky brown, or grey with
a tendency to black. The elongated head is set on a short
neck that rises out of a thick and muscular body. It is
variable in size, but is usually about four feet long and three
feet in height. The canine teeth in the males are long and
powerful and project beyond the upper lip. The female
is less in size and the tusks are not nearly so large. The
young ones are white and generally marked with yellow
longitudinal stripes.
The Indian Wild Boar (Sus cristatus) is larger than the
European animal and
is one of the most
formidable beasts
that can be met in the
chase. ' Pig-sticking '
is a favourite sport in
India, surrounded
by all the elements of
danger, not only on
account of the natural
pugnacity of the
animal, but the added difficulty of making progress in the
jungle where it makes its home. It is not much less active
than a cat, and its average weight of three hundred pounds
enforces the necessity of care in approaching it. When it
meets an enemy, it plunges forward and with a wriggling
movement of its head inflicts two deep cuts, one to the
right and the other to the left.
The old Boars are generally solitary, but the females and
young are found in parties of ten or twelve up to as many
as a score. It is the male that is particularly dangerous, for
the lower tusks are sometimes a foot in length and quite
capable of ripping up a horse. Bruce relates being requested
by some natives to rid a district of Wild Boars that had
frequently ravaged their crops. ' Amongst us all we killed
five boars, all large ones, in the space of about two hours,
TEETH OF THE WILD BOAR.
Plate XXVIE.
1. Wild Boar
3. Hippopotamus
THE WILD BOAR 385
one of which measured six feet nine inches ; and though
he ran at an amazing speed near two miles, so as to be with
difficulty overtaken by the horse, and was struck through
and through with two heavy lances loaded at the end with
iron, no person dared come near him on foot, and he
defended himself above half an hour, till, having no other
arms left, I shot him with a horse-pistol/
Captain Shakespeare describes a hunt in which a gaunt
animal made an amazing fight for its life. It was speared
in its withers, but wrested the weapon out of the officer's
hand, snapping the shaft in two as it darted into the jungle
after a fierce run of seventy yards. In reaching cover the
Boar ran under the horse of a shikarry, lifting up the animal
and causing its rider to be thrown to the ground. When
Captain Shakespeare, leaving his horse because of the
undergrowth, came up with the animal, three dogs were
holding it at bay. The Boar, perceiving his approach,
charged down upon him, receiving a bullet in the neck
from a distance of only fifteen yards. This failed to stop
its career, as did a second shot that broke its under jaw-
bone. The next instant the Captain was knocked com-
pletely over, the Boar wounding him in the left arm as it
ran over him, and almost in the same instant another native
was hurled to the ground as the infuriated animal again
took flight. A third shot pierced the creature's brain, and
it fell dead without a groan.
Sir Samuel Baker in Ceylon often hunted the Boar on
foot with dogs and armed only with a hunting-knife, with
which to meet the animal at close quarters. He says it
abounds in the low country in astonishing numbers, where
it is a useful scavenger in clearing up the carcasses of dead
animals. The natives prize the flesh of the Wild Boar, but the
Englishman never fancied it after seeing the animals gorging
themselves upon a putrid elephant. Ceylon Boars often
scale at least four hundredweights, though Sir Samuel Baker
reports having sighted one that must have weighed double.
The Wild Boars of other regions such as East India
islands, Japan, Northern Africa, &c., are too much alike in
appearance and habit to render description useful or
specially interesting.
26
$86
HOOFED ANIMALS
DOMESTIC SWINE (Sus scrofa).
Coloured Plate XVIII. Fig. 2.
The true Swine accommodates itself to circumstances,
and there are few parts of the world into which man
has not introduced it. The Jews regarded the animal as
the most unclean of all beasts, and, much as the Moha-
metans hate the Jews, they were in hearty accord in their
detestation of the Swine. To our minds the chief idea in
the Parable of the Prodigal Son is that of the discomfort
and hunger of the wandering spendthrift ;
but to the Jews it conveyed unspeakable
degradation in keeping Swine belonging to
another man ; it indicated the most abject
humiliation, for a Swine-keeper was abhorred
as much as a leper. In the Scriptures the
mention of the animal is restricted to the
domesticated species, except in one instance,
in Psalm Ixxx. 13 — 'The boar out of the
wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of
the field doth devour it.'
In all probability the Common, or
Domestic, Swine all the world over are the
descendants of either the European wild
species or its relatives of India ; but the
various breeds have been crossed and
intercrossed to such an extent as to baffle
inquiry.
Some of the results of domestication are very apparent,
notably in the bodily form of various breeds. The Irish
Greyhound Pig, as implied by its name, is a long-legged,
lank-bodied, high-withered, narrow-headed animal ; while
the Harrison Pig has short legs supporting a huge cylin-
drical trunk, the belly of which nearly touches the ground.
The Berkshire Pig, one of our most valuable breeds, is
inferior in point of size, and is a much more shapely and
alert-looking animal than many others, which are just more
or less cylindrical masses of flesh and fat. The Japanese
Masked Pig has 'an extraordinary appearance, from its
BONES OF THE
FOOT OF THE PIG.
THE DOMESTIC SWINE 387
short head, broad forehead and nose, great fleshy ears, and
deeply furrowed skin. Not only is the face furrowed, but
thick folds of skin, which are harder than the other parts,
almost like the plates on the Indian rhinoceros, hang about
the shoulders and hindquarters/ The best Chinese breed,
small-bodied and short-eared, has been largely used to
improve the stock of European breeders. It is impossible
to attempt to particularise more of the different breeds, each
of which possesses some good point either in its size or
the quality of the meat.
The Domestic Swine of the United Kingdom are chiefly
pen-reared animals that only in autumn are turned loose in
the woods to feast on acorns, walnuts, beech-mast, &c. ;
but in many countries they are at best half-tamed creatures
which are allowed to roam over vast expanses of wild country.
In many cases the animals escape and revert to a wild state,
and in course of time work no small havoc in cultivated
districts, often necessitating their extermination by settlers
and colonists. This was the case with the Bush Pigs of
South Africa, and the same thing has occurred in New
Zealand and other regions where domesticated animals
have been able to avoid the control of their owners.
It is remarkable how the importance of Pig rearing varies
in different stock-raising countries. In the British Isles
there are, roughly, four million Pigs to thirty million sheep
and eleven million cattle. Australasia has but one million
Pigs to a hundred million sheep. The Argentine possesses
only about three-quarters of a million Swine to seventy-four
million sheep and twenty-one million cattle ; but in the
United States are forty million Pigs to about the same
number of sheep and cattle. Austria, Russia, and Germany
are also big Swine raisers, the two former possessing about
ten million each, while the last named has half as many again.
These figures show the immense importance of Swine
in providing food for man. Pork is the most popular meat
in France and many countries in Europe. In Chicago
alone there are firms which each kill twenty-five thousand
hogs a day ; and in a single year the United States sends to
the United Kingdom alone, bacon and hams to the value of
;£l I,OOO,OOO.
388 HOOFED ANIMALS
Probably no animal living is so wholly useful as the
domesticated Swine. Pig-skin makes a leather that is
impervious to wet, and particularly serviceable for saddles ;
the stiff, strong bristles are utilised in the manufacture of
brushes ; even the intestines of the animal are used for
sausage skins ; in fact, as the Yankees express it, everything
in connection with the hog is useful with the exception of
its squeal.
BABYRUSSA (Babyrussa alfurus}.
Coloured Plate XXVIII. Fig. 2.
The Babyrussa, meaning Pig-deer, inhabits the damp and
swampy forests of the islands of Celebes and Boru in the
Malayan Archipelago. There is no mistaking the animal
for anything but a member of the Pig family ; and a glance
at the illustration shows it to be quite as presentable an
animal as many breeds of the domesticated Swine.
The distinguishing feature of the male Babyrussa is the
manner in which the upper canine teeth grow to a length
of fourteen or fifteen inches, appearing through the skin of
the face about midway between the muzzle and the eye,
curving strongly upwards in semicircular fashion, until they
almost, or quite, touch the forehead. The lower tusks are
not nearly so long or so strongly curved. It is said that the
animal sleeps standing and hooks its upper jaws on to a
branch in order to support its head. Another assumption
is that the curved horns are to protect the animal's eyes as
it rushes through thickets ; but the female's horns are not
developed to nearly the same extent as in the male. It is
far more reasonable to suppose that at one period the horns
were of use to their owner, but in succeeding ages have
not been employed and have been allowed to assume their
present strange form.
The skin of the animal is dull ashy grey in colour, with
but a very sparse covering of bristles. The Babyrussa is
almost as swift as any member of the deer tribe, and in
disposition is rather fierce. Its habits differ but little from
those of Wild Swine generally. It is an excellent swimmer,
THE WART HOG 389
and not only enters fresh water in search of aquatic plants,
but frequently crosses the narrower sea channels.
The flesh of the animal is highly esteemed, and to obtain
it the natives of Celebes organise hunts on quite a large
scale. It is captured in very much the same manner as the
elephant, the animals being driven into a corral, at the end
of which they become entangled in nets, after which they
are either bound or speared. The sport is not without
excitement, as evidenced in the words of Dr. Guille-
mard : —
'The next moment a magnificent old boar Babyrussa
rushed past within five yards of us, and plunged into the
net between our tree and the entrance to the corral. His
long tusks became entangled in the meshes, and the natives
ran up to spear him. Just at this moment, however, he
broke loose, and, turning on his antagonists, scattered them
in all directions. It was a most determined charge, and,
as we were unable to fire for fear of hitting some of our
own men, it might have proved a serious affair for the
native he singled out. Even with four spears buried in his
body, the old boar died game, striving to the very last to get
at his antagonists.'
WAET HOG (Phacockcerus czthiopicus).
Plate XL. Fig. 2.
If the Red Bush Pig is the handsomest member of the
Swine family, the Wart Hog is the ugliest of the whole of
the Ungulates, and the order includes a few with certainly
no pretensions to beauty. The body is quite pig-like,
massive and cylindrical ; the neck and back are clothed
with long, bristly hair, while the remainder of the skin is
practically naked. But it is the head which attracts almost
amazed attention. Of enormous size, with a great length
of muzzle, and the lower part of the face particularly flat
and broad, the head would be remarkable in its ugliness if
its characteristics ended there. The eyes are fixed in large
protuberances, which enable the creature, when chased, to
throw its head upwards and glance at the foe over its back.
39°
HOOFED ANIMALS
Below each eye is a large projection, with two other warty
excrescences midway between the eye and the tip of the
snout. Two huge upper tusks and .a couple of smaller
lower ones complete the most unprepossessing physiognomy
imaginable.
The animal, of which there are several varieties, ranges
from Abyssinia southwards throughout a great part of East
Africa. It is swine-like in its habits, feeding much on
roots, which it digs up with its tusks. It also excavates
deep holes, in which it often lies. It is a much more timid
SKULL OF THE WART HOG.
animal than the Wild Boar, and it will rarely charge even
when wounded.
In South-eastern Africa the Wart Hog is known as the
Vlacke Vark, i.e., Black Hog. It often occupies the dis-
carded burrows of the Aardvark. In driving the animal
out of its retreat a hunter might not unnaturally take his
stand immediately at the back of the hole in order to get a
shot as the Wart Hog commences its flight. The hunter,
however, would not repeat the experiment, for the animal
emerges from the hole only to turn a somersault backwards;
and any person standing there would test the quality of the
sharp tusks on his legs before he could effect a movement
to avoid contact with them.
PLATE XLI.
i. COLLARED PECCARY.
2. AARD-VARK.
(See pa^c 425)
(Photos W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.)
THE PECCARY FAMILY 391
FAMILY DICOTYLID^: (PECCARIES).
COLLARED PECCARY (Dicotyles tajacu).
Plate XLI. Fig. i.
The Peccaries are the American representatives of the
Swine, but they are smaller, with the head, snout, ears, and
tail shorter, more slender limbs, while the bristles are longer
and thicker. There are also differences in the dentition, the
upper canine teeth in particular being directed downwards
instead of upwards. There are four toes on the front feet,
but only three on the hind. In one respect the Peccary is
in advance of its Old World cousin : it possesses a more
complex stomach, very nearly approaching that of the
ruminants. The animal differs in still another point. In
the middle of the loins, just below the skin, is a scent gland
which pours out a fluid of disgusting odour, that renders
the flesh uneatable, unless the gland is removed immediately
after the animal is killed.
The Collared Peccary is common in a great portion of
the United States and Central South America, extending
from Arkansas to Patagonia. It rarely exceeds three feet in
length with a height of sixteen inches at the shoulder. In
colour it is blackish brown with yellowish white on the
flanks. It derives its name from a line of white which
passes from the fore parts of the neck upwards to meet
over the shoulders. It is a forest-dwelling, rather timid
animal, rarely found in parties of more than nine or ten.
It dwells in holes or the hollows of trees, and in the neigh-
bourhood of settled districts ravages the plantations.
The White-lipped Peccary (Dicotyles labiatus) is a slightly
larger species and infinitely fiercer in disposition. Living
in herds, they are often a source of embarrassment to the
planter, for they know no fear ; and the hunter is safe from
their assault only when he has gained a friendly branch
at some distance from the ground. Even the jaguar only
succeeds in capturing a straggling member of a herd, and
he, too, is frequently forced to seek refuge in a tree.
When in its retreat, however, the Peccary often falls
392 HOOFED ANIMALS
an easy prey to the hunter. In the holes or hollow logs
into which the animals crowd backwards, one always stands
on guard with its head outside. If this animal be shot its
companions push out the dead body, for another sentinel
to take its place, and this operation may be repeated until
the herd is disposed of.
The Peccary, like the Swine, subsists chiefly upon vegetable
food, but it does not refuse animal substances. In particular
it wages war upon lizards and serpents, which it devours
with the greatest avidity.
FAMILY HIPPOPOTAMID^E.
HIPPOPOTAMUS (Hippopotamus amphibius).
Coloured Plate XXVIII. Fig. 3.
The Hippopotamus, or River Horse, is the sole repre-
sentative of the family ; it frequents the lakes and rivers of
Central Africa. The ancient Egyptians called the animal
by a name which meant 'river-swine/ which was a far
better title than horse, with which animal
the Hippopotamus has nothing in com-
mon. It is a shapeless, unwieldy beast,
attaining a length of from twelve to
fourteen feet ; it is four to five feet at
the shoulder ; and it may weigh as much
as four tons, thus being little inferior to
the elephant in bulk. The hide is dense
and tough, rough and warty, and naked
except for the short bristles at the end
of the tail. The male is dark brown in
colour ; the female is a yellower shade.
LOWER JAW OF THE ,-,, • « •
HIPPOPOTAMUS. The ears are small and rounded, and,
with the nostrils, are capable of being
closed when the animal is under water.
The head is very large and remarkable in form, the
ears, bulging eyes, and nostrils being all set in a line, so
that the huge animal can lie in the water, totally sub-
merged except for two or three inches, and yet retain
THE HIPPOPOTAMUS 393
its power to see, hear, and breathe. The mouth is a
cavernous opening fitted with formidable teeth. The jaws
possess terrific power, sufficient to crunch a canoe into
pieces at a single bite. The enormous curved canine teeth
in the lower jaw are sometimes thirty inches in length, with
a circumference of nine inches at the base. The largest
known tusk was thirty-eight inches over the curve. The
lower incisors project in such a manner as to enable the
animal to cut grass and reeds as though with a pair of
shears ; and it has been known to sever a man in two at a
single bite.
The Hippopotamus feeds upon riverside herbage and
water-plants and roots. From the stomach of a dead
animal have been taken six bushels of chewed grass, giving
a good idea of the bulk of the fodder required to form a
meal. Consequently, if but one animal wanders into a
native plantation to satisfy its appetite, it makes a consider-
able hole in a crop, omitting what it beats down in its
ungainly progress.
On land the animal is slow and heavy, though it can
travel swiftly for a short distance ; but in the river it is per-
fectly at ease, swimming, diving, or walking along the
bottom with the utmost facility and comfort. It is more
aquatic than any other of the Ungulates ; it can swim at
about ten knots an hour, and can remain under water for
as long as five minutes, although more generally it is but
two.
The hide is of enormous thickness and will weigh as
much as five hundredweights when freshly stripped. It is
thickest on the back. It is largely used to make the terrible
sjambok whips, a blow from which will make a groove in a
deal board. In the early days of South African settlement,
refractory slaves were often whipped with the terrible
scourge. The tusks were formerly greatly prized by dentists,
who utilised them in the manufacture of artificial teeth.
The hide and tusks alone make the huge animal well
worth capture ; and the natives often boldly chase it, and
with spears and harpoons kill it by sheer skill and courage.
Very often peculiar traps are set in the paths which the
animals are known to use on their way to the water. The
394 HOOFED ANIMALS
monster treads upon a lever which liberates a heavily
weighted spear suspended overhead. The weapon, having
a poisoned tip, does not take immediate effect, but sooner or
later the native discovers the dead body, and thus secures
his prize without the danger that surrounds a personal
encounter. The huge animal is not particularly tenacious
of life — Mr. Neumann once killed four in four consecutive
shots.
The Hippopotamus grazes in the night, but during the
day it may be seen disporting itself in the water, puffing
and snorting and blowing water in jets from its nostrils,
or else standing quite motionless with not even the whole
of the head above the water. Travellers thus coming upon
the monster unawares have had good reason to remember
it. Upon one occasion a Hippopotamus not only damaged
the paddlewheels of a steamer, but dug holes in the bottom
of it with its tusks ; and native boats, twenty to thirty feet
in length, are frequently hurled completely out of the water.
Dr. Livingstone made acquaintance with the Hippo-
potamus when much less was known of its habits than is
the case to-day, but his observations still hold good in every
respect : ' The still reaches are their favourite haunts, as
elsewhere the constant exertion necessary to keep them-
selves from being carried down the stream disturbs their
nap. They remain by day in a drowsy, yawning state,
taking little notice of things at a distance. The males utter
loud, snorting grunts, which may be heard a mile off. The
young ones stand on the necks of their dams, and their
small heads appear first above the surface as they rise to
breathe. The dam, knowing the more urgent need of her
calf, rises more frequently when it is in her care.' In
several miles of river as many as two or three hundred
monsters may still be seen, so that it does not appear likely
that the animal is in danger of extinction.
Another species of the family is the Liberian, or Pigmy,
Hippopotamus (Chceropsis liberiensis), inhabiting West and
Central Africa, and especially Upper Guinea. It is a smaller
and much rarer animal than the foregoing.
Chapter XII
ORDER VII.— SIRENIA (MANATEES)
General description of the Sirenia— Manatee —
Dugong.
CHAPTER XII
Order VII. — Sirenia (Manatees)
THE Sirenia are fish-like, herbivorous mammals that
form a connecting link between the Seals and Whales.
They are the step between one order that cannot exist out of
the sea and another the members of which, while living
entirely on the products of the sea, yet spend part of their
days ashore, especially during the period when they produce
their young. At various times the animals which we are
about to describe have been classed with the Whales, the
Walrus and even the Elephant.
The most striking peculiarity of the Sirenia, or Sea Cows,
as they are often called, is their strict vegetarianism, which
alone absolutely separates them from other rigidly carni-
vorous denizens of the deep ; in fact, they seem as much
out of place in the teeming world of waters as antelopes in
a jungle infested with tigers.
MANATEE (Manatus australis).
Coloured Plate XXX. Fig. i.
The Manatee inhabits the shallow seas and the river
estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico ; in West African waters is
found a very similar species. Their food consists chiefly of
marine and aquatic weeds.
The body of the animal is oblong in shape, terminating
in a lengthened oval tail which is placed vertically. The
front limbs, which are only exaggerated fins, are capable of
397
398 MANATEES
rendering prehensile service. The name Manatee is derived
from manuSy a hand, on account of the hand-like con-
struction of the flippers, in which the bones of the four
fingers can be very distinctly traced. The skin, dark brown
or nearly black in colour, is exceedingly hard and tough.
Though usually only seven or eight feet in length, a twelve-
foot Manatee with a corresponding increase in girth is no
unusual occurrence.
In various of its characteristics the Manatee somewhat
closely resembles the seal, notably in its nostril-shaped blow-
holes, its large, expressive eyes, whiskers on the muzzle, and
a sprinkling of hairs on the body. The teeth are practically
restricted to molars, for the incisors at their best are very
rudimentary.
SKELETON OF THE MANATEE.
It is said that the Manatee gave rise to the idea of the
mermaid. Considering that it is a supremely ugly animal,
one can scarcely understand it being taken for a lady of the
exquisite and attractive beauty that is popularly attributed
to the mermaid. Nevertheless, from the pose of the head
and the suddenness with which it pops up, at a distance on
a bright moonlight night perhaps it would present sufficient
resemblance to the human form divine to excuse the
generic name, Sirenia.
It is permissible to doubt whether the mythological siren
by her song ever inspired ecstatic devotion in those who
heard her ; but it is an absolute fact that the Manatee clings
to but one mate, whom it will not leave even in the face of
death, and both parents display a corresponding fondness
for their young. It is said that the young are placed
THE SEA-COWS 399
in the centre of a school when dangerous enemies are
near.
In the regions where the Manatee abounds it affords
excellent food, having somewhat the taste of coarse pork ;
Humboldt declared it was equal to the best of ham. South
American monks prefer to view the animal as a fish, as
they do the whale family, and thus the Manatee provides
sumptuous fleshy fare for the season of Lent.
Mr. Bates, who captured a Manatee in a canoe voyage
on the Amazon, does not praise the flavour of its flesh as
some other travellers have done. 'The meat was cut up
into cubical slabs, and each person skewered a dozen or
so of these on a long stick. Fires were made, and the
spits stuck in the ground, and slanted over the flames to
roast. The meat has somewhat the taste of coarse pork ;
but the fat, which lies in thick layers between the lean
parts, is of a greenish colour, and of a disagreeable fishy
flavour.'
DUGONG (Halicore dugong).
Coloured Plate XXX. Fig. 2.
The Dugong is a native of eastern waters, various species
being met with in the Red Sea and as far east as Australia.
The best known is the one illustrated, which differs from
the manatee chiefly in the variation of its tail, which takes
the form of a crescent-shaped flapper. The creature is
sometimes regarded as a veritable cow of the 'sea pas-
tures ' ; and certain it is that along the coast of Queensland,
especially in river estuaries, it may be seen snatching
tussocks of long grass at the edge of the water, when it
comes up to breathe. This is the fullest extent of its
grazing propensities ; it never leaves the water in search
of vegetable food. The Dugong more often than not
exceeds the manatee in size, and the male is furnished
with two large tusk-like teeth, which are never found in
a manatee of either sex. Its flesh when roasted is said
to taste like pork and veal combined, and the Mahome-
400
MANATEES
tans, whose religion bans the pig, esteem the flesh of the
porky marine mammal as a great delicacy. The Malays
view the creature as a ' royal fish/ just as we still do
the sturgeon, and the native Kings claim all that are
captured within their territories. i When cured, the flesh is
considered in Queensland a relishing article of diet for the
breakfast table, having the flavour of good bacon with just
an agreeable "bloater" twang added. The tail, which is
very fat, is much esteemed, and is generally soused or
pickled.' The Dugong yields a particularly clear oil, the
commercial value of which gives rise to important fisheries,
especially in Australia, that threaten to exterminate the
creature. The skin can be dressed into useful leather. A
German writer has attempted to prove that the Tabernacle
of the Israelites was roofed with Dugong skin. As the
animal is found in the Red Sea it was possible for it to
have been put to such a use. Further than that we cannot
decide.
One species, the Rhytina, which was the real Sea Cow,
attained a length of twenty feet. In the comparatively short
period of thirty years it was swept off the face of the earth
in the unceasing pursuit of the creature for the sake of
its oil.
PLATE XLII.
i. THE CACHALOT'S FIGHT FOR POWER.
2. A SPERM WHALE BABY.
(See page 411)
Chapter XIII
ORDER VIII.— CETACEA (WHALES
AND DOLPHINS)
27
General description of the Cetacea— Green-
land Whale— Southern Right Whale— Com-
mon Rorqual — Humpback Whale — Cachalot
or Sperm Whale — Narwhal — Porpoise -
Dolphin— Killer Whale.
Plate XXIX.
1. Cachelot
2. Greenland Whale
3. Humpbacked Whale
CHAPTER XIII
Order VIIL— Cctacca
(Whales and Dolphins)
UNDER the general name of Cetacea, i.e., the Whales,
are classed together a wonderful group of marine
Mammalia, which includes not only the true Whales, but
also the Dolphin, Narwhal, Porpoise, and Grampus.
Notwithstanding their marked resemblance to fishes, the
Cetacea possess the most indubitable mammalian character-
istics. By means of lungs they breathe atmospheric air;
their warm blood is pulsated by a four-chambered heart;
and they produce living young, which in their youthful
stages derive nourishment from the milk that they draw
from their mothers. Usually there is only one young one
at a birth, Rorquals proving the exception in sometimes
having two offspring.
Though the Cetacea vary in size and differ in many
details, they all agree in certain additional points. With
the exception of a West African species of Dolphin, which
is at least partly herbivorous, these marine mammals are
carnivorous. They possess no hind limbs, but use a hori-
zontal appendage to propel their bodies through the water ;
and this form of tail is particularly serviceable in assisting
the animal to rise quickly from a great depth to the surface.
The fore limbs are composed of four or five digits, which
are only visible in the skeleton. Many species possess a
dorsal fin. Underneath the skin is a thick layer of fat,
from eight to twenty inches in thickness, which is called
blubber. Whaling men speak of it as the ' blanket.' The
403
4o4 WHALES AND DOLPHINS
fat serves the animal for warmth, and in addition renders
the huge body exceedingly buoyant ; a dead Right Whale,
for example, weighing over two hundred tons, will float;
but when the carcase is skinned it sinks.
The order of the Cetacea is divided into two sub-orders.
In the Mystacoceti is the single family Balaenidae. In the
members of this family there are two nostrils, or ' blow-
holes,' and instead of teeth the mouth is fitted with plates
of baleen, popularly and wrongly termed ' whalebone.'
It may be here noted that baleen is not bone, but is
analogous to hair. Dip a tuft of hair in any gelatinous
substance, and when dried a transverse section placed
under the microscope will well represent a section of
baleen (see Fig. D in the illustration).
In the sub-order Odontoceti, which includes all the re-
maining Cetaceans, teeth always appear in one or both
jaws, baleen is absent, and there is but one external ' blow-
hole.'
To speak of whale-fishing is really a misnomer, yet there
is an intimate industrial and commercial connection
between sea fisheries proper and the systematic hunting
of the Cetacea and the Pinnipedia, or Seals. Oils, seal-
skins, furs, baleen, spermaceti, ambergris, and ivory are
no inconsiderable additions to the finny food-harvest of
the sea.
FAMILY
GREENLAND WHALE (Balcena mysticetus).
Coloured Plate XXIX. Fig. 2.
The Greenland Whale, or ' Right Whale,1 is a denizen of
the Arctic seas. Nowadays specimens exceeding fifty feet in
length are rare, but before the creature was so remorselessly
hunted it more often attained maturity and a length of
seventy or even eighty feet.
The ' Right Whale' has no teeth, but hanging transversely
from the upper jaw are some six hundred plates or strips of
baleen, varying from one inch in length at the ends of the
mouth to a dozen or even sixteen feet in the centre. These
THE GREENLAND WHALE
405
dangling strips, which are even on one edge and fringed on
the other, cause the mouth of the Whale to look as though
it were lined with a coarse hair mat. The length of the
baleen gives some idea of the size of the Whale's mouth,
BALEEN OR WHALEBONE.
A. A back view of the whale's skull, with the baleen flakes (TV)
spreading out from the upper bones (m) of the skull. The lower
jawbones (J) are shown as removed from the skull.
B. Baleen flakes with fringed edges.
C. Three flakes on a larger scale set side by side.
D. Baleen cut across and magnified under the microscope.
and it is not without reason that sailors assert, that a ship's
jolly-boat with crew complete could row into the cavernous
aperture without touching its sides.
The use of the baleen is to strain the myriads of small
406 WHALES AND DOLPHINS
molluscs and jelly-fish which the leviathan takes in its open
mouth, as it leisurely passes through the water at a rate of
about four miles an hour. The tongue, an immense mass
of fat nearly two tons in weight, rises up and forces
out the water between the plates of fringed baleen as
through a sieve, leaving a mass of food to pass down
the Whale's gullet, which is only one and a half inches
in diameter.
Notwithstanding its enormous dimensions, the Greenland
Whale is mild and inoffensive ; it leads a timorous and
slothful life, perhaps chiefly due to its hampering immensity
and the fact that its food costs it so little effort to obtain.
It does not even attack its pursuers, and accidents to
whaling boats are caused by the sudden diving of the
quarry, or the boat approaching too near in its tremendous
death-struggles.
The young Whale measures from ten to twelve feet in
length at birth, and its mother suckles it for about a year.
A school of these northern Whales usually consists of a bull
and a couple of cows, each with a calf.
The whaling business has been depressed for many years.
Half a century ago the whalers of one Scottish port alone
would account for fifty or more Whales in a season. Nowa-
days not half that number are captured by all the Scottish
boats combined ; and the animals are smaller, on an average
yielding about one hundred and thirty barrels of oil instead
of formerly perhaps twice as much. The quantity of baleen
varies from one to three thousand pounds. Thanks to the
substitution of steel for many articles that formerly called
for whalebone, gas and electricity for lighting purposes, and
the increasing competition of vegetable and mineral oils,
Whale hunting is probably never likely to attain its former
prosperity. Some authorities maintain that there is really
no appreciable diminution in the number of Whales, but
that modern methods are responsible for decreasing catches.
Steam screw vessels have replaced the old sailers ; and it is
said that the revolving screws give notice to the sensitive
hearing of the Whale that enemies are at hand, with the
result that the prospective prey immediately seeks haunts
where lies a greater measure of safety.
THE COMMON RORQUAL 407
SOUTHERN EIGHT WHALE (Balana australis).
The Southern Right Whale structurally is almost identical
with its northern congener ; in habitat it is exceedingly
different. The Greenland Whale is never seen in Temperate
waters, and it is a mystery what it does with itself during
the long Arctic winter, when all the Polar seas are locked
under many feet of ice. Open water is absolutely necessary
to the existence of any marine mammal, yet the most enter-
prising whale-fishers seek it in vain during the long night of
the Arctic regions. The Southern Right Whale, on the other
hand, prefers the waters outside the Antarctic Circle, and is
found in large numbers as far north as the Cape of Good
Hope. Formerly French whalers hunted the southern
waters with fair profit to themselves, but in recent years
they have ceased operations, and it is doubtful whether a
dozen Whales are taken in the course of a year, and those
more by accident than of set purpose. Consequently the
Southern Right Whale is increasing in numbers, and there
are many thousands of square miles of silent seas away
from the tracks of ocean-going steamers, where immense
herds of Whales live out their lives with only the fear of
their strictly natural enemies.
COMMON RORQUAL (Balanoptera musculus).
The Common Rorqual is a typical species of the ' finners/
as sailors term them ; the generic name means ' Finned
Whale,' in reference to the small back fin that lies near
the region of the tail. It attains an enormous size ; one
caught in the North Sea was ninety-five feet in length,
twenty-two feet in width, and weighed over two hundred
and fifty tons.
Rorquals are the most widely distributed of all the larger
Cetaceans ; they are found nearly everywhere outside the
Antarctic regions, and are by no means uncommon in
British waters. Sometimes when one has been driven
ashore it has been an object of curiosity to visitors drawn
from far and wide. A little later the sanitary authorities
4o8 WHALES AND DOLPHINS
have been at their wits' end to get rid of the mountain
of decaying flesh that was proving a menace to the health
of the district.
The Rorqual is viewed with particular disfavour by fisher-
men, for in the stomach of a dead Whale have been found
no less than nine hundred codfish. But the Whale piles
up injury upon injury. It not only disposes of vast quan-
tities of fish that might be put to more profitable use by
the toilers of the sea, but calmly swims through thousands
of pounds' worth of their tangled nets, while with each gulp
it takes in boat-loads of herrings, mackerel, or other kinds of
edible fish. Finally, as if it had not worked sufficient mis-
chief, it causes the shoal to split up into sections, which seek
to escape the visitation in deeper waters further out at sea,
leaving the fishermen to bewail the loss of what might have
proved to be a golden harvest.
In the palmy days of whale-hunting the Rorqual was
practically unmolested, for not only is the yield of blubber
relatively small, and the baleen scanty and poor in quality,
but the animal is speedier than the Right Whale, and con-
sequently it is far more difficult to kill and secure it. The
trouble lies in the latter. Owing to the thinness of its
' blanket ' of blubber a dead Rorqual promptly sinks to the
bottom, and no plan of the ordinary whaler could prevent
the weight of perhaps two hundred tons or more passing
out of his reach.
The scarcity of the Greenland Whale and the advancing
price of baleen, which has a value of about .£2,000 a ton,
have made the capture of the Rorqual more of a necessity
than in former days. Modern ingenuity has robbed the
chase of some of its dangers, while increasing the certainty
of retaining the capture. The Norwegians, perhaps, make
the most commercial use of the Rorqual, and their method
will well serve as one example of modern whale-hunting.
' Small steamers like the "jackal" tug-boats of the
Thames are fitted out. In the bows they carry a cannon,
designed to fire a massive harpoon, instead of a shot or
shell. To the harpoon is attached a stout rope, far stouter
than ordinary whale-line, which is one and a half inches in
girth. A powerful steam windlass is fitted in the bows also.
THE COMMON RORQUAL 409
' Presently coming up with the whale, the gun is fired,
the great harpoon buries itself in the quivering monster,
sometimes, indeed, with a small bomb in its head. With
scarcely any exception, once the harpoon has found its
mark, the fate of that Rorqual is sealed. The wound is so
deep, the strain is so great, that in a short time it succumbs
and sinks dead.'
When the windlass is started the immense carcass is
towed off to a shore station, where not only the blubber
and baleen are secured, but every other vestige of fat is
utilised to swell the tale of oil barrels. The huge mass of
offal and bones is converted into manure. It is a brutal
business, robbed of the merest claim to sport ; but it at
least gains for the Rorqual hunter a precarious living in
return for arduous toil not unmixed with frightful perils.
The Greenland WThale is hunted in a very similar manner,
except that its buoyant carcass is dragged to the side of the
whaling vessel, instead of ashore as in the case of the
Rorqual.
When a shoal of Rorquals approaches the coast of the
Faroe Islands the fishermen at once put out in boats.
Strangely enough, the Whales do not dive under the boats
and escape, as they might easily do, but allow themselves to
be driven into a bay. Along the shore stands a dense crowd
of women and children, with a sprinkling of veterans
whose whaling days are over, yet who hasten from all
parts to witness the spectacle. As soon as the Whales are
in the cove, with the boats forming a serried line across its
mouth, the signal is given to the men, spear in hand,
standing in the bows.
The spears whiz through the air and the oarsmen shoot
forward into the terror-stricken shoal, driving it into the
shallows. Timber crashes and splinters as boats collide,
and the wretched creatures, with quivering spears embedded
in their flesh, spout jets of blood. Some men leap over-
board, and, with long knives held in their teeth, wade
chest high towards animals that flap helplessly in the
shallow water. Others lean over the sides of the boats,
thrust great iron hooks into wounded Whales, and, in spite of
their frenzied struggles, hack through to the spinal column.
4io WHALES AND DOLPHINS
The Whale drive, with the strategic skill involved, may
possess all the zest of sport, but the massacre sickens one
with its barbaric savagery. At such a moment it is difficult
to remember that the seemingly merciless butchers are but
honest toilers filling the winter larder according to the
immemorial Faroese custom. By the time the last victim's
agony is over the water of the bay is literally crimson, the
men are dripping and blood-smeared. Then, suddenly as it
began, the hubbub subsides, and the ferocious whale-
hunter becomes once more the peaceable Faroeman.
HUMPBACK WHALE (Megaptera boops).
Coloured Plate XXIX. Fig. 3.
A glance at the illustration will show the dorsal erection
like a dumpy fin which gains for the animal the name
' Humpback ' ; but the most marked difference between this
species and those already described rests in the greater
length of the arms, hence justifying the generic name,
which signifies ' great wings.' Attaining a length of forty-
five to fifty feet, with flippers from ten to fourteen feet
long, the Humpback ranges through the seas of all latitudes
between the two frozen oceans.
All Whales are grievously afflicted by parasites, barnacles,
limpets, and slimy sea-grass that cause the monsters unbear-
able irritation. The Humpback probably suffers more
than any other of the tribe. The belly blubber is divided
into longitudinal folds with grooves over two inches in
depth, in which limpets breed with but little fear of
removal, even when the Whale drags its vast body over
submerged rocks or along the bottom of a coral reef.
Humpbacks usually yield but a moderate amount of oil,
often only ten barrels, though sometimes an extra blubbered
specimen will furnish ten times the quantity. In common
with the Rorqual, the Humpback is nevertheless hunted
more frequently than was formerly the case. Off the coast
of Norway and the north coast of Ireland they are occa-
sionally very numerous. Short excursions that end in
the capture of a number of poor Whales may really result
THE CACHALOT 411
in more profit than a prolonged voyage to the far distant
North in search of the more elusive Right Whale.
FAMILY CATADONTID^E.
CACHALOT (Catadon macrocephalus).
Coloured Plate XXIX. Fig. i.
The Cachalot, or Sperm Whale, is ' long-headed/ as
indicated by its generic name, and indeed its head occupies
about one-third of its total length of from fifty-four to sixty
feet. Probably when the species was more abundant, larger
ones were encountered; in any case it is still one of the largest
of the Cetaceans. In each side of the lower jaw of the
Cachalot are set twenty conical teeth of immense size and
strength, which grow from below as fast as they are worn
down above. The teeth are sometimes nine inches in length,
nine inches in girth, and weigh quite three pounds. In
the upper jaw there are no teeth, but grooves into which the
teeth fit. When once the mouth is closed no creature living
could extricate itself. This peculiarity of structure is
valuable, bearing in mind that the staple diet of the Sperm
Whale consists of gigantic squids or cuttle fishes, whose
slippery bodies need some special provision to ensure a firm
grip of them.
Sperm Whales are found chiefly in the open and warmer
oceans, and that they travel from one ocean to another
has been satisfactorily proved. In the Atlantic Ocean
have been caught Whales in whose bodies were fixed
spears, which were mementoes of unsuccessful attacks
upon the monsters by natives of the Pacific islands.
Sperm Whales are gregarious, and when the animals
were more numerous schools of several hundreds were not
uncommon ; the present-day whale-hunter would rejoice
if he encountered a school of forty or fifty. Generally only
one young one is produced at a birth, and it is weaned
when it is about a month old (Plate XLII. Fig. 2).
Though the mouth of the Cachalot is devoid of baleen,
the animal in other directions atones for the lack of it.
412
WHALES AND DOLPHINS
The blubber oil is of a finer quality, and fetches a higher
price than that of most other
Cetaceans. Reference to the
skeleton of this Whale shows a
large space between the upper
jawbone and the top of the
head. During life this space
is filled with liquid and limpid
spermaceti, which is a peculiar
product, much lighter than oil,
and which, when purified,
assumes a white, flaky form, of
great service in the manufac-
ture of candles and for some
medicinal purposes. Ambergris
is another valuable product of
the Sperm Whale. It is a solid,
fatty substance of particular
value in the manufacture of
perfumes. It is a product of
the bile of the Whale, which is
found not only in the intestines
of the animal, but is more often
picked up at sea in ejected
masses of fifty and even a
hundred pounds' weight. Re-
fined ambergris is worth about
£5 an ounce, which at once
indicates the scarcity of the
substance.
In disposition the Cachalot is
very unlike the timorous Green-
land Whale. In Sperm-whaling
the demolition of boats by
wounded Whales was quite a
common incident. An infuri-
ated Whale has smashed a boat
by blows of its enormous flukes,
and then chewed its timbers into matchwood. Instances are
upon record where wounded and maddened monsters have
THE CACHALOT 413
ferociously rammed full-rigged ships and sent them to the
bottom. It is well within the bounds of probability that many
a vessel that has disappeared, without leaving the slightest
clue to its fate, came to grief through accidental collision
with, or as the result of deliberate attack by, a Whale. Even
full-grown Whale cows are gentle and inoffensive creatures ;
but there are furious conflicts between the young bulls for
choice of mates, and also between the older ones for the
leadership of a school (Plate XLII. Fig. i).
The Whale is an astonishing animal, and in order that it
may subsist a number of apparently contradictory condi-
tions must be reconciled. It is a warm-blooded mammal,
and yet spends its life wholly in cold water. In order to dive
to great depths it must be able to make its body heavier
than a corresponding bulk of water, and conversely at will
make it lighter in order to reach the surface. Though
breathing atmospheric air through nostrils, the animal can
exist at a greater depth than where the pressure of the
water would force its particles into solid oak, and yet no
water can reach the Whale's lungs. It must be able to
exist without breathing at all for at least the space of an
hour. With the bones, ears, and eyes of a mammal it
has to move, hear, and see as though it were a fish.
Difficult as these problems appear, they are by no means
impossible of explanation.
In order to prevent the heat of the WThale being absorbed
by the cold water the animal is fitted with a modified skin
called ' blubber/ into the composition of which non-
ducting oil very largely enters. The fibres, instead of being
flattened out, as in the skin of most mammals, are con-
verted into innumerable cells, and thus even from a wound
there is practically no escape of oil.
The Whale is able to sink at will without diving. It has
but to contract its exceedingly powerful panniculus carnosus
(see p. 92) to diminish its body in size and cause it to be
heavier than its own bulk of water. The relaxation of the
muscle restores lightness to the body, and a few powerful
strokes with the tail will afford sufficient velocity not only
quickly to reach the surface, but to throw the huge body
completely out of the water.
414
WHALES AND DOLPHINS
The average human being finds himself taxed to the
utmost to remain under water for a minute, and even those
who have specially developed the capacity of their lungs
cannot remain for longer than from two and a half to three
minutes. The ability of the Whale to exist for as long as
an hour without breathing does not depend upon an
abnormal development of the lungs, for an hour's supply of
air would occupy the space of several large balloons, and
would give more aid in flying than in sinking.
The object of respiration is to purify the blood (see
p. 24), without which the whole nervous system would
become paralysed and death would ensue. It is impossible
for the Whale to take a supply of air down into the depths
of the ocean ; but it can take down a supply of purified
blood upon which it can draw and gradually substitute for
the fluid which has been robbed of its life-giving qualities.
In addition to ordinary arteries and veins, the Whale
possesses a blood reservoir called the intercostal plexus,
which is a vast mass of small tubes which are neither veins
nor arteries.
' Spouting ' or * blowing ' is but the operation of purifying
the reservoir of blood. When the animal comes to the
surface, after submergence, it first expels the air in its lungs,
with which it connects the plexus as it takes its first deep
breath. By repeated expirations and inspirations the
Whale restores purity to the blood in the plexus, and then
breathes quietly like any other mammal. The fountain-like
appearance of spouting is easily explainable. The ejected
air is saturated with hot water vapour which the cold
external air at once condenses into a column of steam or
spray ; but not infrequently the Whale commences blowing
before it actually reaches the surface, and then the column
is reinforced by the addition of a considerable amount of
sea water.
An oft repeated question is, Could a Whale swallow
Jonah ? Putting aside the meaning of the word which is
rendered as ' fish ' in the Old Testament, and as ' whale ' in
the New, let us view Whales as they really are. It may be
accepted as a fact that a fish no larger than a good-sized
herring would choke a Greenland Whale. In the case of
Plate XXX.
5. Dolphin
THE NARWHAL 415
the Cachalot it is a very different matter. Most Whales
in their death-throes eject the contents of the stomach,
and a dying Cachalot will frequently vomit masses of
cuttlefish as big as a fair-sized feather bed. But even
if we accept the rendering ' fish ' we shall still be in as
good case. There still exist sharks that can swallow a
man whole, and certain extinct species are known to have
attained a length of a hundred and twenty feet. Such a
monster would not have hesitated at Jonah, but would
have welcomed the greater part of the crew that threw
the prophet overboard.
There are other large and almost equally interesting
species of the Cetacea of which space alone forbids any
detailed description. Various economic products of the
Whale have been referred to, but there is no Cetacean
that does not serve for food in many countries, and
especially in the Arctic regions. The Eskimo will eat the
raw flesh of the Whale with immense relish. In Barbadoes
and other West Indian islands the Humpback flesh is
preferred to beef. In the South Pacific the natives view
a stranded Whale as a special dispensation of Providence.
An Australian traveller describes the feast of a whole tribe
of aborigines upon a Whale, which had come ashore in a
region where perhaps food was none too plentiful. ' It was
a sorry sight/ he says, ' to see a pretty young woman enter-
ing the belly of the Whale, then gorging herself with
blubber, and issuing forth anointed from head to foot,
and bearing in each hand a trophy of the delicacy in
question.'
FAMILY DELPHINIUM.
NAB WEAL (Monodon monoceros).
Coloured Plate XXX. Fig. 3.
The Narwhal, which is now limited to one species,
attains a length of fourteen or fifteen feet. In the
walrus was noted an exceptional form of the canine
teeth, which in the case of the left tooth of the Narwhal
4i6 WHALES AND DOLPHINS
is still more abnormally developed into a long, twisted,
yellow ivory horn. Occasionally it is the right one that
thus grows to a length of perhaps ten feet ; but very
rarely does the creature possess two horns. Its habitat
is restricted to the Arctic regions, in the shallower waters
of which it stirs up sluggish fish preparatory to despatch-
ing them with its sharply pointed horn.
The natives of the frozen North believe the Narwhal
is simply the male of the Beluga or White Whale, and
save for the horn they have a marked resemblance in
structure. But the Beluga leaves the sea to pursue
salmon far up the Alaskan rivers, which the Narwhal is
never known to do.
The Narwhal is of considerable economic importance,
for it yields an oil much superior to that of the Whale.
A tusk of ivory eight feet or more in length, with a
basal girth of seven or eight inches, is of no little value ;
it would be doubly so but that throughout its length the
tusk is hollow.
PORPOISE (Phoccena communis}.
The Porpoise, five, six, or seven feet in length, is
common in the North Atlantic. Often off the British coasts
a shoal of Porpoises may be seen frolicking quite near to
the shore. Passengers on board ocean-going liners are
always interested in watching the sportive ' black pigs,' as
sailors call them. As they race along the side of the ship
they seem as though they are invested with something very
much like humour, for their wide mouths appear to wear a
distinct smile as they rise from a wave to throw themselves
into the air, gambol with a friend, or sink again with
twinkling eyes brimful of laughter.
The flesh of the Porpoise is a useful addition to the
larder in various regions. At one time it was a standard
dish at public feasts in England. Sailors, however, will not
eat it unless necessity compels. The animals are captured
chiefly for their oil, and the skin can be converted into
useful leather. The so-called porpoise hide that is so
impervious to wet is more often the skin of the White
THE DOLPHIN 417
Whale, whose length of sixteen feet affords a hide well
worth tanning. This fish hide is said to make the strongest
leather known. It serves capitally for traces, and at one
time the Canadian mail-bags were made of it ; it will stand
much chafing, and hard wear makes little impression on it.
DOLPHIN (Delphinus delphis).
Coloured Plate XXX. Fig. 5.
The Dolphin in appearance more closely approaches the
fishes than any other of the Cetacean order, and sailors
often mistake for it the brilliantly coloured fish, the Cory-
phene, which feeds chiefly upon flying fish. In colour the
Dolphin is simply black above and white below. It grows
to a length of seven or eight feet. The head terminates in
a long, pointed, beak-like muzzle, and on each side of the
jaw are from thirty to fifty teeth, the lower of which under-
lock with the upper ones in rat-trap fashion.
The Dolphin is an insatiable fish-eater, and it makes fierce
raids upon the shoals of herrings, pilchards, and other fish
that abound on the British coasts. It has a cannibalistic
habit that is perhaps practised by no other Cetacean. Any
one of their number that is wounded is at once torn in
pieces and devoured by its voracious companions.
The flesh of the Dolphin is white, full of flavour, and
quite equal, if not superior, to cod, but for some undis-
covered reason it is sometimes poisonous. No examination
or application of any test will assist in marking any undesir-
able fish ; it can only be discovered when it is too late, and
the swollen face and distorted features appear to prove to
the unfortunate that he made an unwise choice.
Possibly in eating the Delphinus globiceps, or bottle-nosed
variety, there is less risk. The Faroe islanders in particular
catch thousands of them. After the removal of the fat,
which is rendered into oil, the flesh is cut into strips as
long as an arm, which are hung in and about the houses to
dry. The drying process may prove a sore olfactory trial to
visitors, but to the islanders the smell is the harbinger of
solid creature comforts that they cannot afford to despise.
28
4i8 WHALES AND DOLPHINS
KILLER WHALE (Orca gladiator).
Coloured Plate XXX. Fig. 4.
Of all the Dolphin family, the Killer or Grampus is one of
the largest, and at the same time easily the most ferocious.
Though it seldom exceeds twenty feet in length, the Orca
makes relentless war upon its relations, being the only
member of the Whale family that habitually feeds upon
marine mammals. That the Beluga should fall a prey to it
may not be a matter for surprise, but a party of half a dozen
killers will attack a Greenland Whale, whose bulk may be
a hundred times that of any one of these wolves of the
ocean. In the course of but a few minutes the leviathan
will be reduced to a broken, palpitating island of helpless
flesh. Having disabled their gigantic prey the ferocious
miniature Whales enter the mouth of the giant to make
feast upon its soft, succulent tongue. In an incredibly
short time hosts of sea-birds above, and myriads of fishes
below, in their office of ocean scavengers, set about the task
of disintegrating ^ the mighty mass that was so recently
instinct with life.*
Plate XXXI.
5. Great Anteater
Chapter XIV
ORDER IX.— EDENTATA
(TOOTHLESS ANIMALS)
General description of the Edentata— Three-
toed Sloth— Two-toed Sloth— Great Ant-eater
— Aard-vark — Pangolin — Armadillo.
CHAPTER XIV
Order IX. — Edentata
(Toothless Animals)
THE Edentates differ in many points of their structure
and still more widely in habits, but in respect of
their teeth they are easily in agreement. Some of them are
absolutely toothless, and those that can boast of any teeth at
all never have any in the front of the jaws, and those at the
back are usually of more or less imperfect formation,
without enamel and destitute of roots. The order consists
of but two tribes, and the existing species are far from
numerous. The Tardigrada,
or slow-paced tribe, con-
tains only the Sloths ; the
Effodentia, or diggers, in-
cludes Anteaters, Armadillos,
and Pangolins.
FAMILY BRADY-
PODID.E (SLOTHS).
The legs of animals are
put to a variety of uses —
running, jumping, swim-
ming, digging, or as hands
to seize prey and to convey
food to the mouth. The
Sloth possesses four legs,
but does not run, nor leap,
FORE FOOT OF THE THREE-TOED
SLOTH.
421
422 TOOTHLESS ANIMALS
rarely swims, and never digs. Of all the animals of creation,
the Sloths only hang. They live wholly in trees, not upon
the branches, but under them. In Waterton's own words,
'the Sloth moves suspended from a branch, he rests sus-
pended from it, and he sleeps suspended from it.'
Quite naturally one would infer that to lead such a life
the Sloths must possess very uncommon muscular powers.
A glance at the accompanying illustration will show that
strength does not of necessity enter into the question. The
claws are of enormous dimensions, converting the feet into
perfect hooks. ' When therefore the Sloth has hitched the
claws over a branch, no further exertion is required, the
suspension being purely mechanical/
On the ground the Sloth does not belie its name, for the
longer fore-arms and the huge incurved claws are ill-
adapted for walking. It can only make slow and painful
progression by digging the claws into any little depression
in the ground to assist in pulling itself along. Early
naturalists considered that life must be a burden to the
strange creature. But among the trees the Sloth is in its
element ; it may be the worst walker among mammals, but
it is certainly one of the best climbers.
THREE-TOED SLOTH (Brddypus tridactylus).
Coloured Plate XXXI. Fig. 2.
Of the several species of Sloths the best-known is the
Three-Toed Sloth, or Ai, the latter name being derived
from the low plaintive cry of the animal, which somewhat
resembles that syllable. It is a native of Brazil. It is but
two feet in length, but its shaggy coat gives it the appear-
ance of a much larger animal. The fur is coarse, mainly
brownish grey in colour, except between the shoulders of
the male, where is a narrow oval patch of black hair
fringed with yellow. This patch is exactly like the scorched
effect which the application of a hot iron would produce,
and at first sight it is difficult to believe that it is not of
artificial origin.
Owing to a vegetable alga which grows on the hairs, the
THE SLOTHS 423
coat of the Sloth very often assumes a greenish tint, which
assists to make it not easily distinguishable from its natural
surroundings. It is remorselessly hunted by the natives,
who regard its flesh as a great delicacy. Its natural enemies
are the serpents, but with its terrible claws it is enabled to
show fight to good purpose. The vitality of the sloth in
particular is remarkable in its approach to that of the
reptiles. It can fast for a period exceeding a month, and
appears to be impervious to doses of poison that would
speedily prove fatal in the case of at least most mammals.
The Sloth suckles its young like ordinary quadrupeds, the
young one adhering to the body of the parent until it can
take care of itself. The food of the animal is restricted to
SKELETON OF THE SLOTH.
leaves, shoots, and fruits, the moisture of which obviates the
necessity of drinking.
In one other particular the anatomy of the Sloth is
further modified to suit its peculiar mode of life. Up to
this stage in the mammal world it has been the invariable
rule that there should be exactly seven bones in the neck.
The Sloth possesses nine vertebrae, which enable it to twist
its head completely round in either direction while the
body remains motionless.
The Two-Toed Sloth (Cholcepus didactylus) is a larger
animal than the preceding species. When rolled up asleep
it looks more like a bundle of hay than a living creature.
The lack of a toe only refers to the fore feet, and in other
424 TOOTHLESS ANIMALS
respects the species too closely resemble each other to call
for separate description.
FAMILY MYRMECOPHAGID/E (ANT-EATERS).
The animals of this family are marked by long, thick hair
and a long tail, which in some species is prehensile. The
fore and hind limbs are of an equal length. All Ant-eaters
are quite devoid of teeth. In the long, tapering snout is
a slender, wormlike tongue, which is remarkably extensile
and covered with a glutinous saliva, to which the animal's
insect food adheres. Another distinguishing feature is the
heavily clawed toes of the fore feet, the third of which is
better armed than the others.
GREAT ANT-EATER (Myrmecophaga jubata).
Coloured Plate XXXI. Fig. 5.
The Great Ant-eater, Ant Bear, or Tamanoir, is a native
of South America. It attains a length of four feet, with
a tail three parts as long. The hair is stiff and bristly,
mainly ashy grey mingled with black, while there is a
conspicuous black stripe edged with white across the
shoulders. The tail is remarkably bushy and appears to
form the greater part of the animal. Owing to the length
of the claws, the Tamanoir cannot walk on the soles of the
fore feet, and, although there is not the same hindrance
in the case of the hind feet, its gait is extremely awkward.
The Tamanoir is exclusively an insect-eater, preferably
termites and ants and their larvae. Termites, or white ants,
as they are often wrongly called, are the most destructive of
insects, nothing except metal being able to resist their jaws.
But the Ant-eater with its claws assails their sugar-loaf
earthen nests, which are strong enough to support the
weight of wild cattle. Very speedily the contents are laid
bare and the Ant-eater protrudes its tongue to a length of
over a foot, and proceeds to lick up its insect delicacy.
Notwithstanding the peculiarly cunning expression of its
THE AARD-VARK 425
eye, this strange-looking animal is perfectly harmless, except
when it is roused to defend itself. Its sole method of
fighting is to seize its antagonist in its powerful arms,
seeking to drive its claws into its body. Dogs are often
killed in this manner, and it is recorded that hunters have
succumbed to the animal's fierce clasp, in which the terrible
claws have penetrated to the heart. It is sometimes asserted
that the Tamanoir is a match for the jaguar, a statement
rather easily disposed of when one remembers that the
American ' tiger' could despatch the slow-going animal
by a blow of its paw, to say nothing of one bite with its
terrible teeth.
Ant-eaters, in common with the Sloths, are exceedingly
difficult to kill. The tough skin resists an ordinary small
hunting-knife, and battering the skull with heavy stones
will do no more than temporarily stun the animals.
Even in its native regions the Great Ant-eater is nowhere
common, and it is nocturnal, like all Edentates, which
increases the difficulty of learning some of its habits. It is
a lonely animal, spending the daytime folded up in the tall
grass. Its single young one is carried about on the parent's
back for a long time, very often until another is born to
displace it.
FAMILY ORYCTEROPID^.
AARD-VARK (Orycteropus capensis).
Plate XLI. Fig. 2.
The Aard-vark in its general build, long, viscid tongue, and
burrowing claws, possesses the typical characteristics of the
Myrmecophaga. The Great Ant-eater is a strange-looking
creature that, even with its coloured coat and its luxuriant
tail, can lay no claims to beauty ; but the Aard-vark, with
hair as scanty as many species of pig and with a tapering
cylindrical tail, has more the appearance of a reptile than
a mammal. The ears are exceedingly large, the long, narrow
snout is decidedly porcine, and but for its arched back
would convey a tolerable notion of a short-legged pig. The
426 TOOTHLESS ANIMALS
Boers, indeed, gave the name < Earth-pig' to the Cape
Aard-vark, not only on account of its appearance, but
also because of its confirmed habit of deep burrowing.
To complete the appropriateness of the name, it may be
mentioned that the hindquarters of the animal are cured in
the same manner as hams, and are almost, if not quite,
equally esteemed.
Although the Aard-
vark does not possess
such claws as the
Tamanoir, it is a capital
burrower, and in an
SKULL o7THE CAPE ANT-EATER. incredibly short time it
can bury its body even
in sun-baked earth. During the day it remains in its
burrow, but at night it sets out to attack the nests of ants
and termites. It is an exceedingly shy and retiring animal,
and for a long time naturalists could obtain but little
definite knowledge of its habits. An Ethiopian species
possesses a still longer head and ears and a thicker coating
of hair. It gives birth to but a single young one at a
time, which it suckles for quite a long period.
FAMILY MANIOC (PANGOLINS).
PANGOLIN (Manis longicaudd).
Coloured Plate XXXI. Fig. 3.
The Pangolins are restricted to Asia and Africa. The
figured specimen represents the characteristics of the species
found in either continent. They are armoured, not with
plates, but with overlapping scales like the tiles upon the
roof of a house ; or, as a writer picturesquely expresses it,
they resemble ' an animated spruce-fir cone furnished with
a head and legs/
These scaly Ant-eaters are toothless, and possess the
typical extensile tongue of the Edentates, and their feet
are armed with excellent burrowing claws. Ants are their
staple food. Stones are very often found in the stomach of
THE ARMADILLO 427
the Pangolin. It may be that in the dark they are inad-
vertently swept up by the viscid tongue ; but it may equally
be that they are swallowed purposely to serve as grinders in
the gizzard-like stomach.
The Phatagin (Manis tetraddctyla), a West African species,
has a long tail, while the Pangolin of India (Manis
penddctyla) has a short one. One of the latter species,
kept as a pet, endangered the foundations of the house by
its constant burrowing. Desiring to kill it, the owner fired
at it with a Colt's revolver. The ball failed to penetrate the
armour, only knocking the animal over and causing it
to roll itself into a ball. A second shot recoiled upon
the firer and bruised him. Eventually he despatched the
animal by inserting a dagger between the scales and
driving it home with a mallet.
FAMILY DASYPODID^E (ARMADILLOS).
ARMADILLO (Dasypus sexcinctus).
Coloured Plate XXXI. Fig. i.
There are several species of Armadillo, all of which are
found in tropical or sub-tropical America. A description of
any one species will practically serve for the whole family.
They are comparatively small animals, very distinctively
SKELETON OF THE ARMADILLO.
clothed with plates of bony armour, in the centre of the
body so arranged as to permit sufficient freedom of move-
ment to allow the animal to roll itself up for the protect-
tion of the softer under parts. One of the smaller species,
428 TOOTHLESS ANIMALS
the Apara, or Bolita (Tatusia tricinta), can thus defy even a
jaguar who desires a toothsome morsel.
The Armadillo has an extensile tongue, with which it
gathers up ants and other insects. It exhibits great adroit-
ness in capturing a snake, sawing the reptile in pieces with
the jagged edges of its armour. But most of the family are
omnivorous, welcoming alike animal or vegetable food,
fresh or putrid.
For its size the Armadillo, or Poyu, as it is also called,
has powerful claws, and its burrowing powers are corre-
spondingly great. The animal is a natural scavenger and
renders good service in the removal of decaying animal
matter. In South America a dead horse on the plains is no
uncommon circumstance. The Armadillo will enter into
the carcass and make its home on the spot as long as there
is anything left to eat. The natives acknowledge the
animal's good services in such a case, but they wish it
would manifest a little more discrimination, and then it
would not be necessary for them to line the graves of their
dead with boards to keep the scavenging burrower from
feeding on the corpses of the departed.
Armadillos of whatever kind live in burrows and are
mainly nocturnal. There are rarely more than four young
ones at a birth, and they are born fully armoured, but with
the plates in a soft and flexible condition.
Chapter XV
ORDER X.— MARSUPIALIA
(POUCHED ANIMALS)
General description of the Marsupialia— Great
Grey Kangaroo — Tree Kangaroo — Wallaby —
Rat Kangaroo — Family Phalangitidae : Spotted
Cuscus — Flying Phalanger— Koala — Wombat
— Bandicoot — Family Dasyuridae : Tasmanian
Devil or Ursine Dasyure — Tasmanian Wolf or
Thylacine— Phascologales— Banded Ant-eater
— Pouched Mole— Opossum.
Plate XXXH.
.Kangaroo
CHAPTER XV
Order X. — Marsupialia
(Pouched Animals)
HT^HE animals of this order show such remarkable
1 modifications of structure that they are easily dis-
tinguished from those of other divisions of the animal
world. The Latin word marsupium means a pouch or bag,
which is the most marked feature of nearly all the female
Marsupials, which originally caused them to be called
' Purse-bearing animals.' Strangely enough, some of the
males possess a pouch that can by no means be called
rudimentary. The skin of the lower part of the abdomen of
the female is doubled upwards in a fold to form a pouch in
which are the teats. Into this receptacle the young are
introduced while they are in a very immature state,
and there they remain until they are able to shift for
themselves.
Reference to the skeleton of the Kangaroo, or the
Opossum, will show the remarkable prong-like marsupial
bones projecting upwards and forwards from the pelvis.
Their purpose is to prevent the weight of the young
pressing unduly upon the abdomen of the parent, which
would incommode, if not prevent, rapid progression. The
pouch is modified in various members of the order ; in some
cases it opens backwards ; in others it is the merest rudi-
mentary skin fold ; and in at least one instance it is replaced
by but a patch of longer hair.
The various families of the Marsupials differ very con-
siderably in their diet. Many of them are strictly herbi-
431
432
POUCHED ANIMALS
vorous, some of them are insectivorous, and more than a few
are entirely carnivorous. It practically follows in conse-
quence that there will be more or less marked differences
in various of their organs, notably those of progression,
prehension, and digestion. In one respect the Marsupials
are upon the same footing : they possess a very simple type
of brain with a corresponding low degree of intelligence.
SKELETON OF THE KANGAROO.
Apart from their own special and peculiar characteristics,
it would not be difficult to allocate most of the Marsupials
to various other orders. The Kangaroo, in its head and
eyes, wonderfully resembles the Deer family, and it is said
actually to ruminate sometimes ; the Wombat is not unlike
the Marmot ; the Bandicoot and Banded Ant-eater closely
approach the Insectivora ; the Opossum and Phalanger
are practically arboreal Rodents, in some cases approxi-
THE KANGAROO 433
mating to the Flying Squirrel ; and the Tasmanian Wolf,
Tasmanian Devil, and the native Cats, in habits and food,
might easily pass for typical carnivores.
The Marsupials are not only distinguished from the rest
of the animal world by fundamental structural differences,
they are equally separated by geographical location. Ex-
cept for the American Opossums, the whole order is
restricted to Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and a few
adjacent islands, and save only a few small Rodents,
Australia possesses no other indigenous animals.
FAMILY MACROPODID.E (KANGAROOS).
GREAT GREY KANGAROO (Macropus giganteus).
Coloured Plate XXXII. Fig. 6.
In this family, whose generic name means ' long-footed/
we find the largest as well as the smallest of the Marsupials,
suggestive of reflections of the jumping Rodents, such as
the jerboa and the chinchilla. In many respects the general
form of the Kangaroo is very much like that of the jerboa,
the hind legs being exceedingly long.
The Great Grey Kangaroo is the most familiar of twenty-
four known species. A full-grown male attains a length
of five feet from the tip of the nose to the root of the
tail, and weighs anything from a hundred and fifty to two
hundred pounds. The neck is thin and finely propor-
tioned, and from it the body expands in pear-shaped
fashion to the strong hindquarters. The hind legs, three
and a half feet in length, are usually the only limbs used
for progression ; the fore legs are only half as long, and
are used chiefly as hands, the food being taken with them
and held to the mouth. The fore feet each end in five
toes, all fitted with strong, curved nails. The hind feet
usually have four toes, one of which is nearly a foot in
length and armed with a particularly large and solid nail
that renders the toe a powerful and formidable claw. The
teeth of the Kangaroo are interesting in their structure, the
chief points being the singularly long, flattened, and pro-
29
434
POUCHED ANIMALS
jecting incisors of the lower jaw, the absence of canine
teeth, and the peculiarly ridged surface of the molars.
The tail of the Kangaroo— thick, strong, and tapering— is
over three feet in length and a foot in circumference at its
base. It acts as a supplemental limb when the animal
assumes an erect or sitting posture, with the hind legs
forming an excellent tripod. It is also of use as a balance
in leaping, and as a weapon it can deal a blow capable of
breaking a man's leg. When feeding, or walking short dis-
tances on all fours, the Kangaroo is exceedingly clumsy ;
but when alarmed it travels at a great speed in a series of
leaps, of as much as twenty feet, and clearing with ease
obstacles nine and ten feet in height.
The woolly fur is usually brown in colour, lightening to
grey, especially on the under side ; the tail is tipped with
black. The skin when
tanned forms a soft and
/ x durable shoe leather.
No mammal in any of
the orders previously
described is produced at
birth in such an unde-
veloped state as the
TEETH OF THE GREAT KANGAROO. young Kangaroo. Pro-
fessor Owen, from close
observation in the Zoological Gardens, described the
young marsupial as resembling more than anything else an
earthworm in the colour and transparency of its integu-
ment. Yet though little more than an inch in length, it
breathed slowly but strongly, while it adhered to one of the
four nipples to which the mother applies her young with
her mouth. The newly born little animal is too weak to
obtain milk by sucking. This difficulty is met by the
parent contracting a muscle of the mammary gland to
inject the liquid into the mouth of her progeny until it
gains sufficient strength to feed itself.
There is only one young one at a birth. Before it leaves
the pouch it may be seen poking out its head to nibble the
herbage among which the mother is moving. Even after it
is able to make fair progression it will fly to the pouch when
THE KANGAROO 435
danger threatens, and it is remarkable how adroitly an old
doe will gather up her young one while she herself is in
full flight.
Big males are called by the colonials ' Boomer/ ' Forester/
or ' Old Man.' A female, especially before she has borne
young, is called a ' Flying Doe ' ; while a young one carried
by the mother is known as ' Joey.'
A Kangaroo hunt is an exciting sport, in which the
animal displays astonishing pace and staying power.
British foxhounds would be useless in the chase, for
which are engaged a special breed of greyhounds called
Kangaroo dogs.
All Kangeroos are timid, and at the least token of danger
seek safety in flight ; but when brought to bay a full-grown
male is no mean opponent. Woe betide the dog that comes
within reach of the great claw, for its hunting days will end
with one stroke of the knife-like weapon. If the ' Boomer '
can reach water he will enter it up to his shoulders, and
await the approach of a dog, which he will seize in his
fore paws and hold under water until it is drowned. Even
a man will come to grief badly if the desperate animal can
take hold of him.
The female displays less powers of flight and less
courage at close quarters. She always seeks cover, and
by powerful leaps to the side endeavours to throw the
dogs off the scent. When very hard pressed she will fling
her young one into the bushes as she hurtles along.
This action is often viewed as an effort at self-preserva-
tion— in sailor parlance 'lightening the ship/ Upon the
other hand, it may be only evidence of the mother's
affection for her offspring, merely a desire to give it an
opportunity of escape, when for herself there remains no
single loophole.
The Great Grey Kangaroo, like all its near relations, is
entirely herbivorous. It is gregarious, and herds of from
thirty to fifty made inroads on grass pastures that greatly
displeased the early Australian sheep-farmers. Apart from
this, the flesh of the Kangaroo is greatly esteemed ; in fact,
the animal was formerly to the aborigines what the bison
was to the red man or the seal still is to the Eskimo. The
436 POUCHED ANIMALS
natives converted the skin into sacks in which to carry the
little impedimenta with which the benighted savage troubles
to load himself ; the bones served for rude needles, and the
tendons, especially of the tail, provided string or thread.
The great cutting nail of the hind foot made a very
serviceable spear tip.
The flesh of all the herbivorous marsupials is uniformly
good for food. Of the larger Kangaroos, the forequarters
are usually the perquisite of the dogs that have run the
quarry down ; but from the hindquarters may be cut some
very fine steaks. Cooked in the same manner as venison
collops, they are little inferior to the flesh of the deer. But
the most highly prized part is the tail, which in the case
of a ' Boomer ' will weigh as much as twelve pounds. It
makes a soup that causes the best oxtail to take a very
decided second place.
The Great Grey Kangaroo is a plain and forest dweller,
but other species are found even on the snowy summits
of the Australian mountains. The Woolly, or Red
Kangaroo (Macropus rufus), is slightly larger than the
Great Grey. It has a naked face, and inhabits rocky
districts, but in build and general habits it presents no
points worthy of separate notice, a remark which applies
equally to several other of the larger species.
The Tree Kangaroos, found in New Guinea and Northern
Queensland, form a distinct and remarkable group (Plate
XLIII. Fig. i). In size they are only about one-third as
large as the foregoing ; there is no great difference in the
length of the fore and hind legs, and there is no markedly
prominent toe. Though it was long doubted, the fact is
established beyond all question that these animals climb
trees. It may be that they adopted an arboreal habit
in order to obtain better food than existed on the
surface of the ground, for they possess no special modi-
fication of limbs to enable them to climb trees other than
clumsily.
Kangaroos are easily domesticated. They thrive well in
England, where the climate is more favourable than in
some of their native regions. At Tring Park, Lord
Rothschild's estate, troops of the graceful animals may
PLATE XLIII.
i. TREE KANGAROO. 2. RED-NECKED WALLABY.
(See page 437)
(Photo W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.)
(Phoio W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S.
PLATE XLIV.
i. SPOTTED CUSCUS.
(See page 439)
2. RAT KANGAROO.
(See page 438)
(Photos W. S. Bcrridge, F.Z.S.).
THE WALLABY 437
be seen, at least as happy as though they were in the
bush of the great Southern Continent.
WALLABY.
Under the colonial and unscientific name of Wallaby
are included numerous species of the smaller and brighter
coloured Kangaroos. Any differences in their structure
are either too trifling or too technical for discussion in a
rather elementary and chatty account of animal life. In-
habiting the dense scrub, various species are styled Brush
Kangaroos, the largest of which, the Red-necked Wallaby
(Macropus ruficollis), Plate XLIII. Fig. 2, is about forty
inches long in the body, with a tail of thirty inches. Their
leaping powers are little less than those of the greater
Kangaroos.
Of various other species classed as Small Wallabies,
some of which are the size of a rabbit, the ' Padamelon '
(Macropus theditis), with a body twenty-six inches long, is
perhaps the commonest, especially in New South Wales and
Victoria.
The Rock Wallabies inhabit the rugged and more arid
regions. The largest of them, the Yellow-footed Rock
Wallaby (Petrogale xanthopus), is the gaudiest of the
Kangaroo tribe. The fur on the back is principally grey,
with a very definite black streak running from the top of
the head between the ears to the middle of the back. Above
the eye is a yellow spot, and below it appears a white stripe
with a similar one from the elbow to the hip. The chin
and under parts are white. The ears and the lower
portions of the limbs are yellow, and on the tail are
alternate brown and yellow rings. The Short-eared Rock
Wallaby (Petrogale brachyotis) is sufficiently described in its
name.
The Hare Wallabies, in size and appearance and not a
few of their habits, somewhat resemble the common hare,
and, like that animal, their flesh is delicious. A ' Padamelon'
of twelve or fourteen pounds in weight, cooked like a hare,
is a dish to satisfy the most fastidious gourmand.
438 POUCHED ANIMALS
BAT-KANGAROO (Hypsiprymnus rufescens}.
Plate XLIV. Fig. 2.
The Potoroo, of which there are several species, is
generally known as the Rat-Kangaroo. The latter is not
a particularly happy name, for, though the fore limbs are
proportionately longer and the hind limbs less powerful,
in form and habits the little animal is a perfect Kangaroo
in miniature. The chief variations lie in the Potoroo's
different dentition, its narrower fore feet, and sometimes
its partially prehensile tail.
Even the largest Rat-Kangaroo seldom exceeds the size of
a rabbit. Some of them are clothed with dense and often
beautiful fur. The whole of the nine species are harmless
and timid ; they are nocturnal, feeding on grass, leaves,
and roots. The little Potoroo has only one young at a
birth, and, like all marsupials, there is only one birth during
the year. If a similar statement could be made concerning
the common rat it would cease to be viewed as a dangerous
and expensive pest.
Except by the Australian blacks, the Rat-Kangaroo is
little used as food. White men are prejudiced against it
by its popular name, although in reality the flesh of the
Potoroo is not unlike that of rabbit.
FAMILY PHALANGITID.E (PHALANGERS).
The Phalanger family includes various animals of
moderate size with notably common features, the chief
of which, as the name implies, is the union of the second
and third toes of the hind foot. All of them are thickly
clothed with short, woolly hair, often beautiful in colour
and rich in texture. The tail is usually long and more or
less prehensile ; in many cases it is bushy, but sometimes
hair appears only at the base, and it is scaly towards the
extremity. The fore paws are strong and specially adapted
for grasping and for life among the branches of trees, where
most of the animals spend their lives. The Phalangers
THE PHALANGERS 439
are nocturnal, and while some are quite herbivorous, there
are others with carnivorous inclinations.
SPOTTED OUSOUS (Phalanger maculatus).
Plate XLIV. Fig. i.
Of five different species of Cuscus, usually about the size
of the common cat, the Spotted Cuscus is the most notice-
able, if only for the male's remarkably handsome coat. Upon
a groundwork of yellowish white are irregular patches of
reddish brown and black ; the white under parts are often
tinged with yellow or red, while the head and limbs are
greyish red. Other species are mainly grey and black. The
Grey Cuscus (Phalanger orientalis) of Amboyna, Timor, &c.,
was the first Australasian mammal known to Europeans,
having been discovered and described as early as the open-
ing years of the seventeenth century.
To return to the Spotted Cuscus. Its tail has the terminal
portion completely naked ; the feet are furnished with strong
curved claws, and the hind ones, further, are fitted with
fleshy pads, which assist stealthy descent upon birds and
small animals. By night it is as active as by day it
is dull and sleepy. ' They live in trees,' says Mr. Wallace,
1 feeding upon the leaves, of which they devour large quan-
tities. They move about slowly, and are difficult to kill,
owing to the thickness of their fur and their tenacity of life.
A heavy charge of shot will often lodge in the skin and do
them no harm, and even breaking the spine or piercing the
brain will not kill them for hours/ As the animals are
slow in motion, when disturbed, as they lie coiled up in the
trees in the day-time, they are easily caught by the natives
for their flesh ; and but for the rather sparse population the
Cuscus would speedily be exterminated.
TRUE PHALANGERS.
The True Phalangers are usually called Opossums in
Australia. They differ in various minor details from the
440 POUCHED ANIMALS
Cuscuses, but there is no mistaking the long tail, which is
bushy to its very tip. The Vulpine Phalanger (Trichosurus
vulpecula), as its specific name implies, is fox-like in its
general appearance. The teeth are not specially character-
istic, and differ considerably in the various genera. The
animal can exist upon vegetable food, but it is fond of
insects, small reptiles, and eggs. It captures birds very
much in the same fashion as does the lemur, by creeping
noiselessly upon its prey and seizing it while it is asleep.
The Phalanger always commences its feast by crushing the
head and devouring the brain. The flesh of the animal has
a peculiar camphorated flavour, the result of the camphor-
perfumed leaves upon which it feeds. Nevertheless it is a
favourite food of the Australian black man, and the sight of
an ' Opossum ' will shake the aborigine out of his accustomed
lethargy, and inspire him even to fell a tree rather than
forgo his prize.
FLYING PHALANGER (Petaurus taguanides).
Coloured Plate XXXII. Fig. 5.
The most interesting members of the Phalanger family
are the Flying Phalangers, of which the one figured is the
most highly developed example. The distinguishing feature
is a hairy membrane or fold of the skin which extends along
the flanks, and which is capable of being used as a parachute
to enable the animal to leap great distances, after the fashion
of the Colugo and the Flying Squirrel. The membrane,
which appears along both fore and hind legs, does not
extend beyond the latter. Nor does it include the long
bushy tail, the hair of which is arranged to render it useful
as a support, as well as a rudder to guide the animal through
the air. 'When chased or forced to flight, it ascends to
the highest branch and performs the most enormous leaps,
sweeping from tree to tree with wonderful address ; a slight
ascent gives its body an impetus which, with the expansion
of the membrane, enables it to pass to a considerable dis-
tance, always ascending a little at the extremity of the leap ;
by this ascent the animal is prevented from receiving the
THE KOALA 441
shock it would otherwise sustain/ It sweeps from tree to
tree with a bewildering rapidity, but, nevertheless, its move-
ments cannot be described as true flight, any more than
those of the colugo, polatouche, or anomalure described
in earlier chapters.
In the Great Flying Phalanger (Petauroides volans), an
animal with a body twenty inches in length, the flying
membrane is considerably reduced. The Pigmy Flying
Phalanger (Acrobates pygmcea) is only three inches in
length, with a tail longer than the body. Its fur is long
and silky. Notwithstanding the smallness of the creature
it has a perfectly developed pouch. The tail greatly re-
sembles a feather in its perfect arrangement of the hair in
two opposite fringes.
KOALA (Phascolarctus dnereus}.
Plate XLVI. Fig. i.
The Koala is a type differing so widely from the fore-
going Phalangers as to form in itself a separate sub-family.
It is a podgy, tailless, woolly clothed animal with a short,
thick-set head and round, tufted ears. It is often absurdly
called the Australian Bear, with which animal it has little in
common beyond a resemblance to the woolly toy mon-
strosity that is so popular in nurseries. Owing to the
facility with which it can climb trees it is frequently called
the ' Native Monkey,' in comparison with which it is in
reality the veriest sluggard ; and it altogether lacks the
volatile temperament of the four-handed beast.
The Koala is one of the most sedentary animals imagin-
able. It will live in the same tree for days, or even weeks,
if the supply of leaves and flowers upon which it feeds does
not give out. The female has only one young one at a
time, which is carried about on its mother's back until it
is half her own size. Being perfectly harmless and posi-
tively droll in appearance, the Koala frequently becomes
a household pet. Sometimes, however, it gives way to
sudden gusts of rage, and yells shrilly in rather an alarming
manner.
442 POUCHED ANIMALS
FAMILY PHASCOLOMYID^E (WOMBATS).
COMMON WOMBAT (Phascolomys mitchelli}.
Coloured Plate XXXI. Fig. 4.
Of all the marsupials the Wombats, of which there are
three species, are the most rodent-like. The colonists call
them Bears and Badgers, and there is some excuse for
the latter, as the animals excavate remarkably large earth
burrows for dwelling-places. A description of the Common
Wombat will serve for the whole family. It is clumsy in
body, which is covered with coarse hair, brownish grey or
even black and yellow, which thickens considerably towards
SKELETON OF THE WOMBAT.
the hindquarters. Its hide is particularly tough, and with
its thick harsh fur makes most durable door-mats. The
dentition of the animal is worthy of notice ; throughout its
life its teeth grow without interruption. In each jaw are
a pair of powerful incisor teeth strongly suggestive of the
Rodents. All the toes, except the great toe of the hind
foot, are fitted with claws. The hind feet are partially
webbed. Thanks to its heavy body and its short legs, the
gait of the animal is only a rolling waddle.
The Wombat is nocturnal and feeds upon grass and other
vegetable substances. It is distributed over nearly all
Australia and Tasmania. Though with its incisor teeth it
can bite severely, the animal is shy, and rarely offers resist-
ance if captured during daylight. It is said to possess the
power of sustaining life under water for quite a long time.
THE BANDICOOT 443
If in its travels it encounters water, it makes no attempt to
swim across it, but walks along the bottom until it can
emerge on the other side.
The flesh of the Wombat is said to be not unlike venison
in taste, and as a full-grown animal will scale as much as
a hundred and forty pounds, its capture means a welcome
addition to the hunter's larder. Owing to the depth of the
creature's burrow, even a hungry native views with dis-
favour the task of digging it out, and prefers to wait to
catch it by some less laborious method.
FAMILY PERAMELID^E (BANDICOOTS).
BANDICOOT (Perameles nasuta).
Coloured Plate XXXII. Fig. i.
The Bandicoots, little insectivorous Kangaroos, with their
long slender snouts, though larger, are something similar
to the Shrews in general appearance. About sixteen inches
in length, exclusive of the tapering, cylindrical tail, their
build is stout but clumsy. The hind feet are of the same
type as in the Kangaroos. The fur in colour is grizzled
yellowish brown, but in the Banded Perameles there are
four or five pale bands vertically crossing the hindquarters.
The Rabbit Bandicoot (Peragale lagotis) and the Pig-footed
Bandicoot (Chceropus castanotis) are species whose names
indicate their distinguishing features. The pouch opens
towards the hinder part of the body. In movement, owing
to the greater length of the hind legs, all Bandicoots make
progression in hare and rabbit fashion. They are the com-
monest of the Australian marsupials, much to the regret of
the colonists. Omnivorous in their diet, they eat roots,
berries, and almost any vegetable substance, to which they
add insects and worms. They do immense damage in
the settled districts, ravaging cultivated fields and working
havoc in granaries ; and for this even a delicious meal of
roasted Bandicoot the farmer does not consider sufficient
atonement.
444 POUCHED ANIMALS
FAMILY DASYURID^E (DASYURES).
What the colonists call Native Cats are carnivorous mar-
supials of civet-like appearance. Though they are mild and
inoffensive in aspect, in reality they are as bloodthirsty as
the stoats and weasels of the Northern Hemisphere. About
the size of an ordinary cat, the body is freely spotted with
white upon a groundwork of brown or grey. There are
five species, of which the Spotted Dasyure (Dasyurus
maculatus), Plate XLV. Fig. i, is well known in Australia
and Tasmania. They are all arboreal in habit, coming
out of the hollows in the gum-trees in search of birds and
smaller marsupials. But the outlying colonials' hen-roosts
often bear testimony to the fact that the Dasyures have a
liking for prey that calls for little trouble in the hunting.
TASMANIAN DEVIL (Dasyurus ursinus).
Plate XLV. Fig. 2.
The Ursine Dasyure is popularly known as the 'Tas-
manian Devil,' which appellation does not suggest that
the animal possesses any very lovable characteristics. Its
reputation, indeed, is blacker than its coat, which here and
there shows redeeming patches of white. Except for its
longer tail this ugly Dasyure
generally resembles a bear,
or what a bear might be if
it grew no bigger than a
badger. It is shortish, with
a broad head, and its mouth
is furnished with teeth dis-
TEETH OF THE DASYURE. tinctly carnivorous in
character. It is strictly a
nocturnal animal, scarcely able to see in daylight, during
which it coils itself up in a cave, other rocky lair, or a
burrow of its own construction, from which at night it
issues to prey upon any living creature that it can over-
power. Mammals, reptiles, or even dead fish on the sea-
shore are all welcome to this voracious feeder.
PLATE XLV.
I. SPOTTED DASYURE.
2. TASMAXIAN DEVIL.
(Photos W. S. Ber ridge, F3.S.)
PLATE XLVI.
i. KOALA AND CUB.
(See page 441)
2. THYLACINE.
(Photo W. Saville-Kenl, F.Z.S.)
(Photo L. Medland, F.Z.S.)
THE TASMANIAN WOLF 445
The Ursine Dasyure proved a positive scourge to the
earlier Tasmanian sheep and poultry farmers ; and Govern-
ment action was necessary to remove a menace to the
prosperity of the colony. As late as thirty years ago in
one winter over a hundred savage depredators were cap-
tured within the confines of one large farm. Nowadays
the animal is found only in the less settled districts.
THYLACINE (Thylacinus cynocephalus) .
Plate XLVI. Fig. 2.
The Thylacine, or Tasmanian Wolf, is the largest of the
carnivorous marsupials. A casual observer would immedi-
ately classify it as a member of the canine family ; and,
indeed, it bears a more general resemblance to the wolf
than the Ursine Dasyure does to the bear. But the Tas-
manian Wolf is undoubtedly a true marsupial, with a well
developed pouch, although the marsupial bones are re-
placed by cartilages. The pouch opens backwards and
not forwards, as in the Kangaroos.
Very dog-like, narrow-muzzled, and clean-limbed, the
Thylacine attains a length of four or five feet, including the
tail. Its coat is mainly greyish brown with a dozen or
more transverse black bands across the back and loins,
which gain for it the title Zebra-wolf.
Hunting by scent like a true dog, the Thylacine exhibits
tremendous staying powers. For hours on end in a steady
canter it will track down kangaroos, wallabies, and smaller
marsupials, leaving its young to follow at their leisure to
join in the feast that will probably await them. Nothing
could have suited it better than for sheep to have been
introduced into its native regions. The imported flocks
speedily suffered to such an extent that the Tasmanian
Government put a price upon the heads of the marauding
tribe ; and this, in conjunction with the increasing settle-
ment of the island, has led to the extermination of the
Thylacine except in the more secluded mountainous
regions.
446 POUCHED ANIMALS
PHASOOLOGALES (POUCHED WEASELS).
Only about the size of the common rat are the Phascolo-
gales, of which genus there are over a dozen weasel or
rat-like species in Australia and New Guinea. They are
arboreal and insectivorous, and climb trees in search of
their insect prey. In all probability they have larger
families at a birth than any other marsupial. The pouch is
not the usually well-defined bag, but consists of mere loose
folds of skin, in some cases with ten teats instead of four,
as in the Kangaroos and Phalangers. The best known is
the brush-tailed Phascologale (Phascologale penicillata), a
pretty little animal that will make its nest in barns and
similar buildings, instead of in the hollows of trunks of
trees or even amid the branches.
Smaller still are the Pouched Mice. One of the smallest
species known is the Jerboa Pouched Mouse (Antechinomys
laniger). Its hind limbs being abnormally long, it is enabled
to make progression by leaps and bounds in the same
fashion as the jerboa, or the head of the marsupials, the
Kangaroo.
BANDED ANT-EATER (Myrmecobius fasciatus).
Coloured Plate XXXII. Fig. 2.
In some respects the Banded Ant-eater is one of the
most remarkable of the marsupials. In Southern and
Western Australia, to which it is limited, it is known as the
4 Squirrel,' although it lives mainly on the ground. It is a
true ant-eater, in the possession of a long extensile tongue.
Paradoxically it is a marsupial without a pouch. It has not
even the shallowest of skin folds. The young, sometimes
to the number of eight, attach themselves to the nipples
which lie hidden in the patch of extra long hair that clothes
the abdomen of the female. But if the Banded Ant-eater
lacks the great distinctive feature of the marsupials, it can
boast of more teeth than any other animal in the whole
order. It possesses fifty-two teeth, which number is only
exceeded by the armadillos and some of the Cetacea.
THE OPOSSUM 447
FAMILY NOTORYCTID^.
POUCHED MOLE (Notoryctes typhlops).
Coloured Plate XXXII. Fig. 3.
The Marsupial, or Pouched, Mole inhabits the sandy
plains in the region of Lake Eyre. It is about five inches
in length, or the same size as the European common mole.
In colour it is light fawn, varying to golden yellow. The
most remarkable feature of the animal is the abnormal
size of the third and fourth toes of the fore limbs. They
are scoop-like claws of great power, eminently serviceable
to the animal in its sand-burrowing habits. It appears to
spend its whole life in burrowing. Pressing its belly along
the ground, it moves with a slow, sinuous motion for a few
feet on the surface, and then, entering the sand obliquely, it
burrows along at a depth of only two or three inches.
Presently it will emerge to repeat the process. Probably
no live specimens have been brought to Europe, for the
animal will not eat food provided for it by its captors.
FAMILY DIDELPHIDJE (OPOSSUMS).
OPOSSUM (Didelphys dorsigerus).
Coloured Plate XXXII. Fig. 4.
Without exception the marsupials already described are
Australasian, but save the kangaroo and its allies the
American Opossum (Didelphys virginiana) is perhaps the
best known and certainly not the least interesting of
the pouched animals.
The locality of the American Opossum is indicated in its
specific name ; it abounds in the warmer parts of North
America, extending considerably north of Virginia. In form
it is robust and in size about that of an ordinary cat. The
colour of its fine woolly fur ranges from white to black, and
includes numerous varieties of intermixture. The out-
standing feature of the Opossum is its pre-eminently pre-
448
POUCHED ANIMALS
hensile tail, which is not quite so long as its body. There
are five toes on each foot, possessing long and sharp claws,
except in the case of the right foot, the inner toe of which
is an opposable thumb without a claw. It is thus well
fitted for life among the trees, around the branches of which
it can twist its tail for additional security, or especially when
its claws are partly occupied while devouring its prey.
The muzzle of the Opossum is long and pointed ; the
mouth is wide and fitted with fifty teeth, with which to
grind up its varied provender of leaves, tender shoots, and
berries, insects, lizards, eggs, and birds. In the case of the
last named the animal only sucks the blood and does not
SKELETON OF THE CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM.
eat the flesh. Its appetite is insatiable, and it is an annoy-
ance to the fruit-grower, and a positive pest to the poultry
farmer. While eating, it frequently uses all four feet as
hands, twisting its tail round a branch and trusting alone
to it for support.
There are usually a dozen or more young ones at a birth.
They are blind and naked, and the little immature creatures
cling to the mother's teats so firmly that they can only be
moved by violence. In less than a week they leave the
pouch, scampering back to their retreat at the least alarm.
When thus sheltering her young the mother will suffer any
torture rather than allow the pouch to be opened.
No other mammal, not even the fox, can surpass the
THE OPOSSUM 449
Opossum in pertinacity and cunning. Caught red-handed
in one of its marauding excursions, or captured under any
other circumstances, the slightest blow causes it immediately
to feign death, even to the extent of a protruding tongue
and film-covered eyes. It may be battered almost beyond
recognition and will lie where it has been ignominiously
flung without so much as the flicker of an eyelid. The
moment, however, that its captor takes attention from it,
the presumably dead animal regains its feet and effects its
escape. ' Possuming ' is a slang term that has thus come
into use to denote the acme of human artfulness and
deceit.
Merian's Opossum (Didelphys dorsigerus) is a wonderfully
pretty species of Opossum which lives in Surinam, and is
named in compliment to Madame Merian, who described
and figured it in the year 1719. It is scarcely larger than
a good-sized mouse, the body measuring only six inches
from the nose to the root of the tail. It has scarcely a
vestige of pouch, and so, robbed of this advantage, it
carries its young on its back, curling its tail over, so as to
allow the little ones to twist their tails around it. With her
progeny thus secured from falling, and herself quite unin-
convenienced, the mother, a combination of perambulator
and feeding-bottle, can pursue her way in comfort. Even
some of the larger Opossums adopt this method of carrying
their young.
The Crab-eating Opossum (Didelphys cancrivorus), Plate
XLVII. Fig. 2, although it finds most of its food on the
ground, and even on the shore, is essentially an arboreal
animal, the long prehensile tail being of great service to it
among the branches. On the ground it is slow and clumsy,
as is not infrequently the case with arboreal animals. As
suggested by its name, the creature feeds upon the smaller
Crustacea as well as on the birds, small mammals, insects,
&c., which form the usual food of an Opossum.
The Yapock, or Water Opossum (Chironectes yapock), of
Guiana, is the marsupial representative of the beaver and
other aquatic rodents. The hind feet are webbed, and the
fore feet are remarkable for appearing to have six toes.
This, however, is not the case, the apparent toe being in
3°
4So POUCHED ANIMALS
reality a development of one of the wrist bones, which is
much elongated, so as to support the web. This is but
another illustration of the oft-repeated axiom that there is
no waste in nature. In point of colour the Yapock is
the most striking of all the Opossums, the hue of the fur
being grey, crossed by four bands of deep black, and
having a band of the same colour running along the spine,
and spreading into a large patch on the top of the head.
It is an active swimmer, chasing and catching fish in their
own element. In consequence of its powers in the water,
it often goes by the name of Otter, and even Buffon failed
to detect its marsupial nature, describing it as the Little
Otter of Guiana.
PLATE XLVII.
I. ECHIDNA.
(See page 453)
CRAB-EATING, OPOSSUM.
(?ee iage 449)
(.Photos W. S Bcrridge, F.Z.S.)
PLATE XLVI1I.
• V vr"?-
s j
f-.
i. HEAD OF THE ECHIDNA. 2. DUCKBILL.
(Src page 454)
Chapter XVI
ORDER XI.— MONOTREMATA
General description of the Monotremata — Echidna —
Duckbill.
CHAPTER XVI
Order XI. — Monotremata
WHETHER the few remaining mammals should be
classed with the marsupials, or should form a
separate order, was long a disputed point. In the mar-
supials the young are brought into the world while they
are in an abnormally early and helpless stage. But there
are mammals on a still lower rung of the evolutional ladder,
whose young are brought into the world in the shape of eggs
— in one case deposited in an underground burrow, and in
the other carried about in the pouch of the parent until the
young are hatched. From that time their existence is con-
tinued exactly as in the case of the young marsupials.
The Monotremes, of which there are only two distinct
family types, in the one aspect of egg-laying lean towards
the reptiles, but in other respects are true mammals. They
may be viewed as composites, links between the Mammalia
and Reptilia. In any case their peculiar position merits the
placing of them in an order of their own.
ECHIDNA (Echidna aculeata).
Plate XLVII. Fig. i.
•The Echidna, or Porcupine Ant-eater, a native of Australia,
is quite an extraordinary creature. About a foot in length,
it is much like a hedgehog, except that its spines are larger
and stronger and are set in a coat of silky, chestnut-coloured
hair. Its head is small, with a slender and very elongated
muzzle. The mouth is small and toothless, but the tongue
453
454
MONOTREMATA
and palate are furnished with rows of small spines. The
tongue, in addition, is extensile and serves the same purpose
as that of the Ant-eater (Plate XLVIII. Fig. i).
The legs of the Echidna are short and the feet are fitted
with enormous claws, the hind ones being directed back-
wards and outwards, thus forming excellent shovels for the
removal of soil when engaged in burrowing operations.
In proportion to its size the strength
of the Echidna is remarkable. It
burrows with a rapidity equal at
least to that of the mole, and if it
cannot disappear entirely, in an
almost incredibly short time it is
buried sufficiently to present only
its spiny back to an enemy. It
cannot roll itself into a ball so
successfully as the hedgehog.
With its claws it makes short
work of ant hills, in which it con-
fines its attention chiefly to the
white larvae and pupal phases of the
insects. There is reason to believe
that the animal varies its diet with
grasses and herbs. In captivity it
evinces a liking for bread and milk and chopped-up
meat.
The Echidna usually lays only one egg at a time ; it
is not larger than that of a sparrow; it is white and
leathery, and is carried about in a skin fold until it is
hatched.
The Tasmanian and New Guinea species call for no
mention beyond the record of their existence.
DUCKBILL (Ornithorhynchus anatinus).
Plate XLVIII. Fig. 2.
The Platypus, Duckbill, or Water Mole, is appropriately
named in all three of its titles. The generic name means a
snouted bird. When a stuffed specimen of the animal was
MOUTH (A) AND NOSE-
SNOUT (B) OF THE
ECHIDNA.
THE DUCKBILL
455
FORE FOOT OF THE
DUCKBILL.
first brought to England it was viewed as a fraud, the work
of a jocular taxidermist, whose humour has been known to
produce an excellent mermaid out of the skin of a monkey
and the tail of a salmon.
Reference to the illustration will render any minute
description unnecessary. The body, ovate and depressed,
and without any real neck, is clothed with short, dense fur,
not unlike that of the otter in its
colour and texture. The tail is short
and flattened, and reminds one of
that of the beaver, except that it is
not naked and scaly, nor is it used
for any other purpose than that of
a helm. The webbing of the fore
feet extends beyond the extremity
of the claws. The Duckbill is as
lithe of body as a cat. The
skin, too, is so loose that when one is shot its bones
will be broken, though none of the shots penetrate the
skin.
The so-called beak is a prolongation of the bones of the
face, but the result not only resembles
the bill of a duck, but it performs a
similar office in grubbing in mud in
search of food. To protect the eyes
it is fitted with a shield-like structure
at the base. The animal possesses no
true teeth, only flat, horny plates, which
are quite sufficient to grind up the
molluscs, worms, and insects which
are extracted from the muddy beds.
As it catches its food it stows it away
in its capacious cheek-pouches.
The Platypus is shy and retiring and strictly nocturnal in
habit. Its burrow, thirty to fifty feet in length, always con-
tains two entrances — one under water and the other usually
in a thicket at some distance from the water's edge. The
difficulties of watching such an animal are very great, and
for many years it was a puzzle to naturalists. It was not
until 1884 that it was proved to lay eggs, two of which are
456
MONOTREMATA
deposited in a loose nest of weeds and roots at a secure
point in the burrow. The covering of the egg is flexible, as
in the case of many reptiles. The female's pouch is simply
a fold in the skin, and that is only present during the breed-
ing season; there are no teats, but the mammary gland
swells into small projections, which can be seized by the
pulpy lips of the young. The young animals are very
playful, and in captivity are as droll and interesting as
puppies.
Index
AARD-VARK, 425
Arui, 315
Black Buffalo, 306
Aard Wolf, 140
Assapan, 215
Black-faced Lemur, 71
Abyssinian Baboon, 58
Ass, Domestic, 285
Black Monkey, 56
Addax Antelope, 336
„ Wild, 284
Black Hog, 390
Agouti, 240
Astrachan Lamb, 163
Black Rat, 227
Ai, 422
Aurochs, 295
Bladder-nose Seal, 195
Albino Wolf, 154
Axis Deer, 362
Black Rhinoceros, 270
Alpaca, 380
Aye-Aye, 74
Blesbok, 336
Alpine Marmot, 217
Blood, Circulation of, 22
Ambergris, 412
BABOON, 56
Blue Fox, 158
American Tapir, 273
Abyssinian, 58
Blue Gnu, 332
Angora Goat, 318
„ Chacma, 57
Blue Ox, 332
Anoa, 307
Pig-faced, 57
Blue-side Seal, 195
Anomalure, 215
„ Thoth, 58
Boar, Wild, 383
Ant Bear, 424
Yellow, 56
Bobac, 218
Ant-eater, Banded, 446
Babyrussa, 388
Bolita, 428
„ Great, 424
Bactrian Camel, 378
Bonnet Monkey, 54
„ Porcupine, 453
Badger, 169
Borele, 270
Antlers, composition and
Rock, 253
BOVID^E :
growth, 343
BALJENID&, 404
Ox, Domestic, 295
Antelope (see Antilopidae),
Baleen, 404
Zebu, 297
322
Banded Ant-eater, 446
Wild Oxen, 298
Anthropoid Apes, 39
Bangsring, 101
Gaur, 299
ANTHROPOIDEA, 38
Barasingha, 364
Gayal, 299
ANTILOPID^ :—
Barbary Ape, 55
Banting, 300
Gazelle, 325
Barbary Wild Sheep, 315
Yak, 300
Springbok, 326
Barbastelle Bat, 85
Bison, 302
Gemsbok, 327
Barking Deer, 365
Buffalo, 305
Oryx, 328
Bashful Billy, 73
Musk Ox, 308
Equine Antelope, 328
Bat guano, 88
BRADYPODJD^E, 421
Sable Antelope, 329
Bats (see Chiroptera), 79
Brahmin Bull, 297
Waterbuck, 329
Bears (see Ursidae), 180
Brain of Man, 21
Eland, 330
Beatrix Antelope, 328
Brindled Gnu, 332
Gnu, 331
Beaver, 219
Brockets, 361
Nilgai Antelope, 332
Beech Marten, 166
Brown Bear, 181
Prong-horned Antelope,
Beluga, 416
Brown Mouse Lemur, 72
333
Berkshire Pig, 386
Brown Rat, 227
Saiga Antelope, 334
Bhunder Monkey, 54
Brumby, 282
Klipspringer, 334
BIMANA:
Buffalo, Cape, 306
Kudu, 334
Skeleton of Man, 20
„ Indian, 305
Hartebeest, 335
Vertebral Column, 20
„ Short-horned, 307
Blesbok, 336
Muscles, 21
„ Water, 305
Four-horned Antelope,
Brain, 21
Bush Pig, 387
336
Nerves, 21
Addax Antelope, 336
Blood, Circulation of, 22
CACHALOT, 411
Royal Antelope, 336
Digestion, 23
Cacomistle, 179
Dik-dik Antelope, 336
Teeth, 23
CAMELID^E :
Ape, Barbary, 55
Respiration, 24
Camel, Arabian, 373
Apes, Anthropoid, 39
Races of Mankind, 26
„ Bactrian, 378
Apara, 428
Big game preservation, 265
CAMELOPARDALID/E,
Arabian Camel, 373
Bighorn, 316
337
Arctic Fox, 158
Binturong, 144
CANID^ :
Arctic Hare, 245
Bison, American, 303
Dog, Domestic, 146
Argali, 314
„ European, 302
„ Eskimo, 148
Armadillo, 427
Black-backed Jackal, 156
„ Wild, 150
ARTIODACTYLA, 291
Black Bear, 188
„ Pariah, 150
457
458
INDEX
(continued)—
Dog, Red, 150
„ Cape Hunting, 151
Dingo, 151
Wolf, 151
Jackal, 155
Fox, Common, 156
„ Cross, 158
„ Arctic, 158
„ Blue, 158
M Silver, 158
Fennec, 159
Canadian Lynx, 133
Canadian Porcupine, 238
Cape Buffalo, 306
„ Polecat, 171
CAPRA :
Goat, Common, 316
„ Angora, 318
„ Kashmir, 319
Ibex, 319
Markhor, 321
Tahr, 321
Pasang, 322
Capuchin Monkey, 68
Capyarab, 242
Caracal, 133
Caribou, 355
CARNIVORA OF THE
LAND, 105
CARNIVORA OF THE
SEA, 191
Carpi ncho, 242
CASTORID;£, 219
Cat, Domestic, 131
Fishing, 130
Native, 444
Ring-tailed, 179
Toddy, 144
Tree, 144
Wild, 130
CATADONTID^, 411
CATARRHINI, 39
Caucasian, or White
Family, 26
„ ' Wild Goat, 322
CAVIID^:, 241
Cavy, 241
Cawquaw, 239
CENTETID.E, 100
CERCOPITHECID.E, 53
CERCOPITHECIN.E, 53
CERCOPITHECUS, 53
CERVID.E :
Deer, Red, 345
„ Fallow, 349
» Roe, 351
Elk, 352
Reindeer, 355
Wapiti, 358
Deer, Virginian, 360
„ Mule, 361
„ Pampas, 361
Brockets, 361
Deer, Pudu, 361
„ Axis, 362
„ Sambar, 362
CERVID^E (continued)—
DASYURID^ :
Deer, Swamp, 363
Dasyure, Spotted, 444
„ Schomburgk's, 364
„ Eld's, 364
Dasyure Ursine, 444
David's Deer, 366
Muntjac, 365
Deer (see Cervidse), 342
Deer, Sika, 365
Deerlet, 371
„ Water, 366
DELPHINID^:, 415
„ Elaphure, 366
Diana Monkey, 61
„ Musk, 366
DICOTYLID^E, 391
Cervine Antelope, 335
DIDELPHID^E, 447
CETACEA :
Whale, Greenland, 404
Digestion, 23
DIGITIGRADES, 106
„ Southern Right,
Dik-Dik Antelope, 336
407
Dingo, 151
„ Rorqual, 407
DIPODID^E, 236
„ Humpback, 410
Dog, Domestic, 146
„ Sperm, 411
„ Eskimo, 148
Narwhal, 415
„ Wild, 150
Porpoise, 416
Dolphin, 417
Dolphin, 417
Dormouse, 226
Killer Whale, 418
Dourocouli, 69
Chacma, 57
Dromedary, 375
Chamois, 323
Duckbill, 454
Cheetah, 133
Dugong, 309
Chevrotain, 371
DUPLICIDENTATA, 211
Chimpanzee, 44
Dwarf Mouse Lemur, 72
Chinchilla, 239
Dziggetai, 284
CHINCHILLID/E, 239
Chinese Elaphure, 366
ECHIDNA, 453
„ Water Deer, 366
EDENTATA :
Chipmunk, 216
Sloth, 422
Chipping Squirrel, 216
Ant-eater, Great, 424
CHIROPTERA :
Aardvark, 425
Bat, Long-eared, 83
Pangolin, 426
„ Pipistrelle, 85
Phatagin, 427
„ Barbastelle, 85
Armadillo, 427
„ Whiskered, 85
EFFODENTIA, 421
„ Horseshoe, 85
Eland, 330
„ Mouse-coloured, 85
Elaphure, Chinese, 366
„ Fruit, 86
Eld's Deer, 364
„ Kalong, 86
ELEPHANTID^E, 253
„ Vampire, 87
Elephant, African, 253
Chital, 362
„ Indian, 253
Civet, 141
Elephant Seal, 196
„ Palm, 144
ElephantjShrew, 100
Claws, Retractile, 109
Elk, 352
Coaita, 67
EQUID^E :
Coaiti-mondi, 178
Horse, 274
Cobego, 76
Ass, Wild, 284
Collared Fruit Bat, 86
„ Domestic, 285
„ Lemur, 71
Zebra, 287
„ Peccary, 391
Quagga, 288
Colugo, 75
Equine Antelope, 328
Coney, 252
ERINACEIDyE, 91
Coon, 178
Ermine, 162
Cougar, 128
Cow, Sea, 399
FALLOW DEER, 349
Coyote, 154
Fat Dormouse, 226
Crested Seal, 195
Cross Fox, 158
Fat-tailed Sheep, 313
FELID^ :
Cuscus, Grey, 439
Lion, no
„ Spotted, 439
Tiger, 117
Cynogale, 145
Leopard, 123
Jaguar, 126
Puma, 128
DASYPODID;£, 427
DASYPROCTID^E, 240
Ocelot, 130
Fishing Cat, 130
INDEX
459
FELID^E (continued)—
Hamster, 233
JACKAL, 155
Serval, 130
Hand-drinker, 69
Jaguar, 126
Wild Cat, 130
Hanuman Monkey, 63
Javan Ox, 300
Domestic Cat, 131
Hare, 242
„ Squirrel, 214
Lynx, 132
„ Arctic, 245
Jelerang, 214
Caracal, 133
„ Cape Jumping, 237
Jerboa, -2 36
Cheetah, 133
„ Mountain, 245
Jerboa Pouched Mouse,
Fennec, 159
Hare Wallaby, 437
446
Ferret, 164
Harp Seal, 195
Jumping Hare, Cape, 237
Field Mouse, Short-tailed,
Harrison Pig, 386
Jumping Shrew, 100
230
Hartebeest, 335
Jungle Sheep, 365
Field Vole, 230
Heart, Description of the
Fish-eating Rat, 236
human, 22
KABAOBA, 271
Fishing Cat, 130
Hedgehog, 91
Kakar, 365
FISSIPEDIA, 105
Hedge-pig, 92
Kalong, 86
Flittermouse, 79
Heirie, 375
Kamschatka Wild Sheep,
Flying Fox, 86
„ Lemur, 75
Hinny, 286
HIPPO POTAMID^E, 392
315
Kanchil, 371
„ Phalanger, 440
Hippopotamus, 392
Kangaroo, 433
„ Squirrel, 214
Hoary Marmot, 218
Tree, 436
Four-horned Antelope, 336
Hog, Black, 390
Kangaroo Rat, 236
Fox, Arctic, 158
„ Wart, 389
Kashmir Goat, 319
„ Blue, 158
HOLLOW-HORNED
Keitloa, 267, 270
„ Common, 156
RUMINANTS, 294
Killer Whale, 418
„ Cross, 158
homo troglodytes, 36
Kinkajou, 179
„ Silver, 158
Horn, formation of, 294
Klipdas, 253
Fox Squirrel, 213
Horse, 274
Klipspringer, 334
Fruit Bat, 86
Horseshoe Bat, 85
Knobber,l346
Fur Seals, 192, 200
Howling Monkey, 67
Koala, 441
Furze-pig, 92
Huanaco, 381
Kudu, 334
Humpback Whale, 410
Kukang, 73
GALAGO, 73
Hunting Dog, 151
Game Laws, 243
„ Leopard, 134
LAMB, Astrachan, 163
Game, Preservation of
HY^NID^E :
Laughing Hyaena, 138
Big, 265
Gazelle, 325
Hyaena, Striped, 136
„ Spotted, 138
Leather-flapper, 79
Lemming, 234
Gemsbok, 327
Aard Wolf, 140
Lemur, Black-faced, 71
Genet, 144
HYRACID^E :
Brown Mouse, 72
Gerow, 362
Hyrax, Syrian, 252
Collared, 71
Gibbon, Agile, 51
„ Cape, 252
Dwarf Mouse, 72
„ White-handed, 51
„ Tree, 253
Flying, 75
Giraffe, 337
HYRACOIDEA, 252
Red, 71
Glutton, 1 68
HYSTRICID^:, 237
Ring-tailed, 72
Gnu, 331
HYSTRICOMORPHA,
Ruffled, 71
Goat (see Capra), 316
211
LEMUROIDEA, 70
Goat and Sheep compared,
LEMUROIDS, 72
309
IBEX, 319
Leopard, 123
Golden Agouti, 240
Ice Bear, 185
LEPORIDvE, 242
Gorilla, 39
Ice Seal, 195
Liberian Hippopotamus,
Grampus, 418
Ichneumon, 142
394
Greenland Whale, 404
Impoofo, 330
ligamentum tens, 49
Green Monkey, 54
Indian Elephant, 253
Lion, no
Grey Cuscus, 439
H Ox, 297
Lion Tamarin, 70
Greyhound Pig, 386
„ Rhinoceros, 268
Llama, 379
Grey Seal, 195
INSECTIVORA :
Loir, 226
Grivet Monkey, 54
Hedgehog, 91
Long-eared Bat, 83
Grizzly Bear, 183
Mole, Common, 94
Loris, Slender, 73
Ground Squirrel, 216
Shrew, Common, 98
Loris, Slow, 73
Grunting Ox, 300
„ Pigmy, 99
LUTRINiE, 173
Guanaco, 381
„ Water, 99
Lynx, 132
Guano, Bat, 88
Elephant, 100
Guinea Pig, 241
Tanrec, 100
MACAQUES, 54
Tendrac, 101
Macaque, Pig-tailed, 54
HACKEE, 216
Tana, 101
MACROPODID^:, 433
Hair Seals, 192
Potomogale, 102
MACROSCELIDID.E,
Hairy-eared Rhinoceros,
Invertebrate Animals, 9
100
269
Irish Elk, 350
Madagascar Cat, 70
460
INDEX
Magot, 55
Mountain Hare, 245
Maholi Galago, 73
Mouse (see Muridae), 222
Malayan Bear, 188
Mouse-coloured Bat, 85
Malayan Tapir, 273
Mouse Deer, 371
Malay Family, 28
Mouse, Field, 224
MAMMALIA, TABLE OF
„ Harvest, 225
ORDERS, 12
House, 223
Mammoth, 255
Man and Monkey com-
Spiny, 236
Mule, 286
pared, 33
Mule Deer, 361
Manatee, 397
Mungoose, 143
Mandrill, 59
Muntjac, 365
Man-eating Lion, 114
MURDI^E :
„ Tiger, 118
Mouse, House, 223
Mangabey, 61
MANID^E, 426
„ Field, 224
„ Harvest, 225
Mankind, Races of, 26
Rat, Black, 227
Marco Polo's Sheep, 315
„ Brown, 227
Markhor, 321
Vole, Field, 230
Marmoset, 69
„ Water, 232
Marmot, 217
Musquash, 232
MARSUPIALIA, 431
Hamster, 233
Kangaroo, Great Grey,
Lemming, 234
433
Kangaroo Rat, 236
„ Tree, 436
Muscle, 21
Wallaby, 437
Musk Deer, 366
Rat Kangaroo, 438
Ox, 308
Cuscus, 439
Rat, 232
Phalanger, Vulpine, 439
Musquash, 232
Flying, 440
Mustang, 282
Koala, 441
MUSTELID.E :
Wombat, 442
Weasel, 160
Bandicoot, 443
Stoat (Ermine), 162
Dasyure, 444
Polecat, 163
Tasmanian Devil, 444
Ferret, 164
Thylacine, 445
Mink, 165
Phascologale, 446
Marten, 166
Jerboa Pouched Mouse,
Sable, 167
446
Glutton, 1 68
Ant-eater, Banded, 446
Badger, 169
Mole, Pouched, 447
Skunk, 172
Opossum, 447
Teledu, 173
Marsupial Mole, 447
Otter, Common, 173
Marten, 166
Sea, 176
Masked Pig, 386
MUSTELINE, 159
Meerkat, 144
MYOMORPHA, 211
MELIN.E, 169
MYRMECO P HAG I DJE,
Merino Sheep, 311
424
Mias, 48
MYSTACOCETI, 404
Mink, 165
Mithan, 299
NAKED SAND RAT, 236
Mochucho, 271
Mole, Common, 94
Narrow-nosed Monkeys,39
Narwhal, 415
„ Marsupial, 447
Native Bear, 441
„ Pouched, 447
Native Cat, 444
„ Water, 454
Negro Family, 28
Mongolian Family, 28
Nerves, 21
Mongoose, 143
Monkey (see Quadru-
Nil Bhunder Monkey, 56
Nilgai Antelope, 332
mana), 33
Non-ruminant Hoofed
Monkey and Man com-
Animals, 382
pared, 33
Monkey Speech, 36
Norwegian Rat, 227
NOTORYCTID^E, 447
MONOTREMATA, 453
Moose, 352
OCELOT, 130
Morse, 203
Okapi, 341
Mouflon, 313
Ondatra, 232
Opossum, Crab-eating, 449
„ Marian's, 449
„ Virginian, 447
Water, 449
Orang-Outan, 48
Origin of Species, 37
ORYCTEROPID^:, 425
Oryx, 328
OTARIID^E, 192
Otter, Common, 173
„ Sea, 176
Ouistiti, 70
Ounce, 126
OVID/E :
Sheep, Domestic, 310
Mouflon, 313
Argali, 314
Sheep, Kamschatkan
Wild, 315
„ Pamir Wild, 315
„ Barbary Wild,
315
Urial, 315
Sha, 315
Bighorn, 316
Oxen (see Bovidas), 294
Ox, Musk, 308
PACHYDERMATA, 274
Padamelon, 437
Palm Civet, 144
Pamir Wild Sheep, 315
Pampas Deer, 361
Panda, 179
Pangolin, 426
panniculus carnosus, 92, 413
Panther, 123, 128
Paradoxure, 144
Pardine Lynx, 132
Pariah Dog, 150
Pasang, 322
Patas Monkey, 62
Peccary, Collared, 391
„ White-lipped,39i
PECORA, 293
PERAMELID^, 443
PERISSODACTYLA, 266
Phalanger, Flying, 440
„ Vulpine, 440
PHALANGITID^:, 438
Pharaoh's Rat, 142
Phascologale, 446
PHASCOLOMYID^E, 442
Phatagin, 427
PHOCIDjE, 193
Pig-faced Baboon, 57
Pigmy Antelope, 336
„ Flying Phalanger,
440
„ Hippopotamus, 394
„ Musk Deer, 371
„ Shrew, 99
Pig-footed Bandicoot, 443
Pig-tailed Macaque, 54
Pika, 248
Pine Marten, 166
INDEX
461
PINNIPEDIA :
QUADRUMANA (cont.)—
Seal, Common, 193
Capuchin Monkey, 68
„ Grey, 195
„ Bladder-nosed, 195
Saki, 69
Hand-drinker, 69
„ Greenland, 195
Douricouli, 69
Sea Leopard, 196
Marmoset, 69
Sea Elephant, 196
Lion Tamarin, 70
Sea Lion, 198
Lemurs, 71
Sea Bear, 200
Loris, 73
Walrus, 203
Galago, 73
Pipistrelle Bat, 85
Tarsier, 74
PLANTIGRADES, 106
Aye-aye, 74
Platypus, 454
Colugo, 75
PLATYRRHINI, 64
Quagga, 288
Polar Bear, 185
Quasje, 178
Polatouche, 215
Polecat, 163
RABBIT, Wild, 245
Polynesians, 28
„ Ostend, 246
Porcupine Ant-eater, 453
Rabbit, Tame, 247
Porcupine, Common, 237
Dutch, 247
„ Canadian, 238
Angora, 247
Porpoise, 416
Lop-eared, 247
Potamogale, 102
Himalayan, 247
POTAMOGALID^E, 102
Flemish Giant, 248
Potoroo, 438
Rabbit Bandicoot, 443
Pouched Mole, 447
Raccoon, 177
Poyu, 428
Races of Mankind, 26
Prairie Dog, 218
Rat (see Muridae), 222
Prairie Wolf, 154
Rat, Black, 227
PRIMATES, 17
„ Brown, 227
PROBOSCIDEA, 253
„ Fish-eating, 236
Proboscis Monkey, 64
„ Kangaroo, 236
PROCYONID.E :
„ Naked Sand, 236
Raccoon, 177
„ Pharaoh's, 142
Coaiti-mondi, 178
„ Water, 228
Kinkajou, 179
Red Deer, 345
Cacomistle, 179
Red Dog, 150
Panda, 179
Red Howler, 67
Prongbuck, 333
Red Indian, 28
Prong-horned Antelope,
Red Kangaroo, 436
333
Red Lemur, 71
Pudu Deer, 361
Red Monkey, 62
Puma, 128
Red-necked Wallaby, 437
Reem, 271
QUADRUMANA :
Reindeer, 355
Gorilla, 39
Respiration, 24
Chimpanzee, 44
Retractile Claws, 109
Orang-Outan, 48
Rhesus Monkey, 54
Gibbons, 51
Rhinaster, 270
Green Monkey, 54
RHINOCEROTID^E :
Macaques, 54
Rhinoceros, Indian, 268
Rhesus Monkey, 54
„ Hairy-eared,
Bonnet Monkey, 54
269
Barbary Ape, 55
„ Sumatran,
Wanderoo, 56
269
Baboons, 56
„ Javan, 270
Mandrill, 59
„ African, 270
Diana Monkey, 61
Black, 270
White-nosed Monkey, 61
Mangabeys, 61
„ Keitloa, 270
„ Bu re hell's,
Patas, or Red, Monkey,
271
62
Rhytina, 400
Hanuman Monkey, 63
Rib-faced Deer, 365
Proboscis Monkey, 64
Rib-nosed Baboon, 59
Spider Monkeys, 65
Coaita, 67
Right Whale, 404
Right Whale, Southern,
Red Howler, 67
407
Ring-tailed Cat, 179
Ring-tailed Lemur, 72
River Horse, 392
Rock Badger, 253
Rock Wallaby, 437
RODENTIA :
Squirrels (see Sciuridae),
211
Beaver, 219
Rats and Mice (see Mu-
ridae), 222
Jerboa, 236
Cape Jumping Hare, 237
Porcupine, 237
Chinchilla, 239
Viscacha, 240
Agouti, 240
Guinea Pig, 241
Capybara, 242
Hare, 242
Rabbit, 245
Pika, 248
Roe Deer, 351
Rorqual, 407
Royal Antelope, 336
Royal Hart, 347
Ruffled Lemur, 71
RUMINANTIA, 291
Rumination, 292
SABLE, 167
Sable Antelope, 329
Sacred Monkey, 63
Saddle-back Seal, 195
Saiga Antelope, 334
Saki, 69
Sambar Deer, 362
Schomburgk's Deer, 364
SCIURID^ :
Squirrel, Red, 211
„ Black, 213
„ Grey, 213
„ Taguan Flying,
214
Polatouche, 215
Assapan, 215
Chipmunk, 216
Marmot, 217
Woodchuck,2l8
Prairie Dog, 218
SCIUROMORPHA.2II
Sea Bear, 200
„ Cow, 397
„ Elephant, 196
„ Horse, 203
„ Leopard, 196
Seals (see Pinnipedia), 191
Sealskin, 200
SEMNOPITHECIN^), 53
SEMNOPITHECUS, 62
Serval, 130
Sha, 315
Sheep (see Ovidae), 310
Sheep and Goat compared,
309
Shetland Pony, 281
Shrew, Common, 98
462
INDEX
Shrew, Elephant, 100
TAGUAN FLYING SQUIR-
Vervet Monkey, 53
„ Pigmy, 99
„ Tree, 101
REL, 214
Tahr, 321
Vicuna, 382
Virginian Deer, 360
„ Water, 99
TALPID^E, 94
Virginian Opossum, 447
Siamang, 51
Sika Deer, 365
Tamanoir, 424
Tamarin, Lion, 70
Viscacha, 240
VIVERRID^E :
Silver Fox, 158
Tana, Tupai, 101
Civet, 141
SIMIID.E, 39
Tanrec, 100 •
Ichneumon, 142
SIMPLICIDENTATA,
TAPIRID^J :
Mongoose, 143
211
Tapir, American, 273
Genet, 144
Sing-sing Antelope, 330
„ Malayan, 273
Paradoxure, 144
SIRENIA:
TARDIGRADA, 421
Palm Civet, 144
Manatee, 397
Tarpan, 280
Binlurong, 144
Dugong, 399
Tarsier, 74
Suricate, 144
Skeleton, the, Description
of:
Tasmanian Devil, 444
Wolf. 445
Cynogale, 145
Vlacke Vark, 390
Man, 18
Teeth of Man, 23
Vole, Field, 230
Monkey, 34
Teledu, 173
„ Water, 232
Bat, 80
Tendrac, 101
Cat, 107
Seal, 191
Thoth, 58
Three-toed Sloth, 422
WALLABY, 437
Walrus, 203
Elephant, 254
Thylacine, 445
Wapiti, 358
Horse, 275
Kangaroo, 431
Tiger, 117
Tiger- Wolf, 138
Wart Hog, 389
Waterbuck, 329
Skunk, 172
Slender Loris, 73
Sloth, 422
Toddy Cat, 144
TRAGULID^, 371
TRAGULINA, 371
Water Buffalo, 305
Water Deer, 366
Water Hog, 242
Sloth Bear, 188
Slow Loris, 73
Tree Cat, 144
Tree Kangaroo, 436
Water Mole, 454
Water Rat, 228
Snow Leopard, 126
SOLID HORNED RUMI-
NANTS, 342
Tree Shrew, 101
TRICHECHID^E, 192
TUPAIID^, 101
Water Shrew, 99
Water Vole, 232
Weasel, 160
Spotted Cuscus, 439
Spotted Dasyure, 444
Spotted Deer, 362
Tur, 322
Two-toed Sloth, 423
TYLOPADA, 372
Whale (see Cetacea), 403
Whalebone, 404
Whiskered Bat, 85
Spotted Hyaena, 138
SORICID^E, 98
Spanish Lynx, 132
„ Wild Goat, 322
Species, Origin of, 37
Spectacled Bear, 188
Spermaceti, 412
Spermaceti Whale, 411
Spider Monkey, 65
Spiny Mouse, 236
Springbok, 326
Squirrel (see Sciuridze),
UNGKA APE, 51
UNGULATA, 251
Unicorn, 271
Urchin, 92
Urial, 315
URSID^E :
Bear, Brown, 181
, Grizzly, 183
, Syrian, 184
, Polar, 185
, Black, 1 88
White Bear, 185
White Coat Seal, 195
White-eyelid Monkey, 61
White-lipped Peccary, 391
White-nosed Monkey, 61
White Rhinoceros, 271
White-tailed Gnu, 331
Wide-nosed Monkeys, 64
Wildebeest, 331
Wild Horse, 280, 282
Wolf, 151
Wolf, Aard, 140
211
Stone Marten, 166
, Malayan, 188
, Spectacled, 188
Wolverene, 168
\Voodchuck 218
SUID.E, 383
SUINA :
Boar, Wild, 383
„ Sloth, 188
Ursine Dasyure, 444
Urson, 238
Woolly Cheetah, 133
Woolly Kangaroo, 436
Swine, Domestic, 386
Urus, 295
Babyrussa, 388
YAK, 300
Wart Hog, 389
Peccary, 391
VAMPIRE BAT, 87
Variegated Spider Mon-
Yapock, 449
Yellow Baboon, 56
Hippopotamus, 392
key, 67
Suricate, 144
Venada Deer, 361
ZEBRA, 287
Swamp Deer, 363
Vertebra, 20
Zebra Wolf, 445
Swine (see Suina), 382
Vertebral Column, 20
Zebu, 297
Syrian Bear, 184
Vertebrate Animals, 9, 10
Zorilla, 171
UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED. THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING JjND LONDON.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
BERKELEY
Return to desk from which borrowed.
This book i$^pjj£ on the last date stamped below.
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— v'hir%u
4
DEC 1 6 1353
MAYS 1955
APR 2 11955
LD 21-100m-7,'52(A2528sl6)476
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